Revision Guide Certain tare l= (3 International AS and A Level NEW for 2016 elt Second Edition Physics ' * *. Gs HODDERRevision Guicle eee Scography Psychology If you found this guide helpful you can get the same quality revision support for your other exams. ¢ Plan and pace your own revision ¢ Improve your exam technique © Get advice from experienced examiners Visit www.hoddereducation.com/revision to discover our complete range of revision material.Revision Guide Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Second Edition Richard Woodside Series editor: Mary Jones 6 BRON ER LEARN MOREHodder Education, an Hachette UK company, Carmelite House, 90 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODZ Orders Bockooint Ld, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 458 tel 01235 977877 fax: 01235 400401 ‘e-mail education@bookpoint co.uk Lines ate open 900 am.~5.00 pn, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service You can aso order through the Hodder Education welssce: vnvwhoddereducation cou. @ Richard Woodside 2015 ISBN 978-1-4718-2043-7 Fist printed 2005 Impression number 43 21 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015, [Aighes reserved no part of cis publication may be reproduced, scored ina reteeval system, or transmitted in any form of by any mers, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of Hedder Education ora licence permitting restricted copying in the Unived Kingdom ised by che Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Stree, London ECIN BTS. Cover photo reproduced by permission of Uadeimir Bakunovich/Forolia “Typeset by Greenhill Wood Studios Printed in Spain “This text has not been through the Cambridge endorsement process. Hacheste UK's policy isto use papers that are natura, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it isessential to review your work, lean it and test your Understanding, This Revsion Guide will help you to do that ina planned way, copic by topic. Use the book as the ‘comerstone of your revision and don't hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking ‘off each section as you revise 1 Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 art 5 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: ‘@ revised and understood a topic © tested yourself ‘© practised the exam-style questions ‘You can ako keep track of your revision by ticking off each ‘topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful co add_ your own notes as you work through each topic. Features to help you succeed xz> —~—~—~S Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on. how to maximise your chances, kkxe:m>” —UCUCUC~«d ‘Advice is given on how to avoid the typical mistakes students often make cx PoE Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they first appear. Key words from the sylabus are highlighted in bold for yu throughour the book. Emerton Bxam-style questions are provided for AS and A level. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skil | PEMEres ee ‘These short, knowledge-based questions provide the firs: step in testing your learning, Answers are atthe back of the book. (aimcnee a ‘These activities will help you to understand each topic in am interactive way.My revision planner eed - . | Revised Tested Bam 1 Physical quantities and units ready 9 Sl units L_] 4 u 11. Scalars and vectors 2 Measurement techniques 414 Measurements sl WR st Ht LJ 17 Errors and uncertainties 3 Kinematics 19. Equations of motion 4 Dynamics 27 Momentum and Newton's laws of motion 30 Linear momentum and its conservation 5 Forces, density and pressure 33 Types of force. . 34 Turing effects of forces 35 Equilibrium of forces 38. Density and pressure 6 Work, energy and power 40 Work and efficiency. . 41 Energy conversion and conservation... 42. Potential energy and kinetic energy. 43 Power. Lt Oo Oo 4 7 Deformation of solids 45. Elastic and plastic behaviour. a Hf LI 46 Stress and strain. 8 Waves 48. Progressive waves 50 Transverse and longitudinal waves. 50 Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves.. 51 Doppler effect. H 52. Electromagnetic spectrum 9 Superposition 54. Stationary waves 57. Diffraction. i 57 Interference... 10 Electric fields = _ 61. Concept of an electric field i Mat J 61. Uniform electric fields. ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity 63 Electric current. 64 Potential difference and power. 65. Resistance and resistivity. 12 D.C. circuits 68. Practical circuits. 70 Kirchhoff's laws. 72 Potential dividers... vos 13 Particle and nuclear physics 75. Atoms, nudei and radiation. 78 Fundamental particles... AS experimental skills and invesiigarions 81 Making measurements. . 83. Presentation of data and observations 86 Evaluation of evidence 88 Evaluating the experiment. 90 AS exam-style questions and answers Revised Tested Exam reads 97 Kinematics of uniform circular motion 99. Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force 15 Gravitati nal fields 101 Gravitational forces between point masses. 104 Gravitational potential 16 Ideal gases 107 Equation of state 107 Kinetic theory of gases 109 Kinetic energy of a molecle......oesennennerene 47 Temperature 411 Thermal equilibrium. ANT Temperature scales... ccsersenentuennnennennene 418 Thermal properties of materials 113 Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat 119. Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics. 19 Oscillations 121 Simple harmonic oscillations. My Revision PlannerMy revision planner Revised Tested i 124 Energy in simple harmonic motion 125. Damped and forced oscillations, resonance... 20 Waves 128. Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis....... 21 Communication 132. Communication channels. 134. Modulation 136 Ly 138 Relative merits of channels of communication. ~ LJ 140 Attenuation O 22 Electric fields 142. Electric forces between point charges A Oo 143. Electric field of a point charge 143. Electric potential... 23 Capacitance 146 Capacitors and capacitance. 149. Energy stored in a capacitor . 24 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits 150 Sensing devices and potential dividers... 25 Electronics 152. The ideal operational amplifier 153. Operational amplifier circuits. 156 Output devices. 26 Magnetic fields 158. Concept of magnetic field .. ss 160 Force on a current-carrying conductor......... i ee Manco 162. Force on a moving charge H ‘a 168 Magnetic fields due to currents. 168 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging........e0 27 Electromagnetic induction 170 Laws of electromagnetic induction 28 Alternating currents 172 Characteristics of alternating currents. 174 The transformer. L_] H: LJ 175. Transmission of electrical energy . 176 Rectification 29 Quantum physics 179. Energy of a photon. © Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide181 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra......... 183 Wave-particle duality... 185 Band theory 187. Production and use of X-rays. 30 Particle and nuclear physics 198 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 196 Radioactive decay A level experimental skills and investigations 199. The examination questions... cess 200 How to get high marks in Paper 5 204 A level exam-style questions and answers Tested po ooo 215 Now test yourself answers My Revision Planner @Countdown to my exams 6-8 weeks to go Start by looking atthe syllabus — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the topics, ‘Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the syllabus, The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics Work outa realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation, Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable, Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision cdown into focused sessions oF around 40 minutes, divided by breaks, This Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier rn Pane Read through the relevant sections ofthis book and refer to the expert tips, cypical miscakes and key terms, Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them, Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at therm again in detail ‘Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourselP questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. Make a nowe of any problem areas as you revise, and. ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ‘ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write cr prepare planned answers to the examstyle ‘questions provided in this book. Check your answers with your teacher. Try different revision methods. For example, you ‘can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards, ‘Track your progress using the revision planner and sive yourself a reward when you have achieve! your target ARN La one) Try to fic in at east one more timed practice of an entre past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the ‘mark scheme. Check the revision planner to make sure you havent missed aut any topics. Brush up on any ateas of difficulty by talking them aver with a friend or getting help from your teacher. ‘Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher, Remember, he or she isan expert at preparing people for examinations. Revise The day before the examination Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example the expert tips, typical mistakes and key terms. ‘© Check the rime and place of your examination. ‘© Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, a calculator, tissues. a watch, bottled water, sweets. ‘Allow some time to relax and have an earty ‘ight to ensure you are fiesh and alert for the examinations Paper 1 Date: Location:.. Paper 2 Date: Location: Paper 3 Date: Location: Paper 4 Date: «. Location: Paper 5 Date: Location:.. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide1 Physical quantities and units SI units Base quantities ez) { } ‘All quantities in science consist ofa number anda unit. SI units are based on the units of sx SI base quantities: ‘© mass — kilogram (kg) mera mene (r) [suits Syste nteational ) all «'Unités) are carefully defined units that © temperature — kelvin (K) ae used throughout the scientific world electric current — ampere (A) ‘or measuring al quantities. ‘© amount of subscance — mole (mol) ‘Base quantities are fundamental ‘uartities whose units are used to ‘The moleis included for completeness. Itis nota required unit for AS— only | GATE AIAN for level. The mole is ciscussed in Topic 16, together with the Avogaclo constant. \ Although icis not formally an i unit, the degree Cebius (‘C) is often used as a ‘measure of temperature, Each of these units has a precise definition, You do not need to remember the details of these definitions. The units ofall ocher quantities are derived from the base units. For example, speed 5 found by dividing the distance travelled ty the time taken, Therefore, ‘the unit of speed is metres (m) divided by seconds (@). At O-level or IGCSE you ‘wll probably have written this unit as m/s. Now that you are taking your scudies ‘a stage further, you should vate it as ms" Base units are the units of the base quantities. Derived units are combinations of base unis een ‘The uni of force isthe newton. What is thisin base SI units? Answer The newton is defined from the equation: Giz ‘When a unit ike watts is asked for in force = mass x acceleration unit oF mass = ke | base units take extra care ' Uunicof acceleration = ms watt = Ils / Princo the definaequation | Change from this format tos“ then a substitute Nm for and concn a, Units ofnewion = kg xm x sor kans? nome Homogeneity of equations = {_ } IF you are not sure ifan equation is correct you can use the units of the different quantities to check it. The units on both sides of the equation must be the same Physical quantities and units (@))Worked example ‘When a body falls in a vacuum, all its gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. By comparing units, show thatthe equation mgh = mv is a possible solution co this equacion. Answer (Write dawn the units ofthe quantities on each side ofthe equation. Lefchand side: unit of m = kg: unit of g= ms7% uric of =m Right-hand side: unt of & = none unit of m= kg: unit of v= Compare the two des (expert tip } Units of mgh = ke, x ms"? sm =kgm?s? ‘There are lots of worked examples in units of Yarnv? = kg x (mst? = kgmn?s? this book. Try them before reading the answer and then compare your answer Both sides of the equation are identical. TRON oe Hed a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a Using standard form ‘One way to deal with very large or very small quantities is to use standard form, Here, the numerical part of quantity is wricten asa single digc followed by 2 decimal point, and as many digits after the decimal point as are justified thisis then multiplied by 10 to the required power. Worked example {@ The ourput from a power station is 5600000000WW. Express this in watts, using standard form. {© The charge on an electron f 000000 000000000000 16C. Express this in standard form Answer (9 Seoacooan0w =56x 10° Ww {8.0000 000000000000000 16¢ = 16x 10°C 10" means that Ue ube, ths case 1.6 ive by 10% ‘Mistakes are often made when dividing ‘An added advantage of using standard form is that it also indicates the degree trenton oer tease ‘of precision to which a quantity is measured. This will be looked at in more Dee he ne ee « detail in the section on practical skills De EE Ure RTT ol Reg Cry Sometimes, the base unicis either too large or too small. Prefixes are used to alter the size ofthe unit. Table 1.1 shows the prefixes that you need to know. Remember hat Ie? 2g (noe p00 ‘These are the recognised SI prefixes. The deci- (@) prefixis often used in of 1ms is really (dm). Hence itis measuring volume — decimetre cubed (dr) is particularly useful eget 0" * 10 * 10 Making estimates of physical quantities ‘There are a number of physical quantities where you should be aware of the ‘rough values, for example the speed of sound in air ( 300m”). Lists of such ‘values are given in appropriate parts of this guide — for example, Table 8.1 on page 52. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 11 Prefix | symbol | Meaning pico |p + 1000000000000 | x 10° anon + 1000000000 |x 102 micro | + 1000000 |x 10% mili | m. +1000 |x 107 enti_ |e +100 | x 10 ded |d =10 |x 107 kilo |k x 1000 |x 10? mega_|M x 1000000 | x 105 giga |G % 1000000000 | x 10? ter |T x 1000000000000 | x 107 Scalars and vectors Scalar quant Ascalar quantity has magnitude only, Examples are mass, volume and energy. PE Ryra come eel ty Avector quantity has magnitude and direction. Examples are force, velocity and acceleration. When scalars are added, the total is simply the arithmetic total. For example if there are two masses of 24kg and 5.2kg, the total mass is Z6kg, ‘When vectors ae added, ther directions must be taken into account. Two forces of 3N and §N acting in the same direction would give a total force of 8N. However, if they actin opposite directions the total force is (5 - 3)N = 2N, in the direction of the SN force. fchey act at any ocher angle co each ather the triangle of vectors is used. Constructing a vector diagram Ina vector diagram. each vector is represented by a lin. The magnitude of the ‘vector is represented by the length of the line and its direction by the direction ‘ofthe line. If two vectors act aca point, their resultant can be found by drawing ayector triangle. The folowing rules will help you co draw a triangle of vectors (Figure 11) 1 Choose a suitable scale. Draw line to represent the first vector (V4) in. both magnitude and direction. Draw a second line starting from the tip of the first ne, to represent the second vector (Vy) in both magnitude and direction. 2. Draw alin from the beginning ofthe frst vector to the end of the second line to complete a triangle. 3. The resultant vector is represented by the length ofthis line, and its direction 1 2 ve 3 ve v, v/ / : f Resultant Figure 1.1 Drawing a triangle of vectors fea i 7 © Make. copy of this table ona plece of card to refer to during the course, ‘The larger the scale you choose, the ‘greater precision you should achieve in your answer itis ood practice to include your scale on the diagram. ‘When measuring distances use a ruler, and when measuring angles use a protractor, a a ie E ae) al a o = =] i S = Ga 3 = oh a a Physical quantities and units @)(eos ‘An aeroplane ying with velocity relative to the ar of B0kratt 200k in a direction due north. There is a wind blowing tly from a direction of 30 degrees north of west at 80 mh“! (Faure 12). Calculate the velocity of the aaft eave tothe ground. Figure 1.2 Answer Draw vector diagram to ascae of LOcm:40kmhr* (Figure 13). length of the resulranc'= 435cm Muley by the scaling: velocity = 435 x 4Dkmb-! = 174kmbh+ Measure the ange @, using a protractor (0 = 23; so the direction is 23” east of north, a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a ‘You vill observe that the directions of the original vectors go round the triangle (GEEaSUa in the same direction (in this example clockwise). The direction of the resultant | Ifyou ried to work aut the answer _g086 in the opposite direction (anticlockwise). the original vectors had gone {0 this worked example for yourself round che triangle in an anticlockwise direction, che resuitanc would have been _ before looking at the one supplied, dodnise. compare the layout of your answer with Figure 13. 1s your layout dear? Gan the examiner see what you have tried to.do? This is most important in ‘akculations, where some credit will be given even if an arithmetic error leads to your giving the wrong answer. Resolving vectors Just asit is useful to be able to combine vectors itis ako useful to be able to resolve vectors into components at right angles to each other. Figure 14 shows a vector, V, acting at an angle @ to the horizontal @ tb) Z\ Va Figure 14 ‘The triangle of vectors in Figure 14(@) shows that this vector can be considered ‘0 be made up from a vertical component (V,) and a horizontal component (Vj). tis sometimes easier to use a diagram similar to Figure 14(b) when resolving vectors — this emphasises that the vectors are acting at the same point. By inspection you can see that cos 6 = V/V. Therefore, Vy = Veos and V, = Vsind @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePes A box of weight 20N lies ac rest on a slope, which sat 30* 0 the horizoncl, Calculate the frictional force on the box up the slope Answer Resclye the weight (29N) into components parle! to and. perpendicular to the slope (Faure 15) The fictional force, is equal to che component of the weight down the slope: F=20sn30= 10N [oes ed Which of the following are base quantities? time, speed, volume, energy Which of the following are base units? kilogram, metre squared, joule, kelvin The unit of potential difference isthe vol. Give this in base units. The pressure exerted beneath the surface of aliquid i given by the equation: p=heg ‘where p is pressure his depth below the surface, ps density ofthe liquid and gis the acceleration due to gravity. Show that the equation is homogeneous. 5 Calculate the number of micrograms in a kilogram. Give your answer in standard form: 6 Use standard form to show how many metres there are in a nanometer. Answers on p.215 Physical quantities and units @)PACU a cence (ees Measurements Physics is science of measurement so you will need ro develop the ability 1 use a variety of diferent instruments. Belov is a list of instruments and techniques that you should to be able to use. You will have used most of these ‘during the course ard this book refers to them where relevant. Nevertheless, it ‘would be a good idea to copy the list and, once you feel confident that you can Use the inserument proficient, tick it off You should be able co use a ruler, verner scale and micrometer to measure length ‘atop pan balance and a spring balance to measure weight a protractor to measure angles a clock and stopwatch to measure time intervals «a cathoce-ray oscilloscope to measure potential difference a cathade-ray oscilloscope with a calibrated time base to measure time intervals and frequencies, 1a thermometer to measure temperature ‘an ammeter to measure current voltmeter to measure potential difference a galvanometer in null methods Vannes Rulers can measure to the nearesc milimetre, Vemier calipers measure to the nearest ofa millmete To ead an instrument with averier scale igure 21): 11 Read the milimetres from the main scale marking, which is just before the zero on the veriet, 2 Take the next figure (enths of a milimente) from the fist vernier mark to ‘coincide with a main scale mark. Vernier scale os al Main scale (asneaetmemuestaeniiaala Figure 2.1 Vernier scale Cans What isthe reading on the instrument shown in Figure 21? Answer rain sale racing = 11mm vvernier reading = 04mm Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings. final reading = TL4enm Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideae) Verrier sales can be used to measure 0 the nearest of rilimete Micrometer can messure tothe nearest 1 of millet Micrometers have an accurately tumed screw thread (Figure 2.2. When the thimble is urned through one revolution, the jaws are opened (or closed) by a predetermined amount. With most micrometers ths is 050mm. There will be 50 divisions on the thimble, so turning it through one division clases, or opens, the jaws by 050mm divided by 50 = 0.01 mm. Jaws Barrel Thimble Ratchet Figure 2.2 A micrometer screw gauge To measure the diameter or thickness of an object the jaws are closed, using the ratchet, until they just apply pressure on the object. To read the micrometer: 1. Take the reading of the milimecres and half milimecres from the barrel 2 Take the reading from the thimble. 3. Add the readings together Toes Cnn What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 22? ‘The 0 is often missed, so the worked example answee would be given as ag 322mm, Some careless students reading on the barre = 35mm might add the 22'to the 35 to givean answer of 3522mm. reading on the thimble = 022mm. (Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings final reading = 372mm (© Trace the diagram of the scaleand. vvernier. Cut them apart, then slide the vernier along the rain scale and practise taking readings. Ten lee ‘Accathode-ray oxtilloscope (Cro) can be used to measure both the amplicude ‘of signals and short time intervals. A potential difference applied to the y-input ‘controls the movement of the trace in a vertical direction. A potential cifference applied across the xinput controls the trace in the horizontal direction, Measurement of potential difference The y-sensitivity is adjustable and is measured in volts per cm (Vem) or volts pet division (Viv). Inthe example in Figure 23 the y-sensitvitys set at 2.V dv" A de. supply is applied across the y-input. No voleage is applied across the x input. The trace ‘appears as 2 bright spot. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= atert ty < = So 2 2 Pry < 7] 5 2 = FA cs bi P= 7 Figure 2.3 Usinga cathode ray oscilloscope to measure potential ifference In Figure 23; ‘© Screen 1 shows the cathode-tay osciloscope with no input, ‘© Screen 2 shows a deflection of 0.75 of a division, The voleage input across the y-platesis 0.75 x 2= 15V. ‘© Screen 3 shows a deflection of 15 divisions, The voltage input across the yplatesis 15 x2 = 30V. ‘© Screen 4 shows a deflection of -0.75 divisions. The voltage input across the _yeplates is -075 x 2 = ~15,, in other words 15V in the opposite direction. Measurement of time intervals ‘To measure time intervals, a time-base voltage is applied across the xinput (Figure 24), This drags the spot across the screen, before flying back to the beginning again, The rate at which the time-base voltage drags the spot across the screen can be measured either in seconds per division (scl) or divisions per second (divs™), You must check which method has been used. Figure 2.4 Application ofa time-base voltage across the s-input ofa cathode-ray oscilloscope In Figure 24 ‘© Screen 1 — the spot moves slowiy across the screen before flying back to the beginning and repeating the process. ‘© Screen 2— with a higher frequency time base, the spot moves across the screen more quickly The fluorescence on the screen lasts long enough for a shor tail tobe formed. ‘© Screen 3 — with a much higher frequency, the fluorescence lasts long enough for the spot to appear as a continuous tne If successive pulses are applied to the y-plate while the time base voltage is applied, the trace might appear as in Figure 25, The time interval between the pulses can be calculated by multiplying the number of divisions between the Figure 2.5 Using cathode-ray oscilloscope ‘wo pulses by the time base ‘tomeasure time intervals ‘Worked example ‘A survey ship sends a pulse of sound down to the seabed and the echo Is decected The two pulses are shown in Figure 2 with the cathode-ray csclloscope rime base being set at SOmsdiv-1Caleulate the depth ofthe sea, given that the speed of sound in water 1500s" Cs) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAnswer time interval becween pulses = number of divisions x time base = 25 x 50 = 15ms= 0125s. specs = #2NCC Time Theeiore distance = speed > time = 1500 x 0.125 = 1875 depth of the wate! ‘You might use sensors whose output is not proportional to the quantity you ‘are attempting to measure. A good example is the ourput from a thermocouple thermometer, which you will have met in your pre-AS course. The worked ‘example below shows how yout can use a calibration curve when using this type of inssument. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= a Cars Figuie 26 shows the calbration curve for a thermocouple emf./mv 0.30 used to measuite temperatures from 1 to 250°C. Deduce the eenperature when che themacouple produces an emf. of ine 0.250. Answer Draw a horizontal ine from 0250mrV on the yas to the curve ‘Draw a vertical line from where this line Incersects with the curve to cut the xaxis. 100150 200 Temperature/*C ‘This intersects at 235°C, hence the required temperature is 235°C. Errors and uncertainties a_i) ‘An error is 2 mistake in taking a reading, Erors and repeated readings are discussed in decail on pages 82-83. Accuracy, precision and uncertainty Accuracy and precision are terms chat often cause confusion. ( > Accuragy is how dose to the ‘eal ‘Consider a rod of ‘true’ diameter 52.8012 mm. Suppose that you use a ruler and value’ a measurement is. Measure it to be 53mm. This is accurate but it S not very precise. your friend | reeision is that part of accuracy that uses a micrometer screw gauge and measures it as 52.81 mm this is more precise, | the experimenter contro’s by the choice ‘even though the final figure is not totally accurate. cof measuring instrument and the skill swith wich itis used No measurement can be made to absolute precision — there is always some uncertainty. Ifa result is recorded as 84°55, this implies thac there is an uncertainty of at least ) 041s perhaps more, You might see such a reading writen a5 84 + 0.25, The (02s in tis readings caled the absolute uncertainty \ ( ‘Uncertainty is the range of values in hich a measurement can flItis often convenient to express an uncertainty as a percentage of the reading. This s known as the percentage uncertainty. absolute uncertainty . 993 reading ‘The percentage uncertainty in the previous example is 82 100% = 0.26% Bes Precision of measurement When making a static measurement for example, the length of a pendulum) you should normally measure to the nearest division on the instrument. The exception to thisis ifthe divisions are one millimetre of mote apart. In this case, you need to judge to the nearest hal division or better. When making a dynamic measure (for example, che height to which a ball bounces), other considerations come into play — the balls moving, so you have to judge when itisac its maximum height. Ths isa much more difficult cask. You can probably measure only to the neares:§ millimetres percentage uncertainty 9 FA 2 = A rs = 3 3 = 4 5 E g ] 3 e ES a Many digital stopwatches measure to V/100 ofa second, However, the uncertainties in the reaction times of manually starting and stopping @ stopwatch are much greater than this. The bes: you can manage is to measure 1 the nearest 1/10 of a second. Until 1977, world records for running events ‘wete given to only this precision, It was only with the advent of electronic timing, that it became possible to record them to 1/100 ofa second. The current world record for the men’s 100m is 958s This suggests an absolute uncertainty of +40.01s, percentage uncertainty of approximately 01% This has the knock-on «effect that for the world record to be valid the track musc also be measured to a precision oF 0.9% or better. This means an absolute uncertainty of 10cm, ‘The precision can also be estimated from taking repeat readings If ive readings ‘of the time taken fora ball to run down a track are taken, itis acceptable to give ‘the uncertainty as half the range ofthe readings. For example ifthe readings ‘were: 5.25 5.25 545, 505,518. The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values (5.4 — 50 = 0.43), so the uncertaincy is +04s/2 = 40.2 Rens es ‘1 What isthe reading on the vermier scale in Figure 2.7? 2. What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 2.8? 3. Ifthe time base in Figure 25 i given as 5 sd, deduce the rime between the pulses. 4 In Figure 2.6, deduce the reading on the volemerer when the remperacure is 100%C. 0 70] Di i | Figure 27 Figure 2.8 Answers on p.215 @s) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide3 Kinematics Equations of motion Seem cued sy ‘You should kriow the definitions of the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. ‘© Distance is a scalar quantity. thas magnitude only. ‘© Displacement isa vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction, (© Speed isa scalar quantity. e refers co the total discance travelled. (© Velocity i a vector quantity, being derived from displacement — not che total distance travelled. ‘© Acceleration isa vector quantity, Acceleration in the direction in which a body ‘s cavaling will increase its velocity. Acceleration in the opposite direction from ‘which a body is traveling will decrease its velocity. Acceleration atan angie ‘0F 90" to the direction a body is traveling in wil change the direction of the velocity but will noc change the magnitude of the velocity Peo nya Ue Ty = Distance isthe length between two ppoints measured along the straight line ‘pining the two points. Displacement is the distance of an object from a fixed reference point in a specified direction, Speed is the distance travelled per unit tie. Velocity isthe change in displacement fer unit time, ‘Acceleration isthe rate of change of velocity. | a vvis the velocity and As is the change of dislacement in time At. x ar ‘where ais the acceleration and Av is the change in velocity in time At. Units ‘Speed and velocity are measured in metres per second(s"). where ‘Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity is measured in ‘metres per second (ms~ and time is measured in seconds (9, which means that the acceleration is measured in metres per second every second (ms" per) which is written as ms" (ano ‘toy wain travel round one dreut ofa circular crack of circumference 241m in 48s Calculace () the average speed the average velocity Answer (@ xis the dicance traveled so average speed. 48G) (sis the dsplacement, which after one lap is 2er0, The train finishes atthe same point at which it started. Hence: As _ O(n) 20) andy =oms? Reser OY a 486) | In general, che symbol A means ‘change, | soAsisthe change in displacement | and Atis the change in time. Icisgood practice to include units in your calculations, as shown in | this eaample — it can help to avoid | mistakes with multiples of units. ft | canalso help you to seeif an equation ‘does not balance. inthis book, in order | to make the equations clear, units are | only included inthe final quantity. Kinematics‘Worked example A car travels 840 malong a straight level rack at constant speed of 35s". The iver chen apples the brakes and the car deceerates to rest ata constant rae in a further 70s. Calculate. (9 chetime for which the caris traveling at constant speed. (©) the acceleration ofthe car when the brakes ate applied Answer Gra we a8 ‘The minus sign shows that the velocity 35 decrease rather than increases. Ie is alo worth noting that the given quantities inthe question are to two Significant figures. Therefore, the answer should aso be recorded to two significant figures. 2 Fe g E 3 & ad a ‘Graphs give a visual representation of the manner in which one variable changes ‘with another. Looking at motion graphs can help us to see what is happening, ‘over a period of time. Displacement-time graphs Figute 31 shows the displacement of a body that increases uriforrnly with time. ‘This shows constant velocity. The magnitude of the velocity is equal to the gradient of the graph, As v= gradient = Gzap rv ‘When you measure the gradient of a gaph, use as much ofthe graph 2s posable. This wll reduce the petcentage error in your ealulation, Displacement s/ms“ Time t/s Figure 3.1 Displacement-time graph for constant velocity Figure 3.2 shows an example of a body's velocity steadily increasing with time. To find the velocity ata particular instant (the instantaneous velocity), draw a ‘angent 0 the graph ac the relevant point and calculate the gradient of that tangent, Displacement s/ms" Time t/s Figure 3.2 Displacernent-time graph for increasing velocity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideVelocity-time graphs 8 Figure 3.32) shows a body moving with a constant velocity; Figure 3.3(b) shows =} «that the velocity of the body is increasing at a constant rate — it has conscant £ acceleration. = @ © Fo Velocty Velocity v4. = fms ims" ” a Timers Figure 3.3 Velocty-time graphs: (a) constant velocity, (b) velocity increasing at ‘constant rate ‘The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the change in velocity divided by the time taken. Iris equal to the magnitude of the acceleration. ovou wy Displacement from a velocity-time graph ‘The cisplacement is equal to the area under a velocity-time graph. This can be ‘leary seen in Figure 3.3(@), The shaded area isa rectangle and its area is equal to: height x length = velocity x time Figure 3.3(0) shoves changing velocity the distance vaveled is the average velocity multiplied by the time. For constant acceleration from zero velocity this ishalF the maximum velocity multioied by the time — the area ofa triangle, (aes Velocity/ms-* e070 80 Time/s Figure 3.6 Figure 34 shows the motion ofa cyclist as shetravelsfrom Answer one stage to thernextin a race, Calculate: aakeearsTaari sonst wo-0 @) the acceleration from A to B (H The maximum speed can be read directly from the graph. (@ the maximum speed of the cyclist Icis 10s" (@ thecoualdixance he cys waves (@ distance traveled = area under the praph @ the acceleration from C0 D = (6x 10% 1) + (10% 50) + 04% 1021 @ acceleration = graciene = 2 = -a5ms?Figure 35 shows the motion of a body that has accelerated at a uniform rate, from an initial velocity w toa final velocicy vin time t 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.5 Equation 1 ‘The acceleration of the body: vou t Rearranging this equation gives: veutat Equation 2 ‘The distance s travelled by the body can be calculated in two ways. First verage velocity x time vtu 2 Equation 3 ‘Second, the distance travelled is equivalent to the area under the graph: rea of rectangle ABDE + area of triangle BCD t Equation 4 A fourth equation is needed to solve problems in which the time and one other variable are not known. Equation 1 rearranges to: a ‘Substitute this in Equation 2: vu you Rearranging gives Pau + 2as @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidethe journey that is being considered. Summary Erma 8 The equations of uniformly accelerated motion are ‘tessa otnatnesionve | esl . bat © sur wat? used if there is constant acceleration s {including constant deceleration and 5 ° eee Per anre eater g & ” ing the equations of uniformly accelerated motion Acommon type of problem you might be asked to analyse isthe journey of a vehicle between two fixed points. (oo During the teing ofa cr cistimed overs measured klomette In ane tet ‘enters the timing zone at a velocity of 501s“ and decelerates at a constant rate oF 0.80ms*, Calculate: @ the velocity of che car as it leaves the measured kilometre (theme takes ro cover he messed emere Answer @u=50ms? G=zp §=10km=1000m Icmight seem tedious writing out % all the quantities you know and oo the equation you are going to use. » However, this wll mean that you are less likely to make a careless error and, oe ee if you do make an arithmetic error, it ete a helps the examiner to see where you Substitute the relevant values and solve the equation: hhave gone wrong, so that some marks canbe awarded. = 50 + 2x (080) x 1900 = 2500 ~ 1600 = 900, ms (0 Reauired equation: OTe “Two common mistakes in this type oF eo question are: Substitute in the relevant variables ee 30-50-80 x1) negative acceleration $= 50=30_ 55 (© forgetting to convert kilometres to 08 metres Analysing the motion of a body in a uniform gravitational field ‘The equations of uniformly accelerated motion can be used to analyse the motion ‘ofa body moving vertically under the influence of gravity. In this type of example itis important to call one direction positive and the other negative and to be ‘consistent throughout your calculation. The next example demonscrates this. Cees ‘A boy throws a stone veracaly up into the airwith a velocity ©£60ms" The stone reaches maximum height and falls inco the sea, whichis 12m below the point of release (Figure 36). ‘Calculate the velocity ac which the tone his the water surface. (Gcceleration due to gravity = 98ms%)In this example, upwards hasbeen chosen as the postive direction; hence wis +605"! Consequenty, che distance of the sea below the point of release (12m) and the aceleraron due ro graity (105-2) are considered nepatve because they 2 Fe g E 3 & ad are both in the downward direction. a Recuired eiatiory The final velocity ofthe scone is ako in che downward direction. aw + Qos ‘Therefore it should be recorded as -165ms® v= 608 + 2 x (-98) x (12 =36 +235 =271 Itisalso worth noting that ar resistance on a stone moving at these speeds & negligible. Mass and weight ‘Mass and weight are often confused. Weight i the gravicationa pull on a body and depends on the strength ofthe gravitational field at the position ofthe ‘wash ial eee body, Mass is a property of a body itself and does not vary with the position of | fae tae togan Ook the body, Weight isthe gravitational pull on a In general, the two are connected by the equation: body. Weight isa type of force and ike W=mg all forces its unit is the newton (N). ee, ‘where W is weight, m is mass and gis the gravitational fied strength (or acceleration of free fll). ‘The gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is BN kg” Thetefore, a mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has.a weight of just less than 1N (098N) on the Earths surface. Its weight on the Moon is only O.16N because the gravitational field stength on che Moon is only about % of that on Earth. Exe al Inthe absence of air resistance, all bodies near the Earth fall with the sarne acceleration. This is known as the acceleration offre fall. Similarly bocies near any other planet will fll with equal accelerations. However, these accelerations «wll be different from those near the Earth. This is explored further in Topic 4 (Dynamics). Measurement of the acceleration of free fall Figure 3,7 shows apparatus that can be used to measure the acceleration of free fall. Equipment Photograph Strobescopic light all bearing Metre ruler —_ Digital camera 8 e s Figure 3.7 Apparatus to measure the acceleration offre fll Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The stroboscopic light flashes at @ fixed frequency and the shutter of the ‘camera is held open. This results in a photograph that shows the position of the ballin successive time intervals, a in Figure 37. In this example the stroboscopic light was sec to flash at 20 H2. In Table 31, the third column shows the distance travelled by the bal in each time interval and the fourth colurnn shows the average speed curing each interval. Table 3.1 Time/s | Positionim | Distance travelled/m | Speed/m: a00 | 000 0.00 00 0s | 001 aor o2 910 | 0.05 0.04 08 os | om 0.06 12. 020 | 020 0.09 18 025 | 030 oi 22 o30 | 4a O18 28 035 | 0.60 016 32 940 | 078 018 36 ‘Acgraph of the speed against time is plotted (Figure 38). The acceleration of the ballis equal to the gradienc of chs graph 010 0.20 0.30 040 Timers Figure 3.8 Readings from Figure 3.8: (046, 4 and (0.13, 19) 41-10 = Tens Effect of air resistance ‘When you kick a football or hit tennis ball you will be aware of the effect of air resistance. Air resistance affects all moving bodies near the Earth’ surface, including the motion of falling bodies. Air resistance depends on che shape of ‘a body and also on the speed at which the body travels. The resistance on a sieamlined body is lower than on a less streamlined body. Car manufacturers spend a lot of time and money researching the best shape for a car 0 as to redhlce air resistance. Ait resistance, of drag, increases as the velocity of a body increases, As a falling body acceleraces, the drag. force increases. Therefore, the resultant force on ic will decrease, meaning that the acceleration decreases. When the drag force is equal {0 the gravitational pull on che body ic will no longer accelerave, but fll with @ ‘constant velocity, This velocity is called the terminal velocity. s 2 3s 5 ) | Ss ”Figure 39 shows how the velocities ofa shuttlecock and of a tennis ball change as they fall from rest. Speed > y y 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.9 ‘© At point A the air resistance (or drag force) is negligible and both the shutelecock and the tennis ball fall with the same acceleration, g ‘© At point B the air resistance (compared wich the weight of the bal) remains scrall and i continues to fall wth the same acceleration; the shurtlecack has a much smaller weight than the ball and the air resstance on itis significant compared with its weight, so its acceleration is reduced, (© Atpoint € the air resistance is equal co the weight of the shuttlecock. It no Songer accelerates and fals with ts terminal velocity ‘© At point D the air resistance on the balls now significant an! its acceleration is reduced, ‘© At point € the air resistance is equal to the weight ofthe ball and it als with ‘ts weminal velocity. (airman ‘You should be able ro develop many equations from more fundamental ‘equations, Some of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of tthe exam paper; others you must lear by heart. It is good idea to write out ‘these equations on a plece of ard and stick the card on your bedroom mirror to help learn chem by heart. In this chapter the ‘must-earn’ equations are: ‘The others are either on the lis on pages 66~67 ofthe syllabus or you should be able to derive them. Now test yourself Describe one similarity and one difference between speed and velocity. 2 Acartravelling ac 15ms-! applies its brakes and comes ro rest after 4.05. Calculate the acceleration of the ca ‘Anastronaut on the Moon dropsa hammer from a height of 7.2m, The hammer strikes the ground 1.2s ater being released, Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon. Abullet of mass 50. is fired horizontally from a height of 1.2m. The bullet leaves the gun ata speed of 280m: Describe the path the bullet takes b Assume the ground is level. Calculate: | the time that i rakes for the bullet to hit the ground Ii the distance the distance the bullet craves before It hits the ground. il Stare any assumptions you made in | and ll and explain the effect they will have on your answer to Answers on p.215 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideMomentum and Newton's laws of motion >—_____YY-ez7_) ‘Newton's laws are the basis on which classical mechanics was built. Many of the ideas are seen as selt evident today but were revolutionary when Newoon first developed his ideas. Before discussing Newton’ laws of motion in detail you need to understand the ‘concept of momentum, Linear momentum (ps defined as ‘the product of mass and velocity: The unit of momencum is kgrns"\.tc i formed by multiplying a vector by a pew scalar and is, therefore, a vector itself This means, for example, that a body of mass 2g travelling at 3ms" has a momentum of 6kgms"™A body of the ‘same mass traveling at the same speed but in the opposite direction hasa momencum of ~6kgms”.Itisimportant when you consider interactions between bodies that you understand the vector nature of momentum, Ciro Calculate the momencum of a cruise liner of mass 20000 tonnes when icis traveling ac &.0ms” (Ironne = 1000ks). Answer ‘Convert the mass to ke: 20000¢ = 20000 x 1000kg = 20000000kg p=my= 20000000 x 60 = 120000000 kgms" Newton's laws Newtons first law Abody will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by resultant force ‘The fist part of this law is relatively straightforward; we do not expect an object 10 move suddenly for no reason. The second part requiresa lctle more thoughe. A got ball putted along level ground will gradually sow dow, as will a cyclist freewheeling along.a level path. In both these cases frictional forces actin the ‘opposte direction to the velocity of the body and cause it to decelerate, ‘When we observe motion on the Earth we cannot diminate friction and we ‘earn’ (falsely) that a force is needed to keep bodies moving, In practice, we ‘only need that force to overcome frictional forces. |F you think of a rock moving through outer space, there is no force on it — yer it will continue moving in a straight line forever, or until it encounters another body, perhaps in another galaxy. owanics @)Certs) Newton's second law ‘A resultant force acting on a body will cause a change in momentum in the direction of the force. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the magnitude of the force. Newcon’ first law describes what happens when there is na force on a body, | ‘The second law explains what happens when there isa force on a body. ‘The second law defines force: something that tends to cause a change From this law we can write: in momentum af a body. pele . a ‘A constant of proportionality defines the size of the unit of force. The newton is defined by raking the constant equal co 1, when momentum is measured in kgm" and time is measured in s. You see from this equation chat force is measured in kgm s*. 1 kgs" called IN (newton). Cass 4 golf ball of mass 45 is putted slong a level green with an intial velocity of 40ms” It decelerates ata constant rate and comes to rest after 30s. Calculate the frictional force on the ball Answer CCorvert the mas to kg 45g Bese ke=0045ke inal momentum = 0.065 x 4= 018kgms" final momentum =0 change in momentum = -O:18kgms-" “The minus sigh in the answer shows that the force is acting in the opposite sbrecsion from the inal velocity. Acceleration of a constant mass In many sintations including the previous worked example, the mass of the body on which the force is applied remains corstant (or nearly constant). ‘Consider the basic equation: pee Ae ‘Now Ap = Adm) and ifm is constanc tis can be rewritten as p = mAw ‘Therefore: may = ma The previous worked example could be solved using chis equation, rather chan the rate of change of momentum, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCano A car of mass 12 tonnes accelerates from Sms to 30ms*in 75s. Calulate the average accelerating force on the cat, Answer change in velocity _ 30 Peels acceleration = SEE (Convert the mass to kilograms, 120 1200ke force =mass x acceleration = 1200 x 33 = 4000N ‘This equation also gives a deeper insight into the concept of mass, You can see that the greater the mass of a body, the harder its to change its uniform velocity, You begin to see that mass isa measure ofthis reluctance to change’, orinertia. Newton's third law ‘The third law looks atthe interaction between two bodies. Ifbody A exerts a force on body B then body 8 will exert a force on body ‘A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. @) © ee ff} J \ ] Figure 41 (a) Two protons repel each other, (b) two magnets attract each other, (¢) the Earthand the Moon attract each other ‘The examples in Figure 41 show forces on two bodies of roughly equal size; it is easy to appreciate that the forces in each example ate of equal size. However, itisalso crue with objects of very different sizes. For example, when you jump ‘off a wall there isa gravitational pull on you from the Earth that pulls you down ‘owaids the ground (See Figure 4.2). What you do not think about is that you. ako pull the Earth upwards towards you with an equal sized force. OF course, the movement ofthe Earth is negligible because itis so much more massive than you are — but the force is still there ‘The child is pulled down by ‘the Earth with a force, W | nesonpmon Figure 4.2 Interaction between two bodiesLinear momentum and its conservation n of momentum Certs) ‘One of the useful results chat can be developed fromm Newton's third law is ‘hat momentum is conserved in any interaction. This means that the total momentum of a closed system (that is,a system on which no external forces act is the same after an interaction as before, ‘Consider two bodies that move towards each other, asin Figure 43, and then stick to each other after the collision. Positive direction game! gomst | , Or a i aa Trill a naly Figure 4.3 Collision between two bodies total momentum before the colision = total momentum after the collision If we consider the positive direction to be from left to right: (20x 38)+G0x -40)=5y -44= 50 0.88ms" ‘The negative sign means that the velocity after che collision is from right to left. ‘A formal statement of the law é 2s follows The total momentum of a closed system before an interaction is equal to the total momentum of that system after the interaction. Collisions in two dimensions ‘The example above considers a heacL-on collision, where all the movement isin single direction. The law applies equally if there isa glancing collision and the two bodies move offin different directions. In this type of problem the momenta must be resolved so that the conservation of momentum be ‘considered in two perpendicular directions ot Before collision After collsion Figure 46 o— Figure 44 shows a disc A of mass mia, with a velocity u, moving towards a stationary dsc B of mass mg. The discs collide. After the collision disc A moves off with velocity vg at an angle @ to its original velocity and disc B moves with a velocity vp at an angle of @ to the original velocity of A. ‘Momenta parallel tu momentum before colsion = mau ‘momentum after colliion = mav,cos@ + mahgcos @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘Therefore: gu =m,v,cos0 + mscos ED , -Momenca perpendicular © Theanglsat which A and 8move | ‘momencum before colson = 0 mus both be measured inthe , fame dretion ound the re; rmomencum ater colison = myyqsin@ + myiysing i Eee Therefore: direction is chosen. This makes erie epoca O= mavasin 8+ mgrysing eat noeiaee ‘A particle moves towards stationary partie of equal mass, with a velocity u of 2.00ms". After the collision one partie moves (ff with velocity 100ms ar an angle of 0 ro the orginal velocity The second particle moves off with a velocty of magninude “V73ms-1. Calculate the angle the second particle makes withthe original velocity. Answer Momenta parallel to Therefore: momentum before collision 0 =1.00rn sin60 + musing momentum after cllsion = 10000360 + miycosp 0= 0866 +vasng Therefore: gS = 0.866 [equation 2] 2m= Loom cos60 + mycoep Divide equation 2 by equation =05 + vgc0s@ sng, ees 059 15 ugcosp=15 [equation 1] Set on Gace Momenta perpendicular tou. momentum before clision =0 momentum after collision = 1.00msin60 + mivasin Beart) Elastic Ian elastic interaction not only is momentum conserved but kinetic energy is also conserved. On the macroscopic scale this s rare. However, many interactions do approximate to being perfectly elastic and the mathematics of ‘an elastic interaction can be used to model these. On the microscopic scale, for ‘example, the collision between two charged particles such as protons can be considered to be elastic Iris worth noting chat in any perfectly elastic collision the relative speed of approach before the interaction is equal to the relative speed of separation after the interaction. A good example of this s the nearly elastic inceraction of a golt ball being struck by the much more massive club (Figure 45). ‘golf club approaches ‘The dub continues to move at a velocity of very nears) v. The ball moves off at @ speed the ball at a veloaty of v. cf (nearly) 2v. The speed of separation of the ball from the dub is equal to the speed of ‘approach of the club to the ball Figure 45 An elastic collision Inelastic Ian inelastic collbion some ofthe initial kinetic energy is converted into other forms, such as sound and intemal energy. The kinetic energy is less after the ‘olision than before ic Asin all collisions, momentum is conserved, There are ry a 5 S S > =) <)rnuimerous examples and degrees of inelastic colsion — from neatly perfectly elastic, such as one billard ball scrking another, to two bodies sticking cogether, such as two identical trolleys colcing and sticking together as shown in Figure 46. Certs) ———+v Pin Cork —> "v ‘One trolley moves towards a second ‘The two tralleys stick together and identical stationary trolley with aspeed v. move off with a combined speed of tiv. Figure 4.6 An inelastic collision ‘Worked example Ernst A plier of mass 0.20kas moving at ms onan ai rack towards a second ‘Note thac each step in the explanation alder of mass 025ke, which & moving at 20ms“in the opposte deston. is clearly explained and thatthe final When the two gliders colide they stick togethes. comment completes the answer {@) Calculate thet joint velocity after the coision. (Show thatthe collsion is inelastic. xp Answer ‘An elastic collision between two equal @ momentum before the eolsion = (0.20 x 36) + (025 x -20) masses always leads to the two masses somes having velocities after the collision, - that are perpendicular to each other. momentum after the collsion = (0.20 + 0.25)v = 0454, where vs the velocity Wisc beckto ie eee eae ofthe two gliders after the eolsion ‘on page 31, which involves an elastic ‘momentum after che collsion = momentum before che collision ccolision. 022= 0450 Mee (nee) (kinetic energy before the colin = (x02 « 342) + (5 025 20%) Werk tina paler Caton 13405=18) ves a key term from this chapter, kinetic energyafter the colsion = 0x 045 x 0%) ~ 0054 and the other gives an explanation iinet CH AA OA) 0054) Of the term. Change places until ll the key terms have been covered. Do thisat the end of every chapter “The kinetic energy after the calsion isles than the kinetic energy befare the callsion, therefore che cellsion is inelastic. Now test yourself ‘Avbal-bearing falls ata constant speed through oil. Name the forces acting on it magnitude of the resultant force an it. ‘Acar of mass 1200kg accelerates from rest to 18ms~ in 6.35. Calculate: athe acceleration of the car b the average resultant force acting on ic the momentum of the car when itis travelling at 18s“ the vertical direction and state the ‘ball of mass 250 travelling at T3ms-* collides with and stick toa second stationary ball of mass 4008, Calculate the speed ofthe balls after the impact. 'b Show whether or not the collision is elastic. 4 Adis of mass 24 kgis moving at a velocity of 6.0ms“'at an angle of 40* west of north. Calculate its momentum in: a the western direction bb the northem direction Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideS 5 Forces, density and pressure Types of force In your work before AS you will have met the idea of a force being a push or a pull. You should now recognise the slightly more sophisticated idea that a force ‘cauises, or tends to cause, a change in the velocity of a body. ‘You have met various types of force already. Here is alist ofthe types of force ‘with which you should be familiar: (© gravitational forces © electric forces © upthrust or buoyancy forces © frictional and viscous forces Cee tees a | ‘Ammass in a gravitational field experiences a force. You have already seen that the ‘Sze of che force depends on the strength of the gravitational field and the mass ‘ofthe object: F=me ‘where Fis force (or weight), m is mass of the body and gis the gravitational field srength Neat the Farths surface (or any planerary-sized body) the gravitational field is ‘uniform, Therefore, che gravitational force s the same wherever the body is placed near the planet's surface. Consequently, the body wil fall with a conscant ‘acceleration (ignoring air resistance). Near the Earths surface the gravitational field is approximately 98 Nkg”. This will cause any object to fall with an ‘acceleration of 98m? The gravitational field near che Moon is 16N kg ‘Consequently, an object near the Moon's surface wil fall towards the Moon's surface with an acceleration of 16ms® Feet sed A charged object will experience forces due to other charged objects nearby. ‘The behaviour of a charged object in @ uniform electric felis investigated in Topic 10, Urine nane Bodies wholly or partly immersed in fluids experience an upthrust cue to the sighcly cliferenc pressures exerted on their ower and upper surfaces. This is ‘explored further on page 39. Forces, density and pressure @)fe FI a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf = 3 a] ¢ 3 & G 2 vy Frictional forces have already been discussed. The term ‘rction’ is usually applied. ‘where chere is resistance ro motion due to contact between two solids. arises because no two surfaces are perfectly smooth and the lumps in them tend to interlock when thete is relative movement between the bodies (Figure 5.1) ‘Wooden, block Table Magnified view showing the roughness of the two surfaces ‘and how they inteclock Figure 5.1 Frictional forces The term Viscous tends to be used when fluids (liquids and gases) ae involved, Itis the difference in viscosity that makes water flow much more quickly than ‘il Sirilarly, the vscous forces on a body travelling through oil are much larger than those on an object traveling through water. Gases tend to produce far less viscous drag than liquids. Even so, ac high speeds the viscous drag on cars and aircraft is significant, Turning effects of forces Moment of a force ‘The turning effect ofa force about a point (sometimes known as torque) is G@EEESUD) ‘ known as its moment about that point. When considering a single force, the force itself does not have a unique point about which the force is producing its turning effect must be specified. ‘moment. It all depends on the point | about which the force has a turning ‘The moment of a force about a point equals the force multiplied by the | effect. Therefore when referring to a perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point. ‘moment you should always refer to Consider a spanner turninga nut Figure 52) The force is not perpendicularto _ispelngabout which the moment i the spanner. Therefore either the component of the force perpendicular to the saa spanner or the perpendicular distance from the centre of the nut to the line oF action of the force must be used in the calculation, The perpendicular distance ‘ofthe line of accion of the 30N force from the cencre of the nut isthe distance x = 250520 = 235cm, Hence the torque about the centre of che nut is 30 x 235 = 705Nem. t 25cm Figure 5.2 Turing forces on a spanner, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIeis worth noting that torque is a vector Ifa torque that tends to turn a body in a clockwise sense is considered to be positive, then a torque that tends to cause the body to move in an anticlockwise sense is considered negative, iororens ‘Accouple is produced when two parallel forces of equal magnitude actin ‘opposite directions and have lines of action that do not coincide. You apply a ‘couple when you tum on a tap. When considering the torque ofa couple you do not need to worry about the specfc point that the torque is produced about. The torque is che same whatever point is chosen. The corque of the ‘couple is equal to the sum of the moments about any point of each of the two forces. torque of a couple = magnitude of one ofthe forces x perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces Accouple tends to produce rotation only. A single force may tend to produce Totation but it will always tend to produce acceleration as well (Fgure 53). = ed Sereno 6 ‘Acceleration of Ball Figure 5.3 (=) footballer kicks the ball, striking the side of the ball. (b) The ball accelerates but aso tends to rotate ina clockwise direction Equilibrium of forces Equilibrium Ifthe resltant force acting on a point object i zero then it fin equitrium. If however, the body is of finite size then che possi of rotational as well as ‘rarslational movement must be consicered. Fora body of finite size 10 be in equilibrium: ‘© the resultanc force on the body must be zer0 ‘© the resultant torque on the body must be zero Centre of gravity The weight of a body does not act froma single point but is spread through all the particles of the body. However, itis often convenient co consider the weight acting ata single point — this point is called the centre of gravity of the body. ‘ =i 3 FA 4 a 3 = a > 2 3 is o a] 3 2 G ir Py point through which allthe weight of ‘The centre of gravity of a bodys the ‘the body may be considered to act. ‘term used commonly in examinations iss uniform body: This ‘means that the centre of gravity ofthe body is at the geometric centre of the body. te CMU The principle of moments i a restatement of the second condition for a body be in equilibrium: For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about any point ‘A useful way of using this when you are considering coplanar forces is to say ‘the -dockwise moments = the anticlockwise moments. =] Forces, density and pressure ®)Carns ‘A sudent has a uniform metre sur of weight 1.20N. He atcaches a weight of 150N at the 100cm point and places the ruler on a knife edge. He adjusts the knife edge unt the ruler balances, Deduce the position af the ke ede, Answer Drawa diagram ofthe setup (igure 54). soem — pe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy 1.50N 1.20N Figure 5.4 ‘The ruler is uniform and therefore the centre of gravity isa its centre, Take moments about the pivor: clockwise moment = (50-2) 120Nem anticlockwise moment = (x~ 10) x 160Nem_ For equilibrium, the clackwise moments = the anticlockwise moments: (0-2) « 12=( 10) 15 78cm trea eget Ce) In the section on vectors you met the idea of using vector diagrams to add. vectors acting at different angles, and you also met the concept of resolving vectors into their component parts, Vector diagrams can also be used when @ body's in equilibrium. ‘Consider a lamp of weight W pulled to one side with a horizontal force F's that icrmakes an angle @ with che vertical, as shown in Figure $5. T r z Ww w| FE Draw the vectors Complete the triangle, w| Wand F ‘The thied side represents the tension T. ‘The diagram shows the forces ‘acting on the lamp. Tis the tension in the flex Figure 5.5 Forces in equilibrium Note the difference between this and using the triangle of forces to find the resultanc of two forces. This is a closed triangle, with all che arrows going the samme way round the triangle. This shows that the sum of these three forcesis, zero and that the body is in equilrium. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCann ‘Ahelium balloon is tethered to the ground usinga cable that can withstand a maximum force of 100kN before breaking, The net upward force on the balloon due to its Buoyancy is 8.OKN (Figure 5.6) (Calculate the maximarn horizontal force the wind can produce on the balloon before the cable snaps, and the angle che cable makes with the vertical when chs force & applied, Answer Refer to Figure $7: 1 Dawa vertical arow of length 40cm to represent the tupthrust on the balloon, 2. Drawa horizontal construction line from the top of the vertical arrow. Separate theneedle and the pencil tip of your compasses by a dstance of 5 cm to represent the tension force in the cable. Place the needle on the bottom of the vertical ine and draw an arc to intersect with the horizontal construction line. Figure 5.7 4 Join from the intersection to the botworn ofthe vertical ine, This represents the tension inthe cable. 5. Draw an arrow to represent the horizontal force from the wind. ‘The length of the horizontal arrow = 30cm. Therefore che force due o the wind is 60%N, The angle with the vertical, measured with a protractor = 37° Scale: 2em = 1kN Forces, density and pressure 5 Forces, density and pressurepe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy Density and pressure Q—________————_-ez_) You will have met the of density in eater work. ( " fou will have OILS SOY ET Density is the mass per unit volume: The unit of density i kilograms per metre cubed (kgm) or grams per es ‘centimetie cubed (gem) density (= Some (ass ‘A beaker has a mass of 48g When 120cm’ of copper sulfate solution are poured Inco the beaker it found to havea coral mass of 174g. Calculate the density of the copper sulfate solution, Answer rrass of copper sulfate solution = 174 48 = 126g, m_ 26 E105 gen" Pressure can easily be confused with force, the difference being that pressure phesnive' wiki hetrrel Ree per UE ‘considers the area on which a force acts, area: 4 Pressure is measured in newtons per metre squared (Nim), IN mis called pressure (o)= SS 1 pascal (Pa). It is sometimes convenient to use Nm”, \ Pressure, unlike force, isa scala. Therefore, pressure does not have a specific r >) 1 pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of 1 newton actng normally on an area of 1 metre squared. direction, Cans Coins are produced by sanping blank discs with a die The diameter ofa blank sdscis22cm and the pressure on the disc during camping is 2.8 x 10° MPa, Calculate the force required co push the die against the blank disc. Answer area of the coin 38cm? = 38x 104m? neaaF = n@22797 presse Hence force = pressure x area =28 x 105x 108 x 38x 10-4= 106% 10° Pressure in a liquid A liquid exerts pressure on the sides of its container and on any abject in the liquid, The pressure exerted by the liquid increases as the depth increases. Figure 5.8 shows a beaker containing a liquid of density p. =e Areaa SS Figure 5.8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The pressure on the area A is due to the weight of the column of water of height h above it welghhe= mass x g (where gis the gravicaional field strengh) mass of the colurin = density x volume, where the volume of the column of water =A xh mass of the column = px A xh weighc of the column = px A xh xg force _ weight pressure on area A = ORE area area =pxaxhek e ny pressure = phg Cares mens ‘Atmospheric pressure & 108 x 108 Pa, A diver descends to a depth of 24m in ‘The total pressure is equal to the seawater of densty 103 > 10° kgm, Calculate the total pressure on the dives pressure due to the water plus atmospheric pressure. Its easy to Answer forget to include atmospheric pressure, presaire due to seawater = hpg = 24 x 103% 108 x 98 = 242 x 105Pa teal pressure = 242 « 105+ 106% 10° = 348 x 103Pa (EEE (© Include these ‘must lea’ equations ‘You can now see how upthrust (or buoyancy force) is produced. Consider a ‘on your bedroom mirror ist: rectangular box in aliquid — the boctom of the box is ata greater depth chan mass the top, Thus the pressure on the bottom is greater than the pressure on the eT = ear, top. Since the two surfaces have the same area, che force on che bottom is force greater than the force on the top and the box s pushed upwards. pressure (p) = 2 Re es ‘A uniform picture of weight 3.6N is attached co a wall using a string as shown in Figure $9, Each end of the string makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal Calculate the tension in the string ‘Two forces oF 8ON act on either side ofa bolt head of diameter 24cm. Calculate the couple produced on the bolt. ‘A.umiform metre ruler is pivoted on the 30cm mark. When a mass of 0.20kg 5 hung from the 14cm mark the ruler balances, Calculate the mass ofthe rue. ‘A.niform metre rulers pivoted at its midpoint. weight of 600N is hung fiom the 30.0cm mark The rulers held in equilibrium by a string attached to the 10cm mark making an angle of 60° withthe ruler. Caleulte the tension in Figures.9 the string Oil of density 850kgiis poured into a measuring cinder toa depth of (0.300m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the base of the measuring cylinder bythe oll Answers on p.215 Forces, density and pressure 2 = E 4 i a ian] 5 > 2 a 2 Gy sc 3 y Gg 2 wn6 Work, energy and power Work and efficiency ea—_____ex) Work has.a precise meaning in physics and care must be taken when using this term. The uni of work isthe Joule (J) ‘Work is defined as being done when 9 force moves is point of application in Both force and displacement are vectors. Note that for work to be done there | the direction in which the fore acs. must be a component of the force that s parallel to the dispiacement. joule of works Seen ‘When calculating work done, care must be taken that the force and che ‘force of 1 newton moves its point of displacement are parallel, Consider a chi siding down a slide (Figure 61). application 1 metre in the direction of ‘the force, Child started here from resi 3.0m Weight = 250N Figure 6.1 ‘The force causing the child to move down the slope isthe child's own weight, 2S0N, which acts verticaly downwards. The cotal distance moved is § 0m but the displacement parallel to the force is only 301. So: ‘work done by the force = 250N x 30m = 750) Ieis worth noting that in this example the work is done on the child by gravity, rather than the child doing work. In general component of the force parallel to displacement work done = Fxcos@ work done = x the displacement ————-> Displacement Foose * Figure 62 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCans Figure 63 stows a man wheeling a burrow. He applies force of ‘540 to the barrow in a direction 75’from the horizontal He moves the barrow 301m along level ground, Calculate the work he does against fection. Answer work done = Fcos@ work done Ey] ES 3 a 3 s 8 id 3 < S z= G = re) Energy is not an easy concept and, like work, ic has. precise meaning in physics. Like work, energy is measured in joules, When a body has 300] oF energy it means that it can do 300) of work. Different forms of energy are shown in Table 6.1. Energy is defined as the ability (or ‘apacity) to do work. Table 6.1 a a ee eerste tere Gravitational potential | The ability to do work due to the position of a body in ] a gravitational field [ Hastie potential |The ability to-do work due the deformation ofa body (e.g, a compressed or extended spring) Sound The ability to de work due tothe kinetic and potential energy of the vibrating particles ina sound wave Internal The sum ofthe random kinetic and potential energies of the molecules ina body. Hectieal potertel | The ablity to do work due tothe postion of a cherged particle in an electric field Chemical potential | The ability to do work due to potential energy of the particles making up substances Nuclear potential The ablity to do work due to the potential energy of the subatomic particles in the quelei of atoms Enna eernee ‘Machines are used to do work, converting energy from one form to another In practice, machines are never 100% efficent. This means that che total energy input is greater than the useful work output, Some of the energy input i, ‘converted to unwanted forms such as thermal energy and sound, useful work output total energy input Efficiency is quoted either asa ratio ora percentage. Consequentty efficiency has no units. efficiency of a machine = 100% Work eneray and power3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Cat A petrol moror used co hea bag of sand of mass 2700kg from the ground up roa window 12m above the graund. Eighteen per cent of che inpur energy Is converted inta gravitational energy of the sand. (9 Calculate the energy input to the motor. () Diccuss the energy changes involved in the process. c=D Answer ‘No attempt has been made to discuss ‘what happens inside the motor. ust wondone gh = 270038 1231750) Peto pete lime iso ioe ponueeaa tale bburme and puc under pressure, and the ‘conversion ofthis to kinetic energy = TSAO] w TEM ofthe oscillating piston, Attempts to discuss what happens inside the motor are unlikely to succeed and should be avoided. (©) The chemical potential energy ofthe petrol is converted into internal energy in the motar and 18% ofthis is used to do work against gravity in lifting the sand. “The remaindé i transferred to the surroundings as they are heated. (eimactuicisess ey | ‘The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of a closed system is constant. For examination purposes, you should explain this statement by saying that this, means that energy can be transformed from ane form to another bur it can nether be created nor destroyed — the total energy of a closed systern will be the same before an interaction as after it, When energy is transformed fram one form to another either: ‘© work is done — for example, a man does work againse gravity by lifting a large mass onto his shoulders or ‘© energy is radiated of received in the form of electromagnetic radiation — for ‘example, intemal energy is radiated away from the white hot filament of a lamp by infrared and light radiation Potential energy and kinetic energy Gravitational potential energy ‘Consider a mass m lifted through a height ht. ‘The weight of the mass is mg, where gis the gravitational field strength. ‘work done = force x distance moved. mghh Due 10 its new position, the body is now able to do extra work equal co mgd, Ichas gained extra potential energy, AW = mgd: change in potential energy = mgAh If we consider @ body to have zero potential energy when at ground level, we ‘can say chat gravitational potential energy (E,) = mgh @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIn these examples we have considered objects close to Earth’s surface, where we ‘can consicer the gravitational field to be uniform. in your Aclevel stucties you wil ‘explore this Furcher and consider examples where the gravitational field fs not uniform, Kinetic energy ‘Consider a body of mass my, at rest, which accelerates to a speed of v over a distances ‘work cone in accelerating the body = force x distance Wats But MTA ieyMeU Cron ( =ma Im the equation v? = u? + 2as,u = 0. Hence: The body is now able co do excra work = Yomnv# due to ies speed. Ir has kinetic energy = Ysmv* (aero A cricketer bows aball of mass 160 gata speed of Zkmh", Answer Calculate the kinetic energy ofthe ball Convere the speed from koh"? to ms" 12490 x 1009 4 Okmb* = 120 x eEEms = ams ; Convere 160g t0 kg = O16kg. Yan? = Ye x O16 x 333 a) fae era ret is Thete are various types of potential energy, one being elastic potential energy (Sometimes teferred to as stain energy). When a force causes an object to change its stape, che particles of the body are either squashed together or Pulled apart, Therefore, they have extra potential energy. This is looked at in ‘quantitative terms in the section on deformation of solids. Power Power (Ps the rate of doing work or transforming energy. The unit of power is work done che wate (W). Power = time taken energy tansforred ‘There isa power of 1 watt when energy is transferred or work is done at ec the rate of 1 joule per second. (aero A pebble of mass 120gisfired from a caapulk. The pebble. Answer accelerates ftom resto 1Sms" in 04s Calculate the average og =012ke power gain ofthe pebble dunng the fing process. gain in kinexic energy = Yrv? =05 x 012 x 18 = 125) BS power gain = 32= 96w Work eneray and powerPower and velocity ‘Consider a car travelling at constant velocity v along a straight, level road. The engine must continue to da work against fiction. I the frictional force is, chen ‘he engine will supply an equal-sized force in the opposite direction, The work done by the engine, AW in time At is FAs, where AS i the dstance travelled in time Av: power = AS a uc AS - y cherefore: ‘at power = Fy Cans 3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Acylsts traveling alonga straight vel road ataconstant Answer velocity of 27am against total rctional forces of SON, Conver: the velocity from kmh" into ms Calculate the power developed by the cys, Dir a7 Parse ower = force x velocity =75x50= 375W Panmee nes ‘© Makes flow chart to show how the units and/or dimensions ofthe quantities in the following list are linked. acceleration energywork force length mass power time (© Include these ‘musteary’ equations on your bedroom mitra ist: work done = Frcos 6 Fp=mgh Ea korn? ‘efficiency ofa machine = eh werk oot 100% work done _ energy transformed Timetaken— timetaken power = Fu power Now test yourself 41 Anincline satan angle of 30" to the horizontal. force of 25N pulls a box 40m along the incline. Calculate: {the total work done by the force 'b the work done against gravity by the force € the gravitational potential energy gained by the box ‘ball of mass0.30kg intially at res falls fom a height of 25m. Ichts the ground ata speed of 18ms~1 Caleulate ‘the potential energy lost by the bal bb the kineric energy gained by the ball the work done against friction ‘Acris travelling ata steady 24ms- along a level road. The power output from the engine is 45 kW. Calculate the total fictional force on the car Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide7 Deformation of solids ‘You have already seen how forces produce changes in the motion of bodies they ‘can also change the shape of bodies. Forces in opposite directions will tend to ‘sretch or compress a body. iF two forces tend to stretch a body they are described ‘as tensile. iF they tend to compressa body they are known as compressive. Elastic and plastic behaviour Forces on a spring Figure 77(@) shows apparatus used to investigate the extension of a spring under a tensile force Figure 71(b) shows the results of che experiment. fa) (b) Foxin ia Force [_this region Extended > spring Original length > | apermanent ( - {extension OC Pointer (prevents of é Batension parallax errors) | law region Weights te Figure 71 ‘Analysing the results we see the following: © From © to A the excension of the spring is proportional to the applied force. © With larger forces from A to B, the spring excends more easily and the ‘extension is no longer proportional to the load. ‘© When the force is reduced, with the spring having been stretched beyond, point 8 ino longer goes back to its original length. From © to A, Fis proportional tox: Fax This can be written as an equality by introducing a constant of proportionality: Fe kx ‘where ks the conscant of proportionality, often known as che spring constant. The spring constant isthe force per unit extension. Its a measure of the -siffness ofthe spring. The larger che spring conscant, the larger isthe force ‘equited to stretch the spring through a given extension, The unit ofthe spring ‘constant is newton per metre (Nin-!) Deformation of solidsElastic deformation means that the the limit of proportionality. Very close to this poine, there isa poincB caled the | wat seturn to te oninal hope clastic limit. Up to the elastic limit, the deformation of the spring is sai v0 ‘whencthe loud lever Point A, the point at which the spring ceases to show proportionality is called | be elastic. we 4 Plastic deformation means thatthe ‘body will not return to its original shape Hooke’s law surns up che behaviour of many materials that behave in a similar | when the load is removed, nn, oe! manner to a spring: — Ifthe spring is svetched beyond the elastic limite wil not return co its original length when che load is removed. Its deformation is sid to be plastic. | The extension of a body is directly proportional to the applied force. Nove that Hooke’ law also applies to the compression of a body. In this case, the quantity x in the equation is the compression rather than the extension. ryt Ne CC mu ciel) Figure 72(a) shows the extension of a body that obeys Hooke's law. The work (a) done in screching the body is equal to force muliplied by distance moved. This is equal to the elastic potential enexgy in the body. However, the force is not F the maximum force — its the average force, which is 4F ic} 3 ‘S < ay a & = 2 a a ~ Load F clastic potential energy = Fx ‘This & the area ofthe triangle under the graph, The general rule, even when the extension is not propartional co the load, is Entension elastic potential energy = area under the load-extension graph ‘The equations above cannot be used with @ material that has been extended beyond the limic of proportionality (Figure 72b) or any macerial chat does not follow Hooke's law, However, the energy stored is sil equal to the area under the graph. Extension Figure 72 Stress and strain Figure 73(@) shows the apparatus that could be used to investigate the stretching of a wire. The readings that need to be taken are shown in Table 71. (a) (b) ual igeeme J | — oto uo oy Main scale. vere @ ‘Stress Figure 73 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 7:1 fern Reason fan Lenath of wire Direct use ‘Metre ruler Diameter of wire Enables the cross-sectional area | Micrometer screw to be found gauge Initial and final readings | The difference between the two. | Vernier scale from the vernierslide _ | readings gives the extension Stress is defined as the force per unit cross-sectional area of the wire. Strain isthe extension per unit length of the unstretched wie, The graph obtained (Figure 736) i similar to that obcained for the spring, This shows the general nature of Hooke’ law Itis useful to draw the stress-strain graph (Figure 7), which gives general information about a particular material, rather than fora particular wite. a). The Py zy 9° 8 ‘S < oS S & £ G 3 a Ss ‘The unit of stress is newtons per metre squared or pascals (Nin formal symbol for stress is 6 (the Greek leer sigma} Scrain isa ratio and does not have unies. The forral symbol for serain ise (the ‘Greek leter epsilon). ‘The quantity stress/strain gives inforration about the elasticity of a material. This quantity is called the Young modulus. Young modulus = force (Pf asea (A) ‘extension (x) / length (L) A a “The unit of dre Young modulus isthe same as forstess — the pascal (Pa). Cass A force of 250 is applied to a steel wire oflenath 15m and diameter 060mm, (Calculate the extension ofthe wire (Young modulus for mild steel = 21 x 10" Pa} Answer (eens erosesectonal aes of the wre = (4) =n{ 285207 © Add the following musclean’ ef 2 ‘equations to your bedroom Youre medi mirr list Fok yy 250215 power? ats 0! “283 «107 x AL ast 25015, Young modulus = sain Asse aI = 63 102m=63mm Young modulus: Now test yourself A spring when unloaded hasa length of 15.0cm. A load of 2.4N is placed on the spring and its length increases to 214m, Calculate the spring constant of the spring. b Calculate the energy stored in the spring when iis stretched toa length of 23.0cm. ‘Awire of diameter 4.0 x 10-'m supports a load of 48N. Calculate the stress in the wire Calculate the strain on a wire of unstretched length 2.624m which is stretched so that ts length increases to 2.631. ‘Armild stee wie of length 150m and diameter 0.76mm has a Young modulus of 21GPa, Calculate the extension ofthe ire when i caries a lead of SN. Answers on p.215 Deformation of solidsRAEN 3 In this course you will meet various types of wave, Waves are a way of storing energy (stationary waves) and transferring energy from one place to another (progressive waves). Progressive waves ‘Waves are formed when particles vibrate about a mean position. Waves can be observed in many different situations, Waves are formed on the surface of ‘waver when the water is disturbed, eicher by an abject falling into the water ‘or by the wind blowing actoss the surface of the water. Waves can also be ‘observed when a long spring is shaken from side to side or back and forth, as shown in Figures 8.2 and 83 on page 50 Figure 81 shows @) the displacement ofa particle ina wave against time and (b) the dsplacemenc of ll the particles a a particular moment in time ‘Displacement () ofa partie i its distance from its equilibrium postion, The univis che metre () ‘¢ Amplitude (,) is the maximum dlsplacement ofa particle from is equilbrkim postion. The unit is the metre (ri) ( | ‘ hertz is one complete oscilation per ‘© Period (T) is the time caken for one complete osclation ofa particle in the | second, An oxcllation is one complete ‘wave. The unit isthe second (6), vibration of a partide — for examole, ‘© Frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete oscillations oF a particle | from its mean position tothe position in the wave per unit time, The unic is the hertz (+2). cof maximum displacement in one direction, back to the rean position, ‘then to maximum displacement in the ‘opposite direction and finally back 19 ‘the mean position. ‘© Wavelength (1) isthe distance between points on successive oscilations of the wave that are vibrating exactly in phase. The unit is the metre (mn). ‘© Wave speed (0) isthe distance traveled by the wave energy per unit time, The umicis the metre per second (ms!) \ w sain wo Ic s easy to confuse these two graphs. ee ee Displacement describes the variation of displacement ha See 4 the varlacion of displacement with Figure 8.1 (a) Displacement of a particle in a wave against time, (b) displacement (ofall the particles ata particular moment in time Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideFrequency and period are related by the equation oe CRE UCR er} The speed ofa partic is given by the equation: distance 6 (9 = sistance eS ae Similarly wave speed —sitance craved by the wave time In time T, the period of oscilation, the wave travels one wavelength, Hence: eS see eevee RCL Progressive waves transfer energy. This can be seen with waves on the sea — ‘energy is picked up from the wind an one side of an ocean and is carried across the ocean and dispersed on the other side. as the wave crashes onto a shore, Intensity is defined as the energy transmitted per unit time per unit area at Tight angles to the wave velocity. Energy transmitted per unit time is the power transmitted, so that intensity = POE area The unit is watts per metre squared (Wm-2) ‘The intensity of a wave is proportional to the square ofthe amplitude of the wave: Tex? This means that ifthe amplitude is halved, the intensity is decreased by a factor of? (aero ‘The intense of ight From a sal amp is versely proportional to the square of the distance ofthe obser from the amp, that oe 1. Observer Ais 1.0m from the lamps observer Bi 4m from te lamp. Cakulste how the amples ao thelighc wares recived by the owo observers carnpare Answer 1a incensity oft at B= (1) (=) ofthat at A incesity = ampitude? Therefore amplinide x finensty 1 amplitude at = 77 ofthatat A amplitude ac B = 14 tharat A RET) (ens Acar horn produces a note of frequency 28012. Sound travels ac a speed of 320ms- Calculate the wavelength ofthe sound. Answer c= 320 = 2804 ‘There are no simple formulae that you. can apply here. You need to ensure that you understand the physics and ‘then work through in a logical fashion. WivesTransverse and longitudinal waves In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points, When a wave passes along 2 rope, the particles ofthe rope vibrate a ght angesto the recon of | Sirsteat right angles tothe dection transfer of energy of the wave. Water waves can also be considered to behave in| CP ante of energy a similar manner. Ths type of wave is called 2 transverse wave (se2 Figure 8.2). | J (na transverse wave the particles ERENT xelissone otparsces Hane Dreconel Figure 8.2 Transverse wave Sound waves are rather different. The particles vibrate back and forth parallel (© | Ina longitudinal wave the particles if trans f af 2 fe ‘he direction of cransfer of energy of the wave. This forms areas where the aie eee particles are compressed together (compressions) and areas where they are spaced futher apart than normal (rarefactions). This type of wave iscaled a | Ye"ster of energy. longitudinal wave (Figure 8.3). In a compression the particles are loser together than normal, retsvene Ina rarefaction the particles are Sa. further apart than normal. Hina PI 0NUIAHE NGI Figure 8.3 Longitudinal wave Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves ‘The frequency of a sound wave can be measured using a cathode-ray ‘oscilloscope. The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 8.4 Cathodevay Signal cocilloscope generator Loudspeaker Microphone Figure 8.4 Measuring the frequency of sound wave ‘The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base setting and the number of waves shawn on the screen (frequency = ‘Yperiod). ‘The measurement of wavelength of sound waves is discussed on page S6. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(ee In Faure &¢, the time base is set at Sins div, Calculate the frequency ofthe wave, Answer Infour divisions there are 25 waves, “Therefore, in 4 x Sms = 20ms there ae 35 waves. Theeiore 20 ms =57 «107s period (time for 1 wave) = WSHe The Doppler effect Listen to the pitch of a police siren as a police car approaches and passes you. ‘You will observe that on approach the pitch is higher than when the caris scationary, and on leaving you the pitch is lower. Ths is known as the Doppler effect. Figure 8S shows the wave fronts spreading (2) froma stationary source and (b) from a moving source, Notice how the wave fronts from the moving source ‘are much closer in front of the source, giving a shorter wavelength and higher frequency. Behind the source, the waves are Further apart than normal, giving a longer wavelength and lower frequency, © Figure 8. (a) Waves spreading our from a stationary source; (b) waves spreading ‘out from a moving source The telationship between the observed frequency and the source frequency is given by the formula: ae hag % ‘where f, is the observed frequency, fs the source frequency, v is che velocity of the waves and v, is the relative velocity of the source and observer. ) Velocity of source: (ars A loudspeaker connected to a signal generator produces a steady note of Frequency 256 He, An observer moves towards the loudspeaker ac a speed of 25m" Calelate the frequency ofthe sound chat the cbserer hears (peed of sound = 330ms-!) Answer a, 6x0 oi, f- vty, 330-25 sate ‘Uses much ofthe screen as posible toreduce uncertainties, ‘One wavelength is from one peak {or one trough) ta the next peak (or rough). ‘The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of waves due to the relative ‘motion of the wave source and the observer, emma! Ifthe source and the observer are ‘moving towards each other, the frequency increases and a minus sign Is used in the denominator of the ‘equation. IFthe source and observer are moving apart, plus sign is used, leading ta lower frequency. All waves, not just sound waves, ‘exhibit the Doppler effect. The ectromagneti radiation from galaxies shows a decrease in the frequencies in their spectra — known asthe redshift. The fainter the galaxy the greater the Doppler shift, which suggests that the Further away a galaxy isthe faster it is moving away from the Earth, This ives us evidenee for the | expansion of the Universe, RET) woes @)ERENT Electromagnetic spectrum ‘You have met the idea of energy being transferred by giving out and receiving radiation. This radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The waves described carer are causec by the vibration of atoms or molecules. Electromagnetic waves are quite different — they are procticed by the repeated variations in electric and rragnetic fields Electromagnetic waves have the arvazing property of being able to travel through a vacuum, You see light (a form of electromagnetic wave) ‘hat has travelled through billions of kilometres of empty space from distant stars. Flectromagnetic radiation comes at many different frequencies. Table 81 lists different types of electromagnetic radiation and their approximate wavelengths ina vacuum Table 8.1 Types of electromagnetic radiation eure wavelength in a vacuum/m | Pr eed 10° to 10°" Produced by the disintegration of atomic nuclet, very penetrating, causes ionisation, affects living tissue 10" 107 Produced from rapidly decelerated electrons; properties similar to gamma-rays, the oniy rea difference isin their method of production Utraviolet | 10-Fto 4 x 107 lonising radiation affects living tissue, simulates the production of vitamin D in mammals Visiblelight [4x 107 to7 x 107 ‘Stimulates light-sensitive ces on the retina ofthe human (and other animals) eye Infrared [7 x 10? to 103 Has a heating effect and is used for heating homes and cooking Microwaves | 10-$t0 107 Used in microwave cooking where it causes water molecules to resonate; also used in telecommunications, including mobile telephones Radio waves | 10-1 105 Used in telecommunications Ieis important to recognise that there are no sharp boundaries between these {ypes of radiation. The properties gradually change as the wavelength changes. For example itis not possible to give a precise wavelength at which radiation is no longer ultraviolet and becomes X-radiation, ‘One property chat these radiations have in common is that they all travel at the same speed in a vacuum —a speed of 30 x 108ms-". Consequently, you know radiations frequency, you can caklate its wavelength in a vacuum, Carns “The shortest wavelength thatthe average human eye can detect s approximately 4x 107m which les atthe violet end of the spectrum. Calculate the frequency of this igh. Answer cafh Therefore a Se 300104 56 sohie §-DAT £15 «Mts ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideenna {© List the key terms in this chapter on pieces of card, Write out the meaning ‘of each key term on separate pieces of card. Shuffle the two sets of cards ‘and then try to match each key term with its definition, ‘© Add the following ‘must earn’ equations to your list: Now test yourself RET) Tested 1. a Aspectral nein the sodium spectrum hasa frequency of 5.08 x 10H, Calculate the wavelength ofthe light. (Speed of light ina vacuum = 3.00 x 108ms") Suggest che colour ofthis light. 2 The time base ofa cathode ray oscilloscope is set at Smsdiv~, A student observes that 25 waves cover 4 complete divisions Calculate the frequency ofthe sound. 3 When studying light from a distant galaxy, a scientist observes that the frequency ofthe spectral ine in Question 1 hasa Doppler shit of -042 x 10!*He. Caleulae the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from Earth. Answers on p.215 wows @)9 Superposition _— Stationary waves ‘op ‘that when two or more waves meet at To understand the formation of stationary waves, you need co understand the | point, the resultant displacement at nciple of superposition. ‘that points equal tothe algebraic sum Prnepie of supers of the indvidual waves at that point, eee Uirs = Moving along a progressive wave, the vibrating particle are slightly out oF step with each other — there is @ phase difference between them (Figure 9.1), Displacement Distance Figure 9.1 Phase difference ‘Study Table 91, which describes the phase relationships between the different points on the wave in Figure 91 Table 9.1 Phase relationships ete) Phase difference/ | Phase difference’ | to describe the phase Points | degre eo difference PandR | 360 0r0 moro In phase PandQ | 180 7 Exactly out of phase (ariphase) RandS | 90 Yon 90° or Yan out of phase Phase difference also describes how two sets of waves compare with each ‘other. Figure 9.2 shows two sets of waves that are approximately 45° (Yat) out of phase, Phase difference is measured in degrees in AS work, You will meet racian measurements in Topic 14 (page 97). Displacement Time Displacement Time Figure 9.2 ‘The formation of a stationary wave requires two waves of the same type and. frequency travelling in opposite directions to meet. Superposition can then Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘occur, When the two waves ate exactly in phase they will reinforce to give maximum displacement. When they are exactly out of phase (180) they will subtract, giving minimum displacement. When the phase cifference is not 0° or 180% the resulcant displacernene will vary according to the exact phase difference ‘ofthe 1H waves. < iC) =} 4 a P= 7] fey FI] 7) Cy Ret UCN MT cet eieg Td IF you pluck a stretched string at its centre, it vibrates at a definite frequency, as shown in Figure 93. Thisis an example ofa stationary wave. tis produced by the initial wave traveling along the string and reflecting atthe ends Ic will die away because energy is lose {0 the surroundings, for example by hitting air molecules and producing a sound. “Vibration of string ‘wave. This wave, where there is ust a single loop, is called the fundamental ‘wave or the first harmonic ts wavelength is twice the length of the string, ‘A different stationary wave can be set up by plucking the string at points A Figure 9.3 Fundamental wave, or frst and B (Figure 9.4). Note that the midpoint of the string has zero amplitude. This _ harmonic point is called a node. The points of maximum amplitude are called antinodes The frequency of this wave is twice that of the previous wave and its wavelength ishalf that of the fundamental. is called the second harmonic. ‘These waves die away quickly as energy is transfered to the surroundings. They ‘can be kepe going by feeding energy inco the system (Figure 95) Vibration of string Vibrator S o Figure 9.4 Second harmonic Figure 9.5 A vibrator feeds energy into the system ‘Varying the frequency of the vibrator produces a whole series of harmonics, The first three ate shown in Figure 96. Each harmonic consists ofa whole number of half wavelengths. L Remember that the distance between adjacent nodes, or between adjacent L L antinodes, is halfa wavelength, nat a full wavelength, Figure 9.6 A series of harmonics, Stationary waves ir columns ‘Sound waves can produce stationary waves in air columns. A small loudspeaker ‘ora tuning forks used to feed energy into the system (Figure 9.) CS ‘The diagrams with sound waves are / at, gg kt _,. | patisserie tu displacement against postion along fork the tube. Students often interpret them as showing a transverse Wave == Sound waves are longitudinal, so the Fundamental 2nd harmonic ‘3rd harmonic depaeloorek pone reg deal asd af the tube nat, os the dlagrams can it f= 3if suggest, perpendicular C0 it Figure 9.7 perp ahFJ Differences between stationary waves and progressive f=])) waves Faj)) Some cifferences between stationary and progressive waves are given in ER Tables. 3 ET) Table 9.2 = Posiesive wie SAN) | Energy's stored in the vibrating Energy is transferred from one place to oy | particles another ‘All the points between successive |All the points over one wavelength nodes are in phase hhave diferent phases The amplitudes of different points vay |All he points along the wave have the froma maximum to zero same amplitude Measurement of the speed of sound Air & Tube Water Figure 9.8 Measuring the speed of sound ‘Apparatus for measuring the speed of sound is shown in Figure 98. The height @ayEpRs ‘of che tube is adjusted until che fundamental stationary wave is formed. This can be identified by a clear increase in the loudness of the sound produced. The SE endinele at Ue sop ore tae lenge Ls measured, The tube then moved upwards until the next stationary MSE Devend the cap ofthe tbe, This ‘wave is formed and the new length L, is measured. The wavelength is equal to teallowed for Subapetng TaS. 2{La— Lf tbe frequency ofthe tuning forkis known, the speed ofthe sound readings eliminates the end correction, in the ar column can be calculated using the wave equation, c= f2. Z Cans [A tuning fork of frequency 288 Hz produces a stationary wave when a tube of air's285cm long, The length of the tube is gradually increased and the next stationary wave is formed when che tube is &40cn long Calculate the seed of sound in the tube, Answer YA = (840 285) = 555em A=Wen=1m c= fA = 288 101 = 320mst Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideDiffraction ‘When waves pass through an aperture they tend to spread out Similarly, if ‘waves go round an abject they tend to spread round it Figure 99 shows ‘wavefronts passing through a narrow slit and through a wide sit, and round an object. Thisis called diffraction. Awavefrontis an imaginary line on ‘wave that joins points that are exactly inphase, itd ‘Small aperture Large aperture Figure 9.9 Wave diffraction Interference reticence ‘When two sets of waves of the same cype meet, their displacements add or subtract in a similar way to vectors. At ts most simple, if the two sets of waves ‘are exacty in phase, the combined wave has an amplicude equal to the sum ‘of the two amplitudes. This is known as constructive interference (see Figure 910). Ifthe two sets of waves are 180" out of phase (in antiphase) the wo waves ‘will subtract: Thisis known as destructive interference. If the original amplitudes are equal there will be no disturbance. Interference isan example ‘of superposition. ee VV = In phase ‘Amatunie doe oe ab : Sus of phase Aapliude zero For sources to be coherent the waves must have the same frequency and have & constant phase difference. For interference to occur, two coherent sources of waves are required. in Figure 9.10 Constructive and destructive interference Interference of sound Interference of sound waves can be demonstrated using two loudspeakers driven by the same signal generaror giving coberent waves (Figure 917) < 5 2 3 ry S 3 a 3 rt aLouespenters = Quiet = Quiet <4 PoincA © Poin B # Point ¢ SI 3 = a 3 3 = oy iy =} a) ry + Paine Figure 9.11 ‘@ Aloud sound isheard at A as waves from the two loudspeakers have travelled equal cistances and are in phase. Therefore, the waves interfere constructively ‘© A quiet sound is heard at B as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled halfa wavelength further than waves from the lower speaker. Consequently, the waves are in antiphase, so they interfere destructively. ‘© A loud sound isheard at ¢ as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled a full wavelength further than waves from the lower speaker. The ‘waves are now in phase and so interfere consvuctively. ‘© A quiet sound is heard at D as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled one-and-a-half wavelengths further than waves ftom the lower speaker. The waves are now in antiphase, so interfere destructively, Use RUAN SK Water waves can be shown interfering by using a ripple tank (Figure 9.12). The ateas of calm water (destructive interference) and rough water (Conscructive interference) can be viewed on the shadow image formed on the caling. Alternatively, they can be seen directly by looking almost pall to the surface of the water Ripple tank Part of the shadow cast A by the nipples Figure 9.12 Ure ea) Early atvempts to demonstrate interference of ight were doomed to failure because separate light sources were used. A lamp does nor produce a continuous ape train of waves — it produces a series of short trains, The phase diference between one tran and the nex israndom (Figure 913) Hence fine rom = GQ) WADA nan, ‘wo separate sourcess mixed, they are not coherent, there sno continuing NANA, relationship between che phases and an ‘average brightness is observed. Figure 913 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘To successfully demonstrate interference, light from a single monochromatic source oflight must be split and chen recombined, with the two parts travelling sight lferent distances (Figure 914). < 5 2 Fd ry S 3 a 3 rt a Monochromatic light source Figure 9.14 Demonstrating incerference using light from a single monochromatic source ‘The wavelength of light is very shore (10-7 m). Consequently, che distance a between the sits must be small <1 mmr) and the distance D from the sls to the screen must be large (#11) For constructive interference the path difference between the contributions from the two slits is ax/D, where x isthe distance between adjacent bright fringes. So: olf Cans Light of wavelenath 590nm i incident on a pair ofnarow sits, An interference pattern fs observed on a screen 1.5m anay. A student observes and measures 12 interference fringes, over a distance of 21am. Calculate the separation ofthe wots, Answer 75cm = 175 x 103m, 9 4x15 % 10? 15 = 500X107 x15 TST 590% 10 =51x 104m Note that the colour of ligt is dependent on its frequency. in general, for ‘coherence we expect a single frequency, and therefore single wavelength. In practice, when using white light (a whole range of colours) a few coloured fringes can be observed as the different wavelengths interfere constructively and destructively indifferent places. Tatra Ciera} The effect of using more than cwo sits to produce an interference pattern is ‘to make the maxima sharper anc! brighter. The more sits there are the sharper and brighter ate the maxima. This makes it much easier co measure the distance between maxima,Fj | The path difference between contributions from successive sits is dsin@. where Qe laine) BS)) isthe distance between successive sits. Hence fora maximum: The multislc device scalled a B dain diffraction grating, which i rather 3 confusing, Although the spreading 25) where nisa whole number. The fst raximum (7 = 1) is sometimes caled the of theligh (diffraction) is required EN) first order (Figure 915. for interference, this is really an a interference grating. = a : screen By co] Festa i i Incident light Central —F maximum | — Figure 9.15 (es Calculate the angles at which the frscand second maxima are formed when a ‘menechromatc ight of wavelength 72 x 107m isshane perpendicular onto a srating with 5000 ines per cm. Answer d= hoem=2 x 10-4em=2 10m a= “ For the frst maxiraum Revision activities A=dsind Add the following ‘mustlearn’ ions fo your Ist 036 Ee ae eed D For the second maximum: gh saane bh dane © Write down all the equations in = 3 tis chapter and relate them to the 2422x107 gp Srecpi ance Teer Te For example, nf. = din 6s used in ‘multipleslc diffraction. ‘Atuning fork of frequency 216H2 i struck and held above the open end ofa resonance tube. The firs resonance peak is produced when the tube length is adjusted to 361 mm. The second resonance peak is found when the tube has a length of. 065mm. Calculate the speed of sound. Laser light of wavelength 291m is incident on a pair of narrow slits. An interference pattern is observed on a screen 2.50m away, The distance between the central and the 20th interference fringes is 12em. Calculate the separation of the slits, ‘Adiffraction grating has 12500 lines per centimetre. When monochromatic light is shone on the grating the frst ‘maximums found to be at an angle of 30° to the central maximum, Calculate the wavelength of the light. Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide10 Electric fields Concept of an electric field ‘An electric field is region in which charged bodies experience a force. >} bee Electric field strength is the SesnaeH Tet force per unit positive charge on a stationary point charge. which can be waitcere eek Q ‘The unit of electric field strength is newzons per coulomb (NC. \_ enn ‘We can represent the shape ofan electric field by drawing lines of force (igure 102). In an electric field the lines represent the direction of the force on & -srall positive tes: charge. When drawing an electric field © the direction of electric field lines is away from postive charges and towards ‘negative charges ‘© the loser the field line, the stronger the field strength © the field lines never touch nor cross Uniform field @ = yy Radial (oy CHT tity ‘es ees Fy ase Sy een Positively charged sphere ‘Two oppositely charged spheres Figure 10.1 shapes of electri feds Uniform electric fields You can see from Figure 10:12) that once we get away from the edges of the plates, the field between to parallel plates is uniform. This means that ‘wherever a charged particle is placed between those plates it experiences the ‘same magnitude of force in the same direction. Calculating forces on charges ‘The electric field strength between the plates is given by the formula: v ra d ‘where Vis the potential diference and d is the ciscance between the plates. ‘Note that this means that an alternative way of expressing the unit for electric field strength (NC) is voks per metre (Vim-"). Electric fieldscontradicts the idea ofa uniform field The force on che charged particle isthe same wherever i is between the two plates. [Worked example 2 A piece of dust carries a charge of -48 x 10-"*C, and lies at rest between two. Icis often thought that the force on PE |_| vara pats separate by a ditance of 15cm, Cakulare te force oncheciatge_ | a positively charged particle between So) | wher a potential ference of 4500 is applied across the plates, two parallel, charged plates is stronger 5 wen nearer one of the plates than g when ics midway between the Pa 4 plates. Thisis incorrect — indeed it = = 300000 x (-48) x 10-1 = 146 10°2N Effect of electric fields on the motion of charged particles ‘A charged particle in an electric field experiences 2 force and therefore tends 1 accelerate Ifthe particle is stationary or ifthe field is parallel to the motion ‘ofthe particle, the magnitude of the velocity will change. An example is when electrons are accelerated fram the cathode cowards the anode in a cathode-ray tube (Figure 10.2) Hot cathode Hlectrons ‘Anode Rei 7 Add the following mustiearn’ ‘equations to your lst: fre Figure 10.2 Principle ofa cathode-ray tube Ifthe field isa right angles co the velocity of the charged particles, the direction ‘of the motion of the particies will be changed. The path described by the ae ee charged particles will be parabolic (Figure 103), the same shape as.a projectile ina uniform gravitational field, The component of the velocity perpendicular to the field is unchanged; the component parallel to the field increases uniformly. The conscant force on the charged particle leads to it describing a parabolic igure 10.3 The path ofa protonasi path. This path is similar to that ofa ball thrown horizontally ina uniform irauigha onlin ecm ‘gravitational Fld. pes Now test yourself Calculate the force on an electron when it sin an electric field of field strength T4kNC* (the charge on an electron e i616 x 10-0). ‘There isa potential difference of 5.0 kV across two parallel plates that are 2.0cm apart: Calculate the electric field strength between the plates. State the effect on the electric field strength in question 2 of using plates of two times the area of the original plates bb moving one of the plates so that their separation is halved Answers on p.215, ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity Electric current ez) {tis important to be clear about the meanings of the diferent terms used in electricity (Table 111). Table 11.1 Terms used in electricity Current () | Movement af electre charge ampere (A) Charge(Q)_| Bits of elecricity* coulomb (C) Potential | Work done m moving a unit positve | volt (V) difference (V) | charge from one place to another place Resistance (A) | The opposition tocurrent, defined as | ohm) potential difference/current “This isnot a formal definition of charge. The concept of the nature of charge is quite complex. t can only be explained fully in terms ofthe interactions - ) between charges and between charges and electri felds. However the realty | (“charge passing a point = current x isnot that ifferent. The smallest charge that encountered isthe chargeon | | Sree nies phwh theconent an electron (-1.6 x 10-190), We can consider charge tobe bitty‘ initsrature. | | Physicists describe this as charge being quantised. , ae fetneuheusksiae) = | ‘When a circuit is completed the currents sec up in the circuic almost immeciately. The current front moves at (or near) the speed of electromagnetic, radiation (3 x 10 ms") Iris a mistake co think that the charge carriers electrons ina metal) move at this speed. They move quite slowly in the order 0.1 mms", {as they continually colide with ions in the crystal lattice. This is called their drift velocity This can be compared wih che high speed wich which che wavefront ‘ofa longitudinal wave moves and the much smaller speeds at which the individual particles mave. Acany instant each charge carrier will have a different drift velocity and generally the average drift velocity is considered. ‘Consider a conductor of cross-section A, through which there isa current bin ‘the conductor there are n charge carriers per unit volume, each with a charge q and an average drift velocity vIn time ¢ the average disance travelled by each charge carrier = L (Figure 11.1). Current of electricityFd & 3 = s ie = o - 3 ny = gy 2 = ‘Conduction in semiconductors is different from in same voltage increase. The | metals. There are fewer free electrons. increasing resistance decreases at higher the temperature frees more elactrans to carry the currents, ‘current and thus reduces the resistance Diode No current will pass in one 1 Diodes are ako semiconductors but they are | in designed to alow currents to pass in one direction. only. For afilament lamp, a thermistor and a diode, the resistance ofthe component Isat equal to the inverse of the gradient. tis equal to the potential difference divided by the current when that pd, across the component. i>—______—_——_e=_) ‘The special case of conduction through a metal is summed up in Ohm's law: The current through a merallic conductor is proportional to the potential difference across the conductor provided the temperature remains G—________——_=) ‘The resistance of a component describes how well (or badly) a particular ‘component or metal wire conducts electricity. is often useful to describe the behaviour af a materia to do this we use the idea of resistivity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The resistance of a wire is: © directly proportional to its length, R = L © inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area: R So: Rok A Hence: pak A ‘where p is the constant of proportionality, which is called the resistivity. ‘The units of resistivity are Om: Cro ‘A student wants to make a heating coil that will have 2 power output of 48W_ when there a potential diference of 12V acrossit. The student has a reel of rnichrome wire of diameter 024mm. The tessivity of nichrome fs 13 x 10-0.m. (Calculate the enath of wire that che student requires. Answer “The resstance ofthe col can be calculated using the equation: ve ie vy (9 BAI 525 tm 2 RA_ 30% 452 x 103 _ gx = 14m Re ais less Revision activities © Makea flow chart to show how the units and/or dimensions ofthe following quantities are linked: charge current ——_length. potential difference power Fesistance resistivity time © Add the following ‘must learn’ ‘equations to your list: qeit Pov ve w g v Ry et z 1. Acellof 60 and negligible internal resistance is connected across a resistor of resistance 400. Calculate: ‘the current through the resistor 'b the power dissipated in the resistor the charge passing through the resistor In 15 minutes, dd. the energy dissipated in the resistor in 15 minutes ‘A.carbon resistor of cross-sectional area 45 x 10-5 carries a current of 15. The mean drift velocity of the charge ‘arriersis23 x 10-2ms-! and each charge carrier has a charge of 1.6 x 10-!°C. Calculate the numberof charge carriers per Unit volume in carbon, lamp is designed to take a current of 0.25 A when itis connected across a 240 V mains supply. The filament is made from tungsten of eros-sectional area 25 x 10-?m?. Caleulate: athe resistance of the filament the length of wire required to make the lament (resistivity of tungsten = 55 x 10" m) Answers on p.215, Es o aS S 9 = gy oe i} 2 Ss Gy Ss 5 = o12 D.C. circuits Practical circuits ‘You should familiarise yourself with circuit symbols, These are provided in the syllabus. UCU irae eee or | ‘These two tems have similar but distinct meanings. You have aready met potential difference. Remember thats defined as the work done, or energy ‘vansfered, when a unit charge moves between two points. The term ems. is used where a source of energy (uch as a cel) gives energy to 2 unc charge However it sa litle more precise than this. Fyou feel a batory after it has delivered a current for some time, it's warm. This means chat, as well as the battery giving energy to the charge, the charge is doing some work in ‘overcoming resistance in che battery itself. When em,fis defined, this work is 7 > included. ‘The term em. originally stood for Theemtofatouceemumetaly que theenry comrade | Seaepatheons THEE the Un chergetrom cher onmsof ener nt cecal potetalencey, | agate get otal erence (le nme exit the ergy conver Soko as per unit charge from electrical potential energy to other forms of energy. ve (2) High resistance (b) High resistance vole PS] voltmeter |}, $—4---—_ Open revit Figure 12:1 Potential difference acrossa battery In Figure 121, circuc @) shows the potential difference when (virtually) no ‘current is taken from the battery. This is @imos:) equal to the ems. Circuit (b) shows how the potential cifference across the cell falls when current is taken from it. Some work is done driving the current chrough che battery. Wiha ieee ule ‘You have seen how a source of erm fhas to do some work in driving a current through the source itself. In the case ofa battery or cel this is due to the resistance of the electrolytic solutions in the cell. In the case of a generator ‘or transformer it is due to the resistance of the cos and other wiring in the Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideapparatus. ts clear that the source itself has a resistance; this is called the internal resistance of the source. Iris often easiest to think of the two parts of a source of emf. (che energy giver and the internal resistance) quite separately (Figure 12.2) i Energy-diving part Internal resistance Figure 12.2 | ‘Consider a battery of ems. £ and internal resistance r driving a current through ‘an external resistance R. The potential difference across the terminals of the battery is V (Figure 123) Figure 123 ‘When you work with intemal resistances treat them exactly the same as tesstances in any other circuit, Work through the following equations to ensure that you understand the relationships E=(Re)=R +0 Bur iR = Vand therefore: Favour (aero ‘A battery is connected across a resistor of 600 and an ammeter af negligible resistance. The ammeter registers a current of 15. When the 6002 resistor is replaced by an 180 resto, the current falls to 06A. Calculate the ern. and Internal resstance of the battery. Answer Consider the 600 resiscor: Eas ir= (15x60) + 15° 6 =90 4157 Consider the 180 resistor E=R+Ir= (06 x 18)+ 06 E= 108 +06" Substitute for inthe second equation: 90+ 157 = 108+ 06r Therefore: 2 Substitute for rin the fst equation =904 05x2=nV its Pre icalt| -) = D.C. circuitsI< Brel cal | = a ¢ Kirchhoff’s laws Perera ea a | The sum of the currents entering any point ina circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that point. This is a restatement of che law of conservation of charge. means that the total charge going into a point is equal to the current eaving that point. ‘Worked example CCalculae the current Jn Figure 124, Answer Consider the currents going ina the point as postive and these leaving the point as negative. 30-24-1450=0 Therefore: J=56A Kirchhoff’s second law a | In any closed loop in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences. ‘This is restatement of the law of conservation of energy. Remember that the aS es ee mee Fes ae sudent why (a) Kirchhoffs potential clference between cwo points s the work done per unit charge in Fe Ce ee roving from one point to the other. I the start point and the end point are the lay of araeriation eehaige ‘same then the net energy change, or work done, must be zero. and (b) Kirchhoff second law isa restatement ofthe lw of Coing round a loop, we consider instances where energy is given to the charge conservation of energy. 1 be postive and where energy is lost by the charge to be negative. Cees Figure 125 shows a crcuit, Cakulate the emf of cell forthe Answer ccurene through the ammeter robe zero. (Consider the outer loop and move anticlockwise around the loop: 222-601-401 101=0 Therefore 1=02A ‘Conscer the inner loop, which contains the 400 resstor and the cel. Again move anticlockwise around the loop. (4002)-E=0 Therefore y=-08V “The minus sn shows that in order to satisfy the conditions the cell shoukd be connected the other way around. ‘The em of the second cel in Figure 12.5 stated as -E, because the ‘movement s from the postive to the negative cell — from a position of high potential energy to one of lower potential energy. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideResistors in series ‘To find the total resstance of resistors connected in series (Figure 12.6) we can use kirchhoffs second law. v 1 fy Ry Ry Figure 12.6 Resistorsin series Going around the circuic VIR ~~ R= 0 V= IR, + Ry + IRy= HR + Ry +R) Reoeat = Ry + Ry + Ry eee) To find the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel (Figure 127) we can Use Kirchhoff laws. v iy h f By 2 Figure 12.7 Resistors in parallel Using Kirchhoff's second law we can see there is the seme potential difference across each of the resistors, therefore: oe Rest ‘Using Kirchhoff first law, =O I=h+h+h v eh Therefore: peer ve Rat Re Ry ‘and cancelling gives: emt a Reotat rt RRR Pre icalt| [= g D.C. circuits @)I< Brel cai | 12 D.C. Worked example Figure 128 shows a network of resistors made up of five Identical resistors each of resistance R. Calculate the resixance oF the neowork, Answer resistance ofthe cop ine = 28 resistance ofthe pair of resistors in paral = (2 7 resistance ofthe lower line = R + OSR'= 15R Figure 12.9 ‘A potential divider does exactly what the name suggests. Study Figure 12.9. if there is a potential V across AC then the coral potential drop is divided becween AB and BC. In Figure 129, Vy= Ry and Vp= IRo. co Yin ik Va IR Re ‘A.useful alternative way of working with this is: Vie = Bit Ray,, R ‘where V,,. is the potential drop across R, and Vis the potential difference across the two resistors. Worked example Calculate the outpuc potential the circu shown in Figure 12.10. Answer 50x 12=40V Vo 880 ° Figure 12.10 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideOn eye MEE CRN let tlie tg ov lov Figure 12.1 ‘The two resistors ina potential divider can be replaced by a single conductor, swith a siding contact to the conductor (Figure 12.11). The conductor could be a long straight wire, astrip of carbon or a coiled wire, Used in this way the potential divider is called a potentiometer. Ifa uniform wire is used the output potential is Vaue = 42% Vn T POST W er ctiec eel Comparing cells When a potential vider is used to compare potential differences itis usually called a potentiometer Driving cell Uniform resistance wire Jockey Sensitive cenire-zero galvanometer Figure 12.12 The circuit in Figure 1212 can be used co compare the em of cwo cells. The position of the jockey is acjusted so that the current through the galvanometer iszero, The emg (E) of the test cel is now equal to the potential drop across the lenath L, of the resistance wire. This method of measurement is known as a null method — null meaning nothing. The length ly is recorded, The test cell is then replaced with a standard cell of em £, The position of the jockeys adjusted unl the new null reading is foun, The new length () is measured and recorded. The two ems are related by the equation: Eau Bo Comparing resistors A similar method can be used to compare resistors. Two resistors are set up in series with a cell The series circuit is then connected to the potentiometer as shown in Figure 1213 and the balance point is found (1 = 4). The potential ‘drop across the resistor is IR. Oke ree eer ee lice} Pre icalt| 12 DC. Annull method is one in which the apparatus is arranged so that a zer0 reading is required. The zero reading ‘implies that the apparatus fs balanced ‘and that the value ef an unknawn can be found from the values of the constituent parts of the apparatus only. D.C. circuits @®Ry 3 3 eS 5 Y a = G=xp sigueass ceeeenah oie ‘equations by heart — you need to ‘The leads from the potentiometer are disconnected and then reconnected understand the context. In these across the second resistor (points 8 and C on the diagram). The new balance eae itis even more ee t is found (L = L.). The potential dr this resistor is IR. nin many others. Work careful point is found (L = L,). The potential drop across this resistor is trough doe devtoperene tt a See eee an Sega Bel ee Worked example ‘A potentiometer which has a conducting wire of length 10, is set up to measure the em. of a dry cell When the dry call is connected to the potentiometer, the balance length is found to be 435m. standard cell of em, “DV is used to replace the dry cel, The balance length is now 12cm less than for the ery call. Calculate the emf. ofthe ery cell E fr a © Add the following ‘mustearn’ ‘equations to your list: R - Van oR Answer “The balance length for the standard cel = 435 ~ 129 = 30.6em. Figure 12.14 Abattery of em, 60V and an internal resistance of 1.60 fs connected across a resistor of resistance 4.80, Use Kirchholf's second law to show that the current through the resistor is 0.94 A. A potential divider is made up from a battery of em. 12.0V and negligible internal resistance and a wire of length 0.800m and uniform thickness. Calculate the ourput voltage when the distance Lin Figure 12:11 on page 73 is 0.430™m. Answers on p.215 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide13 Particle and nuclear physics Atoms, nuclei and radiation re Tas a Ree Sy By the early part of the twentieth century, following the discovery of the clectron in 1896, it was recognised that the atom has structure. Early models ‘ofthe atom considered it to be a positive cloud of matter with electrons ‘embedded in it — che plum-pudding model. Rutherford scattering experiment In 1911, Rutherford’ alpha-scattering experiment led to a model of the ator ‘with a posiively charged nucleus containing all the positive charge and virtually all the mass ofthe atom. This nucleus is surrounded by the much smaller, negatively charged electrons, Apian view ofthe Rutherford alpha-scattering apparatus is shown in Figure 131. Figure 13.2 shows deflection of alpha particles by a nucleus. Beam of « particles. Gold foil i Flash of light when Fluorescent screen, an a particle bits rt I the screen «a patticle source: Collimator Figure 13.1 Figure 13.2 Results from the alpha-scattering experiment ‘® The vast majority of the particles passed straight through the fol with Virtually no defiection. ‘© A few (@pproximately 1 in 10000) of the alpha particles were deflected through angles in excess af 90° ‘Alpha particles are positively charged with a mass about 8000 times thac of an electron. The large-angle deflection could only occur ifthe alpha particles Particle and nuclear physics ®interacted with bodies more massive than themselves. Ths led Rutherford to ‘develop the solar-system mode! of the atom (Figure 133). ify rd 3 a Kl} Newton S es re s = a} S Be) Powe. ater straptemmed of testo BEI The smal numbers of parcles that ae deflected through large ange inccate @7epepeemerrneren Bef) ac theruceusis very rail The proportions deflect in diferent directions eee FA enabled Rutherford to estimate the diameter of the nucleus as being in the eee a order ‘of 10-m to 10° m. This compares with an atomic diameter of about ‘experiment, (b) the Important. om. Conclusions that were dravn from Figure 133 is not dawn wo scale. Fic were, and the nucleus was kepc to this sie, fel Sein 3 S| S & by my 4 This isnt very comncng tarement but ii ust (D crough zo eam te mark. Mare 1 (©) distance = area under the graph (4 x BB x 0.90) +X (4 x 140 x 0.14) H By The student recognises that the arew uncer the graph is (D cauotto tne distance raveled but unfortunately does rot realise tht for the lst 0.145 the bi is moving downwards, 50 the velocity is negative. Nevertheless, it is easy to spot the eror so only 1 mark i lost Mark: 12 (4) The brick wil be moving downwards noc upwards. X This is wrong, The brick had started to move downwards in the earlier example. Neither does it answer the question, Mark: 0/1 88-0 (2) aceeratin = gradient ofthe graph = $88 jams Allleocrect. Mark: 212 (b) The velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions Ths shows deceleration ¥. AS exam-style questions and answers ®2 2 = 3 = 6 a = CI 3 a 3 «i = By > a = q & a n ¢ ® This is much mare convincing than answer A. Mark: 111 {€) distance = area under che graph (4 8B ¥ 090) — (6 «140 x O14) All correct. The student has sensibly rounded the © brsiner to ro signicart figures. Mark 22 coer) (4) The beck will be traveling much faster: in the earlier ‘example tis almost stationary when it reaches the builder con thescalfold. 7 @ Settee: =p—___— glider on an air track has a mass of 1.2 kg. It ‘moves at 6.0 ms~ towards second stationary slider of mass 4.8 kg. The two gliders collide, and the incoming glider rebounds with a speed of 3.6ms". (@) Show that the speed of the second glider after the collision is 2.4ms"*, ol (b)Show that the collision is elastic. Bl The gliders are in contact for 30 ms during the collision. (©.()_ Calculate the average force on the stationary glider during the collision. 2] (i) Compare the forces on the two gliders during the collision. @ [Total: 10] (@) momentum before the collision = 12x 6.0 = 72kgms 1 ae st cee erro = 1152 +492 = 15.84 kgs" X The student ears 1 mark for the correct calculation of the intial momentum. However, there is failure to ‘recognise that momentum isa vector and direction must be included. Mark: 13 () KE before = Home? = 4 « 12x 60 =3.6)X KE after = 15x 48 x 242+ ex 12m 36 = TRAM +7775 = 26)4 KE before the colision = KE after the colsion? 7 The student writes down the carrect formula for kinetic (© ener ut forgets square te veloty when calculating the KE. before the colsion. The remainder of the calculation i fine. The final mark is for recognising thatthe Kinetic energy before the colision should be equal to the Kinetic energy after the collsion. Its even recognised (by the question mark) that something has gone wrong, Mar: 2/2 ©®o acceleration of glider = 5 p-y = 80ms: pena ) Force is smaller than the other X because the glider is. sgrallerandicis in che apposite direction ¥/ Equal co the farce en the ee glider The answer in part (0 is a valid way of calculating the force but this is a case where the student is expected to provide the unit since the answer cue does not provide one, In part (i) there is recognition that the forces are opposite in direction but not that they are of the same magnitude. Indeed, there isa cantradiction in the answer — the student first says that the force is smaller and then that its equal to tive force on the other glider. Mark: 214 (a) momentum before the colision = 12 x 60=72kgms1 7 grate hecition Glee Ae = 1152 - 432= 72kgms= momentum before the callsion 7 Quer (b) In eestccolsions kineric energy is conserved. KE before a = q & a n ¢ ‘The slit separation is 1.2mm and the screen is 3.0m from the slits. The diagram shows the interference pattern that is observed. Calculate the wavelength of the light. a Screen DarkLight t 13mm i (© Explain how you would expect the pattern to change if the red light was replaced by a blue light. 2 [Total: 8] (@) @ Two sources ae coherent iFthey have no phase ddiference XX Sy) This is 2 common error. Many students ignore the fact that light from two sources can be coherent if there is a phase difference, provided that the phase difference fs ‘constant. The necessity for the two sources f0 have the same Frequency is not mentioned. Mark: 0/2 Ly ‘They are not coherent Ans\ (i The statements correct and so gains a mark, However, (D the question asks the stadert to explain and there no pine aso iyi Snare A ITE Mork 2 (8) nA = aD = 92.X=12x 10x Bx107 =S8x07mv ech) The student has counted the nine minima but there are O cy cine hinges. The rest ofthe caleation cormpleted correct or 1 mark. Mark: 12 () Blue lighc has a longer wavelength than red light X so the fringes would be furcher apart The student should be aware that the blue end of the spectrum has the shortest wavelengths of visible ight. The correct conclusion has been drawn irom the original error, 50 the second mark is scored. Mark: 1/2 () (0. Twosources are coherent they havea constanr phase difference v For this they must have the same Frequency ¥. Correct, Mark: 2/2 LUgheis not emitted as a single wave tran but as short wave tains. The phases ofthe different wave trains are random #50 the wave trans from the two sources are not coherent (jp Ar exelent answer, showing true understanding of (O cherence. Marc 22 (b) n= axl = BA = 12x 10 2265x107 Correct: Mark: 2/2 (© lve light has a shorter wavelength chan red light 7 so the fringes would be closer together ¥, This is @ good explanation. The student has noted that a \D season is needed. Mark 22 cx=p—__—_— (@) Explain what is meant by the electric field strength at a point. Ul ‘The diagram shows two parallel plates inan evacuated tube. The earthed plate is heated so as. to emit electrons. The plates are 8.0¢m apart, with a potential difference of 2.0kV across them. (b) Calculate the electric field strength between the two plates. a (©. Anelectron is at point P midway between the two plates. Calculate the force on it. a Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAssecond electron is at point Q, near the positive plate. State the force on this electron, giving.a reason for your answer. Qi (4)A current of 2.414 is recorded on the ammeter. Calculate the number of electrons that move across from one plate to the other in 1 minute. Q] (Total: 9} {@) Electric field strengrh fs the force per unic charge. X Sy The student has missed that it should be the force on 2 (restive charge and has aso not emphasised that the force ison a point charge placed at that point. y__ 2000 PIE axle =200NC'¥ Comect. NC is an alternative unit for electric field Orrensth stone 272 F E p= Tascam Fa4x ONY 9 Greater than 40 x 10-8N X The force is stronger because the charge is nearer che posite plate X epee re ever the erates parr) shows that the student does not understand the ‘concept of a uniform field, Mark: 2/4 ) Q= it, =24 x 10° x 60=144x ACY The student has correctly calculated the charge that has passed but daes nat knaw how to proceed. Mark: 1/2 ‘Answer B (@) Electric field strength ata points the force per unit postive charge acting on a stationary poinc charge placed ac that poinc ¥. Ba fot toy ation conidia improved by stating that the charge is stationary. Mark: 1" v__2000 Os aot =25000Vm"7 Qewen (6) ee OME eee Fa 40x 10NY (9 40% 10°5N of The field is uniform, therefore che farce on the charge isthe same anywhere between the plates All correct. Mark: 418 @ numberof electrons x charge on an electron = Q Sorne= itv na24x 108% ax 10K Y ex AS exam-style questions and answers | All correct. Mark: 212 »—____ (a) Explain the difference between the terminal potential difference and the eam.f. of acell. 2) (b)A student makes a 4.0.09 resistor by winding 3.9m of insulated eureka wire of diameter a (©) When the student connects the resistor across the terminals of a cell of e.m.f. 1.56V there isa current of 0.37. Calculate the internal resistance of the cell. You may assume that the ammeter has negligible resistance, a (Total: 6} (2) The terminal potential diferenceis numerically equal to the electrical energy converced ro other forms of energy when Luni charge maves around the circuic Fram ene terminal to ‘she other ¥. The emf isthe serminal potencal difference when no current flows X. The fist partis answered very well The second answer, O atteaah a good re of thumb not how eek is dlfined (se answer 6). Mark: 12 ape tapi OR=e, ‘=p 110.78 x 105 p=198x 10 Am(ech)¥ _ 7 AS exam-style questions and answers @2 Gy i uv = 6 es = So o a if = a oy > br] = Gy 4 9 7) ¢ This i goad attemps, except that the student has failed to divide the diameter by two. This counts as an arithmetic error and is only penalised 1 mark. Crossesectional area =m, Mark: 12 (©) V=iR=037%4=148 lost voks = 156~ 148 = 0080 7 ea gaa mappa Tcatire geod start the student does not know how to complete the problem — internal resistance = lost vatsicurrent = (0.08/0.37 = 0.220. Mark: 12 {@) The cerminal pocendial difference fs numerically equal to the electrical energy converted to arher forms of energy when Luni chatge moves around the ecu fram ane terminal to the other ¥:The emis numerically equal to the energy given tounit charge when it passes through the cell: An excellent answer. Mark: 2/2 oa) 39 ore ay p=49x 07 Omv @R=pr— Qo mae Caan) (©) E=1R+tr—> 156=(037x 4) +037 120204 Qwmez {a) State and explain the difference between leptons and hadrons, ie] (b)Discuss the changes that occur when B* decay ‘occurs, 4) (Total: 6] ena) (@) Leptons are much lighter than hadrons, which are much heavier. Q Tester es latched ono ‘gh’ and eo which, although true, i fairy trivial. There is no mention of the leptons being fundamental particles or of the quarks in the hadrons, Mark: 0/2 (b) The weak force ¥ causes a neutron co change into a proton and a positron is emitted This shows some understanding. The role of the weak force is included, but the answer lacks the depth that is required. There is no mention of quark changes or the ‘emission of a neutrino, Mark: 1/4 (@) Leptons are fundamental particles; hadrons ae not ¥: This is @ good start but there is no mentian of hadrons having an underiving structure — that they are mace of quarks. The term ‘explain’ is the key, incicating that the examiner is expecting something more than the bold statement that leptons are fundamental and hadrons are not. Mark: 122 (6) Aneutton changes into a prozon with the emion of Bt particle Vand aneutino v:For the neutron to change into a proton an up cuatk changes into a down quark This is good answer, wth rsa all the important (D points, However the role ofthe weak interaction snot include Mark: 34 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide14 Motion in a circle Kinematics of uniform circular motion REC e Ug ‘You are familar with the use of degrees to measure angles, with a complete citcle equal to 360%, There is no real reason why a circle is spit into 360° — it probably arses from the approximate number of days it takes forthe Earth to ‘orbit the Sun (Figure 142). 7 Cone radian és the angle subtended atthe centre ofa cide by an ate of a lenath equal tothe rads of the cice feismuch more convenient ro use radians. (Figure 14.2) ~_arclength angle (n rains) = 37 ena Fora complete circle, circumference = 21, where is the radius, Hence, the ae { angle subtended by a complete circle is: erat La 360" = 2 — a radans This can be expressed as TE 9 Convert the folowing angles co radians: Answer , Y il ai @ 80 0 180" = 180% 2rd = mrad @o {8 Conver the following angles o degrees a @ Fas 2 oom Motion in a circlePVE lace aU UYU tm eld a ‘Consider a particle moving at constant speed (i) round.a circle, The change in angle trom a particular reference point i called the angular displacement gure 143). ita ‘Angular displacement i the change in angle (measured in racine) of 3 body ss irotates round a cele ion ina ci oS io = a Figure 163 ‘As the particle moves round the circle the angular displacement increases ata” 5 steady rate, The rate of change in angular displacernent is called the angular ‘Arigulat spied 5 iene n speed (0) angular cisplacement per unit time 88 one Comparison with translational motion ‘Many of the concepts you met in kinematics at AS have thelr equivalent in ‘Gicular motion. Thisis show in Table 141 Table 14.1 Ca CN creator a Displacement (3) | m Speed (y) ms? | va Angular speed (8) rds! | @ = 8 SE Look at Figure 1433. ‘rearranging the formula: veor CEE A cariscraveing round circular bend of rads 24m ata constant speed of 15s Calculate the angular speed of the car Answer % % = 0625 = 63rads Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCentripetal acceleration and centripetal force Constant speed, constant acceleration ‘You have already seen how a body can move at constant speed around a crc, but what is meanc when itis said that the body has a constant acceleration? To understand this you must remember the definition of acceleration: the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity unlike speed, isa vector and so a change in direction isan acceleration (Figure 144) Figure 14.4 Consider a particle moving round a circle, At time tit has a velocity of v, After ‘a short interval of time, At ithas the velocity v, — the same magnitude, but the direction has changed. Figure 14.4 shows the change of velocity Av, You can see that ths is towards the centre of the circle the acceleration being AVIAL. As the body moves raund the circle, the direction of its velocity is continuously changing, the change always being towards the centre of the circle, Thus the particle has an acceleration of constant magnitude but whose direction is always ‘owaids the centre of the circle, Such an acceleration is called 2 centripetal acceleration. ‘The magnitude of the acceleration a is given by: itr 7 Centripetal force and acceleration Abbody traveling round a circle at constant speed is not in equilbrium. From = @RSIESENETSTCS Newton’ avs you will remember that fora body to accelerate 2 resultant fOrC® eg often thought that a body rotating must act on it.The force must be in the same direction as the acceleration, around a circle at constant speed iin Hence the force is always at right angles to the velocity ofthe body, towards the equilibrium — just remember tha ic ‘centre of the circle (a centripetal force), Such a force has no effect on the (Canes: dinettian conuincesty hence magnicude of the velocity, it simply changes its direction. ‘theretkacontinuml force‘on Using the reltionshio F= ma (where F = force and m = mass ofthe body) you can see that the force can be calculated fromm: me — ma r Figure 145{a) shows a rubber bung being whirled round on a string, The strings under tension. Motion in a circle (POE sigs rd 5 = =fen © Re 7 X © You should be able to develop rmany equations from more F fundamental equations. Some sng ‘of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of the ‘examination paper. Others you must earn by heart tis a good idea to write out these equations Figure 14.5 ‘on a piece of card and stick the ‘ard on the bedroom mirror to ‘The centripetal force is the component of the tension in the horizontal direction arnihen by bere tee (Tsing the ‘mustlearn’ equations are: mv r In Figure 145(6) the uplift on the aeroplane is perpendicular to the wings. When the aeroplane banks there is @ horizontal component to this, which provides @ centripetal force (Fsing) and the plane moves along the arc ofa circle. Pm Fsing ita ion ina ci oS io = = Tsing CE ‘The racing cars clearly nota point object but modelingitas one simplifies the problem. The normal reaction iin realty shared at each of the four wheels. The wheels on the outside ofthe curve travel in a larger circle than those on the inside ofthe circle, further complicating the picture. Engineers and scientists often Use simplified models, which they ‘then develop to solve more complex Figure 146 shows a racing car rounding a bend of radius 120™m on a banked track traveling at 32ms" () Calculate the angle @ when there is no tendency forthe cat to move either up cor down the rack. You may trea the car asa poinc object. (@) Suggest and explain whar would happen ifthe car's speed was reduced R AReos 9 (© Explain why this statement made in anewspaper report is incorrect: “The racing car hit a patch of oil ‘as it came into the bend and the centrifugal force threw the car Figure 14.6 Answer (9 Ris thenormal reaction force. Resolving vertically Inco the gravel trap, Reosg= mg See ifyour teacher agrees with your Resolving horizontally eer rang Ree Dividing the ewe equations sing _awtir 1) Convert 120° into radians. 2. Convert radians into degrees, 3 Acar of mass 800kg goes round abend ata speed of 15ms. The path ofthe car can be considered tobean arcofa circle of radius (0) The car would tend to slp down the slope as the required centripetal force would be les n practice, riciona forces would probably mean that t would Sein Cacaies ane continue ina cele ofthe same rads. speed ofthe carand (b) the centripetal force on theca. Answers on p.215 (09) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide15 Gravitational fields A gravitational field isa region around a body (that has mass, in which another ‘body with mass experiences a force. Pec mee tity evisec ‘Any object near the Earth’ surface is attracted towards the Earth with a Force that is dependent on the mass of the body. Similary, an object near the Moon is attracted towards the Moon's surface but now the force is smaller. The reason for this that the gravitational field strength is greater near the Earth than it isnear the Moon, force = mass x gravitational field strength Gravitational field strength at 2 points defined as the gravitational ‘orce per unit mass at that point. In symbols: F=mg ‘You might remember g asthe acceleration due to gravity or acceleration of freefall but if you compare the formulae F = ma and F = mg, you can see that ‘the acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength are the same thing. ‘The gravitational field strength near the Earch’s surface is uniform (Figure 15.1) Figure 15.1 Gravitational forces between point masses eo nce | 8 ts ‘Two point masses of mass m, and m) separated by a distance r will attract each ' i / ‘other with a force given by the formulas fe -gmim, Figure 15.2 ez ‘where G isa constant known as the universal gravitational constant, ts value is 667 x 10" NmPkg?. This is known as Newton's law of gravitation. The minus ‘ign in the equation shows the vector nature of the force. Although slightly more complex for bodies of finite size all the mass of any ‘object can be considered to act at a single point, whichis called its centre of ‘mass, This simpifies the maths and in effect the object is treated as a point ‘mass, However, you rust be careful co remember to measure any cistances between abjects as the distance becween their centres of mass. Note that the formula above assurres that planets can be treated as point objects. Gravitational fieldsCerne “wo shares ofradus 050m and masses 1509 and 350 ae placed so that ther centres ae 48cm apart @ Calculace the force on the 180g sphere. (© Wire down the force on the 350g sphere Answer 6) 380g = 0.35kg, 50g = 00TSkg, 48cm = 0.048m ft _-667 X10" £035 015 1g 1039 Cn Oe asx 10 9N ()In accordance with Newton’ third law, the magnitude of the force on the 350g mass wll also be ~15 x 10-*N but in the opposite direction, Bem ere Nets nil (3 This shows how small the gravitational attraction between two smal objects is [tis only when we consider planet- sized objects thatthe forces become significant. ‘The gravitational field strength has already been defined as the gravitational force per unic mass at thet point. AC AS, you only considered pravicational fields on lage objects such as the Earth and other planets, and then only near their surfaces. Under these circumstances, the fied may be considered uniform. However, the gravitational field of a point “object is radial Figure 15.33). This is aso true for any body of finite size if we move a significant distance from the body, In the lacter case, the radial field is centred on the centre of mass of the body (Figure 183b). You can see from Figure 15.3 that the lines of gravitational force get further apart as the distance from the centre of mass increases. This shows that the Field strengch decreases with increasing distance from the body. ‘Consider the equation for the gravitational force between cwo abjects and the definition of gravitational field strength: GM and, P ‘The equation shows an inverse square relationship (Figure 154). This means if the distance from the mass s doubled the field decreases by a factor of 4 (29) Carns Calculate the graviatonal lel strength at he surface of Mars. (ads of Mars = 34» 108k, mass of Mars = 64% 10g) Answer 34 « 1Wkm = 34 x 10m F Men p= and g=F GM __ 667% 10° x64 198 sac BaF ‘The magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.7 Nksr’ cowards the centre of Mars 37Nket ) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide (o) (@, Cente of mass Figure 15.3 The gravitational field of @)apoinc mass and (b) a body of finice size Figure 15.4 The gravitational field near a spherical bodyRe ure Figure 155 shows a satelite traveling in a circular orbit around the Earth ‘The gravitational pull on the satelite provides the centripetal force to keep the ‘satelite in oxic. Centripetal force: pe hi me where M is the mass of the Earth. Cancelling m and r: wie r ‘which can be rewritten as: r This can also be expressed in terms of angular velocity, «a v=or ‘You can see that the angular velocity, and hence the frequency and the period for one orbit, are depencient on the orbital rads. The relationship between the period T for one orbit and the angular velocity wis Cars A satelite isto be placed in a polar orbit 100km above the Earths surface Calculate (@ the period ofthe orbit (© the speed of the satelite (massof Fath = 60 « 10g, radius of Earth = 64 x 10Pkm) Answer (9 orbital radius of che satellite = Earth’ radius + height of che satelite above the surface = (64 1 + 100) = 65 x 1km =65 « 108m, oe SP AOD IO 125 OI eads! 7 (65x 107 m___2 Qn . T= 50% 103s= 14h Fe v= or orbital radius = 65 x 105m: 2x 109% 65 x 1 =78kms? Gravitational fields ry aS oe = 3 = & S s = 5 £ 6 ma)Geostationary orbits Imagine a satelite that is orbiting the Earth, Its orbital path is directly above the equator If the satelite orbits in the same direction as the Earth spins and has an orbital period oF 24 hours it will remain over the same point above the Earth's surface. This type of orbit is used for communication satelices (Figure 15.6). ” a o = i] = ea ef £ B <—f_ intation of the Earth i 0 va Figure 15.6 A satellite in geostationary orbicabove the Earth From the previous work you should be able to see that there is only one possible orbital radius for this type of satelite. With many countries requiring ‘communications satelies,chis means that a great deal of incerrational ‘cooperation is required. ‘Worked example (Calculate the height above the Earth that a satellze must be placed fori t orbit Ina geostationary manner (mass of Earth = 60 x 10!kg, radius of ach = 64% 10m) Answer Time petiod required fora geostationary orbits 24h= 86 400s 10x 86400" a W571 = 423 x 107 “his isthe radius of che saclite's orbit. The radius ofthe Earth is 64x 108m, so the height ofthe satelite above the Earth’ surface is 23 x 10-64% 108 =359 x 10) m= 36% 107m Gravitational potential From earlier work you will be familar with the idea that the gain in gravtational potential energy of a body when its lifted through a height is given by the formula: ‘AW = mgAh ‘This formula gives the change in gravitational potential energy. At what point does a body have zero potential energy? It is up to physicists to define the point Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideat which a body has zero gravitational potential energy. It might seem sensible 10 choose the Earth's surface as this point. However, if we ate considering ‘work on the astronomical scale you can quickly see that this has no special ‘nificance. The poinc that is chosen is infinity — we say thar the gravitational potential enetgy at an infinite distance from ary ather body is ze. This might seema litte difficult to start with; we know that a body loses potential energy © as it approaches the Earth or other large body — therefore ic has fess than 2er0 potential energy. This means that it has negative potential energy when itis near another body such as the Earth, By considering che potential energy ofa unic mass, we can assign each point in space a specific gravitational potential me = o = cI = = Ss & > A oO wu Figure 157 shows that che gravitational potential at the surface of the body is @ negative, and how the potential increases towards zero as we move away from Figure 15.7 The gravitational potential near the body. Gravitational potential is defined as follows: a body ofradius R ‘The gravitational potential ata point is the work done in bringing unit mass rom infinity to that point. Re Tea eed snd ‘Accareful study of the potential curve shows it to be ofthe form @ = ft ‘The formula for calculating the gravitational poteniial at a point is vwhhere ris che distance from che centre of mass of the object. (roo Fa body ic fed from the Earth’ surface with suficient speed, iecan escape fram the Earch’s gravitational fed @ Calculate the potential at che Earth's surface. (©) Stave and explain how much energy a body of unit mass would need co be ven to escape from the Earths file {@ Calcul the minimum speed at which the body must be fred to escape Answer © Use the internet to find the orbit — petiod of the international Space p= = HSA COW 65 10h! Station. Use the information to find a ‘a ‘the height above the Earth at which (0625 « 107 the energy require to reach infinity 2er0 potential energy it orbits. Check this igure from £@ Ee Hr which leads tn another internet source. © Musclearn equation: : fe Bx 6I5* 10 15x t0%ms _M m 1 Pama aris relief Calculate the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon. (mass ofthe Earth = 6.0 x 10%kg, mass of the ‘Moon = 73 x 10?*kg, separation of the Earth and Moon = 3.8 x 108m) Calculate the gravitational potential atthe Moon’ surface radius ofthe Moon = 1.74 x 106m) Use your answer to question 2 to calculate the escape velocity from the Moon's surface. During the Moon landings in the 1970s, the command module orbited the Moon at 100km above the lunar surface. CGleulate the period ofthis orbit Answers on p.215 Gravitational fields16 Ideal gases rite) g The mole and the Avogad ‘You ate already familiar wich the idea of measuring mass in kilograms and ( thinking of mass in terms of the amount of matter in a body. The mole measures the amount of matter from a different perspective — the number of particles in a body. ‘One mole is the amount of substance ‘that has the same number of particles a there are atoms in 129 of carbor-12 ssotope, ‘The amount of matter is a base quantity and the mole, consequently, isa base Uni. The abbreviation (unic) for the mole is mob ‘The number of atoms in 12g of carbor-12 is 602 x 102. This number is referred 0 as the Avogadro constant (Nj) and is written as 602 x 10°3mof" So: ‘© One mole of carbon-2 isotope contains 602 x 10 carbon-12 atoms and hasamass of 12g. ‘© One mole of heium-4 isotope contains 602 x 10? helium-4 atoms and has amass of 4g. ‘Many gases are found not as single atoms but 2s diatomic molecules. For ‘example, two hydrogen ators form a Hp molecule, o ane mole of hydrogen ‘contains 6.02 x 10°? hydrogen (H,) molecules (or 1204 x 10°? atoms of hydrogen). SES [ 1 Calulaze the numberof aomrsin,and the massof she Answers followings 1 (@ Timo of ozone contains 602 x 10 molecules @ Amal of zone (0) = 3x 612 103 atoms = 1806 x 10% acoms (0) evo of vater (40) 181 x 102 acoms (Felatve atomic mass of oxygen = 16 relative atomic mass massof azone in Imol= 3 16= 488 of hydrogen = 1) Each molecule of water contains 3 atoms (2 hydrogens 2. The mass of 1mol of hydrogen gas 2g. Calculate the mass Tox) oF t hydrogen atom. number of atoms in mol of water =3 x 602% 102 = 18.06 1 atome number of ators in 3rol of water 31806 x 10 542 x 10 atoms ‘mol of water has mass =(2% 1) + (116) = 18g “Therefore the mass of 3 moles =3 x 18= S4g. ‘ol of hydrogen gas contains 2 x 602 x 10% hydrogen atoms. mass of 1 hydrogen ator 66% 105 = 166 x 107g Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideEquation of state Experimental work shows that a fixed mass of any gas, at temperatures well ‘above the temperature at which it condenses to form a liquid and over a wide range of pressures, follows the following relationships. © at constant remperature — pt © at constant pressure — Vo T © at constant volume — pT ‘where p= pressure, V = the volume and T is the temperature measured on the Kelvin scale, The Kelvin scale of temperature is discussed further on page 112. ‘These three relationships can be combined to form a single equation: x = constant ‘The equation can be written as pV= nT ‘where nis the number of moles of ges and R is the molar gas constant. This ‘equation is lnawn as the equation of state for an ideal gas. Uapimolarigasiconstant pagina | samme value for all gases, 831) 7, An ideal gas would follow chis equation at al temperacures and pressures. Real gases, such as hydrogen, helium and oxygen, follow the equation at room ‘temperature and pressure. However, if the temperature is greatly decreased or the pressure is very high they no longer behave in this way. Ceo 1. Asytinge of volume 25cm holds hydrogen at apres of | Answers 102 x 10°Paand temperacute 280K The volume of the #35 DY _ coneeant can be rewritten ax ia = Bs isreduced 0 Wem? and checerperacureincreases by SK. iG Calulace the new presate of the pas. Subscene values Calculate the volume occupied by 48mg of oxygen at 10210525 _pyx 10 20°C and a presute of 10 105Pa (lathe atomic mass of 780 3B oxygen = 16) s0py= 26 105Pa temperature =273 +20 = 293K conygen forms daromic 0; moleeles so the mass of tol of onygen = 326 : number of mokesin 48mg = 2210" Using pV = nBT ART _15K103K83H293 4 gsi a pap 8 1 15 x 10°3mol Kinetic theory of gases Brow Monn ‘A gas may be modelled as consisting of many tiny, unbreakable particles (or molecules) which move randomly and independently of each other, except ‘when they collide, The molecules will as collide with the container walls producing pressure. 16 Ideal gases Lea goST Cr ect 108 ‘The fist real evidence for the movement of particles in a fluid is Brownian motion. Small particles (uch as smoke parcicles) suspended in a gas (such as ait) can be seen to move ina random zigzag fashion. This is due to the particles being bombarded by the very much smaller molecules ofthe fluid Re ‘© Look up experiments that demonstrate Brownian motion in a liquid and ina gas Be aware of the required experimental set-up and make sure you ‘can identify both the particles that bombard and the particles that are bombarded. ‘© Explain why the visible particles move in a random zigzag manner? ‘© Explain why the particles that do the bombarding are not visible using ‘simple laboratory equipment? arnt 5 Ree To show the relationship between che speed of the molecules in a gas and the pressure it exerts, the following assumptions are made: en © The forces between molecules are negligible (except during collision. ‘© The volume of the moleculesis negligible compared with the total volume These assumptions effectively describe ‘occupied by the gas. an ideal gas, ‘© Allcolisions between the molecules and between the molecules and the container walls are perfectly elastic. ‘© The time spent in coliding is negligible compared with the time between collisions, ‘© There are mary identical molecules that move at random. ‘Consider a gas molecule of mass m in a cubic box of sie L traveling at speed ¢ parallel to the base of the box (Figure 16.1), Figure 16.1 When the molecule colds with the righthand wall it will rebound! with velocity ~c change in momentum = —2me The molecule travels a ciscance of 21 before calicing with thac wall again, so the time elapsed is 2L/c. rate of change of momencum = force applied by the molecule on this wall The area of the wall is L’, so: force _ mc area 33 ‘The molecule being considered is moving perpendicular co the two faces with which it collides. In practice, a typical molecule moves randomly and collides pressure Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘with all sx faces. So the total area involved is three times that which has been ‘considered, so: me presse = The total number of molecuies in the box is N, each with a differenc speed contributing to the overall pressure. The average of the velocities squared is called the mean square velocity, So: Nmee’> Be 1B =¥,the volume of the box. ANmecs av Itis sometimes useful to write this equation as pv= jumees pressure = (ers ‘At room temperature and pressure 93K and 10 x 108Pa), Tol of any as ‘ecupies a volume of 24d Calculate the root mean square velocity ofthe following a this temperature: {@ helium atoms (atomic mass = 4u) (©) oxygen molecules (acomic mass = 164, mass of O; = 32) Answer 9 Nm= otal ass of mel ofheium = 4 107g Noses v V3 10 105524 x 103 oa 2 BOT A 18 1 Ps A&C = 1342s" = 1300ms" (2 sf) @) Nin = coral mass of Trnol of O, molecules = 3.2 x 107kg, BX NOX IP MW 906 gb pated 32% 107 ‘The root mean square velocity isthe square root of the mean (or average) of the squares of the velocities. : Kinetic energy of a molecule Bee mel cet elm Li Cs) If you compare the ideal gas equation (pV = nRT) and the equation pV = YiNmec’> you can see that: RT = Nees For one mole: R Ames M3 kr=ynec> and so Buer= uince’> a The Boltzmann constant (= 9 thas the value 1.38 x 10-231K-1 Ideal gases ry i Fa & i] Es pS =Yam is equal to the average (transitional) kinetic energy of a molecule. Hence the temperature is proportional to the average (translational) kinetic ” Fi 8 EE)) every ofthe pares na monacomic gas. (EEE s @ Therelationship between & [Now test yourself seipeauvanl ance = erties eee al = 11 Amideal gas is held in a syringe of volume 200m at a pressure of 45 % {ps For a monaromic gas ic works = 105 Pa, The i allowed to expand until i reaches a pressure of 1.02 x 10°Pa, ‘well, But less well for diatomic ‘As the gas expands is temperature falls rom 300K to 280K. Calculate the rea pe ae Selunevie gall ewe epee tate ee “The pressure ina helium-fled party balloon of volume of 0.060 m? is ey Mcd exrcetae (12 MPaat a temperature of 22°C, Calculate (a) the numberof moles of ye helium and (b) the mass of helium in the balloon. 3 1 Calculate the root mean square velocity of nitrogen molecules at O°C. (mass kT =pmecs fntrogen molecule = 46x 10") . Answers on p.215, nome? Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide17 Temperature Thermal equilibrium What is temperature’ evisec ‘You have been using the idea of temperature for many yearsand will have an instinctive feeling about its meaning, However, that instinctive feeling may not be fully correct, You saw in the last topic that teperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in a body. To take thisa stage further, ternperarure ras us the direction in which there will be a net energy flow between bodies in thermal contact: energy will tend to flow ftom a body at high ‘emperature ro a body aa lower temperature. If there is no net energy flow between two bodies in thermal contact, then those two bodies are at the same ‘temperature. They are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Figure 171(@) shows that if body A is ata higher temperature than B and if body Bis at a higher temperature than body C, then body Ais ata higher ‘ternperature than body C. Figure 17:1(b) shows that if body P is in thermal equilibrium with body Qand if body Qs in thermal equilbriurn with body, then body Pisin thermal ‘equilibrium with body R. Temperature scales PCC n em ou rie ey (2) 1 Mfenergy flows from A to.B A 2 3 then energy |_| 2 and eneroy will low Flows from from Ato C Btoc ©) 1 Noenergy flows from P10 Q P Q 4 3 then no RB] 2andno energy wil energy flows flow from & to C from B to C Figure 17.1 The energy flaw between different bodies in thermal contact ‘To measure temperature @ physical property that varies with temperature is Used. Examples are: ‘© expansion ofa liquid ‘© expansion of a gas at constant pressure ‘© change of pressure ofa gas at constant volume ‘© change in resistance of a thermistor or other semiconductor ‘® emf produced across the junctions of thermocouple Electrical thermometers Thermocouple Figure 172 shows the structure of thermocouple The wires need not be ‘copper and iron — any two different metals can be used. When the two Junctions ae at different temperatures an emf. is produced, which is measured by the voltmeter. The erm f increases with increasing temperature difference. I might not change linearly with temperature, in which case a callration graph will have to be used (see page 17). In practice, one junction is kepe ata conscant temperature, perhaps in meling ice, while the other acts as the ‘test junction’ Copper. Copper on wire Junction 1 Junction 2 Figure 172 renpertue (i)Thermistor A thermistor isa semiconducting device, the resistance of which decreases rapidly with increasing temperature. The thermistor’s resistance is not directly proportional co the temperature soa calibration graph must be used, Riueau nea Chim cusses ates a | All temperature scales require owo fixed points thacare easly repeatable. For example, the Celsius scale uses the melting point of pure water as the lower pe Fi 3 i o % 5 2 bi ‘The thermodynamle temperature fixed point (0°C) and the boiling pont of pure water at standard atmospheric | Ss naependent of the ohyscel pressure asthe higher fixed point (100°C). When a thermometer is calibrated, | properties of any particular substance these two points are marked and then the scale is divided into 100 equal parts, ‘The fixed points on the thermodynamic scale are: ‘© absolute zero — this is the temperature at which no more energy can be removed from any body. All the energy that can be removed has been removed. (0K = -27315°C) ‘© triple point of pure water — the unique temperature ac which water ‘exists in equilibrium as a vapour liquid and a solid (273.16 = 001°C) For convenience, the size of the unit in the thermodynamic scale was chosen to be the same size as the degree in the Cekius scale. You will see that the triple point is just above the melting point of water (0°C). Ce ROM a SALa UR cou Uae hss = | TK = TPC + 273.15 In practice we often simplty the conversion by ue RENCE Cans ‘The boiling point of waters given only to the nearest degree Celsius Therefore, using 273 asthe difference between Celsius and Kehin justified, Copy and complewe the rable, showing your working, ee kee eaes Boiling point of water 100 Boiling point of bromine | 332.40 Boling point af helium | 437 Melting point of hydrogen 258.98 Boiling point of nitrogen (en Answer 1 Avoltmeter connected to.a thermocouple reads OV when both junctions are in ice at 0°C, Boling point of | 100-+ 273 = 373 100 and 4.8 mV when one junction is as In ice and one isin bailing water at 100°C. What isthe temperature a ae when the reading on the voltmeter bromine {28 mV? Give your answer in Boiling point of | 4 37 degrees Celsius and in Kelvin, (You helium ‘may assume that the thermo-em4 TTiple point of | 25934-27315 = 13.81 | 259.38 produced i directly proportional eed tothe temperature difference Baling point of | 7750 7750— 27315 = ~195.65 Derween che)unetions} nitrogen Answer on p.216 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide18 Thermal properties of materials Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat Physics deals in models. The kinetic model of matter is a powerful model that ‘can explain and predict macroscopic properties of materials For example, the densities of solids are generally higher than the densities of liquids This because the parties in solids are closer together than the particles in liquids, ‘The densities of gases are much lower than the densities of solids and liquids. ‘This s because the particles in gases are much further apart than those in liquids ‘or solids, The kinetic model is based on the following ideas: ‘© Matter is mace up of small particles (azoms, ions ar molecules) ‘© The partides move around. ‘© Thereare forces between the particles [ Solids, liquids and gases revised fl I ‘The three phases of matter can be distinguished at a macroscopic level and at a microscopic level. Table 18.1 shows the differences. Table 18.1, Solid Definite volume, definite shape | Particles are in fixed positions about which they can vibrate; the interparticle forces ae large Liquid Definite volume; takes the shape | Particles are further apart than in a solid and are free to, ‘of the container oye around the body of the liquid, the interparticle forces, although much weaker than in a solid, are stil sgnificant Gas Neither definite volume nor shape, | Particles are much further apart and can move around completely fills a container freely; interparticle forces are negligible Geir ) { } ‘When a body is heated its temperature increases, The amiount that it increases by (AT) depends on: © the energy supplied (AE) © mass of the body (ri) ‘© the material the body is made from arate m which can be writcer: AE = mcAT ‘where cis the constant of proportionality ts value depends on the material being heated. Its known as the specific heat capacity of the material. Thermal properties of materials (13)fezraning the cataton gs Tp eat iy ta kt material isthe energy requited to raise the temperature of unit mass of he ‘The units of spctic heat cepacty are)kg"™%, though jkgr?2C" soften used | acral by 1K for HC) The units are numerically equa. J Cees ‘A block of aluminium has a mass of 0S0kg. cis heated, using a 36.W heater, for 3 minutes and is temperature increases from 12°C 10 26°C. (Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium Answer AE 356x360 ee © inat=O50x 4 ONES “This is sighely higher chan the recognised Fue. However, there Iso artemp alow for energy losses to the surroundings. Specific heat capacity and the kinetic theory In the eatlier section on the kineeic theory, you met che idea that che temperature ‘ofa gas isa measure of the kinetic energy ofits molecules. Ths theory can be extended to both liquids and solids — when the temperature of any body is increased the average kinetic enery of the particles in the body i increased. ry s = £ 3 5 . ) My S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es Measurement of specific heat capacity ‘The principles of measuring the specific heat capacity of either a solid or liquie are simple: © Measure the mass of material being heated, ‘© Measure the energy input. (© Measure the temperacure change. ‘The apparatus required for a straightforward experiment is shown in Figure 181 ‘Thermometer Metal block Figure 18.1 ‘This s the sort of experiment that you may have met in earlier years of study. ‘The mass and temperature change of the block are measured using @ balance and thermometer, The energy input can be calculated from the power input (V) multiplied by the time ¢ for which che heater is switched on. ‘The major problem with this experiment is how to measure andjor reduce energy losses to the surroundings. Simple precautions can be takert ‘© insulate the block, ‘© Start the experiment with the block below room temperature and then turn the heater off when the block is at an equivalent temperature above room ‘temperature. The block will gain energy from the surroundings when iis Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidebelow room temperature and lose an equal amount when itis above oom temperature, ‘When similar experiments are carried out to find the specific heat capacity ‘of igus, must be remembered that the container holding the liquid also Tequires energy to raise its temperature. Often, containers made from expanded polystyrene or similar insulating materials are used. These have two advantages: © They provide the necessary insulation to reduce energy losses. © They have a low thermal capacity. thermal capacity, C = me where m= ass of the body and c = the specific heat capacity of the body. (eos ‘An electric shower is designed ro work from a 220 mains supply Itheats water asit passes through narrow tubes prior to the water passing through the shower head Water enters the heater at T2"C and when the flow rate fs O12kgs“it eaves a 2e'C. {Calculate the current in the hearer, assuring chat energy losses are negligible. (Gpeatic heat capacity of water = 4200]kg-""C-1) Answer power = Vi =mcAT where mn the mass of water passing through che heater per second. 2301 = 012 4200 x (28 - 12) ‘The thermal capacity of 3 body is the energy required to raise the temperature of the complete body by 1°C. ’ ep Nerraenernqoen: showers tend to be on a separate ee leet Seer shower is to alter the flow rate. ‘You vil have observed that when ice melts (or water boi) the ice (or bolting ‘water) remains ata constant temperature duting the process of melting (or boiling), despite energy still being supplied. This energy does not change the temperature ofthe subscance. instead, its doing work in changing the solid to liquid (or liquid to vapour), This energy is called the latent heat of fusion (or latent heat of vaporisation), From the definitions: AE mn ‘where 1, is the specific lcent heac of fusion, AE is the energy input, and Am is the mass of solid converted to liquid. a AE oar ‘where L, is the specific latent heat of vaporsation, AE isthe energy input, and. ‘Ams the mass of liquid converted to vapour ‘The units of both specific latent heat of fusion and of vaporisetion are kg” ‘The spedfic latent heat of fusion 's the eneray required to change unit mass of sold to liquid without a change in temperature. ‘The spedfic latent heat of vaporisation isthe energy requited to change unit mass of liquid to vapour ‘without a change in temperature, Thermal properties of materials ry s = 2 s = al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I esry s = £ 3 5 . ) My S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es 116 ‘Worked example A TSRW ketile contains 400g of boiling water. Calculate the mass of water remaining fics left switched on for afurcher § minutes, (pectic lacenc heat of vaporisation of water = 2.26 kg") AE _ 15x 10)x5x60 - im = FE = 155 Se = 01098 = 1998 rrass remaining = 400 ~ 199= 201g Latent heat and kinetic theory ‘You have seen how the average kinetic energy of the particles ina body increases as the temperature increases. When there is a change of state there is no change in the kinetic energy of the particles — thisis why chere fs no change in the temperature. instead, work is done to overcome the interparticle forces in separating the particles. ‘The average increase in the separation of particles when a solid turns toa liquid is small although the interparticle forces ae relatively large. The particles will now have mare potential energy chan in the solid state The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a subscance is generally greater chan the specific latent heat of fusion because, in melting, work is only done against ‘wo or three bonds, whereas in vaporisation work is dane against up to @ dozen bonds: Measurement of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice Figure 18.2 shows apparatus that could be used to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ce To power supply _ ing ice Heater Beaker Balance Figure 18.2 Determining the specificlatent heat of fusion of fee ‘The method isstraightforward. The heater melts the ke and the resulting water is collected in the beaker Ifthe power of the heater is P, the mass of the beaker before the heater is swicched on is m, the mass ofthe beaker plus water ism, and the heater is switched! on for time then: the lacent heat of fusion of water, Ly = Pt m= This, however, does noc take into account energy exchanges with the ‘surroundings. In this case, because the melting point of ice is lower than room ternperature, it willbe an energy gain, rather than a loss, One method to Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidealloy for this is to measure the mass of the water collected for a given time before the heater is switched on. This gives the mass of water melted by the ‘energy transferred from the surroundings. Ths can be subtracted from the mass collected when the heater is switched on. The following worked example demonstrares this Worked example ‘An experiment is carried outta measure the specifi latent heat of fusion of water sing the apparatus shawn In Figure 182. The power ofthe heater is 48W. The results obtaned are shown in Table 18.2. Table 18.2 Heater off Heater on 480 240 Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of water Answer ice melted due to eneray gained from the surroundings = 1244 ~ 1162= 82 ‘ce eked due co this energy gained during the experiment = 2 = 41g, ‘cemelced during the heating = 1644 ~ 1244 = 400g icemelced due to the hester = 400-41 = 359g Pt _ 48x 1240 5 m—m, 359, = 200) Measurement of the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water Asimilar method can be used to measure the specific latent heat of -vaporisation of water (Figure 183). ‘To power supply Figure 18.3 Determining the specificlatent heat of vaporisation of water The problem, in this case, i wo allow for energy trangerred co the surroundings ‘This can be done by repeating the experiment using a heater of different power for the same lengch of time asin the original experiment. The energy losses will be equal each time, so the differences between the two sets of results will cancel ‘out the effect of heat losses. This is shown in the following worked example, Thermal properties of materials ry s = 2 s fe al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I es‘Worked example ‘An experimenc is caried ouc ro measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water using the apparacts shown in Figure 183, The results obvained are shawn in Table 183. Table 18.3 rg Mass of beaker and water at the | Mass of beaker and water at heater/W | Time/s | beginning of the experiment/g _| the end of the experiment/g Experiment 1 | 36. 600 W778 168.4 LExpenment 2 [50 600 155.3 Calculate the specific acenc heat of vaporisaton of water Answer Experiment 1: Experiment 2: inout energy —g = Aen, Input energy -a= Amy where q = energy transferred tothe surroundings. where q = energy transfered tothe suroundings 35x 600-4 = (1728 1684)L, 50 x 600 — q = (1684 - 155.3}, 30000 - q= T3.1L, Suberac he fst equation from the second: 30000-21600 = (131-94, 8400 = 371, y= 227 108)" ry s = £ 3 5 . ) My 3S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es [eee ‘© Look up, on the internet, the energy arriving at the Earth from the Sun per day. How much ce could this energy mel? Most ofthis energy is re radiated ) into space. If there were a 0.1% decrease in the amount of energy readiated J} ‘away what extra mass of ice could be melted ina year? Berean nts ‘You should be aware ofthe differences between evaporation and boiling (Table 184). Table 184 Emo Boiling ‘Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid _| Bubbles of vapour form in the body of the liquid Takes place over a wide range of temperatures | Takes place ata single temperature Evaporation causes cooling, This can be understaod if we consider kinetic OTe sheory. Ths is ilustrated in Figure 18.4, Itis often incorrectly thought that evaporation does not require energy input. The confusion may arise because water evaporates at room temperature, However, you can see that the cooling that evaporation {~ ce causes is likely to reduce the temperature of the water to below room temperature. Consequently there willbe an energy transfer from Molecule 1 Molecule 2. Molecule 3 the surroundings to the water (see Figure 18.6 alae ‘© Molecule 1 — a skow-moving molecule approaches the surface oF liquid but is pulled back into the body ofthe liquid. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide© Molecule 2 — a slightly faster moving molecule approaches the surface of a liquid, just gets out ofthe surface, but there is stl suficient attraction to pull the molecule back into the liquic ‘© Molecule 3 — 2 fast-moving molecule approaches the surface of aliquid. There isa tendency for it to be pulled back into the liquid, but it has sufficenc energy to escape. ‘Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. When a molecules in the body ‘of the liquid, the net force on itis zero because the pul from all the molecules ‘around ic cancel each other out However, when a molecule approacties the surface of liquid there isa resultant force towards the centre of the liquid. because there are very few molecules above it. Consequently, only the fastest- moving molecules can escape from the surface. This means that the average speed of those let behind falls. Remember, the temperature is a measure of the average speed of the molecules ina body. When the average speed drops the temperature drops, Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics Internal energy =] | Inthe previous sections you have seen that the particles in a body have a ‘mixture of kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy determines the ‘temperature of the body and potential energy determines the state of the body. ‘otal particles have the same kinetic and potential energies — they are potential energies assodated withthe randomly distributed. The intemal energy ofa body isthe sum of the kinetic Caachi FAG energies and potential energies of all the particles in the body. 4 Bac emu Ciel sy revised ll Thete are two ways of increasing the total internal energy of a body. © heating the body © doing work on the body ry s = 2 s = al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I es Internal energy is the sum of the random dstribution of the kinetic and This leads to the frst law of thermodynamics, which can be expressed by the ‘equation: increase in internal energy (AU) = the energy supplied to the system by heading (Q) + the work done on che system (W) AU=Q+W (The ‘energy supplied to the system by heating’ s sometimes shortened to the “heating of the systern’) ‘To demonstrate a use of the first aw, consider an ideal gas contained in a ‘linder by a frictionless piston. The intial volurne of gasis V (Figure 185), Thermal properties of materials‘The gas is heated so that its volume increases by an amount AV against a constant atmospheric pressure. The gas expands, so work is done against atrmospheric pressure: W=Fax ‘where F's the force on the piston, force on the piston = pressure of the gas x area of cross-section of the piston = pa So, W-=pAAx=pAV ‘Applying the first law of thermodynamics: AU=Q+W AU=Q-pAv ‘The minus sign comes in because work is done by the gas on the atmosphere, rather than work being done on the gas. You will notice that the change in intemal energy i less than the energy input AQ because some of the energy is Used 10 do work in expanding the gas. ry s = £ 3 5 . ) My S ¢ o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = bo) Table 185 explains when the quantities, AU, Qand W should be considered positive and negative. Table 185 Quantity | Posttive em aU ‘The internal energy increases | The intemal energy decreases ° Energyis transfered tothe | Energy is transferred from the system from the surroundings by | system to the surroundings by heating heating w Werks done onthe system | Work s done by the system Adiabatic expansion and compression ‘This san expansion or compression when no energy leaves or enters a gas. in thiscase Q=0,s0: Au=W “This means chat when a gas expands andi does wark on the atmosphere, Wis negative. Therefore, AU is negative and the gas cools down. You may have ‘observed that when carbon dioxide is released ftom a high-pressure cylinder, it Mustearn equations: cools so much that solid cartzon dioxide (iy ice) is formed. I the gas is compressed, work is done on the gas and the gas is warmed. This is observed ‘when pumping up a bicycle tyre — the barrel ofthe pump gets much hotter than it would from just doing work against fiction, Now test yourself ‘500g of copper rivets are placed in a polystyrene cup and are heated using a 40W heater. The initial temperature of the rivets 12°C. After heating for § minutes the temperature rises to 70°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of copper. ‘A-L2SEW kettle containing 0.75 kg of water at 20°C is switched on, Calculate the mass of water left in the kettle after ‘minutes. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-"K"1 specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2260000) kg!) 150) of energy is supplied to an ideal gas in a cylinder and the gas expands from S00 cm? to 750m? against atmospheric sae Ci (SAE eM pT) ry EY Sa Pressure = 10 x 10°Pa ‘An isothermal change is one in which there is no change in temperature. Explain why there isa change in internal energy ‘ofa system in an isothermal change. Answers on p.216 (a) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide19 Oscillations Biers ‘Consider a ruler camped to a bench, pulled downwards and released so that it vibrates (Figure 191), a pendulum swinging backwards and forwards (Figure 191b) ora mass on the end ofa spring bouncing up and down (Figure 1910. These are all examples of oscilating systems. — ] Figure 19.1 ‘Gne complete ascilation is when a particle moves from its equilibrium position, ‘pits maximum displacement in one direction, back through the equilibrium Postion, to the maximum displacement in the opposite direction, and back ‘once more to the equilibrium position. This is shown in Figure 191(0). ‘The period, Tis the time taken for one complete oscillation of a particle. Ieis worth remembering the following relationships, which you may recognise from the work on circular motion in Topic 14 w= nf 2 aT Inthe examples above, the bodies vibrate in a particular way known as simple harmonic motion (shm). There are many other types of oxcilation. For instance, a conclucting sphere wil oscilate between two charged conducting plates — but this is not simple harmonic oscillation. ‘The conditions required for simple harmonic motion are: ‘© vibration oF a particle about a fixed point © theacceleration is always directed towards that fixed point ‘© the magnitude of the acceleration is proportional ro the displacement from that fixed point ‘Simple harmonic motion can be investigated using a postion sensor connected 10 a datalogger (Figure 19.2) The displacement against time graph can be ‘deduced from the trace from the datalogger (Figure 193) Simple harmonic oscillations ub Grima |” You have met many of the terms used in osellacions in your earlier work on | wavesand in circular motion. One ‘term that you will not be familiar | with isangular Frequency. This is the equivalent of angular speed in | circular motion. Like angular speed itis measured in rads“! and is equal to 2af. © Look back at the work on waves ‘on page 48 to revise the terms amplitude, period and frequency. © Abo look at the equations linking frequency, period and angular velocity in Topic 14 on dreular motion, for che relationships between frequency and period and angular velocity and frequency. Oscillations @)Position sensor Pendulum ‘To datalogger Figure 19.2 ‘As with any displacernent-ime graph the velocity is equal to the gradient of the graph; the acceleration is equal to the gradient of the velocty-time graph (igure 194) Py = cS s 5 } 2 Displacement Time Velocity Time Acceleration Te Figure 19.4 ‘Table 1911 describes the displacement, the velocity and the acceleration at different points during an ascilation, wich reference to Figure 194. Table 19.1 Poltinace | Diplacment [Velo (=o a Matar fae oe a cycle on Maximum in one = Zero. Maximum in the: fete! |aecux Leen eeomees enceany| =s Namie Pas ee peeuge act Revision activity 10 before @ Look back to the section on Masia [meant |e ott crib dere ads ple} Been leaden coe Hee to before to the displacement conducting ball bouncing between eee ioe ae Sigel dreton | simple harmonic motion Equations for simple harmo ‘The conditions for shm give the folowing proportionality: ax-x ‘where ais the acceleration and x is the displacement. The minus sign comes in because the acceleration isin the opposite direction to the displacement. ‘This leads to the equation: ‘where is the angular frequency. @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘This equation describes shm. The graphs in Figure 194 are ‘solutions’ to this ‘equation. if you look ar those graphs you will se that they have a sine (or ‘cosine) shape, The precise equations that they represent are © displacement: x= x9sin ot © velocity: rtocosot © acceleration: @ =—xyo?sin at ‘where is the amplitude of the oscilation, Ifyou look at the equations for displacerent and acceleration you should be ‘able to see that they fit in with the equation a =~ ‘The velocity ofthe vibrating body at any point in the oscillation can be caloulaced using the formula vet oye Iefollows chat when x = 0 (le. the displacement is zero) the velocity isa maximum anc CEE ‘Armasson the end of spring osdlates with a period of 16s are an amplitude of 2Acm. Calculate 6) the angular frequency ofthe oscilation © the maximum speed ofthe mass @ the maximum acceleration (@ the speed of the particle when is displacement from the egulbriun postion isosem eee Gap ‘A displacement-time graph can be Ofte started at any point on the cycle. Here the equilibrium position is chosen as warfa2x(2) 3970451 ‘he starting point, Other books might sane | choose maximum dlsplacemen, in which case the displacement curve ‘would be a cosine curve, the velocity There dae = OPH = 36 x 24 = 37cs curve would bea minus sine curve is = oa =08i = salons | and the acceleration would bea minus (= 4 aya = = 39 JEP 06 =9.1ems" Sane shm and circular mot n The introduction of «should have reminded you of circular motion. The next experiment shows the relationship between circular motion and shm (Figure 195) se i me a“ a Figure 19.5, Oscillations 3 < F Re E = re} By‘Arodis set up on a turntable, which rotates. A perciulum is set swinging with an amplicude equal to the radius of the rotation of the rod. The speed of a rotation ofthe turntable is adjusted unt te time for one revolution of the turntables exactly equal to the period of the pendulum, The whole apparazus is illuminated from he front so that a shacow image i fred on a screen Ics observed char the shadow of the pendulum bob moves exactly as the shadow ofthe rod. This shoves that the swinging of the pendulum is the same as the projection of the rod on the diameter of the circle about which ic roraces (Figure 196). You should now understand the close mathematical relationship between Energy in simple harmonic motion Kinetic energy and potential energy During simple harmonic motion, energy is transferred continuously beoween kinetic energy and potential energy. ‘© Inthe case of a pendulum, the transfer is between kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. ‘© in the case of a mass tethered between two horizontal springs, the transfer is ‘between kinetic energy and strain potential energy. The important point is that in any perfect simple harmonic oscillator the total energy is constant. This means that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies remains constant throughout each oscilation, ‘The speed of the particle is at a maximum when the displacement is zero so that the kinetic energy is maximum at this point and the potential energy is zero. At maximum displacement the speed, and hence the kinetic energy, is 2er0 and the potential energy is maximium (Figure 197). o ‘Total energy’ Figure 19.7) The variation of kinetic energy with displacement, (b) the variation of potential energy with displacement, (¢ the toral energy with displacement ‘The equations that link the kinetic energy and the potential energy to the displacement are © kinetic energy Ee © potential energy: E, © Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideWorked example ‘A clock pendulum has a period of 20 and a mass of 610g, The amplicude of the cscilation fs 52am. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the pendulum and, hence, ts speed when icis traveling through the centre poi. Answer rs < F i % 4 fo} = Meo! — x2); for maximum speed the displacement = 0 = T=20, therfore Expert ti a i If you use the formula a = ox you vill find thatthe answer comes to Gems", which i in agreement with this value. Damped and forced oscillations, resonance Up to this point we have only looked at perfect simple harmonic motion, where the total energy is constant and no energy is lost 10 the surroundings. In this sStuation, where the only force acting on the oscilator isthe restoring force, the system is said to be in free oscillation, In real systems, some energy is lost to the surroundings due to friction and/or ar resistance. Ths always acts in the ‘opposte direction to the restoring force, The result s that the ampicude of the ‘oxcilations gradually decreases, This s called damping (Figure 72.8). Displacement Figure 19.8 The decay of the oscilation follows an exponential decay (see page 197). The period, however, remains constant untl the osclation dies away completely. Figure 788 shows light damping — che osclation gradually fades aay. If the dampingis increased we eventually teach a suation where no complete ‘oxcilations occur and the displacement falls to 2ero. When this occurs in the ‘minimum time, the damping is said to be critical. More damping than this is described as overdamping and the displacement only slowly retums to 2210. osdlaions @)Examples of damped oscillations Chassis Shock absorber A = 3 z 5 z 6 2 Hub of wheel Figure 19.9 The suspension on a car relies on critically damped harmonic motion ‘Acar suspension (Figure 19.9) operates in a critical damping mode in order t bring the displacement back to zero in the shortest possible time without oscillations. An overdamped suspension leads to hard ride, with the energy given to the car by bumps not being absorbed as efficiently. cereal cs In Topic 9 you met the idea of stationary waves formed on a string, This is an example ofa forced oscillation; an extra periodic force is applied co the system. This periodic force continuously feeds energy into the system to keep the vibration going Amplitude ‘You will have observed how the amplitude ofthe vibrations of the waves coma string changes as che frequency of the vibrator is increased — a small amplizude at very low frequencies gradually increasing to a maximum as the Frequency frequency is increased, then reducing again as the frequency is increased further soe ae igure 1910). Figure 19.10 The amplitude of forced “This s an example of resonance. if the driving frequency isthe same asthe atiaion at creas natural frequency of oscillation of che string, then it gives the string alittle kick at the right time in each cycle and the amplitude builds up Resonance can be demonstrated using Barton's pendulums (Figure 19.1). Metre ruler Flexible wire Paper cone Drv Curtain ring al pendulum Slrong cotton Figure 19.11 ‘The driving pendulum causes the paper-cone pendulums to vibrate. Only the pendulums of similar length to the driving pendulum show any significant ‘oxcilation. All the pendulum vibrate with the same frequency, which isthe Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidefrequency of the driving pendulum (not their own natural frequencies). This is a ‘general rule for all forced oscillations. eee aE Resonance can be useful. For instance, whenever a trombone or other wind inserumen i played, stationary waves — which are an example of resonance — ate set up. Whenever you listen to a radio you are relying on resonance because the tuning circuit in the radio wil have the same natural frequency as the radio ‘wave that transmits the signal. ¢ 3 te Ee F ce) Fy However, resonance can be a problem in machinery in bridge and building design, and in aircraft. Large oscilations of aircraft parts, for example, can cause ‘meta fatigue, which leads to early failure of those parts. In order to reduce resonance peaks, damping is introduced. This has the desired effect of reducing the amplitude of vibrations. However, it also tends to spread the range of frequencies at which large vibrations occur (Figure 1912). Amplitude Light damping Yi Lr«iveat damping Heavy damping Frequency Resonant frequency Figure 19:12 Theeffect of damping on the resonant frequency This can be seen by removing the curtain rings from the paper cones in Barton's experiment, This reduces the mass of the pendulumns, meaning that ar resistance hasa greater damping effecc. It can be seen that chere isa larger amplitude of face fonrepen we Era vibration of those pendulums near but not atthe resonant frequency. Co eo caren ‘There is 2 further effect as the damping of an oscillator is increased — the Justify whether or not the system . vibrates with simple harmonic frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs (the resonant frequency) Madd falls slightly. 2n | Cake the period ofa pendulum of length 25cm, ‘The pendulum in question 7 has an amplitude of 40cm, The bob has a mass 50g. Caculate (a) the maximum speed of the pendulum bob, (b) the maximum kinetic energy ofthe bob and (c) the total energy of the system. ‘The period of asimple pendulum is given by the formula: A particle vibrates with simple harmonic motion of amplitude 5.0 cm and frequency 075 Hz. Calculate the maximum speed of the particle and its speed when itis 2.5em from the central position. Explain what is meant by the term resonance. Answers on p.216 osdlaions )20 Waves Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis irdetra meme colt Ultrasound waves are sound waves that have frequencies above the threshold ‘of human hearing, which is 20kH2. To produce ultrasound, the piezoelectric effect is used. Certain materials, for example quartz, generate an emf. across their crystal faces ‘when a tensile or compressive force & applied. Under compression, the emf. is generated in one direction, when uncer tension the em isin the opposite direction, This property is used in the piezoelectric microphone. A sound wave, which isa pressure wave, can cause a piezoelectric crystal to compress and stretch in ‘a pattern similar to that ofthe incoming wave. This produces a varying emf. across the crystal, which can be amplified as necessary. Applying stress produces a voltage, but the usefulness ofthe piezoelectric effect does not end here; the reverse i aso tue. Ifa potential difference is applied ‘across auch a crystal it either becomes compressed or expands depending on the direction ofthe emf. In ultrasound a single crystal uses the piezoelectric effect to produce and receive the ultrasound waves. A short pulse of high-frequency alvernating volcage input causes the crystal to vibrate at the same frequency as the input voltage, producing an ultrasonic wave pulse, The ultrasonic wave pulse i reflected back from the material uncer investigation and is received by the same crystal ‘This causes tt to vibrate and induce e,m fs that are sent to a computer. So the ‘ame crystal transducer is both the ultrasound generator and detector. This is iMustated in Figure 2021 Vibrating cysial sends out Body tissue of apule of ultrasonic waves Body tissue different density, Crystal Pulses reflected from the front and rear surfaces of the ‘denser material, which in turn cause the crystal to vibrate Figure 20.1 Reflection of ultrasound from tissues ofciferent densities Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide Gra! ~ ~ ‘As with many systems, resonance is required for maximum efficiency — the frequency of the ultrasound should be equal to the natural frequency of bration ofthe erystal. For this 10 ‘oceur, the thickness of the crystal must bbe equal to one-half of the ultrasound wavelength(rns “The speed of ukcrasourid in a piezoelectric cyscal fs 3600s", Caleulate the thickness of the ysl that would be used to generate waves of frequency 4ombe. PAU CNT thickness ofthe crystal = 6A = 45 x 10-4m = O4Srmm (rae ean Pulses of ultrasound are directed to the organs under investigation. Differenc percentages of incident ultrasound reflect off the boundaries of different types ‘of tissue, enabling a ‘sound’ picture to be built up. ‘As with any waves, the resolution that can be obtained és limited due to diffraction effects. Very high-frequency (therefore short wavelength) waves are Used in medical ultrasound scanning in order to resolve fine detail (roo “The approximate speed of sound in human tissue fs about 1500s". Estimare the minimum frequency ultrasound that would enable a doctor to resolve detail to the newest Om. Answer “To resolve detall to the nearest Q1 mm, the wavelength of the ultrasound must be of the order of 011 mm. c__ 1900 7 faa 002155 17 = 15 Me ‘When ultrasound moves from a material of one density to another some of the /~ Ultrasound is refracted and some is reflected. The fraction reflected depends on the acoustic impedance, Z of the two maverals. Specific acoustic impedance (2) is defined from the equation: 2= pc, ‘where pis the density ofthe material and c the speed of the ukrsound in ‘the material “The density of blood s 1060kgin’? and the speed of ultrasound initis 570ms, | (0 Y Calculate the specfic acoustic impedance of blood. (roo Answer Ze pe= 1060 1570 = 166 x 108kg st ‘The fraction of the intensity of the ultrasound reflected at the boundary of two materials is calculated using the formula: 4 tay h Gray ‘This equation is only accurate for ‘where | is the intensity of the reflected beam, |p is the intensity of the incident angles of incidence of 0° but it gives a beam and Z, and Z, are the acoustic impedances of the two materials. good approximation for small angles. The ratio: & to indicates the fraction of the intensity of the incident beam reflected and is known as the intensity reflection coefficient. WivesPLUM EA -13 Worked example The densicy of bone is 1600kg mm? and che density of soft tissue is 1060 kg in, “The peed of sound in the ro materi 4000ms"" and 1540s respectively Calculate the intensity ofthe reflected beam compared with the cidert beam, Answer Zoe = 600 000 640 x Fig! ezaDp 2 Faint ‘The arithmetic is simplified by ignoring z, 1050 1540 = 163 x 10°kgmy 2s" aia STs the factor 106. Iris common to al L_Ga2P (640-1697 477 _ 956 terms nthe equation and therefore 1h Grzy (a0 163 a0 cancels Coupling medium <= Untvasound ‘The speed of sound in aris approximately 330ms” and the density of oe, Sea! air ig abour 1.2 kgm. This givas an acoustic impedance of appraximately aonier ‘Coupling gel 400 kgm™*5~', Comparing ths with skin it means that 9.9% of the incident eee ‘wave would be reflected at the alr-skin boundary. To avoid this, gel with a similar acoustic impedance to that of skin is smeared on the skin and the Ultrasound generator/receiver is run across this. Tis gel is known asa coupling, agent (Figure 202). | Figure 20.2 Ultrasound scanningofa pregnant woman, showing the coupling gel ‘A pulse of ultrasound is passed into the body and the reflections from the different boundaries between different tissues are received back at the ‘ransclucet. The signal is amplified and then displayed as a woltage-time graph ‘on an oscilloscope screen (Figure 203) Figure 203 might show the reflections from the front and back of baby’s sk ‘Thete are two reflections at each surface — one from the outer part ofthe skull bone and one from the inner part. Such a scan would give evidence of both the thickness and the ciameter of the skull Time Figure 20.3 Osciloscope display of ‘Worked example ultrasound pulses Utrascune raves aca speed of 1500ms” trough bran dssu. a Figure 203, the time base ofthe oslloscope fs set at SOpsdh™ Calculate the diameter of the baby's stl ‘The signal has to travel across the gap Answer between the two sides of the skull, is separation of the two peaks = 4 divisions = 4x $0 = 200s then reflected and travels back the 1500 x 200 x 10° = 030m same distance. Hence, the distance calculated from the graph is twice the distance the ultrasound pulse craves. dareter of the baby's skull = % x 030 015mm cumenrotthe da Icis diffcute to decide exactly where to take the readings from on each peak. In the example given, the readings are taken from the inner surface of the skull Problems inchide the following: ‘© The pulses recetved from reflections deeper in the body are weaker than those reflected from boundaries less deep in the body. ‘© The ultrasound waves are scattered and absorbed to some extent as they travel chrough the body. (© The reflected pulse is reflected again ar the different boundaries as ic travels back to the transducer, In order to overcome these problems the later pulses are amplified more than the eatlier pulses. (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidee>_____————_- ‘The B-scan uses @ similar technique but the generatorfteceiver is moved around so tha readings are taken from differenc angles. The position of the transducer is mapped ina similar way to a computer mouse recording its position on a mouse pad. This, and the information from all the diferent angjes (both {ime lags and reflection intensities) are sent to a computer, Each pulke is then represented on the screen as a bright dot. which builds up a two-dimensional image. n practice, 8-scan probes consist ofan artay of many transducers each of ‘which is ata sightly different angle. This reduces the time it cakes to build up an image and, therefore, reduces blurring PAU CNT ‘The advantage of using ultrasound rather than X-rays is chat che patient and staffdo not receive potentially harmful, ionising radiation. DE Rem cer Ultrasound is absorbed as it passes through tissue. The amount of absorption depends on both the type of tissue and on the frequency of the wave. The ‘atzenvation is exponential and is given by the formula: Ge ‘where Ips the inital intensity ofthe bear, isthe intensity of the beam after passing through a material of thickness x and k isthe acoustic absorption ‘coefficient. CoE ERE A pulse of ultrasound passes through 25cm of muscle and isthen reflected back | There ae several new ideas in through the musce tothe eransclucer Calculace the fraction of the incident beam this section that may not be very absorbed by the muscle, (acoustic absorption coefficient for muscle = 0.23em") familias. Lis the key terms and their ‘meanings, arn them thoroughly Answer and then tes yourself total thickness of muscle penetrated by uitrasound = 2 25 = 50em (© Musclearn equations: e Je Ga -2P es bath to Fraction absorbed = 1.00 - 032 = 068 he Now test yourself 1a Calculate the minimum frequency of ultrasound needed to resolve detail of 05 mmin fatty tissue. (Speed of sound in fatty tissue = 15 x 10'ms"!) 'b The speed of sound in a piezoelectric erysal is 3.6 x 108ms", Calulace the thickness of crystal required to produce ultrasound for use in part a. 2 a Calculate the specific acoustic impedance of fatty tissue of density 930kgm, (Speed of sound in fatty tissue toms) 'b- Muscle has a specific acoustic impedance of 1.7 x 10°kgm"2s"! Calculate the intensity reflection coefficient for 8 rmusclesofe tissue boundary. (2 fr sot tissue = 1.6 x 10° kgmr?s-!) 3 Ultrasound passes through 3.0cm of bone, of linear absorption coefficient 0.13 cm. Calculae the percentage of the ultrasound absorbed in the bone. Answers on p.216 sx woes21 Communication Communication channels = _$£$_______——_-ex) The fist electrical method of transrision of information was the telegraph. I consisted of a transmitcer connected by coppet wires toa receiver inthe form ‘ofa buzzer: Morse code signals were used to transmit the information. Some telephone systems stil use copper wires but these have sigificane dsadvantages and ate being repiaced gradual ‘The disadvancages include: (© cross-linking — the signal intended fo one subscribers picked up by another, unintended, subscriber. Its cused by the transmitted signal on one cireuitinducing a copy ofthe signal inco an adacene circuit ‘© poor security — its easy to tap into a teleshone conversation. «high attenuation — the electrical resizance ofthe wtes means that the signal weakens relatively rapidly. The wites themselves act as aerials and the changing currents radiate electromagnetic waves, further weakening the signal, This means tha the signals need to be amplified at regular intervals. ‘© low bandwideh — the rate of warsmisson of information is ited. | ‘© noise — unwanted signals (interference) are easily picked up. When the signal is amplfied the noise f aso amped. (eee ele) 4 ‘These are a development of the wire-pair.A central wire, which acts as the transmitting wie, is sheathed by che outer conductor, which is earthed and. ‘acts as the signal return path, it reduces the amount of noise picked up and reduces crosslinking. Coaxial cables have a larger bandwidth than copper ‘wires increasing the rate of transmission of information. They do not radiate » Time A Displacement e Carrier wave ‘Time > Displacement Modulated ANN carier wave vw Frime Figure 21.1 Amplitude modulation Side bands and bandwidth Accartiar wave that is amplitude modulated by a signal ofa single frequency ‘consists oF the catrier wave and two sideband frequencies (Figure 21.2). @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCarrier frequency Signal power Bandwidth Sideband sideband frequency frequency (QD (k+1) Frequency Figure 21.2 Sidebands and a wave modulated witha single frequency signal Ifthe frequency ofthe carrier wave isf.and the frequency of the signal is, then the frequencies ofthe two side bands are. —f. and. +f, In practice, when listening to a radio, there is a range of sound frequencies and, therefor, signals ‘The bandiwidch is the range of these frequencies (Figure 213) bandwidth = 2f, Signal power ‘Bandwidth isthe range of frequencies ‘hata signal occupies. Bandwidth Rrequierey Figure 21.3 Sidebands and a wave modulated bya signal witha range of frequencies (aro A radio station transmits ata frequency of 200kHz, The mamum bandwidth is kHz. (Calculate the lowest and highest Frequencies that are transmitted, Comment on the effect on the reproduction of sounds, 00+ (9/2) = 2045kH2 Fowest Frequency =f. ~ f= 200 ~ (9/2) = 195SkHz “The maximum frequencies that the human ear can detect are between 1SkHz and 20kHe, With a bandwidth of only 9kHe the highest notes arelost and the quality of sound reproduction is poor. Gro ‘With frequency modulation, the amplicuce remains constant but the frequency ‘ofthe carrier wave is varied in synchrony with the information signal Displacement Information signal Time Frequency modulated wave Carrier Lowerthan Higher Carrier frequency carrier than carrier frequency frequency frequency Figure 21.6 Frequency modulation eI CG 3S eo ‘| ei 5 a CG uu PsFM broadcasts have a larger bandwidth than AM waves — 15 kHz compared ‘with 9kH2, Although some humans can detect sounds of up to 20 kHz, these sounds tend to be very fant, so this bandwidth is capable of high-quality reproduction of music. Advantages of AM and FM ‘AM and FM are compared in Table 213. Table 213 3 frequency range | Wider bandwidth means better reproduction of = & 3S so < = £ iS Cj u Bs sound Long wavelength means the waves can be diffracted round physical | FM cannot be diffracted round physical barriers, barriers; particularly significant in mountainous areas, fewer {ess prone to interference from other sources, @.9 ‘transmitters are required lightning, unsuppressed internal combustion engines Range of AM transmissions is much bigger than FM; hence this also | Range of FM transmissions is much smaller than AM means fewer transmitlers are needed Cheaper and less advanced technology required for transmission and | More energy efficent; in AM waves one-third of the receiving {otal power is carried by the sidebands an reflect off the ionosphere — enabled first transatlantic broadcast | Constant amplitude in FM means constant power, to be made — nat so relevant today with communications satellites | unlike AM Digital communication ere ao Zi ‘The signals described so far have been analogue signals. A precise electrical image of the original sound waves is formed. This is similar to the way that when ‘a microphone fs connected to a cathode-ray oscilloscope a graphical picture of ‘the original sound wave is seen. An analogue quantity can have any value. Digital quantities are quite different, They can only have a series of set values. A digital signal is a series of voleage pulses — onjoff or highylow or 10. An analogue signal is sampled at regular time incervals to build up a picture of the wave prior to converting it toa digital signal Ths is shown in Figure 21.5 4 Displacement Analogue signal Time Displacement bet Sampling Ti Displacement me signal after sampling herfitrtl , Time Figure 21.5, (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘A digital system counts in binary. Binary has the advantage that there are only ‘wo digits, 1 and 0. The precision of the measurement of the strength of signal depends on the number of bits. Table 274 shows binary counting ina fourbit system. Binary is a system of counting in ‘base 2, whereas we normally count eI CG 3S eo ‘| ei 5 a CG uu Ps - ee ae ee ‘As can be seen. a fourbit system splits the signal into one of 16 level ‘The quality of reproduction of a signal depends on ‘© the number of bits employed in the syscem — the more bits, the smaller the steps in the rebuilt wave ‘© the frequency of sampling — the higher the frequency, the more often the wave s sampled and the better the quality. In Figure 215 you can see that, although the overall shape of the signal can be determined, much definition is lost. More frequent sampling would give a more faithful reproduction, In order to get a faithful reproduction of a signal, the frequency of sampling must be at least cwice the maximum frequency of the signal. ‘The human eat can detect notes of frequencies up to about 15—20kHz. Ifa piece of music is to be reproduced accurately the sampling rate must therefore be at least 40kHz. This is expensive to do and requires sophisticated technology. ‘Consequently, telephone systems use a much lower sampling rate (about 8k12) because frequencies of about 35kH2 only ae required for voce recognition, ‘When information is ransmited, it is sent asa series of pues. Each pulbe ‘contains the binary code for that piece of information. The device that converts the analogue signal inco the binary digital) number is called an analogue-to- digital converter (ADO). ‘A fourbiranalogue-to-cigical converter converts a signal into binary code The ADC works ata maximum potential diffrence of 750V. {@) Calculate the sizeof each ‘step’ in the output signal. Assume that there is no amplification of attenuation. () Deduce the binary code packets thar would correspond to the fllowing series of sampling vollages 02V, 15V, 45V, 72V Answer 6) voltage steps =72= 059 (902 bow he i ap 0c r0m0 1s0Viseti sen (226i reads 1 4s0visthe nah se (2 ad recaded0 aval 2, heh he ure sep decd 10 At the receiver, the digital signal is converted back into an analogue signal. The device that does this is calle a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC).= & 3S so < = £ iS Cj uu Bs ‘© Digital signals acquire much less noise than analogue signals through regeneration amplifies, ‘© Noise, as well as the required signals, is amplified in analogue systems. ‘© Modem digital circuits are cheaper to manufacture than analogue systems. ‘© The bandwidth is smaller so more information can be transmitted per unit time. ‘© Extra information (extra bits of data) can be added to digital signals by the transmission system to check for any errors caused curing transmission, (© They are easier to encrypc for secure transmission of data. Look at the first wo of these points. tis inevitable thar signals, not only radio signals but signals sent along wites or fibre-optic cables, will pick up noise as they travel long distances, They will attenuate (get weaker). They will tend to smear ut because the different frequencies in the signal travel at slightly different speeds alonga cable or with slightly different paths, Analogue ‘Tansmitted signal ‘Attenuated signal with, ‘Amplified signal with noise noise amplified Digital Transmitted signal Attenuated signal with, ‘Amplified signal with noise noise eliminated Lt Figure 21.6 Comparison of amplification of analogue and digital ignals To counter the effects of attenuation, regeneration amplifiers amply the signals at regular intervals. The noise on an analogue system is amplified along with the required signal. The noise with the digital amplification is eliminated because its below the minimum step change that the amplifier recognises, Relative merits of channels of communication ‘Modem communications use satelites t0 relay messages (Figure 21.7). There are disadvantages. In particular, there is a delay between the sending of a signal and the recipient receiving the signal. In telephone conversations this leads to noticeable silences becween replies. Nevertheless, they are invaluable for radio and television transmission, as well as long-distance telephone transmission ‘where fibre-optic cables have not been laid (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidely Satelite Tansmitted wave, Regenerated wave, downlink = 4GH2 a ‘The signal reaching the satelite is only a tiny fraction of the transmitted signal The satelite regenerates and amplifies the signal and recransmits it back to the Farth-based receivers ata diferent frequency. Ths change of frequency is Tequited so that the powerful retransmitted signal does not swasnp the much ‘weaker signal from the Earch. The pathway from che Earch to the satel is ‘alled the uplink: the path ftom the satelite to Earth iscalled the downlink. 5 5 Fd eo re 3 = = CG iv) i) Figure 21.7 Transmission by satelite link Geostationary orbits = | This is the type of orbic in which a satellite remains over the same point of (Cine s the Earth. ‘© Refer back to geostationary orbits on page 104. Soca Sn When na goxatienary ofl satelkeissbout36x 17m aboverecarh | ED Estimate the time lanse between asigal being sent tothe satelite and the THR te Fane mR eye receiver receiving the signal assumed that the path is straight up and down and that there's only one satellite link Even in this case, it means Answer ‘minimum distance che signal muse rave =2 x 36% 107m stanceraveled_2*36x W424. speed ao 707% that ina telephone conversation the ‘gap between one person finishing a Sentence and that person receiving a reply is nearly half a second (0.24:st0 reach the second person plus 0.245 ‘The major advantage of using satellites in geostationary orbits is that they are for the rep). Consequently, where always over the same spot on the Earth. Therefore they do not need to be satellite are unable todo a job with a single link, optical fibres may be used in addition. >_——_e=) ‘When ina polar orbita satelite passes over the two poles: In general, polar ‘orbits are much lower than geostationary orbits. They are about 1000km above the Earths surface with an orbital period of about 90 minutes. Therefore they ‘orbit the Earth about 16 times in a 24-hour period and cover every point on the Farth at some time each day. ‘vacked and are in communication with the transmitter (and receiver) at al times, Polar onbital crelces are used for long-distance communication and have the acivantage of considerably shorter delay times. However, they have to be tracked! and the communication pathways have to be swapped from one sazellite £0 ‘another as they go beyond the horizon and as the Earth rotates below them, ‘The major uses of polar orbital satellites are for studying the Earths surface (eg, to monitor crop growth or the melting of polar ice), weather forecasting and spying, /Attenuation ‘You have already met the idea of attenuation (page 131). This section looks att prtenuation isthe gradual decrease n | in more detail including the numerical calculation of attenuation. ewer of a sigpel ack aes doug ‘Attenuation can be very large so when two powers are compared they are space or 8 medium. measured on a logarithmic, rather than a linear, scale, The unit used to compare ‘Wo powers P, and P, is the bel, where the number of bels is related to the powers by che equation: uf = & 3S so < = £ iS Cj u Bs ‘number of bet Pa 1 ‘The abbreviation ig stands for log to It is more common to use the decibel FoF a bel). So: the base 10, Mose calculators show this 3 lg or lg Care must be taken nc ourberaf dace = 1) Oi be Cate “The symbol for the bel is B and hence for decibels is dB. sei tonal sorcetias Rv el Worked example “The attenuation of signal along a wires 30dB. The intial signal has a power of ‘SOW. Calculate the power Poy oF the signal after attenuation, Answer number of decibels = 10la Pas ieee = 06) Giap Pa The power output i lower than the lee) power Input, s0 the number of decibels is written as a negative number. Wich 93 = Pa | anamplifir, the output (wsually) 50 higher than the input so the number Page = 50% 10-3 = 005 mW” | of decbel is postive Itemay be useful to know the attenuation of a cable. Manufacturers give a typical value of actenuation per unit length, measured in dm-! attenuation attenuation per unit length = oS or cable Rr a near tC) ‘Asa signal cravelsalong.a cable the signal size decreases and the noise increases. Itis unacceptable forthe signal size to become so small that itis indistinguishabie from the noise. The minimum signal-to-noise ratio gives a measure of the smallest signal amplitude that is acceptable. Cases ‘A cable has an attenuation of 4d8km-" Ther is an input skal of power 075 W and thenois is § x 10°®W. The mirimum sgrabto-nose ratios 20d, {Calculate the maxumum length of cable thar can be used to cary ths sual. Answer number of decibels = rore(*) 20 10h (Fg) 2= be) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidemaximum length of cabl Py= 10x 50% 10 =50x 10-8 W a atcenuation R Berek (© There are several important “Bentiation per uniclengeh 4 Ee ‘as modulation, attenuation and. trcnum aensaon = 052 This example illustrates one advantage of digital signals compared with analogue bandwidth, which need to be ‘signals. When amplified, the noise in an analogue signal is amplified as well as understood, Identify and list these the signal hence the signal-to-noise rato is unaltered, so ths is the maximum, Sete eee ae distance thac the analogue signal could travel With a digital signal, che noise is nleuinicngaen nS not amplified so che signal is regenerated, Va Cris reer |g For good quality reproduction of musica minimum bandwideh of 15KHz is needed. Calculate the bandwidth asa percentage of the carrier wave fora medium wave signal of 300kHz and ia microwave signal of wavelength 10cm. Explain why many fewer radio stations are available inthe microwave part ofthe spectrum, compared with the medium Convert 330 binary using a 6-bi system. Convert 10701 from binary to base 10. Calculate the number of steps in 6-bit binary. Calculate the sizeof each step ina 6-bit system if the maximum voltage is 60. ‘An amplifier is advertised as increasing a 20 mW input by 42 dB. Calculate the output power of the amplifier Answers on p.216 eI CG 3S eo ‘| ei 5 a CG uu Ps22 Electric fields Electric forces between point charges ‘You have already looked at uniform electric fields in Topic 10. Ic would bea good idea to revise those ideas before continuing with this section. The ideas introduced earlier are developed and non-uniform fields are introduced. > ______ez7) ‘You have already met the idea that unlike charges attract and lke charges repel. You may have decluced that the sizes of the forces between cwo charges depend on ‘© the magnitude of the charges on the two bodies: F Q,Q,, where Qj and Qs are the charges on the two bodies © the distance between the two bodies; F & 1, where ris the distance between the two charged bodies This leacis to: x WR Peer ‘The constant of proportionality is Wey where é» is known as the permittivity ‘of fee space and has a value 885 x 10-C2N-!'m”2, Ths unit is often shortened 1 farads per metre (Frm). You will meee the farad in Topic 23 on capacitors: 4% Pe oer (ae Figure 221 shows how the forces on two charged bodies can be investigated. The two conducting spheres ae dential each having 2 diameter of 12cm. They ae charged by connecting them to the same very high voltage supply Use the data in Figure 22.10 find the magnitude of che charges ‘on the two spheres. Answer distance between centres ofthe spheres =50 + (x 2x 12)}em =62x 107m bfferencein the readirgs on the balance = 42739 — 42364 =0375g force between the spheres = 0375 x 10-3 x 98 = 368 x 10-3, Figure 2 conductors sng r= 222 3.68 103 FRRBRSR IPH EIR OE QE = 3.68 x 103 Ae x BBS ¥ 10 x (62 x 10777 57 x 10-52 Q=40x10%C Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide ‘This relationship only rally applies ‘when point charges are considered. However, the charge on a spherical body can be considered to act atthe centre ofthe body, provided that the distance becween the two bodies is considerably greater than their diameters. Conducting sphere Insulating a stand Balance = 885 x 1-PCEN y? Investigation ofthe forces between two charged.Electric field of a point charge [stearate Rrac yi) ‘You will emember (from Topic 10) that electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit positive charge on a stationary point charge placed at that point. This means that the electric field strength around a point charge is given by the equation: Q rey” ‘The equations for electric field strength and the force becween two charged spheres should remind you of the equations for gravitational field and the ‘gravitational force becween two masses, There is one important difference. Look at the two equations Q meg? ‘You will observe that there is no minus sign in the equation for electric field strength. A minus sign incicates that forces in the gravitational field are always tractive. In an electric field the forces may be either actractive or repulsive. For (a) E ‘epulbion, the sign is positive. You have already seen that: © lke charges repel © the products of two positives (postive tines postive) and of two negatives (negative times negative) are both positive and Forattraction to occur, the charges must have opposite signs (positive and negative) so the negative sign comes in automaticaly where it's required ® ct (Faure 222) ‘, (aero Calculate the eectic field strength at a distance of Yori from an eleccron. Answer Q 16x10 Frag? ARBRE H EX (OX OF Figure 22.2 The electric field (a) neara pottve point charge, () near a negative poinc charge 14x 10NC Electric potential a Teeg ee lett cleat Bs) ‘You saw in the work on gravity (Topic 18) how gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work cone in bringing unit mass from infinity to that poine. ‘When considering an electric field che rules are similar ‘© Choose a point that is defined as the zero of electric potential — infinity. @ Theelectric potential at a point is then defined as the work done in bringing nie postive charge from infinity to thac point The equation for the potential (V) near a poine charge ix ee Smeg Nove the similarity wich gravicarional potential and, as with the electric field, there is no requirement for the minus sign. Although this equation refers to Electric fields e s oJ PI Po = & 3 = irr) a a 143a point charge, iti, as with the gravitational example, a good approximation provided that: (© the charge is considered to be at the centre ofthe charged object and the distance is measured from this point ‘© the poine considered isc a distance greater than the radius of the charged body Ie Follows from this that the electric potential energy of a charge Qe in an electric field is given by the equation: Qa ‘ant ‘Consider the potential energy ofa positive charge and a negative charge when (ay v they are brought up «0 2 postively charged body. Bath charges have zero, potential energy at infinity. When the positive charge is brought up to the positively charged body, it gains potential energy and a potential hill is formed. (Figure 22.2), When the negative charge moves towards the positively charged o = 7 e 2 is 5 re a fr] a Sy body it loses energy as it approaches the body, soit has @ negative amount of —> ‘energy (Figure 2236). w v This should help you understand why infinity isa good choice of poxition as the f, zero of potential energy (Figure 224) 5 Positive charge gains eneray as it approachies another positive charge Figure 22.3, Atinfinity, both positive and negative charges have zero energy Negative charge loses energy as it approaches 4 positive charge Figure 22.4 Cats ‘A proton travels directly towards the nucleus ofan acom of ser aca speed of $00 x 106 ns Caleulace 6) the initial kinetic energy ofthe proton @ its dosest approach to the silver nucleus ‘Yourmay consider both the proton and the siver nucleus to be point charges (charge on tie proton = +e; mass of a proton = 1.66 x 10k; charge on the siver nucleus = +47e,€= 160 x 10°C) Answer 9) B= Kame? = 05 x 1.66 x 10” x (5 « 10°)? = 2.08 x 10-4) () Assure that all che pacental energy of the proton is converted inta electrical potential energy as it approaches the ser nucleus QQ 996 0-4 = PK 1S X10" 16% 10-9 fr et AEX BBS x10 xT Fee i PASH 16x10? p= NSA = 5,20 10° Fw BBO TM DO TF 920% 10 (a) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideMeN aoa momar ee Um en ‘When studying the uniform field, you saw that the electric field strength between, ‘wo plates can be calculated using either of the following two equations: F =fore= qd Figure 225 shows that in a uniform field the potential changes linearly with the distance d moved berween the plates. all Py ca ey = Po =] o a re] a a o dF Distance Figure 22.5 The potential changes linearly in a uniform field ‘The second equation is valid only because the fiekd between the plates is Uniform and, hence, here isa steady change in potential from che earthed plate 1 the postive plate. ‘The field ofa point charge gets weaker moving away from the charge ‘Consequently, the change in potential is not uniform. Nevertheless, the change in potential with respect to distance is equal to the gradient of che graph (Figure 226): = -gradient of the V-r graph Vv ‘© The similarity of the mathematics Mice yieaiea moras Secs referred to, Go back through Seperate Spe een aye 2 sume wena Pee ie cc fl amngihacerypccheqaltorbunttegrines: |e eget mee Fete pok hid equal to”. eae and A attraction. ‘The minus sign shows that the electric field (6) acts in the direction of is, mucpiewasalanin decreasing potential. You can visualise this because when you bring a postive @ charge towards another positive charge you are going up a potential hill and the Carrel force is pushing you own the hil. in the opposite direction. Now test yourself rested [i ‘Two dlectrons are separated by a dstance of 2.0 x 10-*m. Calculate the force between them. (charge on an electron = 1610") Calculate the electri eld strength a the surface ofthe dome ofa van de Graaf generator of radius 30cm that cartes a charge of 800. Calculate the potential atthe surface of the dome in Question 2. A hydrogen atom consists ofa proton and an electron. The energy needed to totally remove the electron from the proton {he fonise the atomn) is 2.2 x 10-8, Calculate the intial distance between the electron and the proton. Answers on p.216 Electric fields @)ye 1rd elie Capacitors and capacitance ‘Capacitors are electronic devices thar store charge. We can consider thern co be made up ofa pair of parallel concucting plates separated by an insulating material. When connected to a battery, charge flows onto one plate and an equal charge flows off the other plate (Figure 231). Cop ae GP ‘Conducting plates Insulator Figure 23.1 The flow of charge as capacitor is charged and discharged ‘When the batteryis removed, there is net postive charge on one plate and ‘a net negative charge on the other. When the capacitor is connected to a light bulb it will gow for a short time as the charge flows off the plates. | ‘Capacitors have various uses in circuits. They are used in computers to run the ‘computer for long enough to save data ifthere isa power cut. They are used! 1D stop surges and to stop sparking when high voltages are switched. They can ‘ako be used asa time delay. For example the timer on a burglar alarm systern that allows the operator time to leave the premises before the alarm switches on. contains capacitors How much charge does a capacitor stor ‘This depends on the particular capacitor and the potential difference across it The charge scored fs proportional co the pocentaldiference across the ‘capacitor, Capacitance isthe charge stored per . ‘ nit potential difference across the x Van be rewritten as Q = CY where Cis a constanc called che capacitance | Capacitor, ‘of the capacitor c=9 Vv = The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). | Farad (Fis the copactance of 2 A capacizance of 1 Fis huge. n general, he capacitance of capacitors in capacitor that has a potential ifference electronic circuits is measured in microfarads (LF) or picofarads (pF) of volt across the plates when there is Tur =10E 2 charge of 1 coulomb on the plates Apr = 10% Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(ans ‘Calculate the charge scored when a 2200)F capacitor is connected across a 9V 2200 10-6 9= 0.0206 (0m) Itis not only capacitors that have capacitance — any isolated body has ‘capacitance. Consider a conducting sphere of radius r carrying charge Q. The potential at the surface of the sphere, V = Q/4ntegr Q Wane Cancelling and rearranging gives: C= ane (aro Estimate the capacitance of the Earth, (radius of che Earth = 64 x 106m) ‘Answer C= gy = 4 1 885 x 10°? x 64 x 108 = 71 x 104 » 700UF ‘This s surprisingly small and it shows just how big the unit 1 farad is. Remember ‘hae this isthe capacitance of an isolated body. Practical capacitors have their plates very close together to increase their capacitance, Capacitors in parallel | Consider te tre capacitors in Figure 232 4 | Gi oy a SG & a a Figure 23.2 Capacitors in paralle| From Kirchhof’s second law, each capacitor has che same potential difference (Vj across From Kirchhoff’ first law, the total charge flowing from the cell is the sum of Typical mistake the charges on each of the capacitors: ‘Compare this with the equation Zz Regt ™= Rs + Ra + Ra, which locks similar, ao but you must remember that whereas From Q= Cv resistors in series add, capacicors in Is parallel ad Look atthe capacitors in ae GVH EN EGY Figure 232. By adding a capacitor in The Vscan be canceled ging: parallel we are providing extra area for the charge to be stored on. Gei=GtGr+G‘Consider three capacitors in series (Figure 233). q q q ° ° Q Vs From Kirchhoff’s second law, the potential difference across the call will equal the sum ofthe potential differences across the capacitors VeVy+ Ve ty ry iy | Ss A) fe ry a Cy u Cal a a Coa ‘The same charge Q flows on to each capacitor. Therefore the charges in the equation can be cancelled, so: 1 on This equation has the sare form as the formula for resistors in parallel. The combined resistance of several resistors in parallel is smaller than that of any of the incivdual resistors. Likewise, the combined capacitance of several capacitors in series is smaller than chat of any of the individual capacitors. Cans |A student has three capacitors of values 4? uF, 100 uF and 220 pF {@ Calculace the tora capacitance wher (allthree capacitors are connected in parale! (9 all three capacitors are ennected in series (8) How would che capacitors have to be connected to absain 2 capacitance of 1 yF? Answer @ @ For capacitors in paral: Cont G+ G+ C= 47 + 100 + 220 = 367 UF cpt to , are a eh p= 0036 HF aa Ly “Therefore, € = 28uF (© The capacitance iless than 47 uf the value ofthe smallest ofthe three capacitances. Therefore, cis likey that che Figure 23.4 arrangernent has the form shown in Fgute 234, “These atin series with the 47 uF capacitor so Checking: Vota capacitance ofthe two capacitorsin paralel= 1004200 Get G "GG @ = R0uF ‘Therefore C= 41 uF 220uF A eh + yps HF ©) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideEnergy stored in a capacitor {Up to now we have described a capacitor as a charge store. tis more accurate 10 describe it as an energy store, The net charge on a capacitor is in fact 2er0: +Q ‘on one plate, -Qoon the other, ‘The energy stored in a capacitor is equal to the work done in charging the capacitor: W= QV eM eer era eee rT) eg Fach stip in Figure 235 shows the work done on adding.a small amount of charge toa capacitor It can be seen that the total work done in charging the ‘capacitor, and hence the energy it stores, is equal to the area under the graph Iris sometimes useful to express the energy equation in terms of capacitance ‘and potential difference. Substituce for Q using the basic capacicor equation, Quy, Wey = Cy Therefore w= ev? Figure 23.5 Energy stored ina capacitors, ‘equal to the area under the V-Q graph (aes 1 Calculate the energy storedin 2 470, capacitor when cis. Answers charged with a T2V battery. 1 Wa ACV =05 x (70x 108) x 122 = 34x 102) 2. ASO) capactor i charged usinga T2V battery Itisthen 2.) Q=CV=50x = 600 =60% 104C disconnected from the battery and connected across a (0) W= HOV =05 x 6x 10-4 12= 36x 103) = 36m) Bae pres i eapacinn Calas {@ The charge willbe shared equally between the to (@) the charge on the fist capacitor befereit is connected to capacitors therefore ech capackor has a charge of the second capacitor ae (Pe the-enerny stored on the frst capacitor (@) The charge on each capacitor is hal the original valu, so @ thechargeon each capaczor when they re connected the pad. willbe one-half of the orgiral = 60V. ‘opether (@ Energy on one ofthe capacitors = QV @ the potential diference across the capacitors =05 x 30x 14x 6=90.x 10-4} @ the total energy stored when the ovo capacitors are ‘Therefore the total enetgy = 2x 90x 104 = 1.8 x 103) connected together = [eens ee ‘A.1500pF capacitor has a potential difference of 20V across its plates Calculate a the charge on the capacitor and b the energy stored by the capacitor. Three capacitors have capaciance of 1500 iF, 2200 pF and 4700 pF. Calculate the total capacitance when they are ‘connected ain series and b in parallel. Answers on p.21624 Current of electricity and DRG eratiic3 Sensing devices and potential dividers Light-dependent resistor (LDR) Revised [ ) ‘The resistance of an LDR decreases with increasing light eves (Figure 2412). ‘Typical values range from 100.2 in bright sunlight to in excess of 1 MQ in darkness, Although there are different types of thermistor, you only need to know about (a) \ negative temperature coefficient thermistors. The resistance of a negative aS temperature coefficient thermistor decreases with increasing temperature (Figure 24:16), ‘A wide range of thermiscors is available and! an engineer will choose a suitable ‘one fora particular job. However, typical resistance values might vary from 1k&2 | at room temperature, fling to around 102 at 100°C. Light intensiy t Figure 242 shows typical temperature characteristics of three negative Oe 5 temperature coefficient thermistors. Resistance/ 800 ¢ | 600 i Temperature Figure 24.1 Circuit symbol and 400 characteristic of a) an LOR and im (b)athermistor 200 ° 50 100 150 Temperature/=C Figure 24.2 Thermistor characteristics Sd Figure 243 shows the structure ofa strain gauge. it consists ofa length of wire embedded in and running up and down a plastic base. When the plastic bends, the wire stretches. This increases its length and reduces its cross-sectional area, thereby increasing ies tesiscance. You should recall these ideas from earlier work ‘on resistivity in Topic 11. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePlastic hase 7 = earn, = Metal wire Fi \ es o Figure 24.3 strain gauge j ‘The change in the resistance AR is proportional to the change in length ALof (GSES the wire, and for small changes: This formula assumes thatthe length ‘AR_ AL increases and thar the cross-sectional eee area decreases. fits assumed that the cross-sectional area is unchanged, the Worked example relationship is AR _ AL ‘The resistance ofa strain gauge is 1500. Calculate the resistance ofthe same RL gauge when there isa san of 0.80% on it. trie eterna le imporcarkthac you make clear your assumption about Answer eee ‘Assuming the stecching of the wire causes a corresponding reduction in the cross-sectional area AR_ 5 AL _ 150x208 mart 700 [Noce chat the change In length is 0.8% (or 08/100 ar 0.008) of the orginal length. 4 -) 3 = a > 5 =| $ o 2 g ° 2 = ea 7 [e) Ra ey Piezoelectric effect The principle ofthe piezoelectric effect is described on page 128. 4 piezoelectric ‘erystal can be used as the sensor in a microphone. Each incoming souncd ‘wave compresses the crystal and then allows itto expand, with each change producing a small emf chat mimics the incident wave. These stall ems can be amplified and fed to an ourput device such as. loudspeaker. —_____—_————-&=_) Sensing devices in themselves do not make a ‘sensor. They need to be included. ina circuit wich a voltage output that can be measured or which wil trigger a Felay switch. In essence a sensor consists of three parts: the sensing device, the processor and the output device (Figure 244). = =) ag Figure 24.4 Reena cs | 11 Astrain gauge consists of wire of total length 3.000 m and resistance 750.09. A force causes the length of the wire to increase to 305m. Calculate the change in resistance of the gauge. 2 The thermistor described by the line B in Figure 24.2 (page 150) is connected in a potential divider with a resistor of 100.0 and power supply of 9.0V. The output from the potential divider is taken across the fixed resistor. Estimate the output voltage when the temperature ofthe thermistor isa 50°C, b 100°C. Answers on p.216 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits @)25 Electronics The ideal operational amplifier Amplifiers produce more power ourpuc than power inpuc and the operational amplifier (op-amp) is no exception. This is not a contradiction of the law of conservation of energy — energy is transferred in from elsewhere. The circuit «diagram symbol for an operational amplifier is shown in Figure 25.1. +% Inverting input Output Non-inverting input Figure 25.1 The connections ca the power supply (+V, and -V) are sometimes not included —/~ in diagrams. However, in practice they are necessary. There is also (not shown The vere input ae supa ‘on Figure 25.1) an earth or zero line. This is important because all voltages are anes i feces measured relative to this. It follows that +V, and -V, have equal magnitude. veut signal ‘The non-inverting input gives an ‘The op-amp has two inputs, the inverting input (shown in Figure 251 by a ‘output signal thats in phase with the — sigh) and a non-inverting input (shown by a+ sign) input signal | ‘The gain of an amplifier A is defined by the equation ‘output voltage input voltage Miran aes le) eta) The ideal op-amp has the fol : r SOA EEE LON OPES. Impedance is similar to resistance © infinite open-loop gain i les han nevada © infinice input impedance ‘capacitors and inductors in an a.c. ‘© ze10 output impedance crcuit © infinite bandwidth ‘Bandwidth isthe range of frequencies, © infinite slew rate ‘hat are amplified by the same factor to get a faithful reproduction of the input Real op-amps oul In practice, the oper-loop gain is not infinite bur it can be as high as 100000. Slew rave ic a measure ofhow quickly ‘The input impedance varies but is typically in excess of 1080. A high input ‘the output changes with respect tothe impedance reduces the effect of the intemal resistance of the input supply. The | input ‘output impedance i less than 100.2. This has to be low to reduce the fallin voltage as current is supplied from the ourput, Foran ideal ampifie, ll frequencies should be amplified by the same factor; the bandwidch would be infinite Ina teal op-amp this isnever the case and the bandwidth is very smal, ‘An infinite slew rate leads to unwanted oscillations, so a terminal capacitance is included that limits the speed of the change at che ourput; the dew rate is reduced, @ Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideOperational amplifier circuits Anop.ampis differential amplifier or comparator. This means that it ‘amplifies the difference between the signals to the two inputs (Figure 252) PEM (aa l (a Figure 25.2 An opamp being used as comparator Foran op-amp with input voltages V" and V- and output voltage Vays the ‘open-loop gain Go is Vow ‘This means that if the strain gauge in the worked example on page 151 were ‘connected to the narvinverting input, and the ourput from a potential divider swith resistors of S00 and 1502 were connected across the inverting amplifier ‘of an op-amp of open-loop gain 10000, then the difference between the two inputs would be: Vi-V =678 675 =003V and Vaye = 0.03 X 10000 = 300 In practice this would not happen. The amplifier would saturate and the output ‘would be equal to the vokage of the power supply, 15. Feedback A fraction of the ourput voltage can be fed back to either the inverting input (negative feedback) or to the non-inverting input (postive feedback). Negative feedback is useful in amplification because although it reduces the gain, ic gives a mich wider bandwidth, produces much less distortion in the output signal and. increases the stablicy of the ourput signal In Figure 25.3, fraction (6) of the ourput volage is fed back to the input. The minus sign is included because the output is 180° out of phase with the input, so the ourput is negative when the input is postive and vice versa. = Vs — Yaa gain Ay Figure 25.3 An op-amp with a fraction (f) of the output voltage fed back‘Ag (rpuc to ampltir) Vout = Aa Vin+ BVou) Vou ~ AaB Vou = AdMin ‘Therefore che gain A of the amplifier in this configuration is Yue he a T+ BAy pes race) Cans ‘An operating amplife has an open-loop gain of 10000. Calculate the amplifier gain: (@ when 50% of che ourput is fed back co the inverting input (8) when 10% of che ourput is fed back to the inverting input 1000 TFUS= 10005 10000 Te 1 10000) Thete are two ways in which an op-amp can be used as an amplifier In che first the input voltage is connected to the inverting input giving an output chat is 180° out of phase with the input. Figure 25.4 The inverting amplifier Look at Figure 25.4. The nor inverting input is connected to earth. To avoid saturation, the voltage at the inverting voltage (V") must be nearly equal to the voltage at the non-inverting voltage. This is 2er0, hence V- isalmost at earth potential This is known as the virtual earth approximation, It means that to a very close approximation: Vin = bnPan The input impedance of an opamp is very high. Consequently, the inpuc ‘current to the amplifier is very sll. Using Kirchho’ ist law, to very close approximation: la=h ‘where Fis the currenc through che feedback resistor "Now consider the loop starting at earth, going through Vi through Ry and ‘through Voy: and back to earth. Apply Kirchhof's second law: Vin ~ hn ~ WRG Vee = 0 ut Vg = han and therefore: Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideVout = —hRe 3 gain 4) Yas = — He 5 but and therefore’ Gzzp s a Ieisamazing but the gain depends ic] re only on the input resistance and Pry ‘Making these approximations might appear to be an odd way of working but in Niuatticmeeae Ra practice it gives results that are well within any working tolerance, Electronics isa ir amplifier. practical discipline, so this isall chat is required, neon pur ee oL ‘The second way to use an op-amp as an amplifier is with the input voltage ‘connected to the non-inverting input (Figure 25). This givesan output that is in phase with the input Vs Figure 25.5 The non-inverting amplifier In Figure 25.5, you can see that the inverting amplifier is connected to the point between the cwo resistors, Ryand &,, providing che feedback. Assuming that the amplifier has not saturacec: ‘overall gain = Yau. Az1+—Re. Caen 1. An inverting amples, with the circuit given in Figure 254, has a supply voltage of 15. The input resstance is 100k and the Feedback resstance is SkO. Calculate the ourput voltage when the input voltage fs @o2v = @ o8v 2 Calculae the resiscance required co rrake a non-inverting amplifier if the gain & to be 20 and che feedback resistance is SOkO. The supply voltage is only 15, so the maximum ourput is 15V. The amplifier wil satura ac -18V. eecronis (@)Output devices ‘Op-ampsare often used in control circuits. For example, they can be used 1 switch a heater on when the temperature falls below a prescribed level. However, even if the output voltage is (theoretically sufficient to drive the appliance, the output current from an opamp is very small and is not large enough to do so, The op-amp can be used to drive a ray, which will switch the power circu on. peas race) The circuit diagram symbol fora relay is shown in Figure 26.6. The rectangle represents the coil \ Figure 25.6 The rely isan electromagnetic switch. The op-amp drives a small current through a coll. This operates the switch, which connects/disconnects the power circuit Connecting a relay in a circuit A elay cannot simply be connected to an op-amp. The relay is an electromagnetic switch and when it opens a large emf can be induced across the coil This ers. would destroy the op-amp. ay Input from Output to ‘op-amp power circuit DN Figure 25.7 An op-amp output toarelay with protective diodes In Figure 257, D and D, are diodes. The output from the op-amp can be either positive or negative. 0, allows current through the rely coil only when the output from the op-amp is postive, When the current is switched off, the induced emf is in the opposite direction (Lenz's law) and diode D, allows any current to pass harmlessly round the coil, Note that D; is connected so that ‘when the input from the op-amp is postive, current will pass through the col, not through the diode dura ure sl aT Re) et) = ‘Often an outpuc device is needed to monitor the ougpuit from an ap-amp. Examples might be light emitting diodes (LEDs), or dgital or analogue meters. (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideLike any diode, LEDs alow current to pass through them in only one direction, ‘When-a currenc passes through an LED, ic emis light. LEDs have many uses and have major advantages over hot filament lights Principally they are much more efficent at converting electrical energy to light and cansequendy take much less ‘current LEDs are used as indicator fights in many op-amp circuits, as shown in Figure 258 R R Input from ‘opamp Lge AN Grange uso W Green ZY Gente Figure 25.8 Circuit used to indicate the state of charge of a battery In this type of circuit, when the input from the op-amp is postive the green LED lights; when the inpur is negative the orange LED lights. This type of circuit ‘coilld be used to indicate the state of charge ofa charging battery. The potential difference across a resstorin the charging circuit and the potential —_¥4+—ez) ‘Aviire moving through a magnetic field of flux density B sweeps out an area A as shown in Figure 273. ‘Conductor Movement of conductor ‘Area A swept out Figure 27.3 ‘Magnetic flux is the product of The flux density multiplied by chis area is called the magnetic flux and has che | magnetic x density and the area, oy : ‘normal tothe field, through which the -gymbol 9 (9 = BA). The unic of @ che weber (Wb) ee Wb =1T mt Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘This eads to the following equation for the induced em E: wag at This 6 often writter: ANG) At 'Ngjs called the magnetic flux linkage and is given the symbol ‘The magnetic lux linkage of a coll isthe product of the magnetic lux passing ‘through a coll and the number of turns on the coil Cares ‘small cl of coss sectional area 24crr? tas $O rum Is placed in a magnetic field of fix density 4 Omi, so thatthe fux is pependicuar tothe plane ofthe col, “The colli pulled out of the feldin a ume of 025s Calculate the average emt. thats induced in the coi. Answer inal flux linkage = Ng =NBA = 50% 4 x 103% 24 x 10-4 =48 x 10°5Wb Ab __48x105 Ae x10 Ea = AE a 19 Laws relating to induced Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that: is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic Nove that it i the rate of change of flux linkage, nor just cutting through flux linkage fa wire is in a magnetic field that changes, n ems: is induced just as though the wire had been moved. The wite or coil ‘sees’ a disappearing, magnetic flux. Lenz's law is really a statement ofthe conservation of energy. When a current isinduced in a conductor, chat current is in a magnetic field. Therefore, there is a force on it due to the motor effect. Work must be done against this force in ‘order to Grive the current through the circuit. A formal statement of Lena’ aw is ‘The direction of the induced e.mf. is always in such a direction so as to produce effects to oppose the change that is causing it. Now test yourself Grn! ‘You can deduce from the formula: < Fs 3 ss “3 = a = 7) 3 fs 5 2 5 i) So ivr] < Py (Minton @ Add the following to your list of ‘must-learn equations c= AND, a 41 Asal col of wire has 2000 turns and a cross-sectional area of em? es placed with is axis parallel to a magnetic field of flux density 48 x 10-77. Calculate ithe flux chrough che coil and i the flux linkage withthe coi, 'b The coil is rocated so that its axis fs at 45° ro the field Calculate the flux linkage inthis position, ‘An aeroplane of wingspan 12m flies ata speed of 140ms~!,at right angles co the vertical component ofthe Earths magnetic field. Calculate the em. induced actoss the wing tips ofthe aeroplane. (vertical component of the Earth's magnetic field = 407) The coll of an electromagnet has 2000 turns and cross-sectional area 0.05 m2. The coll caries a current that produces @ magnetic field of flux density 5.6m. A switch is opened and the current and consequent magnetic field fall to zero in 120s. Calculate the erm induced across the terminals ofthe switch. Answers on p.216yew Nei eee) Characteristics of alternating currents Bye t4 Up to this point we have only looked at direct currents, which have been ‘considered as steady unchanging currents, An altemating current changes direction continuously — the charge carriers vibrate backwards and forwards in the circuit (Figure 28. @ ) Current Curent Time Time Figure 28.1 (a) A direct current from a battery, (b) An altemating current from a simple generator ‘The terminology used in this section is ilar ro thac used in the work on oxcilations ‘© The frequency (J) of the signa is the number of complete oscillations ofthe signal per unit time. ‘@ The period (7) isthe time taken for one complete ascilation of the signal ‘© The peak current (,) is equal to the maximum current during the cycle ‘This type of current is driven by an alternating voltage with a similar shaped ‘curve, You should recognise the shape of the curve from the work you have “ : Gone on oslo Tope ®. Teeqatorsfo thecauvesee, lows OD @. bethecurene, | =tdnet es ee @ forthevoltage V= Vasinot alternating curent. tn this course need only concern yourself with ‘where [is che peak current, Vos the peak voltage, and aa isthe angular beanies a8 frequency ofthe signal (= 27). eee lot) ler Luke Ua Just as the current is changing continuousiy, the power dissipated is changing continuously. In Figure 28.2 an ac. supply is driving a current |, which is equal to fsinot, through resistor of resscance R. ‘ac. supply Figure 28.2 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The power P cissipated by the alternating current in the resistor is P=PR (isin cot)°R lgRsin?aat 3 7 fs = 7 ci i a 6 = By os < ca CY Figure 28.3 Graphs of) the alternating current through a resistor and (b) the [power dissipated in che resistor Study the power curve in Figure 283 — itis always positive. Even though the ‘current goes negative, power is equal to current squared, and the square of a negative number is positive, ‘The average power dissipated over a complete cycle is equal to half the peak ower during that cycle (che horizontal grey line on the graph, The ims. value of the curent (or ‘yoltage) isthe value of direct current (or voltage) that would convert energy at Similarly, the rms. voltage is given by: the same rate ina resistor Ye Vm = Ye ims = 8 (ar {@) Explain wha s meant by the statement that a mains voltage i rated ac 230V, S02 Calculate the peak vocage. (© Calculate the ener dssipated when an electri fre of resistance 2542s un from the suppl for 1 howe Answer (6) 230 tells us thar thers vekage 15230 vlts. The frequency of he mains 5 = supply sO. SIE STAN cK ss (© Ensure that you ate fully aware that Bie Hane # 125290 8 12350 inthis type of problem ict the (0 energy = iat 230 16060 _ 76 ag ramas voltage that is used, noc the 2 % peak voltage.The transformer i Transformers (Figure 28.4) are used to step voltages up (eg, for the accelerating voltages in a cathode-ray tube) or down (eg foran electric train set). TEs Primary coil Secondary coil ey 2 fl | a cs bo ro a S i= ey 4 es a ac supply & § output Laminated soft iron core Figure 28.4 A transformer A transformer works on the following principles: (© The alternating current in the primary coll produces an alternating magnetic fluxin the soft iron former, (© The soft iron core strenghens the magnetic field produced by the current in the primary coil ‘© Theakernating flux in the transformer is transmitted round the core and ‘cuts the secondary coll, ‘© The charging magnetic flux in the secondary coil induces an alternating ‘emf across the ends of the secondary col. In an ideal transformer, when no current is taken from it 4M Mo Np ‘where Vs the emf induced across the secondary coil, V, is the vokage across the primary coil N, isthe number of tums in the secondary coil and N,, is the number of turns in the primary coil ‘You can see fiom this that in a step-up transformer the primary coll will have ‘only afew curns, while the secondary coil wll have many cumns, The reverse is ‘rue fora step-down transformer ‘Worked example ‘An electric train set is designed ro operate ac 12V ac, Calculate the turns rato for a transformer that would be suitable ta step down a ‘mains voltage of 230, Power output from a transformer In an ideal cransforner the power ourput would equal the power inpu. Substiouting for power: V= Volo Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCans ‘A 72, 95W heaters run from a transformer connected to the 230V mains supply. Assuming that there are no energy lessesin the transformer, calculate the currencin the heater (che curreneinpur to the eransfarmer Answer @P=Vs, 129 ae OVI.= Vile Dx8= 20x), Therefore ee) xp = OA OA 3 7 fs = 7 ci i a & = By os < ca CY Real transformers In practice transformers, although they can be designed to have efficiencies in ‘excess of 99%, are never 100% efficent. Energy losses come from: ‘© work done in overcoming the resistance of the coils the coils are usually made of copper and hence these energy losses are known as copper losses ‘© the induction of currents in the iron former (known as eddy currents); these ‘energy losses are known as ion losses ‘© work done in the formation of magnetic fields in the iron core; these energy {osses are known as hysteresis losses The energy losses cue to the resistance ofthe coils are kept to a minimum by making the coils out of a good conductor, such as copper. Ina step-up transformer the input current is large s0 the few turns required are made from thick wire. The secondary col, which carries only a small curren, is made from much thinner wie, ‘The iron losses are reduced by laminating the core. This means making it out of thin iron plates, each plate being insulated from its neighbours by a thin layer of ‘varnish This teduces the size of the edly currents induced. Hysteresis losses are reduced by making the core from pure iron, which is easily rmagnetised and demagnetised, rather than from steel, which requires much more work to magnetise and demagnetise, Transmission of electrical energy Flectrcal energy is transferred from power stations across many kilometres of powerlines to focal communities. though the cables ae thick and made from metals of low eleccrcal resistance, energy is stl dissipated in them, ‘The energy dissipated in the cable is FR where is the resistance of the cable, ‘The smaller the current, the less energy is wasted in the cable, indeed, if the current is halved then the power loss is reduced by a factor of four, ‘Consequently, energy is cransmiced at high voltage-low current and is thenstepped down before being distributed to the consumer. Alternating currents are used for transmitting electrical energy because the alternating voltages can be stepped up andi down with much less energy los than direct voltages, Cas Figure 285 shows demonscation tha a teacher does to show @) Calculate the resstance ofthe lamp and the rota resistance energy loss in a transmission line ‘in thecal. (Assume that he resistance of the lamp does “The ewo resistance wires have a total resistance F200. The __Not change with temperature) lamp is desaned torun at T20V and totransfer energy atthe (8) Calculate the currencin the creuit SERED @ Calculate the drop in porertial across the resistance wires. 9 Caleubte the power losin the resitance-viresand the ry 2 5) io = Fi i] bo ro cf @ = Fs 2 < 0 power dissipated in the lamp, Cs Step-down ‘ransformer EE @ lamp bright Figure 28.5 A model transmission line Answer vw pes @e-=2 -400 @ potential drop across the wires = resistance ofthe wires current through them =2.0 x20 40 @ power dissipated in the wires = potential drop across wires x Ban, current= 40 «20= 80W 8 ‘power dissipated in the lamp = potential drop across lamp = (20-40) «20= 160 total reskrancein the circuie = 20+ 40600 > In this example you can see that one-thitd ofthe total potential drop is across the wires and consequently one-third ofthe power is dissipated in the wires. ‘The lamp lights only dimly and much energy is wasted. I the voltages stepped Lup before being transmitted, asin the second diagram, a much smaller current 1s needed to transmit the same power. Consequently the potential drop across. the wires (and the power dissipated in them) is much less The voltage is then stepped down to 12.0 V once more before being fed to the lamp, which now lights bright. Rectification Pee N CUE ication ‘Although itis advantageous to transmit power using alternating currents; many electrical appliances require a direct current. The simplest way to convert an akernating supply o a direct supply isto use a single diode (Figure 286) (ws) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide5 L. Figure 28.6 Use ofadiode as a rectifier The diode allows a current to pass only one way through it. The current through the resistor causes potential drop actoss it when the diode conducts. When the input voltage i in the opposite direction, there is no current through the resistor, so the potential dtference across itis ero. Thisis known as half-wave rectification (Figure 287)] Time eo] 7 fs 5 7 ci i a i = By os < ca CY Ve A ] ] Time Figure 28.7 Graph showing half-wave rectification iit ‘With halfwave rectification there is a current for only half cycle. To achieve full wave rectification, a diode bridge is used (Figure 28.8), EAT e ered fete) Figure 28.8 Diode bridge for fulzwave rectification ‘You can see that when poine P is positive with respect to Q, then a current will ppass from P through diode 8, through the resistor, then through diode D to point Q When point P is negative with respect to Q, then the current will Pass @ Copy out Figure 28.8 twice. On the from Q through disde C trough the resistor and through diode A to point ®. fist eopy consider pone P to be In both cases the current isin the same rection through the retor, so the Pashcon eat 2G re eae potential ference across tis always inthe same direction, There isa ful-wave Frenedee sad ireigh the rected ouput voltage as showin in Figure 289, resistor. On the second copy repeat the exerce but tis ime consider point Po be negative and point Q Ye Vor {abe postive. Draw arrows to show the currents inthe diodes and through the resistor. Note that the current (and hence the potential difference) acrass the resistor isn the same direction in both cases, Time Time Figure 28.9 (a) npuc erm. against time (b) Full-wave rectified output em.‘The output from a full-wave rectifier i stil rough. rising from zero to a maximum and back to zero every half cx ofthe orginal alternating input ‘Many devices, such as battery chargers, require a smoother direct current for effective operation. To achieve this, a capacitor is connected across the output resistor (Figure 28.10}. Output from Smoothed a fullewave output Y; redtifer ey 2 fl | a cs bo ro a S iS ey 4 es a Figure 28.10 Smoothing circuit and the smoothed output produced by using single ‘capacitor Because the capacitor takes some time to discharge it will only partaly clscharge in the time it takes forthe potential difference to rise once more, The value of the product CR (where Cis the capacitance of the capacitor and R is the load resistance) should be much greater than the time period of the original alternating input. This means that the capacitor does not have sufficient time to discharge significantly. Ue UC Kala ‘The unit of capacitance is the farad; the unie of resistance is the ohm. SCV! = AsV and = VAT The tine contant sti tn an forthe cagetoialnd of h g charge (where ¢ = 2.7182...) So the unics of CR are: FQSASV x VAT SS ‘The product CR is called the time constant of a capacitor-resistor circuit. ‘You will meet something similar to this when you study the decay of a radioactive isotope. You can see that increasing either che resistance or the Revision activity ‘capacitance will decrease the ‘ripple’ on the output voltage. © Add the following equations to your musclear fat Now test yourself J stesnet Ve Vpsineat Calculate the rms. current when the peak current i 2.4. Calculate the peak voltage when the rm. voltage Is 4BV. In an ac. circuit the peak potential difference across a resistor is 20V and the peak current is 3. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor. ‘An ideal transformer has 50 turns inthe primary coil and 2000 turnsin the secondary col The input voltage is 25 V.Calelate the curput voltage The input curren tothe transformer in question 4 is 12A. Assuming the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the outpuc current. ‘The capacitance in a smoothing circuit is 2000 pF and the resistance is 15002 Calculate the time constant. Answers on p.216 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide29 Quantum physics Energy of a photon [ Waves or particles? revised fl {In Topic9 you learned that light shows the properties of waves — in particular diffraction and interference. In this section we investigate properties of light that ‘suggest that it also behaves lke particles. You wil alo learn that electrons show ‘wave properties. ers aes Licey = | ‘The photoelectric effect is demonstrated using a gold-leafelectroscope (Figure 291). The electroscape is charged negatively. When visible lights shone ‘onto the zinc plate the electroscope remains charged no matter how bright the light. When ultraviolet light is shone onto the plate, i discharges steadily, the brighter the ight the Faster it discharges. Ulraviolt ight has enough energy to lift electrons out of the plate and for them to leak away into the atmosphere; visible light does nor have suffcienc energy. Light i a Conducting cap Insulating collar Conducting stem Gold leat Glass-fronted box Figure 29.1 This cannot be explained in terms of a wave model. fight is transferred by ‘waves, eventually, whatever the Frequency, enough energy would arrive and electrons would escape fiom the metal surface. in practice, provided the radiation hasa high enough frequency, electrons are emitted instantaneously Electromagnetic radiation arrives in packets of energy — the higher the frequency, the larger the packet. These packets of energy, or quanta, are ‘alled photons, The emission of photoelectrons occurs when a single photon interacts with an electron in che metal — hence che instancaneous emission of the photoelectron. The packets of energy for visible light are too small to eject blue -> green -+ yellow -» orange > red Filament lamp OL Figure 295A line absorption spectrum, ‘This type of spectrum is called. line absorption spectrum. Wrhice light ‘consists ofall colours of the spectrum, which is a whole range of different frequencies and therefore photon energies. As the light goes through the gas/ ‘vapour the photons of energy exactly equal to the differences between energy levels are absorbed, as showm in Figure 29.6 Energy/eV ° Jonisation 095 Srd.ecced state a7 Sha‘ercted tate “aa n=? Istexcted state Photon absorbed, electron lifted from I” the ground state to the frst excited state 13.6 Ground state Figure 29.6 Energy level diagram showing absorption ofa photon, which excites an electron intoa higher energy level The light is then re-emicted by the newly excited ator, However, this secondary photon can be emitted in any direction so the energy ofthis Frequency Tadiated towards the observer is very smal. Hence dark lines are observed in the spectrum, Tiss “Theline adsorption spectrum from a star is studied. A dar line is observed at a wavelenath of 654 x 10°? m. Calculate the difference in the two eneray levels that produces this ine. Answer He 3 108 he _ 663 x 0x3: 04 x 10°) EM Sax 107 Wave-particle duality Pa i FS 3 a = = 2 = 5 o a a Ifthe answer to the worked example is converted to electronvolts, ie becomes 190eV, This isthe difference between the first (n =2) and second (n= 3) ‘excited levels in the hydrogen arom. This reaction fs quite likely — the outer atmosphere of the sta, although cooler than the core, isstil ata high temperature, s0 alot of atoms willbe in te firs, and other, excited states This provides evidence that the outer atmosphere ofthe star contains hydrogen, although more lines would ned to be observed for this to be confirmed p> ___—————_- ‘Flight can behave like waves and like particles, can electrons behave like waves!” ‘That was the thought, in the 1920s, ofa postgraduate snucent, Louis de Broglie, who Firs: proposed the idea of matter waves. IF electrons do travel through space as waves, then they should show diffraction effectsi] oe x ES ry £ 3 & = 5 o a a Rings on ‘fluorescent TG 5kv Thin slice of graphite Figure 29.7 Apparatus to demonstrate electron diffraction In the experiment in Figure 297, electrons are emitted from the hot cathode and accelerated tovrards the thin sie of graphite. The graphite causes ciffraction and the maxima are seen as bright rings on the fluorescent screen. The diameter ‘ofthe rings is a measure of the angle at which the maxima are formed, The diamecers are dependent on the speed co which the electrons ae accelerated. ‘The faster the speed the smaller che diameter, and hence the smaller the diffraction angle. From this information it can be conciuded thet: © electrons travel ike waves, ‘© the wavelength of those waves similar to the spacing of the atoms in graphite (otherwise diffraction would not be observed) ‘© the wavelength of the waves decreases with increasing speed of the electrons ee ena Ie was proposed by de Broglie that the wavelength associated with electrons of mass traveling at a velocity v could be given from the formula En 4 The later form of the equations fa the more significant. Ths is because You will ecall that che quantity my is the momentum p. The equation can be al mateer hasan associated wave rewritten as function and its the momentum, rather than the speed, that isthe determining factor of the wavelength. (Soo Electrons accelerated through a potential cifference of 4OKV are incident on a thin sie of graphite that has planes of atoms 3.0% 10" apare. Show that che elections would be suitable fr investigating the structure of graphite. (rass ofan electron = 91 x 10-*"kg) Answer 6 663 0-* ‘energy of the electrons = 40keV = 40x 10x 16x10°%=64 Aa”, os a xi0) ay six wis ~ 19x Om ee Mein ‘The waves are ofa sinilar order of magnitude co the atomic ieee layers of graphice and are therefore suitable for investigating che v= f= EEE ses ms sce of gape mo Other matter waves Is not just electrons that have an associated wave function ll matter does. ‘Neutron diffraction isan important tool in the investigation of crystal structures because neutrons are uncharged. From che de Broglie equation, you can see that, for the same speed, neutrons will have a much shorter wavelength than lectrons because their massis much larges. Consequently slow neutrons are Used when investigating at the atomic level What about people-sized waves? Consider a golf bal of approximate mass 50g being putted across a green at 3s". Its wavelengch can be calculated: (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide6B 44. 193 mv = 005x3 aie This S not even 1 trilionth the ciameter of an atomic nucteus! Consequently, we do not observe the wave function associated with everyday-sized objects Band theory Conduction theory Revises ‘You have already met the idea that atorns are quantised, with the electrons allowed in onl fixed energy levels (or shellssubshells). To move from a lower ‘tD a higher energy level an electron must absorb energy, the amount being. ‘dependent on the difference between the energy levels. This refers toa single isolated atorn (an atom in a gas) Figure 20.8 explains what happens when atoms are not isolated. For a single isolated atom, such as in a gas, large gap between ‘energy levels means a large amount of energy is needed to lift an electron from the lower level to the higher level (Figure 29.8). For two atoms close together, ‘the energy levels from each atom form a pair of sub-levels (Figure 2986). With three ators close together each energy level forms three sub-levels very close ‘together Figure 288). When many atoms are close together, as in a solid ‘crystal, ards of energy levels form with many sub-levels, with infinitesimal steps between each sub-level. The steps are so small that they can be considered to be ‘continuous and the gap between the bands is Further reduced (Figure 298d). © i © CO) cay Bee Lee ae Kin in Figure 29.8 ‘The lover band is known as the valence band and the upper band as the ‘conduction band. The sub-levels within each band are very close together and ‘once an electron is excited into the conduction band it is able to hop from one sub-level to another. Ifa potential difference is applied across the material the electron can move through the material The energy gap between the band, known as the forbidden band or band gap, determines not only how well the ‘material conducts, but also the conduction processes. There are three scenarios 1. The valence and conduction bands overlap (Figure 299a). This is typical cof metallic resistors. Flectrons can move into any energy level within the ‘combined conduction and valence bands and can move freely through the ‘matetial These are the delocalsed elecctons found in metals, The material is a good conductor, often known as a metalic conductor. 2. The band gap AE is so large that very few or no electrons are able to jump from the valence band to the conduction band (Figure 298b). Hence there are few delocalised electrons to carry the charge. The material is an insulator. 3. Theband gap AE is sufficiently smal that a small number of eeccrans are ‘excited (by thermal vibrations) and cross the forbidden band (Figure 29.90). ‘Once in the conduction band these electrons can move through the ‘material and hence some conduction occurs. The materials conduct but ‘not as well as the metalic conductors, This is typical ofa class of materials known as semiconductors. The valence band & the range of energy levels in which valence electrons are situated when in their lowest energy state ‘The conduction band is the range of energy levels into which electrons are excited and in which they ar free to ‘move around the material ‘The forbidden band or band gap is. ‘the energy gap between the valence ‘and conduction bands, ia wich electrons cannet exis. Quantum physics Pa i FS 3 a = = 2 = 5 o a a 185)Figure 29.9 Examples of semiconductors are the elements slicon and germanium, although ‘compounds such as gallium arsenide are used increasingly. ey 7 7 j 2 ® © EERIE) cmiconductor eaters whee BS == hae resstivty is between that of insulators Fy 7 = tnd etic conc Tey fer Vat from conductors, not only in their S higher resistance but also in the 2 eee conduction process, z an \ — 3 o eS cy semiconductors Conduction ‘When an eleccton jumps from the valence band co the conduction band, it leaves a vacancy in the valence band (Figure 20.10) | Electron jumps from valence band to conduction band Figure 29.10 An electron jumps from the valence band to the conduction band, leavinga positive hole in the valence band Figute 2017 shows a model of the typical semiconductoy, sicon, across which a potential difference is applied. Arournd each sifcon atom there are four valence electrons. When an electron is excited into the conduction band and becomesa delocalsed electron, it leaves a vacancy. The delocalised electron wil move ‘towards the positive porental asin meralic conduction, The vacancy filed by an electron jumping from an adjacent atom, attracted by the postive potential ‘Arnew vacaney is created, which in turn is ile in a similar manner. The result is A positive hole is the vacancy left in thatthe vacancy moves towards the negative potential just like a postive shi valores ae opaate ae ere particle, The amazing thing is that this vacancy behaves exactly ike a positive earital bno-the enneucden tere particle and is called a positive hole. 4 Free electron Vacancy meld woes okohohosemaohoboohoual Figure 29:11 Model of conduction ina serniconductor It-can be seen that in serniconcuctors there are two types of charge carrer: electrons and positive holes. The effect of temperature on conduction Metals ‘The valence and conduction bands overlap, so only very small energy quanta are rneeded to enable the detocalised eecttons to move from one of the many energy levels within these bands to another, and viroualy all the valence electrons are able to enter the conduction band and carry charge. Increasing the temperature causes the ions to vibrate more, making it more difficult forthe electrons to move throuigh the crystal lattice and increasing the resistance of the metal Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideSemiconductors ‘The main factor chat limits the conductivity in @ semiconductor is the small number of electrons that can cross the forbidden band and hence participate in’ |g absolute zero (OK) all the conduction process (fewer than one in a milion) An increase in temperature semiconductors (and insulators) act as means that more electrons have suificient energy ro cross the forbidden band, _ perfect insulators, because there is no sarge car ress available energy to excite electrons up increasing the number of charge carriers and reducing the resistance of the sl ieee tea rmacerial Insulators Thete is no such thing asa perfect insulator at room temperature — the ‘occasional electron will cross the forbidden band, however wide itis The higher the temperature the more will cross, so as with semiconductors the resistance decreases. ry 8) z iS ry iS =i =] = 5 o ry ry Conduction in a light-dependent resistor (LDR) Inan LDR the energy for an electron to cross the forbidden zone is supplied by photon. The photon givesall ts enexgy to the electron and it moves from the valence band to the conduction band (Figure 29.12). Electron crosses Electron reson the forbidden dims ee [Valence a Valence Valence band He band band Figure 29.12 Conduction in alight-dependent resistor ‘The number of electrons crossing the forbidden zone is directly dependent on the number of photons striking the LDR per unit time, so the brighter the light the greater the number of charge carries and the lower the resistance. Production and use of X-rays Lets erry Xcrays ae formed when electrons are accelerated to very high energies (in excess ‘of 50 KeV) and targeted onto a heavy metal. Most of the electron energy is ‘converted to heat but a small proportion is converted to X-rays. ‘The cathode is not actually shown in Figure 29:13; ic will be heated indirectly to a high temperature, which causes electrons to be emicted fram the surface. This is known as thermionic emission, The anode is at a much higher potential than [thermionic emission isthe emission | the cathode, so the electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated towards it | of electrons from a hot metal surface. at very high speeds, \Cathode assembly Electrons ‘Aviode Xerays Window Accelerating potential Figure 29.13 Principle of Xray production Table 2911 shows some of the features of a modern X-ray tube i] oe x ES ry £ 3 & = 5 o a a Table 29.1 eens co Rotating anode ‘To avoid overheating the anode Coolant flowing round To avoid everheating the anode anode Thick lead walls ‘To reduce radiation autide the tube ‘Metal tubes beyond the Collimate and control the width of the beam window Cathode heating control ‘The cathode in a modern tube is heated indirectly; the current in the heater determines the temperature of the cathode The intensity of the Xeray beam is controlled by the number of electrons hitting the anode per unit time. This isthe tube current, The faster the rate of arrival ‘of electrons, the higher i the intensity. The tube current is controlled by the rate of emission of electrons from the cathode. This in cum is controled by the ternperature ofthe cathode. The higher the temperature, the Faster isthe rate of emission of electrons. Reducing the dose ‘Awide range of Xray frequencies is emitted from a simple Xray cube. The very soft (long) wavelength rays do not penetrate through the body of the patient, yet would add to the tocal dose received. An alurniniur filter is used to absorb these X-rays before they reach the patient X-ray spectrum ‘Atypical X-ray spectrum consists ofa line emission spectrum superimposed on. a continuous spectrum, as shown in Figure 29:4, Intensity Characteristic X-rays 0 ° ‘Wavelength Figure 29.16 A typical Xay spectrum (3) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The continuous part of the spectrum is known as Bremsstrahlung or braking tadiation. tis caused by the electrons interacting with atoms of the target and being brought to rest. Whenever charged particles ate accelerated, electromagnetic radiation is emitced. The large decelertions involved in bringing, the elecctons 10 rest produce high-energy photons chat are in the X-ray region, Sometimes the electrons lose al their energy at once, and at other times give icUp through a series of interactions — hence the continuous nacure of the spectrum, The maximum photon energy cannot be higher than the maximum ‘energy of the incident electrons. This means that chere isa sharp cut off at the maximum frequency/minimum wavelength of the X-rays, (emember the photon energy is directly proportional to the photon frequency). This cut-off point is determined by the accelerating potential Pa i FS 3 a = = 2 = 5 o a a ‘The harciness of the X-rays is a measure of their penetrating effect. The higher the frequency of X-rays, the deeper their penetration. The frequency, and hence hardness, of X-rays is determined by the accelerating voitage; the higher the voltage the higher the Frequency and the harder the X-ray, ‘The characteristic Xtays and their energies are dependent on the target metal: they are of litte importance in medical physics. These ase line emission spectra. ‘The incident electrons excite the inner electrons of the anode mateial up to higher energy levels. When an excited electron drops back to the ground state, 2 photon of a specific enexgy, and hence frequency, is emitted, Ciro Calculate the minimum wavelength of Xays that can be produced when electrons ae accelerazed through T20KV. Answer energy of electrons = eV = 16% 10°" x 120 x P= 192 10-4) E=hf so pale 6881073 108 sR = 104 « 10-"m Uses of X-rays in medical imaging a | “The major use of X-rays is in diagnostics, particularly for broken bones and tlcerated tissues in the duodenum and other parts of the gut. Bone tissue is dense and is @ good absorber of X-rays; flesh and muscle are much poorer absorbers. Therefore, if a beam of X-rays is incident on an area of damaged bone a shadow image is formed. The bones appear light, because very few Xerays pass ‘hrouigh and reach che film. The background, where many X-rays reach the film, | The contrast isa measure of the vill be much darker. is worth noting that this isa negative’ image. difference in brightness between ight and dark areas ‘When considering the ciagosis of ulcers there is litte difference in the absorption by healthy tissue and ulcerated tissue. in order to improve the contrast, che patient given a drink containing a salt chat is opaque to X-rays, The ulcerated tissue absorbs more of che salt than healthy tissue and hence absorbs much more ‘of the Xadiation. This materia often a barium sal, is called @ contrast medium. A contrast medium is a material that 'S 2 good absorber of X-rays, which consequently improves the contrast of an image. fas ediu ec) i) { } The carty or clearness ofan image depends on the contrast beoween the dark ‘areas and the light areas and on the sharpness of the image. Table 282 gives the main methods by which contrast can be improved.Table 29.2 fo 0 Contrast medium —_| Used to distinguish between soft tissues Longer exposure time | This improves contrast but has the disadvantage of increasing the patient's exposure to X-radiation Choice of X-ray _| Much harder (more penevative) X-rays are used for investigating bone injuries than for softtissue hardness diagnosis, stomach ulcers Image intensifier | Atits simplest, an image intensifier can be a fluorescent sheet placed atthe back of the photographic film; X-rays that pass through the film hit this, causing it to fluoresce; the detector picks this up, making the dark parts darker; more sophisticated image intensiiers consist of cells in which the incident X-rays berate electrons in a photocathode; these are fed toa digital detector ry al a Es Js a £ i r=] = 5 o S Cy The sharpness of an imageis determined by the width of the incident beam and its colimation (how parallel iti. The narrower the beam, the sharper is the image. ‘The cross-section of the beam depends on (© the size of the anode — the larger the anode, the wider the bearn © the diameter of the window — the larger the wincow, the wider the beam Likewise, the better the collimation the sharper is the image. This can be improved by passing the beam through narrow sits as shown in Figure 2916. Fist collimating slit Second collimating slit Xray beam stil spreading X-ray bean stil Minimal spreading from the window spreading after frst sit after second sit Figure 29.15 Collimation of an X-ray beam Scattering Some X-rays ae scattered from various organs in the body. ifthese reach the plate on which the image falls they lead to a loss of sharpness. To avoid this happening, an anti-scatter grid is used. This sa series of parallel aluminium ant lead plates as shown in Figure 2916. Patient Scattered X-ray ‘Anti-scatter gid Lead. Photographic plate Aluminium Figure 29.16 An anci-scatter grid ‘The aluminium allows the X-ays through, whereas the lead absorbs any scattered rays. Pee ere} ‘The formal term for the decrease in intensity of a signal as it passes through a material is attenuation. Actenuation of X-rays depends on the material itis, passing through — for dense materials such as bone its high for less dense (9) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidematerial such as flesh itis much lower. However for each, the attenuation (provided che beam is parallel) is exponential in nature, giving che equation: mem ‘where lis the intensity [sis the intial intensity, isthe linear attenuation (or absorption) coefficient and xis the thickness of material che signal has passed through. ‘The mathematics of and dealing with, this equation are identical to that for the Tadioactve decay equation. The equivalent of hal ie is che half-value thickness (hy) of the material Ths is the thickness of material that recuces the intensity ofthe incident signal to half ofits original intensity The halfvalue thickness of material is ‘the thickness that reduces the intensity ofthe incident signal to hat its original ry ae z iS ry iS =i = 5 o ry ry intensity The linear attenuation coefficient depends not only on the material but also on “ the hardness of the X-rays that are used. Cae Revision activity ‘© Compare the equation in the Bone has a near attenuation coefficient of 35cm" for X-rays of a particular ce eanpLikiichéexedon Frequency for Finding the halflife ofa (Calculate the halthickness of bone for this type of Xray. radioactive isotope on page 198. ‘You will also see a similar equation Answer if you compare these with the In2 _ 0.693 ‘equation forthe absorption of ultrasound on page 131, Computerised tomography scanning The traditional use of X-rays has the major disadvancage of producing only a shadow image. This makes it ciffcult to identify the true depth of organs. ‘Computerised tomography (CT) takes the technology of Xraysa step further. ‘The main principles of CT scanning are: @ The patient lies in the centre of a ring of detectors (Figure 2917), An X-ray Xray source - source moves around the patiene, taking mary images at different angles ‘@ The images are put together, using a powerful computer, to form animage Detectors ‘fa slice through the patient. tie ‘© The patienc is moved slightly forward so an image of another slice is made. This is repeated for many slices, seit ‘© The computer pucs the slices together to form a three-dimensional image that is rotated so that medical practitioners can view the image from different anges. Figure 29.17 Build up of the image ‘The body part under investization is spit into tiny cubes called voxels. The build-up of the picture depends on voxels having different linear absorption coefficients allowing different signal strengths to reach the detector. As the ‘camera is moved round the circa, the signal strengzhs from different directions are measured and an image is built up. The intensity of the beam is reduced as it passes through each voxel. Ths reduction gives the plxel intensity (x,y ‘A-voxel is a small cube of tissue Pixel intensity is the intensity of the Xray beam after passing though voxes. and 2). Figure 2918 on the next page shows how a CT image built up. ANE RleaiyaneciT This calculation is greatly simplified. In realty there are far more voxels and the ‘equations to your lst: scanner takes readings at hundreds of angles to produce a picture of just one Eaby slice. In addition to this, X-rays of different hardness are used in order to identify: E=hft@ different types of tissue. You can begin to see the necessity for the use of a powerful computer to do the calculations, and you may nos even have started {tp think about combining the mary sices to form a three-dimensional imagetey a Step 1 fe [e]-gem X-rays are incident on the voxel cube. The ES ya] em detector adds pixel intensities receiving a total yy x ae de of w+ x0n the upper layer and y +2 0n the a lower layer, interpreting ths as an array, ae ws i 2 Step2 ‘he X-ray tube swings round. When the Xray my = source is at 45°, the detector interprets this as” —_**¥ S aay z my an array: o Thisis added tothe array in Step 1togive: | 20#x Wey: a XtDy+2 yee a Step 3 Now consider the position when the X-ray ay =a tube has swung round a further 45°. The x detector interprets this as an array: wey X4E This is added to the array in Step 2 to give: ns woes yee xy + 3e Stepa When the source swings round a further 45° wy 2 | . the detector interprets this as an ara wt tector interprets a 5 a ‘Adding this tothe final arayin Step 3 gives: ayyxyyez]wearayaz| wet ay ez WHY ae Step5 ‘The background intensity is subtracted from the totals — this isthe sum of the intensities at any one pasition, in this case: w +14 y-+ 2. Wauaya7 |Waxeyee 30 3 waxays? waxeyez 8 ay 37 step 6 Thisis then divided by 3 because the process is repeated at three more angles, This gives = the original figures: y z ‘Try working through this pracedure using the initial values 5, 6, 1 and & Figure 2918 Building up a CT image Now test yourself ol 11 Calculate the energy ofa photon of yellow light of frequency 5 x 10"H 2 Calculate the energy of an X-ray photon of wavelength 4.0 x 10" Hz. 3 Calculate the minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation that will liberate an electron from the surface of magnesium. (work function of magnesium = 59 x 10-)) 4. ght of wavelength 45 x 10-7mis incident on calcium. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy ofan electron emitted from the surface. (work function of calcium = 43x 10°) 5 Anelectron is traveling ata speed of 3.2 x 10%ms" Calculate the wavelength of this electron, b State and explain how the wavelength of a neutron travelling atthe same speed would differ from thac of the electron. (mass of an electron = 91 x 10" kg; mass of a neutron = 17 x 10" kg) 6 Soft tissue has an attenuation coefficient of O40.cm™*, Caleulate the percentage reduction in the signal when a beam passes through 4Scm ofthe tissue. Answers on p.216 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide30 Particle and nuclear physics Mass defect and nuclear binding energy Mass and energy evisec ‘The idea of mass-energy was introduced towards the end of Topic 13 — the higher the energy of an object the greater its mass. These two quantities are linked by Einstein’ mass-energy equation: E=mc This equation quantifies the extra mass a body gains when its energy is eau increased and is sometimes referred to as che mass excess. The more energy a particle has the more mass ithas. It does not matter Sr whether ici kinetic energy, potential energy or whatever Einstein suggested ‘A proton ina particle accelerators accelerated through 45 CV. Calculate the ee ageeeee increase n mass ofthe proto. conalde ther the nen so has a ‘mass. In everyday experience this extra aor ‘mass is so small we do not notice it — energy gained by he proton = 45 GeV itis only in extreme circumstances that Convert this ina joules iebecames significant. 5x Wx 16 x 10-8 = 72x 10%) ‘This s an amazing result. The rest mass of a proton is 1.66 x 10°7kg, The increase in mass is almost five times cis, giving a total mass of almost sx times ‘the rest mass, re Tacs ‘You have already met radioactive decay in earlier courses and should be familiar pa ails sich acta er porn decay ven Kes an aphs query particle: am —> Np +4. You should recognise that both the ey eta t eney total nucleon number and the total ‘Another common form of decay is beta decay: proton number are conserved in every decay. Bsr > BY +96 + energy - Although alpha, beta and gamma decays are the most common forms of decay, there are many other possibilies. An important example is the formation of ‘carbon-14 in the atmosphere. A neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus, ‘which then decays by emicting a proton: We iced Particle and nuclear physics(sess ‘A TRO nucieus absorbs a neutron. The newly formed nucleus subsequently decays ro form a '2F nucleus, {@ Write an equation to show the change when the neutron is absorbed. (@) Decuce what type of particle is emirted when the decay of the newly formed rueles occurs Answer a+ Info © When the GO nucleus decays to form the F nucleus, the following charges occur new proton number = 9, od proton number = 8 new rudeon number = 17d nucleon number = 17 The particle that is emitted cherefore has a procon number of Tanda nucleon number of 0, This f a B particle ($8). ms 3 id =o £ a 5 5 3 3 s 2 3s = A co} a] 2 e 3S & F Pines UC Meeks a Just as with the energy levels in che outer atom and with the electrical energy of a negative particle near a positive charge, the field inside a nucleus can be Sacareful hign-= Hoe eee! ceniniaed aac | qunoecen ete ae the nucleus, The attractive fe that Thaarsofnrmrasinihegavialonland ocr fell swiss EPIC TO ag infinity and, therefore, the particles in the nucleus have negative energy. To. electrostatic in nature. separate a nucleus into is constituent protons and neutrons, work must be soca done, This work is called the binding energy. - ‘All nuclides have different binding energies the binding energy per nucleon in a ‘the work done or energy required to nuclide isa measure of ics stabilcy The more energy needed to tear the rucleus | TE ee RES apart, the less likely itis to be torn apart, A binding energy curve showing the sapsiiuentctonserdl eee general trend and specific important nuclides is shown in Figure 301. \ 4 ‘The binding energy of a rucide is Binding eneray per nucleon! Mev 0 30 160 150 200 Nucleon number Figure 30.1 Binding energy curve In particular, noce the high binding energies for $He, ZC and —O. The highesc binding energy per nucleon, and therefore the most stable nuclide is Fe ‘The mass defect of a nuckde is the difference in mass between the nudeus Binding energies ae very large and hence theres a measurable difference inthe | Srfrencs in mast belwean them mass of a proton that is bound in a nucleus and that ofa fee proton at rest. ; ‘the nudleons ofthat nuclide, when ‘The shape ofthe curve for the missing mass’ per nucleon, known as the mass | oS ty defect per nucleon, is exactly the same as that for binding energy. \ Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideWorked example A.carbore12 atom consists of 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons. The unified mass unit (u) is defined as Ya the mass of the ‘erbon-12 atom, Calculate: (9 the mass defect in kilograms @ the binding energy @ the binding energy per nucleon {rmass of a proton = 1,007 276 u; mass of a neutron = 1.008665 u; mass of an electron = 0.000548, Tu = 1.66 x 1077kg) Answer (6) mass of6 protons + 6 neutrons + 6 electrons (9 binding energy, = me? = 1.64 x 10° x (30% 10°? = 6 x (1.007276 + 1.008665 + 0.000548) u = 12098934u = 48x 10°) sass defect = 12098934 ~ 12 = 0096934 @ binding energy per nucleon = 148107 _ 493 x 10-2) = (098934 x 1.66 « 10-7 kg = 1064 x 10-28kg Fission isthe splitting of @ nucleus into two roughly equal-sized halves with the ‘emission of two or three neutrons. If you look at the binding energy curve in Figure 301, you will see that the nuclides with nucleon numbers between about '50 and 150 have significantly more binding energy per nucleon than the largest ‘nuclides with nucleon numbers greater than 200. A few of these larger nuclides ae liable to fission. Fission happens rarely in nature. However, physicists can induce fission by allowing large, more stable nuclides to capture a neutron to form an unstable nuclide. For example, a uranium-235 nucleus, which is found in nawure, can capture a slow-moving neutron to form a uranium-236 nucleus. 2BU + jn > RU ‘This nuicieus is unstable and will undergo fission (Figure 30.2) FEU > Mita + Bor + 33n {In Figure 30.2: © Step 1 —a neutron trundles towards a U-235 nucleus © Step 2 — the U-235 nucleus absorbs the neutron to form an unstable U-236 rucleus © Step 3 — the U-236 nucleus splits into two roughty equal halves (the fission fragments), which fly apart, three neutrons are released, which also fly away at high speeds 1 2 OA Figure 30.2 A cartoon view of fission Most of the energy in ision is carried away by the fission fragments as kinetic ‘energy, although some is carried away by the neutrons. in addition, gamma rays are formed, Some are formed almost immediately and some are formed later as the nucleons in the fission fragments rearrange themselves into a lower, more sable energy scave. Fission is used in all working nuclear power stations. ifthe fissionable nuclide being used is uranium, the neutrons released are slowed down, so that they ‘cause new fissions to keep the process going. For power generation, each fission ISICS. hr 48x 10" 2 = i u = < a} = e oS a = i a Particle and nuclear physics (195‘must, on average, produce one new fission to keep the reaction going at a ‘constant rate. ‘The earliest nuclear weapons used fission, The principle is the same but in this ‘case each fission must induce more than one new fission on average, so that the reaction rate rapidly gets faster and faster, causing an explosion. Nuclear fusion z "Nuclear fusion can be thought of asthe opposite of fasion. Two small nucle move towards each other at high speed, overcome the mutual electrostatic repulsion and merge to form a larger nucleus (Figure 30 3). If you look at the binding energy curve in Figure 301 again, you wil se that the binding energy per nucleon of deuterium (3H) is much less than that of helium ($He).So two deuterium nuclei could fuse to form a helium nucleus with the release of energy. In practice, the fusion of tritium (7H) and deuterium is more common: 3H 43H He +Jn Eile) > i a a i i re S Gg a] s 6 i 4 = i ts Fusion releases much more energy per nucleon involved than fission. The difficulty in using fusion commercially is that the pressure and temperature of the fusing mixture are extremely high — so high that all the electrons are stripped from the nuclei and the mixture becomes a sea of positive and negative particles called a plasma. A physical container cannot be used to hold the plasma — it would immediately vaporise (not to mention cool the plasma). Extremely strong magnetic fields are used to contain the plasma. Even though scientists have not yet solved the problems of controlling nuclear fusion, we rely ‘on it because itis the process that fuels the Sun, In Figure 303: Step 1 — a deuterium nucleus and a tritium nucleus move towards each other at high speed @ Step 2— they collide and merge @ Step 3 — a helium nucleus and a neutron are formed and fly aparc at high speed, 1 2 3 J S--8 Se Xe Figure 30.3 A cartoon view of fusion Radioactive decay ‘Some nuclides are unstable and decay by emitting radiation this’ known as radioactive decay. The rate of radioactive decay is not depencient on outside conditions (eg, temperature, pressure). In this sense, the decay is said to be spontaneous. It's only dependent on the stability ofthe particular nuclide However, iFonly a single nucleus is considered its impossible to predict when ‘twill decay. In this way, radioactive decay is random. However, we can say that there is a fixed chance of decay occurring within time At. Hence, a fixed proportion of a sample containing millions of atoms will decay in that time interval. This randomness is clearly demonstrated by the fluctuations in the count rate observed when radiation from a radioactive isotope is measured with a Geiger counter or other detector. (196) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePree uate ere teat ‘The random nature of radicactive decay means we cannot tell when a particular nucleus will decay, only that there isa fixed chance of it decaying in a given time | The activity of a sample of radioactive interval Thus, if there are many nuclei we can say: nate hie inca ot inca pa unit time A=4N The decay constant is the probability where A isthe activity, Nis the total number of nucle in the Sample and A is a per unit time that a ruceus wil decay constant, known as the decay constant. One bequerelis an activity of 1 decay ‘The activity is measured in a unit called the bequerel (Bq). The decay constant / ) is measured in 5, min, yr* ete. pabaeond If you measure the activity of an isotope with a relatively short halflife (say ‘I minute) then you can plota graph similar to Figure 304 2 ea S a u = e vu S a a a 1 Cs a Figure 30.6 Exponential decay of a radioactive isotope IF you study this graph, you wil find that che activity fas by equal proportions jin successive time intervals. The number of atoms decaying in a fixed period decreases because the number of atoms remaining is decreasing, This type of decay is called exponential decay and the equation that describes it has the form: x= K%e¥ In the example given in Figure 30.4, the yaxis is labelled activity A, but because the activity is directly proportional to the number of nuclei present (N) it could equally be N. The count rate s directly proportional to the activity, so y could also apply to this. Half-life and radioactive decay Look at Figure 30.4 again. You have already observed chat the activity decreases by equal proportions in equal time intervals. Now look at how fong it takes to fall to half the orignal accvty. How long does i cake to fall to half his reading (48 name ofa radioacive borpe is (one-quarter of the original)? How long does it take to fall to half of this? You ‘Gedoebhenss tal ohecuhi should find that each time interval is the same. This quantity is called the thar lstope ory bangle decay half-life (¢,). es Investigation of radioactive decay ‘When investigating the decay ofa radioactive isotope it isnot possible 0 measure directly either the number of atoms of the isotope remaining in the sample, or the activity of the sample. The detector detects only a small proportion of the radiation given off by the sample. Radiation is given off in all directions and most of it misses the detector. Even radiation that enters the detector may pass straight through it without being detected. What is measured is called the received count rate. The background count rate should be subtracted from the received count rate to give the corrected count rate. Particle and nuclear physics (197Half-life and the decay constant lf the decay equation is applied to the halifeit becomes: No = Nge* Cancelling the Np gives: woe" Eile) Taking logarithms of both sides: > i a a i i re S Gg a] s 6 i 4 = i ts Bi Remember that in? is the natural logarithm of 2 and is approximately equal to 0.693, Worked example “The proportion of the carbon-1¢ isotope found in former living material can be used to date the material didi i © Twoof the important concepts “The halle of carbon-14 is 5730 years. certain sample has 764% of the eon neres proportion of tis isotope compared with living tissue- coe (atinrnen! defect and binding energy. 6) Calculate the decay constant for this isotope of carbon. tal actprindemedeielie & Calculate the age of the material, ‘peeeen thera ea stability of different nuclides. Answer © Go on to-explan why energy is In2_ 0693 _ year? released in both ision and fusion. he ea ee Discuss this with a fellow student — see if you agree with each other. (© Add the following mustleam ‘equations to your lst: E=m N= Ne Ahelium-4 nucleus consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and has a mass of 66464776 x 10-’kg. Calculate a the mass. defect and b the binding energy ofthe helium-4 nucleus. (mass of a neutron = 7.6749286 x 10~" kg; mass of a proton = 16726231 x 10-7 kg) Copy and complete the equation, which shows a possible fision of plutonium: Pu + > Pu + SN4 + Se + $9 ‘The activity ofa sample of radioactive titanium falls by 1% after 40 hours. Calculate a the decay constant and b the halflife of the isotope. Answers on p.216 (198) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideA level experimental skills and investigations Practical sil and investigations are examined on Paper , which is worth 30 marks. This s nota laboratory-based paper but, nevertheless, it tests the practical skils that you should have developed during the second year of your course. The syllabus explains each of these skls in detail Ici important that you read the appropriate pages so that you know what each sil i, and what you will be tested on. The examination questions “There are usually two questions on Paper 5, each worth 1 marks. Question 1 tests planning skils Question 2 tests analysis, conclusions and evaluation. Read the questions carefully and make sure that you know what is being asked of you. =p -_$_$___—_———-ez_} ‘This question asks you to plan an investigation. cis an open-ended question, which means that you need to think carefully about your answer before you start, There are various stages in planning an investigation. Stage 1: define the problem ‘This requires you to look at the task that has been assigned and to identify the ‘variables that impact on the problem: @ the independent variable (the variable that you control) © the dependent variable (the variable that changes as a result of your ‘changing the independent variable) © anyother variables that might affect your results, and which you need to control — generally by attempting to keep them constant Stage 2: data collection =a Once you have identified the variables, you have co decide on a method. You ‘Before the exam: your practical course have to describe this method. You wil almost certainly need to include a should include practice in designing simple diagram to show the required apparatus. The description should include ahd carrying out experiments. eis only how you are going to take measurements and how you intend to control any by carrying out experiments that you will learn to look critically at the design variables that might lead to the basic relationship between the independent and Yay uarnuo oek ermal dependent variables being obscured. At this stage, you need to think about any In the exam: the examiner is high) safety precautions you need to rake. Tribes gue yor eer : that you have met before, so de not Stage 3: analysis of results be pit off by something that seems ‘The third stage in an investigation is the analysis of results. This will include: unfamiliar. There will be prompts to @ derived quantities that have to be calculated se ‘you in: ee Fe een importar atthese . apts that are to be plotted to identify the relationships between the Pring andes LENO s A level experimental skills and investigations (199ra 4 GB i By a 3 aS a i= « r c i} Fj i 5 iS} = Fy a Fy 5 ry A m This question takes an experiment that has been carried out and has had the results recorded for you. Your tasks are co analyse the results, including: © calculating derived quantities and their uncertainties. ‘© plotting suitable graphs to enable conclusions to be drawn ‘© evaluating the conclusions with regard to the calculated figures and the uncertainties The syllabus requires that you should be able to: © rearrange expressions into the forms y = mx + cy = ax® and y = ah © plot a graph of y against x and use the graph to find the constants m and ¢ invan equation of the form y = mx-+¢ © plot a graph of Igy against Igx and use the graph to find the constants a and, nin an equation of the form y = ax" ‘¢ plot a graph of ny against x and use the graph to find the constants a and k invan equation of the form y = ae How to get high marks in Paper 5 ap -_—___—_—_-ex) To demonstrate the stages in answering a question, its useful to consider a particular question. Suppose the examiner asks you to investigate energy loss and its relationship with the thickness of a specific type of insulation. Before starting you should have in your mind the sort of experiment that you would do to investigate these variables. There is no unique solution. One possibilty isto put heated water ina beaker that has insulation wrapped around it and then to measure the rate of cooling of the water. Stage 1 The independent variable is the thickness of insulation that is used. The dependent variable is the energy lost from the container per unit time, What other variables need to be controlled? Before you read any Further, you should jot down some ideas. Here are some thoughts that you might have considered: maintaining the same mass of water throughout the experiment the temperature ofthe surroundings should be kept constant © the temperature fall during the test should be much smaller than the temperature difference between the container and the surroundings ‘¢ evaporation from the surface of any quid used should be reduced to a iminium Stage 2 ‘The next task is to think about how you are going to carry out the experiment. ‘Once you have a method in mind you need to: ‘© describe the method ro be used to vary the independent variable © describe how the independent variable i to be measured ‘© describe how the dependent variable is to be measured ‘© describe how other variables are to be controlled © describe, with the aid of a clear labelled diagram, the arrangement of ‘apparatus for the experiment and the procedures to be followed (© describe any safety precautions that you would take (700) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIn the experiment to investigate the energy loss through insulation, you may decide that the simplest way of varying the independent variable isto place the ‘test beaker’ inside a series of larger beakers and to fil the space between them with the insulating material, The thickness of the insulating material can then be calculated from the diameters of the different beakers and of the test beaker. ‘These diameters could be measured using the internal jaws of a pair of vernier Glipers. The energy loss could be measured by the temperature drop of the water in a specified time, or better, the time taken for a specified drop. ‘You should then describe how to ensure that other variables are controlled. You ‘might use a top-pan balance to measure the mass of the test beaker and water between each set of readings. You could ensure that the water is at the same temperature each time by heating it in a constant temperature water bath (and then double checking the temperature before starting the stopwatch). What extras might you include to ensure that your investigation is as accurate as possible? This tests your experience of doing practical work. Have you sufficient experience to spot things that would improve the experiment? Some of the ideas in the introduction to this part might be included. You might be able to think of some more: © Choose a temperature drop that is much less than the difference between the starting temperature and room temperature Stir the water in the bath so that itll reaches a uniform temperature. ‘Make sure that the water is at the same starting temperature each time. ‘Make sure that the room temperature is constant. Puta ld on the test beaker to prevent evaporation. Use a digital thermometer so that itis easy to spot when the temperature has fallen to a predetermined value Finally, a simple diagram of the apparatus is required. This wil save a lot of description and can avoid ambiguities. Stage 3 ‘You will probably be told the type of relationship to expect. From this you should be able to decide what graph it would be sensible to plot. In ths ‘example, it might be suggested that the relationship between the variables has the form: ‘where AE/At isthe rate of loss of energy, x isthe thickness of the insulation and @ and k are constants. Taking logarithms of both sides of the equation gives: naé— t+ Ina a Consequently ifyou draw a graph of in (AE/AK) against x it should be a straight line with a negative gradient. The gradient equals k and the intercept on the yaaxis is equal to ina. tigations Fl 2 aS Bs = co] ze & I £ = Fy iS T 9 3 Gi 3) $ a“ Ps ‘You might find it helpful to write ‘out your description ofthe stages as a list of bullet points, rather than as ‘continuous writing, Try t now with ‘this example. 2p -____—_———ez How you tackle this will depend on which relationship the question asks you to explore. The most likely telationships have the form y = ae or y = ax” Relationship y = ae-™ To tackle this type of relationship you need to plot a graph of Iny against x A level experimental skills and investigations (201ra 4 iS « By 3 aS a i= 5 r c rs] Fj = 5 i= = Fy a 3 A ry A fe m 202 Worked example Consider the experiment described in Question 1, Ths able provides a possible set of results. Sucre hick kce Insulation (2)/em | temperature to fall 5.0°C/s 20 10 ian 127 3 148 ‘sa isa (22 In(aragrcs) sradienc = Ay/Ax Hence, k = -013kgand radius (0f3.4 x 10m. The planet may be considered to be isolated in space and to have its mass concentrated at its centre. (i) Calculate the energy required to completely remove a spacecraft of mass 800kg from the planet's surface to outer space. You may assume that the frictional forces are negligible. BI) Gil) A single short rocket burn was used for tthe spacecraft to escape from the surface of the planet to outer space. Calculate the minimum speed that the spacecraft would need to be given by the burn. (1 (©) Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the planet. 2 [Total: 9} (@) Potential is the energy a mass has ata particular point in space. K 2), The student has not picked up on the central point that © prenl refers to potential energy per unt mass. ‘Mark: Of 800 = 667 x 10-" x 64x 107 x = 667 10 x 64 x 10 = 710 x 10°) vx This is quite @ good answer. Unfortunately the student is (Do itte conic aboot the sir. The pote era at the surface is indeed negative, because itis an attractive field However, to give the spacecraft more negative energy suggests that its burrowing into the ground! This mark scheme is strict in that it penalises the presence of the minus, sign. Mark: 213, (0 kinetic energy = Yen? = 1.0 x 10 05 800% 2 = 10% 10° »_10% 108 05x 800 =2510'ms! 0x A good start is made; everything is worked through correctly until at the end, where the square root of the value obtained for v is not taken. Mark: 2/3 64x 10 © = Fn 66 10 = 37 NT S) Once more there is confusion over the minus sign, which assert cespccas. However, penalty otis was applied in part (by), so there is no further penalty. Mark: 2/2 (@) Potential at a point isthe work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to that poi. 7 =) This is a perfect answer. it shows an understanding that © rerentel i exeray perms mas ad mea he el definition in terms of work. Mark: 1/1 0 an Potential energy ofthe body = S07 So, energy that must be given to the body 800 = 667 x 10" x64 x 1023 657 10 X64 x 1 x OE =10« 10" 7 (703) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideThis is an excelfent answer. The explanation is lear and the working is lid out so that its easy to understand. Merk: 313 @ Kinetic energy = Yon? = che energy given for the spacecraft to escape from the planet 05 x 800 xv? = 10x 10° 10x 10" = 05 x 800 v= 5000ms" WA Sy This is another excellent and dearly explained answer. Mark: 313 ee x 10 x SAK Bax OF ‘The minus sign shows that the acceleration is towards the centre of the planet. WW 37 Nkg" Fy This is another outstanding answer, with the added bonus of an explanation of the mesning of the minus ‘sign. Mark: 2/2 cx —___ (@) Explain what is meant by internal energy. (2) (b)0.140m? of helium is contained in a cylinder bya frictionless piston. The piston is held in position so that the pressure of the helium is equal to atmospheric pressure and its ‘temperature is 20°C. (atmospheric pressure = 1.02 x 105Pa) (Calculate the number of moles of helium in the container. i) (ii) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the helium atoms in the container. B} (©) The temperature of the helium is gradually increased to 77°C and the helium expands against atmospheric pressure. (i) Calculate the volume of helium at 77°C. 0 Gi) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the helium atoms at 77°C. (0) (iil) Calculate the energy input to the helium. 2 (Total: 10] (@) Internal energy és the kinetic energy of a molecule in a body. AX The student has some idea that intemal eneray is D connected wth the energy ofthe indvival molecules but makes two serious errors. First, intemal eneray is not just the kinetic energy; itis the sum of the kinetic and potential ‘energies. Second, considering a single molecule only is ‘meaningless because an individual molecule is continually Colfiding and interacting with other molecules, so its kinetic and potential energies are continually changing. Mark: O12 ()H n= 102% 08x 24 ae" S9MOIX This is @ common error. The student has forgotten to (OD convert degrees Celis to Kelvin, Mark O11 G) pV =Nmec’s, soNmec’> = 3pV 102 x 15 x 014 = 42840 7 §= 4-288 _ninojy 2 This is done well. However, the lack of explanation ( reans that it would have been cffiult to award pert ‘marks had there been an arithmetical error. There is no penalty for the extra significant figure. Mark: 3/3 Vp=0539me 7 cf) This is an acceptable method of finding the new volume. However, the mistake of not converting to kelvin is repeated. it has not been penalised a second time, hence the error carried forward. Mark: 1/1 G) pV = ANince*>, soNmce’> = 3p % 102 x 105 0539 = 164934), x 164934 = 82467) 7 & ) This cakeuloted corey, Mark: 1/1 ‘energy inpuc = 82 467 ~ 42840 = 39627) X SS) The student has simply found the differences in the (OD netic energies, and has not recognised that the gas does work in expanding and therefore loses potential energy. Mark: 012 (@) Internal energy is the sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of the partides in the body. A level exam-style questions and answers 5 2 = a ] = I w ce eS =} rd a F od Fa) 2 5 S S ) E o < Cc (20:§ 2 = Gl 3 & 3 Ps 5 oS rd Ef = a = > £ A = s & a 7) S a 9 =) This is an excellent answer. The student has a clear idea (Dorie concept. Mark 22 ©) @ pv=nrT 102 x 105 x 0.140 =n x 8.31 x 293, n= 586 (GM ctettion is comect. Mark: 11 @ & forone atom = 2 3 er =3 x 138 «103 x 293 pila = 607x070 total kinetic energy = energy of 1 atom x number of atoms total & = 6.07 x 10° x 5.96 x 602 1039 = 24x 10) This is done well. This student has used a different method from that used in answer A. The use of the ‘equation & = 2kT is @ good way of solving the problem. V= 586 831 3 = ONY The student has succesfully applied the ide! gas © aration Mark: 1/1 @ Temperature is proportional to E, ratio of temperatures = rato ofthe two B values 350 _ new, BB TKI new E,= 256% 104] 7 Sp) This 2 neat, if shohtly risky, way of doing this © crataton.t might be more orthodox to o trough the E,= kT calculation again. Mark: 1/1 () AU=AQ+AW=AQ+pav ‘AQ= AU ~ pAv = (256 — 214) x 10* — (0140 - 0167) x 1.02 « 108) = $200 + 2750 = 6.95 x 10°) A This is an outstanding answer. The student clearly understands the physics and has worked through the problem sensibly. Notice that AW is negative because the gas does work on the atmosphere, rather than having work done (on itself: Mark: 2/2 c=—____ The pendulum bob ona large clock has a mass of 0.75kgand oscillates with simple harmonic ‘motion. It has a period of 2.05 and an amplitude of I2em. (a) Calculate the maximum restoring force on the pendulum bob. 2) (b)(i) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the bob. 8 (li) State the maximum potential energy of the bob. 1) (0 Ifthe clockis not wound up the oscillation of the pendulum is lightly damped. (i) Explain what is meant by ‘ightly damped’. fol Draw a graph on the grid to show the oscillation of this lightly damped oscillation. p) Displacement {Total: 9} @) F=ma"r F=075x 1? x 12=89NVK The working is reasonably clear and gets the nearly © correct ans, athough ts not quite cee where the 1? comes from (itis «). Unfortunately, in the equation, the ‘amplitude is not converted into metres. Mark: 2 (©) @ maximum speed = wr = mx 12 = 38ems" 7 =05 «075% 38? = 542) 0 Gi) mmgh= Ix This isa repeated error, only this time not converting ‘ems into ms“. This is not penalised a second time, although the student should have realised that the answer obtained is far too lange. The next part is not answered because the student does not understand that the kinetic ‘energy and the potential energy add to give the total energy, which remains constant. Mark: 2/8 06) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(6) Kes amplitude is decreasing x There is some understanding of light damping but the ‘gr@ph is poor. Although the envelope is correct, the ‘question asks for a graph of this particular motion, which indicates some valves are needed — in this case the period. The student does not show the period as 2s but reduces the period as the amplitude decreases. Mark: 1/3 F=-075xn?x 0.12 = -089NW There is clear working here to arrive at the correct answer, with the understanding that the maximum restoring force is at maximum displacement. The inclusion of the minus sign, while not an absolute requirement, shows an appreciation thatthe force isa restoring force. Mark: 2/2 (©) @ maximum speed = wr =m x 0:12=038ms1 7 Ey = Km? = 05 x 0.75 x 0.38 = 0054) A @ 0.054) 4 Sy Once more there is clear working leading to the correct, answer, and then a clear understanding that the kinetic energy is converted to potential eneray. Mark: 4/4 (6) Itis having to do work against something like friction, 50 it gradually loses energy and the amplicude decreases. Displacement The answer shows a clear understanding of damping and the diagram confirms an understanding of ight damping, The correct (and constant) period is pleasing. Mark: 38 cx—_____ (a) When a signal is sent alonga cable itis attenuated. Explain what is meant by the term attenuation. iu} (b) Explain the causes of attenuation in: (i). afibre-optic cable w (i) a coaxial cable (2 (© A cable of total length 50km has an attenuation per unit length of 5.2 dB km-’. Eight repeater amplifiers are connected into the cable, each with a gain of 32 4B. A signal of input power of 600 mW is transmitted along the cable. Calculate: (i)_ the attenuation caused by the cable alone a) the total gain from the amplifiers iu) (iii) the power of the signal after transmission 8) (Total: 9} 5 2 = a ] = I w ce eS =} rd a F od Fa) 2 5 S S ) E o < (@) Attenuation isthe reduction in the magnitude of a signal as, ictravels along a cable X The student has some idea of attenuation but the term © raantuce’ 00 eque here. Acceptable terms would be power, voltage, amplitude, energy. Mark: O/1 (b) @) Some of the signal is scattered in the glass. i) Heating of the cable as the current goes through. “X The student has got the idea that the radiation is (D scattered but has not gone into deta. Nevertheless, there is just about enough for the mark. There is only ane point made in the second part but itis made quite well and deserves the mark. Mark: 2/3 © @ signal attenuation = $0 x 5,2 = 2608 Gi) gan =328= 256680 (il) net loss = 260-256 = 4d8 4 », 4 = 10in Pa 4= ong 04 Po, eM y Mae fi nthe et sage wire the ster ues natural logarithms, rather than logarithms to the base 10, Notice how the student calculates the net loss afong the cable, and correctly puts this in as a negative quantity in the equation. Enough has been done to gain a compensation ‘mark, Mark: 4/5 C vel exam-style questions and answers (207{@) Attenuation is the reduction in the power of signal as ic travels along a cable. 7 This correct description ofetenvation, Mark: 17 (©) @ The lghtyinfrared radiation that caries the information 's scatvered by impurities in the glass. 7 (@ There isa currencin the copper cable. Hence there is heating due tothe electrical resistance ofthe copper #: Energy isako radiated away as the cable acts like an ‘aerial with the varying currencin itv. 2), There are three good points here, all expressed clearly © srévwet explained. Mark: 33 ©) @ signal attenuation = 50 x 5.2 = 260d8/ @ sain = 32x8=256dBv @ nec gain = 256 - 260=-4dB ~6= 101g 10-04 = Pose § 2 = Gl 3 & 3 Ps 5 oS rd Ef = a = > £ A = s & a 7) S a 9 Pog = 239 ~ 240mW / The student has worked through the calculation ira shonitg inctastaning fatimtan te gain (when measured in decibels) Unlike in answer A, the net gaan is calculated, which automatically comes up as a negative figure. Mark: 5/5 x1 = x2 Sx = aa TU* OS Q=36% 10cvx, ite w c= BEDI = 55x 1OFY (ech) This is @ reasonable effort. It is correct apart from the diameter (0.51, rather than the radius (0.25m), of the dome being used. Mark: 2/3 (b) change in voltage = S5kY, therefore: change in energy = KQV = 05 x 3.60x 106 x (65 ~ 12) x 108 = 95 «104 AK The student is taking the energy to vary linearly with the voltage — it varies with voltage squared. The easiest way of calculating the discharge energy isto find both the energy before and the energy after discharge. Then work out the difference between them. A compensation mark is given for the use of the formula ¥QV. Mark: 1 Bx = as?” O25 Q=180« 10°C 180 x 10° 28 x INF, Texan RE Sp These are good, clear calculations, resulting in the correct answers, Mark: 3/3 c=x=D Ar The spherical dome ona van de Graaff generator is placed near an earthed metal plate. Consider the dome as an isolated sphere with all its charge concentrated at its centre. {@) The dome has a diameter of 50cm and the potential at its surface is 65 kV. (i) Calculate the charge on the dome. 2 (i) Calculate the capacitance of the dome. (1) The metal plate is moved slowly towards the dome and it partially discharges through the plate, leaving the dome with a potential of 12kV. (b) Calculate the energy that is dissipated during the discharge. 6) [Total: 7] a) (©) energy before discharge = #QV =05 x 180% 10° x65 x 108 =59% 103] 7 ‘energy after discharge = 4CV? =05 x 28x 10" x (12x 10)? =20x 103) 7 energy dissipated = (5.9 ~ 0.2) x 107) =S7 x 107) 7 The problem is tackled in a logical manner and the (© srerting sence more easy to folow. Mark: Ald (z08) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(2) (i) Explain what is meant by negative feedback in an amplifier. 2 (i) State two advantages of having negative feedback with an operatingamplifier. (2) (b) The circuit diagram shows an operational amplifier as an inverting amplifier. 20ko 1.6ko She Calculate the voltage output when the input voltage is: @) 0.60 rr} (i) 1.8V iy (©) An operational amplifiers used asa ‘comparator to switch a2 KW heater on when the temperature falls below a specified temperature. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how the ‘output from the operational amplifier could be used to switch on the heater. You do not need to draw the op-amp circuit. 4) [Total: 11] pon (@) @ Some ofthe outputs fed back to the input. The student has some idea of feedback but does not refer to its negative aspect. The use of the term ‘fed back’ to describe feedback is not wise, as it paraphrases the question. The benefit of the doubt is not given, Mark: O12 (i) Theres ess dstortion due to the opamp sacurating ¥. There fs a wider frequency range X Sy, The first point is correct but the second part is unclear Does it mean that there is a wider bandwidth or that there is more consistent amplification over a wider frequency range? Merk: 1/2 Vege = AV = 125 x 06 Vou =AVn = 125 x 18= 225VX The student misses the idea of the inverting amplifier (Sand aives the gan a a postive number. This feeds through the answers. The fact that the amplifier saturates when the input voltage is 1.8V is not recognised. Mark: 13 © Toheater 4 z Gi ] = I w ce 3 =| rd a F od Fa) 2 5 S S ) E o < The heater would require larger power input than the ‘op-amp can supply vA relay is used to switch the heater, which isrun from a high-power circuit. The diodes are used to protect the op-amp v-. This is quite good. A little more detail on how the {D dectes protect the operational amplifier would make the answer excellent. Mark: 3/4 (@) @ Some ofthe outpur thats cut of phase with the input ‘returned to the input “7 This is a good, succinct answer that includes the (D esatve notre ofthe feedback Mark: 22 or) (B) There sa more consistenc gain over a wider range of frequencies and there is less distortion due tothe op- amp saturating. “7 This is a fully correct answer, which includes both the relevant points. Mark: 212 in —25¢ 0 gan =F Bas, Yaa = AVq = 125 x06=-I5 V7 @ ou = AV = 125 x 18=-225V uc the supply voltage f:+15V so the opamp saturates and the outputis -15V. 7 Gp tetainetsoe ints etse A level exam-style questions and answe= Cy ry re o o ” fy = a = > Fa a S 4 GC o > J 4 (10 “The heater would require a larger power input than the ‘opamp can supply vA relay is used to switch the heater, which is run froma separare high-power circuit. The diodes are used to protect the op-amp w because a large back emf isinduced across the ends of the relay col when it ‘opens ¥- This fall answer explains why the diodes are necessary. (Dre student might hove gone on to explain the logic of how the diodes protect the op-amp. A mark has been ‘awarded forthe correct diagram. However, there are only 4 ‘marks for this part-question and three further relevant points have been made already. Mark: 4/8 =p—____ (@) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. 2) (b)An aeroplane is flying at a steady altitude ina direction perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic axis. The Earth's magnetic field has a flux density of 34 uT and it makes an angle of 60° with the Earth’s surface. The wingspan of the aeroplane is 42 m and itis travelling at a speed of 180ms". (i) Calculate the exm-f. induced across the wings of the aeroplane. B) Explain why this e.m.. could not drive a current through a conductor connected across the wingtips of the aeroplane. —_[1) State and explain the effect on the e.m.. across the wingtips if the aeroplane were travelling parallel to the Earth’s magnetic avis. 2 (Total: 8] (i) (@) An induced emis equal ro the rate of cutting magnetic Flax ver Dy The student has some concept of Faraday’s law. The (D ces of cutting farsa useful model athough it could bbe argued that it excludes a change in fix density. Another fault i that it does not include the idea of flux inkage, which Includes the number of tums in a coil. This definition only really caters for a single wire in the field. Nevertheless, the examiner has given the student the benefit of the doubt. Mark: 2/2 (b) @ E=BAsing@ E = 34x 10-6 x 180 « 42 x sin 30 = O13V SKK This is not explained well. The student has worked out the area swept out by multiplying the speed by the wingspan but has used the incorrect angle. It is the vertical ‘component that induces the e.m.. across the wings, not the horizontal component. 13 (ii) The voltage is too small to drive a meaningful e The student has not spotted the fact that the conductor would have to move along with the aeroplane. Mark: O/1 ‘There would beno voltage as the aeroplane would be flying parallel ro the flux XX 3) ts the vertical component of the field that induces an enn cams the wings The hrkzontal eanponent would induce an e.mf. between the top and the bottom of the aeroplane, Mark: 0/2 Eira) (2) The magnicude of an induced ems, fs equal to the rate of change of magnetic fu linkage. ¥o/ This is a textbook definition that includes all the relevant points. Mark: 22 a 2 area swept out per unit time = = 73607 vertical component of the fux induces this em = Bsinsov E= 7560 34% 10x sineo Mesne = 42x 180 =02Ve This is done well. The student shows each stage of the calculation clearly. Mark: 313 Answer B. (b) (The conductor would aso travel through the magnetic field and therefore have the same em£ induced across iv (@ Ti eaednemiee Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(©) Gi) There would be no change vcs the vertical component that induces the field across the wing 7 The student has spotted the important factor and explained it concisely. Mark: 2/2 (@) Electrons are accelerated through a potential difference of 4.8keV. Calculate the velocity of the electrons. B) Ina different experiment, electrons travelling at a speed of 2.8 x 10’ms"" enter a uniform magnetic field perpendicularly to the field. The magnetic field has a flux density 4.0 mT. (b)(i)_ Explain why the electrons travel in a circular path in the magneticfield. [2] (ii) Calculate the magnitude of the force on the ‘electrons due to the magneticfield. (2) (iii) Calculate the radius of the circular path of the electrons. PR) (@) Asthe electrons travel through the field they gradually lose energy. State and explain the effect of this on the radius ofthe path. [2] [Totals 11] 16x 10" x 48 =768% 10-9) x 6B x 10"? =05 x 91 107" x v2 768 x10 JOS x 91x 107 = 13x 10'ms'W¥ (ech) This s @ good effort, although the student forgot to change kilovolts to volts. The work is set out reasonably well although it would be improved by induding the ‘expression for kinetic eneray. Nevertheless, it is easy to spot the mistake, so only 1 mark is lost. Mark: 2/3 (8) @) The force is at right angles to the velocity ¥/s0 the ‘motion is circular. Sy The student scores the first mark for recognising that the force at right angles to the velocity but does not develop the argument. Mark: 1/2 Iv = 4.0 x 103 x 16 x 10° x 28 x 107 217% 10™NW This partis cone well and scores both marks. Mark: 2/2 Conny 6 r= x 179 10-4 =H x91 109 pannsta PER 590% 281 The formulas wrong. The student has aed in a, (D a itiewere kinetic energy. This ia serious err, showing a failure to understand the ptysics, so both marks are lost. Mark: 012 (©) The radius is reduced / because it decreases when the velocity decreases X. The student recognises that the radius decreases — (OD paras te result is remembered frm the experiment being carried out during the course. However, the reasoning simply repeats what has been said already. Mark: 1/2 roe () energy ofthe electrons = eV = 16 x 10" x 48x 108 =768x 10") B= hm? 591 103 xy? = 41x 10'ms* = 41 Wms WA ap This is 2 clear, well set out and correct calculation. Mark: 313 () @) The force is at right angles to the velocity of the electrons, so there is no change in the magnitude of ‘the velocity. As the direction of the velocity changes, 's0 does the force direction, always remaining at right angles to the velocity. The magnitude of the velocity. remains constant. A/ Qe et te eer iat than answer A, explaining how the direction of the force changes continuously as the veloaty direction changes. Mark: 212 0% 103 x 16 x 10-9 x 28x 107 179 x 10"*N This shows good, clear use of the equation for the force Den scharged partite na mognetc field. The stere uses e for the charge. because itis the charge on an electron. ‘Mark: 212 A level exam-style questions and answers 5 2 = a ] = I w ce eS =} rd a F od Fa) 2 5 S S ) 7} Bs o <§ 2 = Gl 3 & 3 Ps 5 oS rd Ef = a = > £ A = s & a 7) S a 9 ©) @ F r 9910-3 x CBE? y Peal etre CREM eee = 91 10x CEE, = 398 107m vy 179% 10" Sy This bs clear use of the equation for circular motion. Mark: 212 (© Theradiusis reduced because the veloc falls The centripetal force is equal to Bq = rm, thus r= mv/Ba. 8, 4gand m are unchanged 50 ris proportional tou 4 This a well-reasoned argument. Mark: 2/2 cp—____ ‘The Planck constant links both the wave-particle duality of matter and of electromagnetic radiation. @) State the equations that show this duality. [2] (b) Describe the photoelectric effect and explain why it gives evidence for the wave-particle ‘duality of electromagnetic radiation. is} (© @ Aluminium has a work function energy of 6.52 x 10°}. Calculate the maximum. Kinetic energy with which an electron canbe emitted from this metal when electromagnetic radiation of wavelength, 1.80 x 10”? m falls on its surface. (3) State which part of the electromagnet spectrum this radiation is in. ro] [Total: 10] ii) (@) E= hold, A=hip Ix The equations are correct. However, the student has not © crotaied what the symbols mean, 30a marks ost. Mark: 122 (b) The photoelectric effects the emission of electrons from ‘a metal surface when light falls on it X. There isa minimum frequency at which electrons are emitved. flight were waves there would be no minimum ¥; so light comes in packets of energy called photons AX. This is not a good description. The photoelectric effect (D isrot just about vsble ight but about all electromagnetic radiation, so the first mark is lost. The student has some idea of the reasoning but does not explore it very deeply. The comment regarding photons is correct but not really relevant to the argument and requires more development. Mark: 18 3x 108 oP 663% 10x = 1105 x 10 (0) EF = 663% 10% x ay = 1105 x 10 energy ofthe photon = &, + work function = 1105 x 10" + 652 x 10-¥ = 176 x 10-9) AK The student starts off well, calculating the energy of the (D photon and then cect mrtg down the equation. However, not enough cae has been taken in rearanging the equation. Mark: 1/3 Gi) Xraysx You need to know the rough boundaries of the parts of (O ihe electromagnet spect This reation s wel ito the ultraviolet. Mark: Of (a) E=hf where h = the Planck constant, E = the photon energy and f= the frequency of the radiation. # A= hip, where A is the electron wavelength, h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum of the electron. 2) Both are correct. The equation for electromagnetic (D rca can be used with either frequency oF wavelength. The symbols used are explained clear. Mark 22 {(b) The photoelectic effect isthe emission of electrons from a metal surface when electromagnetic radiation falls on itv2 if electromagnetic radiation were purely wave-like in nature then radiation ofall requencies would cause the effect v, However, there s a minimum frequency radiation, hich is different forall metas, below which no dectrons: are emitted ¥: This is called the threshold frequency. The electrons are emitted immediately radiation above the threshold frequency falls on the metal. There isno wait for the continuous wave ro supply enough energy ¥. This is an excellent description. The effect is described D correctly and the points are made dea. The answer is much deeper than answer A. The immediate emission of electrons is explored and there is discussion of the why the pure wave model does not work. Mark: 4/4 (212) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide@@ =" 3x10 63 x 10 x SATE = 105% &, = energy ofthe photon — work function = (11.05 - 652) x 10° = 453 x 10°] W Bag be tte tacosi ek Mk 30 (©) @ Visible light x This isa rare error. The range of wavelength of visible radiation is from about 4 x 10~7m (violet) to 7 x 107m (ed). Mark: O/f {@) Describe the differences between the production of a CT-scan image and the production ofa traditional X-ray image. {] (b)(i) Describe the advantages of an NMRI scan compared with a CT scan. 2) (ii) Explain why it is sometimes useful to produce a combined image from a CT scan and an MRI scan. 2] (Total: 10] (@) An X-ray image is a cwvo-dimensional image formed by shining a beam of Xcays onto 2 photographic plate. CT scanning producesa three- £ A = s & a 7) S a 9 2), The student has the basic idea but does not go on to © crouain the ink between mean velocity ofthe parties and temperature. Mark: 1/2 (b) 10003566 x 10-7 kaw mass of products = 64424 x 10-27 + (2 91 x 10-3) = 6.64606 « 10-7 kg X rmasslost = (1003566 ~ 664606) x 10°” = 33896 x 10g ¥ (ech) = mc? = 33896 x 10 x (3.0 x 10%)? = 3.05 x 10°17) 7 This is a good effort. Unfortunately, the two protons released in the process have been missed. Apart from that omission, the answer shows a clear understanding of the ‘physics. Error carried forward (e.c.f) means that only 1 mark 's lost. Mark: 3/4 Cone) (2) The very large electrostatic repulsion between nucle as they approach to within fusion distances means they must travel at very high speed #. Temperature is proportional to, the mean square speed v- than answer A, Mark: 2/2 This excellent answer takes the argument a step further @Qaley—_—_—_———— mim (b) nec number of procons = 4 ‘mass of four protons = 4x initial mass of protons = 4x 167261 x 10 = 6.69044 x 107g 7 mass of products = 664424 x 10-7” + (2x 91 x 10°) = 664606 x 107 kg mass lost = (669044 ~ 6.64606) x 10-7” = 006438. 10-7kg¥ E= me = 004488 x 10-7 x30 x 1097 =399 x 10% 7 This is worked through in a logical way, with all the \S seeps shown deaty Mars 4/8 (214) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideNow test yourself answers 1 Physical quantities and units 1 time 2 kilogram, kelvin 3 kgm’stat @ p— Nin? kgs peh — (ker) (ms) (m) kgm's? 5 10x10? 6 10x10 2 Measurement techniques 1 383cm 3 125ps 2 202mm 4 0035V 3 Kinematics 1 Similarity: both have the same dimensions or same units. Difference: velocity has direction (ors a vector); speed does rot have direction (sa scala). 2 28ms? 275) 3 ms? 4 a Parabolic or intially horizontal curving downwards ‘towards the Earth, b i 049s fi 140m (139) fii Air resistance negligible in the vertical direction; signficantin the horizontal direction, reducing fight length. 4 Dynamics 1. weight (downwards), upthrust/buoyancy (upwards), fiction (upwards); resultant force = 0 2 a 29ms? b 34x 10°N 3 a Sms! 1b E.before colision = 21 E.aftercollsion = 8.15 inelastic & a Nokgms' & 93kgms? 5 Forces, density and pressure € 216 x 10¢kgms 1 28N 4 346N 2 192Nem 5 667 x 10Pa 3 016kg 6 Work, energy and power 1a 100) b 50) ¢ 50) 2 a 735) b 486) ¢ 249) 3B 188K 10N 7 Deformation of solids Ta 375Nm" 3 64x 103 b 1200) 4 007im 2 38x 10°Nm? 8 Waves Va 591% 107m b orange/yeliow 9 Superposition 1 304ms? 2 345x 104m 3 40x 107m 10 Electric fields 1 224x 10-SN 2 25% 10Vm" (orNC) 3 a Nochange b Doubled 11 Current of electricity 1a ISA b 90W © 1350C d 8100) 2 91% 10%m9 3 a %0N b 436m 12 D.C. circuits 1 -0.6A. The minus sign shows thar the current is away from, the junction, 2 60~(161- 48) =0->1= 2 15H: 3 27% 10'ms? s a (4 a A oy Pa a =) ° 2 Ky 3 FS G) r= = 096A a4 3 645V 13 Particle and nuclear physics 11. Significant amount of two isotopes present (C135 and C1-37) 2 79 protons, 118 neutrons ZBaodb- 4 a Proton changes toa neutron, thus an up quark changes toa down quark with the emission of a positron (a B*) anda neutrino. 'b charge on up quark = He, down quark = —e, B* = +e, charge on neutrino charge before change charge after change = Ke +e + 0= He, hence charge is conserved, PM ane led 14 Motion in a circle 1 21nd 3 a Osrads 2 b 7200N 15 Gravitational fields 1 20% 108N 3 24x 10ms? 2 28% 108}kgt 4 7100s 20hour) 16 Ideal gases 1 20cm? 3 495ms1 2a 29m0l b T7e Now test yourself answers (215.5 = Fd 4 a a 3 2 3 re] S rf Ef cj 2 $ ra 17 Temperature 1 58°C, 331K 18 Thermal properties of materials 1 410) ke" 2. 060kg (dont forget that energy é needed to raise the emperatute of the water to 100°C) 3a 25) b 15) 4. The material wil either expand or be compressed, so the potential energy ofthe molecules will ether be reduced or Increased accordingly 19 Oscillations 1 Ws 2 a 025ems* b 16x07} © 16x 07} 3 236cms",204cms 4 Resonance i the large amplitude osilation of an object ‘caused by a diving oscilation of frequency equal to the natural frequency of osllation ofthe driven objec, or 3 multiple ofthe natural frequency. 20 Waves 1a 30%x106H2 b 025mm 2a Wxt0gms’ b 92x04 3 66% 21 Communication Ta 1% H 5x 10% b Transmissions in the microwave region have much wider bandwidths than those in the ‘medium’ waveband. 2a 1001 b 41 3 a 8 b 0095 4 2W 22 Electric fields 1 58x 10-8N 3 24k 2 80x 10'NCT 4 10% 10%m 23 Capacitance 1 a 35mF b 60m) 2 a 750uF b 8600F 24 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits 1 250, assuming the diameter of the wire decreases 2a 20V b Sev 25 Electronics The change in the resistance of strain gauge isa small fraction of the original resistance The opamp can amplify this so that it s more significant. 2 Negative feedback increases the bandwith, causes less distortion of the output signal and increases the stability of the output signal, 3a 16 b -384mVv 26 Magnetic fields 165% 103Nm4 2 324 a1 SSK IOKN fh 82x 10%ms? 1b Acrighe angles to both field and velocity. 27 Electromagnetic induction Toa 196x107 Wd ii 19x 10-3Wb b 14% 10°3Wb 2 as7v 3 47x 10V 28 Alternating currents 1A 4 1000V 2 «ev 5 030A 3 30w 6 030s 29 Quantum physics 1 34x10") 2 50x 10-6) 3 89% 10lHe 4 12x10 5 a 23«10-%m b The neutrons wavelength would be smaller than the electron’ (by a factor of 17000/89 = 1860), because the ‘mass of the neutron is greater by the same factor. 6 aK 30 Partide and nuclear physics Toa 486% 10% kg b 438% 10°) 2. 7a jn Pu Wn + Hse + 2hn 3a 251% 10h? b 2762h (115 days) (16) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide