A Critical Analysis

of the Jhanas
in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
(Print Version)
Henepola Gunaratana

e
DHANET
UD '
B

BO Y
O K LIB R A R

E-mail: bdea@buddhanet.net
Web site: www.buddhanet.net

Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.

 A Critical Analysis of the
Jhã
Jhãnas in Theravã
Theravãda Buddhist
Meditation
by

Henepola Gunaratana

submitted to the
Faculty of the College of Arts and Science
intentionally blank page
of the American University
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Philosophy

1980
The American University
Washington, D.C. 20016

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

 A Critical Analysis of the
Jhã
Jhãnas in Theravã
Theravãda Buddhist
Meditation
Meditation
by
This book is dedicated to my dear parents and teachers.
Henepola Gunaratana

ABSTRACT
This work provides an analytical study of the jhānas, an
important set of meditative attainments in the contempla-
Bhante Gunaratana was born in 1927 in a small village in tive discipline of Theravāda Buddhism. Despite their fre-
Sri Lanka and was ordained at the age of 12 as a Buddhist quent appearance in the texts, the exact role of the jhānas
monk. At the age of 20 he was given higher ordination in in the Buddhist path has not been settled with unanimity by
Kandy in 1947. At the invitation of the Sasana Sevaka Soci- Theravāda scholars, who are still divided over the question
ety, Bhante Gunaratana went to the United States in 1968 to as to whether they are necessary for attaining nibbāna. The
serve as Hon. General Secretary of the Buddhist Vihara So- primary purpose of this dissertation is to determine the
ciety of Washington, D.C. He has also pursued his scholarly precise role of the jhānas in the Theravāda Buddhist pre-
interests by earning a B.A., an M.A., and a Ph.D. in Phi- sentation of the way to liberation.
losophy from The American University. He is the author of
Come and See, The Path of Serenity and Insight, The Jhanas For source material the work relies upon the three principal
and Mindfulness In Plain English. Venerable Gunaratana is classes of authoritative Theravāda texts – the Pāli Tipi;aka,
the abbot and the president of the Bhavana Society, a Forest its commentaries, and its sub-commentaries. To traditional
Monastery and Retreat Centre in West Virginia, U.S.A. canonical investigations modern methods of philosophical
and psychological analysis are applied in order to clarify
the meanings implicit in the original sources.
The examination covers two major areas: first the dynamics
of jhāna attainment, and second, the function of the jhānas

1
in realizing the ultimate goal of Buddhism, nibbāna or fin- ion without achieving mundane jhāna. But supramundane
al liberation from suffering. jhāna pertains to the experience of all meditators who
Regarding the first issue it is shown that Theravāda Buddh- reach the paths and fruits, since these latter always occur at
ism treats the process of jhāna attainment from a philo- a level of jhānic absorption.
sophical perspective which views the mind as a complex of The dissertation also explains the two approaches to medit-
factors alterable by methodical training. The eight attain- ation and shows how they lead by stages to the higher reali-
ments of jhāna – four fine material jhānas and four immat- sations. The supramundane jhānas are examined analytic-
erial jhānas – are examined individually in terms of their ally both in themselves and in comparison with their
components and in their progressive scale of development. mundane counterparts. Also discussed are two additional
Also discussed are the supernormal powers of knowledge attainments connected with the jhānas – fruition and cess-
(abhiññās) resulting from jhāna and the connections be- ation.
tween the jhānas and rebirth. Finally, by means of a canonical sevenfold typology, the re-
Regarding the second issue, the work brings to light several lation of the various grades of liberated individuals to the
significant findings concerning the soteriological function accomplishment of mundane jhāna is investigated. The
of the jhānas. Fundamental to the conclusions in this area conclusion emerges that though liberation from suffering,
is the discovery that the Theravāda tradition distinguishes the ultimate goal of the discipline, is attainable by wisdom
two kinds of jhāna, one mundane (lokiya), the other supra- with or without mundane jhāna, Theravāda Buddhism
mundane (lokuttara). Mundane jhāna, comprising the eight places additional value on liberation when it is accompan-
attainments, belongs to the concentration group of the ied by mastery over the jhānas and skill in the modes of
threefold Buddhist discipline – morality, concentration, and supernormal knowledge.
wisdom. Supramundane jhāna is the mental absorption
immediately concomitant with the higher realizations call-
ed the supramundane paths and fruits, which issue from the
full threefold discipline.
Theravāda Buddhism regards the mundane jhāna as neither
sufficient nor indispensable for reaching liberation. They
are insufficient as they only suppress the defilements and
must be supplemented by wisdom. They are optional rather
than indispensable since they need not be developed by all
practitioners. Meditators belonging to the “vehicle of ser-
enity” utilize jhāna to produce the concentration required
as a basis for wisdom, meditators belonging to the “vehicle
of bare insight” can employ a lower degree of concentrat-

2 3
 CONTENTS

Abstract 1
Preface 6
Chapter one
Introduction 11
Chapter Two
The Preliminaries to Practice 36
Chapter Three
The Conquest of the Hindrances 56
Chapter Four
The First Jhāna and its Factors 106
Chapter Five
The Higher Jhānas 158
Chapter Six
Beyond the Four Jhānas 207
Chapter Seven
The Way of Wisdom 262
Chapter Eight
Jhāna and the Noble Attainments 313
Conclusion 362
Appendices 372
Glossary 381
Abbreviations 395
Bibliography 397

5
 PREFACE constitution of the jhānas, lay bare their inner dynamics,
and see how they contribute to the purification and liber-
The teaching of the Buddha is essentially a path leading to ation of mind which is the goal of the Buddhist discipline.
the cessation of suffering. Central to this path is the prac- Our work draws principally upon the scriptures and exe-
tice of meditation. Meditation may be considered the heart getical literature of Theravāda Buddhism. These sources,
of applied Buddhism, to which all the preliminary stages of composed almost entirely in Pāli, fall into three primary
the path lead and out of which the higher stages flow. One layers of differing degrees of authoritative weight. The first
of the most important aspects of Buddhist meditation is a and most authoritative is the Pāli Canon. This is the Tipi-
set of attainments called, in Pāli, the jhānas. The jhānas are ;aka – the three “baskets” or collections of scripture: the
encountered repeatedly in the scriptural texts of early Bud- Vinayapi;aka, the collection of monastic discipline; the
dhism. They were instrumental in the Buddha’s own Suttapi;aka, the collection of the Buddha’s discourses; and
achievement of enlightenment and recurrently enter into the the Abhidhammapi;aka, the collection of psycho-philo-
course of training he formulated for his disciples – in the sophical treatises. The texts in these collections belong to
stage of the path preparatory to the higher insights, in im- different chronological strata, but a good portion, particu-
mediate association with the liberating wisdom, and again larly of the Vinaya and suttas, can be reasonably ascribed
in the end as a spiritual endowment of the fully liberated to the Buddha himself.
man.
The Suttapitaka was the most useful of the three for our
It is the purpose of the present work to examine the jhānas purposes. This collection is divided into five sections: the
in order to determine their role in the Buddhist spiritual Dīgha Nikāya (long discourses), the Majjhima Nikāya
discipline. The perspective from which they are viewed is (middle length discourses), the SaHyutta Nikāya (topically
that of Theravāda Buddhism, the Buddhist school to which related discourses), the AIguttara Nikāya (numerically ar-
the author belongs as a fully ordained monk. Theravāda ranged discourses), and the Khuddaka Nikāya (miscellan-
Buddhism is probably the oldest continuous Buddhist tradi- eous discourses). We have relied most heavily on the first
tion, maintaining the most accurate record of what the four and parts of the fifth as being the most ancient parts of
Buddha himself actually taught. Theravāda Buddhist medi- the Pāli Canon.
tation, inclusive of the jhānas, has been reliably treated by
The Abhidhammapi;aka gives the appearance of being a
several contemporary writers of scholarly stature. The pre-
somewhat later scholastic attempt at systematization, but its
sent work, however, approaches the jhānas from a different
teachings are fully consistent with the suttas and help shed
angle. Whereas most scholars deal principally with the top-
light on many points requiring precise analysis and fine
ics of meditation and only incidentally with the jhānas
definition. We have found particularly helpful the first two
themselves, in our dissertation we focus primarily upon the
books of the Abhidhamma, the DhammasaIgaJi and the
jhānas as they are in their own nature, treating the topics of
VibhaIga, which in conjunction with their commentaries
meditation only in a summary way. Our approach is psy-
clarify a number of knotty points concerning the jhānas.
chological and analytical, our intent to look into the inner
6 7
The difference between the suttas and the Abhidhamma is held in Burma in 1956. Sinhalese and Devanāgari editions
that between a practical pedagogical approach and a philo- were also consulted when available. Our secondary sources
sophically rigorous one. But the two standpoints are found were English and Sinhalese treatises relating to the subject.
to harmonize and to repeatedly illuminate each other. For the sake of easy cross-reference we refer to
The second layer of Pāli literature is the commentaries commentaries and subcommentaries by their full scriptural
(a hakathā). The commentaries were composed for the titles rather than by their individual names; e.g. we refer to
purpose of elucidating the words of the Tipi;aka and for the commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya as Majjhima Nik-
drawing out their implications. Their origins go back to āya A hakathā rather than as Papañcasūdani, to the !īkā
very ancient times but they were edited and cast into final to the Visuddhimagga as Visuddhimagga Mahā īkā rather
standardized versions in the 5th century A.C. by the great than as Paramatthamañjūsā, etc. Both names for com-
Buddhist commentator Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, who mentarial works can be found in the list of abbreviations of
came from India to Sri Lanka expressly for that purpose. works used.
Fundamental to the entire commentarial collection is Bha- Some words are called for concerning the translation of
dantācariya Buddhaghosa’s own original work, the Visud- material from the original Pāli sources. Whenever a Pāli
dhimagga (Path of Purification), a massive masterpiece text was available in English we have consulted the trans-
which orders the complex field of Buddhist meditation into lation, but in a large number of cases we have found the
an organic comprehensive whole. English renderings unsatisfactory, due either to inaccurate
The third class of Pāli texts we drew upon is the !īkās. The translation or to the use of archaic language. Therefore we
!īkās are subcommentaries, composed with three principal have often preferred to give our own translations indicated
purposes in view: to elucidate difficult points in the com- by the phrase “writer’s translation” (Wr. tr.). Fortunately
mentaries, to explore important side issues, and to system- this procedure was not necessary in the case of the Visud-
atize still further the material of the Tipi;aka. The most dhimagga, which has been excellently translated by the
useful of these has been the great !īkā to the Visuddhi- Venerable Bhikkhu Ñānamoli under the title The Path of
magga, the Mahā īkā called Paramatthamañjūsā, com- Purification. In some instances, where we present a pas-
posed by Ācariya Dhammapāla who lived in South India in sage translated by another writer using different renderings
the 6th century A.C. This same teacher is also the author of for technical terms than those we prefer, we give either our
the !īkās to the Dīgha Nikāya, the Majjhima Nikāya, and own preference or the Pāli terms in brackets following the
the SaHyutta Nikāya. other’s rendering; but where the context makes it clear
what term is intended we leave the passage as it stands. In
For passages from the Suttapi;aka we have principally re- all cases of doctrinally important passages translated from
lied upon the editions of the Pali Text Society. For the the Pāli, by ourselves or others, we give the Pāli original
commentaries and subcommentaries we have used the edit- below in the footnotes. For the convenience of the reader a
ions of the Burmese Buddha Sāsana Samiti, which started Pāli-English Glossary is provided in the back giving our
its work in connection with the Sixth Buddhist Council

8 9
usual preferred renderings of technical terms connected
with Buddhist meditation appearing in the text.
Chapter One
Footnote and bibliographical references to books published
INTRODUCTION
in Sri Lanka use “Ceylon” or “Sri Lanka,” as indicated on
the title page; the latter is used when no country is men-
tioned. The systems of transliteration used in citations of The Doctrinal Context of Jhāna
Pāli texts in the Sinhalese and Burmese scripts are based In the discourses the Buddha says that just as in the great
upon those used by the Pali Text Society. ocean there is but one taste, the taste of salt, so in his doc-
Our sincere thanks are due to Professor David F. T. Rodier, trine and discipline there is but one taste, the taste of free-
Director of the Dissertation, Department of Philosophy and dom (vimuttirasa).1 The taste of freedom that flavors the
Religion, The American University, and to the other read- Buddha’s doctrine and discipline is the taste of spiritual
ers, Professor Charles S. J. White of The American Uni- freedom and it is to the full experience of this taste that the
versity and Professor Cornelia Dimmitt of Georgetown entire teaching of the Buddha is directed. Spiritual free-
University, for reading the dissertation and for making dom, from the Buddhist perspective, means freedom from
valuable suggestions. We are also sincerely grateful to the suffering. The problem of suffering is the wellspring out of
Venerable Dr. Bhikkhu Bodhi who made many very valu- which the whole current of Buddhist teaching arises; free-
able suggestions and helped polish the style and structure dom from suffering is the end towards which it moves.
of the work. Last but not least we must sincerely thank Dr. Thus the Buddha could say throughout his ministry: “Pre-
Hazel Marie Griffin for her kind hospitality and valuable viously, monks, as also now I make known only suffering
suggestions in arranging the footnotes and bibliography. and the cessation of suffering.”2 (Wr. tr.).

1. Richard Morris and E. Hardy, eds. The A*guttara-Nikaya. [Pt. 1: Ekanipāta,

Dukanipāta, and Tikanipāta, edited by Richard Morris. 2d ed. Revised by A. K.
Warder; pt. 2: Catukka-Nipāta, edited by Richard Morris; pt. 3: Pañcaka-
Nipāta and Chakka-Nipāta, edited by E. Hardy; pt. 4: Sattaka-Nipāta, A haka-
Nipāta, and Navaka-Nipāta, edited by E. Hardy; pt. 5: Dasaka-Nipāta and Ekā-
dasaka-Nipāta, edited by E. Hardy; pt. 6: Indexes by Mabel Hunt; Revised and
edited by C. A. F. Rhys Davids]. (Pali Text Society [Publications], vols. 10, 20,
35, 44, 46, 66. 6 vols. 1885-1910; reprint ed., London: Luzac & Co., 1956-67),
4:203 (hereafter cited as AN.).
2. “Pubbe cāhaH bhikkhave etarahi ca dukkhañceva paññapemi dukkhassa ca
nirodhaH.” V. Trenckner and Robert Chalmers, eds., The Majjhima-Nikāya.
[Vol. 1: edited by V. Trenckner; vols. 2-3: edited by Robert Chalmers; vol. 4:
Index of Words, edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids]. (Pali Text Society [Publications],
vols. 17, 39, 45, 47, 51, 99. 6 vols in 4, 1888-1925; reprint, 4 vols.; London:
Luzac & Co., 1960-64) 1:140 (hereafter cited as MN.).

10 11
This focal concern with the issue of suffering is evident truth of the path, prescribes its practical regimen. This regi-
from the formula of the four Noble Truths.1 The doctrine of men focusses upon personal experience. The Buddha does
the Four Noble Truths deals entirely with the problem of not come into our midst as a savior descended from on
suffering, looked at from four different angles. The first high. He comes as an enlightened teacher, a man who has
Noble Truth exposes the forms and the range of suffering. found the way to the end of suffering and who points the
It shows suffering to be an inextricable ingredient of life it- way out to others. The path itself every man must follow for
self, tied on the physical side to the vital processes of birth, himself. It is each man’s own delusions and defilements
aging, sickness and death, cropping up on the psycho- that chain him to the cycle of suffering, and again each
logical side as sorrow, grief, dejection, and despair. Suffer- man’s own efforts at inner purification that pave the road to
ing, moreover, in the Buddha’s picture of the world, be- his deliverance. Since bondage ultimately springs from ig-
comes multiplied to infinite proportions due to the fact of norance (avijjā) the key to liberation, for Buddhism, is
rebirth. The cycle of pain and sorrow does not turn only found in wisdom (paññā), a wisdom which must be gener-
once; for all but the enlightened it turns over and over ated inwardly as an immediate personal understanding of
through beginningless time in the form of sa,sāra, the the basic truths of existence. The Dhamma is paccata,
round of repeated becoming. veditabbo viññūhi, (to be realized by the wise within them-
Having exposed the range and modes of suffering in the selves).
First Noble Truth, in the remaining three the Buddha points It is because personal realization of truth is needed to reach
out the cause of suffering, its cessation, and the way to its the end of suffering that meditation assumes a position of
cessation. The cause is craving, the insatiable drive for en- such crucial importance in the Buddhist formulation of the
joyment and existence that keeps the wheel of rebirths in liberating path. Meditation, for Buddhism, is the means of
constant motion. The cessation of suffering is the reversal generating the inner understanding required for deliverance
of this genetic relation, the complete abandoning and de- from suffering. Its diversity of techniques stems from the
struction of craving. The way to the end of suffering is the differences in the people to be taught, but its purpose and
middle way of ethical and mental training that avoids all procedure is the same for all: to produce that purity of mind
extremes of conduct and views – the Noble Eightfold Path and clarity of vision needed for the liberating wisdom to
made up of right view, right intention, right speech, right arise.
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and
The methods of meditation taught in the Pāli Buddhist tra-
right concentration.
dition are based on the Buddha’s own experience, forged by
Whereas the first three truths provide the doctrinal per-
him in the course of his own quest for enlightenment. They
spective of the Buddha’s teaching, the fourth truth, the
are designed to re-create in the disciple who practices them
the same essential discovery the Buddha himself made
1. Hermann Oldenberg, ed. The Vinaya Pi akam: One of the Principal Buddhist
Holy Scriptures in the Pali Language. (Pali Text Society [Publication Series],
when he sat beneath the Bodhi tree – the discovery of the
vols. 147-48, 160-62. 5 vols., London: Luzac & Co., 1879-1964), 1:10ff (here- Four Noble Truths.
after cited as Vinp.).

12 13
The various subjects and methods of meditation expounded Davids offers “rapture” and “ecstasy,” which suggest a de-
in the Pāli scriptures divide into two inter-related systems. gree of elation and exuberance inappropriate to the higher
One is called the development of serenity (samathabhā- jhānas. F. L. Woodward’s “musing” is too weak and archa-
vanā), the other the development of insight (vipassanā- ic, while Edward Conze’s “trance” misleadingly implies a
bhāvanā). The former also goes under the name of the de- sub-normal state, quite the opposite of jhāna. The word
velopment of concentration (samādhibhāvanā), the latter “absorption,” used by the Venerables Soma Thera, Nyāna-
under the name of the development of wisdom (paññā- ponika Thera, and others, is the most suitable of the lot, but
bhāvanā). The practice of serenity-meditation aims at de- that is needed for the Pāli appa1ā, which includes the
veloping a calm, concentrated, unified state of conscious- jhānas and corresponds closely to “absorption” in literal
ness as a means of experiencing inner peace and for meaning. For obvious reasons, therefore, we prefer to leave
generating wisdom. The practice of insight-meditation aims the Pāli jhāna untranslated.
at gaining direct understanding of the real nature of phe- The jhānas themselves are states of deep mental unification
nomena. Of the two, the development of insight is regarded characterized by a total immersion of the mind in its object.
by Buddhism as the essential key to liberation, the direct They result from the centering of the mind upon a single
antidote to the ignorance underlying bondage and suffering. object with such a degree of attention that inner verbaliz-
Whereas serenity-meditation is recognized as common to ation, the discursive function of thought, is arrested and
both Buddhist and non-Buddhist contemplative disciplines, eventually silenced, brought to a stop.
insight meditation is held to be the unique discovery of the
The members of the fourfold set of jhānas are named sim-
Buddha and an unparallelled feature of his path. However,
ply after their numerical position in the series: the first
because the growth of insight presupposes a certain degree
jhāna, the second jhāna, the third jhāna, and the fourth
of concentration (samādhi), and serenity-meditation serves
jhāna. The four appear repeatedly in the suttas described by
to secure this concentration, the development of serenity
a stock formula showing their process of attainment:
claims an incontestable place in the Buddhist meditative
process. Together the two types of meditation work to make Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, quite secluded from sense
pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind,
the mind a fit instrument for enlightenment. With his mind
enters and dwells in the first jhāna, which is accompa-
unified by means of the development of serenity, made nied by applied thought and sustained thought with
sharp and bright by the development of insight, the medita- rapture and happiness born of seclusion.
tor can proceed unobstructed to reach the end of suffering.
With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained
Focal to both systems of meditation. though belonging in- thought he enters and dwells in the second jhāna,
herently to the side of serenity, is a set of meditative attain- which has internal confidence and unification of mind,
ments called the four jhānas. The Pāli word jhāna has been is without applied thought and sustained thought, and
rendered by translators into English in various ways. The is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentra-
tion.
Venerable Bhikkhu Ñānamoli and I. B. Horner have used
“meditation,” which to us seems too general. T. W. Rhys
14 15
 With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanim- recting his mind to the threefold knowledge that issued in
ity, mindful and discerning; and he experiences in his his enlightenment.1 Throughout his active career the four
own person that happiness of which the noble ones say: jhānas remained “his heavenly dwelling” (dibbavihāra) to
‘Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful’ –
which he resorted in order to live happily here and now.2
thus he enters and dwells in the third jhāna.
His understanding of the corruption, purification and
With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the emergence in the jhānas, liberations, concentrations, and
previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and
meditative attainments is one of his ten powers which en-
dwells in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-nor-
pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equan- able him to turn the matchless wheel of the Dhamma.3 Just
imity.1 (Wr. tr.). before his passing away the Buddha entered the eight at-
tainments in direct and reverse order; the passing away it-
As this passage indicates, the mind entering upon the
self took place directly from the fourth jhāna.4
jhānas draws inwardly more deeply into itself – away from
the sense objects impinging on the senses from the external The Buddha is constantly seen in the suttas encouraging his
world, upwards to a level of heightened awareness, calm, disciples to develop jhāna. The four jhānas are invariably
and purity far surpassing that of discursive thought. included in the complete course of training laid down for
disciples.5 They figure in the training as the discipline of
The Importance of Jhāna higher consciousness (adhicittasikkhā), right concentration
(sammā samādhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path, and the fac-
The importance of the jhānas in the Buddhist path to deliv-
ulty and power of concentration (samādhindriya, samādhi-
erance can readily be gauged from the frequency with
bala). Though a vehicle of dry insight can be found, indica-
which they are mentioned throughout the suttas. The
tions are that this path is not an easy one, lacking the aid of
jhānas figure prominently both in the Buddha’s own ex-
the powerful serenity available to the practitioner of jhāna.
perience and in his exhortations to disciples. In his child-
The way of the jhāna attainer seems by comparison
hood, while attending an annual ploughing festival, the fu-
smoother and more pleasurable.6
ture Buddha spontaneously entered the first jhāna. It was
the memory of this childhood incident, many years later af- The Buddha points to the bliss of the jhānas as his alternat-
ter his futile pursuit of austerities, that revealed to him the ive to sense pleasures. He says:
way to enlightenment during his period of deepest despon- There are, Cunda, four pursuits of pleasure which lead
dency.2 After taking his seat on the banks of the Nerañjarā, to ultimate disenchantment, dispassion, cessation,
the Buddha entered the four jhānas immediately before di- peace, direct knowledge, enlightenment, and nibbāna.
1. Ibid.
1. T. W. Rhys Davids and J. Estlin Carpenter, eds., The Dīgha-Nikāya. 2. DN. 3:220.
[Vols. 1-2: edited by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. Estlin Carpenter; vol. 3: edited
by J. Estlin Carpenter]. (Pali Text Society [Publications], vols. 22, 52, 67. 3. MN. 1:68-83.
3 vols. 1880-1910; reprint, London: Luzac & Co., 1960-67), 2:314-15 (hereafter 4. DN. 2:156.
cited as DN.). MN. 1:182. 5. DN. 1:47-86. MN. 1:175-84, 256-80
2. MN. 1:246-47. 6. AN. 2:150-52.

16 17
 Which four? Here, Cunda, secluded from sense pleas- to induce them. Thence the jhānas have received little de-
ures, a bhikkhu enters and dwells in the first jhāna... tailed attention in their own right. The present work at-
the second jhāna... the third jhāna... the fourth jhāna.1 tempts to correct this deficiency by a close-up examination
(Wr. tr.).
of the jhānas themselves. Our primary objective is to deter-
His own disciples live devoted to these four pursuits of mine the precise role played by the jhānas in the Buddhist
pleasure, and for them four fruits and benefits are to be ex- spiritual discipline directed to final deliverance from suf-
pected, namely, attainment of the four stages of deliverance fering. Since the jhānas have the immediate aim of pro-
– stream-entry, once-returning, non-returning, and arahat- ducing a progressive purification of the mind, our handling
ship.2 Just as the river Ganges slopes, inclines and flows to of this general topic proceeds via the working out of solu-
the east, a bhikkhu who develops and cultivates the four tions to two inter-connected problems. One is the question
jhānas slopes, flows, and inclines to nibbāna.3 The Buddha of how the jhānas bring about this purification of con-
even refers to the four jhānas figuratively (pariyāyena) as a sciousness, the other the question of the way and the degree
kind of nibbāna; he calls them immediately visible nibbāna to which this purification contributes to the ultimate goal of
(sandi hikanibbāna), final nibbāna (parinibbāna), a factor Theravāda Buddhism, the attainment of nibbāna. Let us
of nibbāna (tada*ganibbāna), and nibbāna here and now consider each of these in turn.
(di hadhammanibbāna).4
1. The solution to the first problem requires reference to the
analytical and psychological standpoint of early Buddhist
Overview
thought, prominent in all the strata of the Theravāda Budd-
Although the jhānas claim a place of such overriding im- hist tradition. As is well known, Buddhism dispenses with
portance in the Theravāda Buddhist system of meditation, the notion of an enduring self as a unifying principle of ex-
works on Theravāda Buddhist meditation, beginning even perience. Instead of positing a self-identical cognizer be-
with the commentaries, generally subordinate their ac- hind the workings of the mind, the Buddhist thinkers prefer
counts of the jhānas to the subjects of meditation intended to treat consciousness as a complex of mental factors com-
ing together in momentary combinations. The jhānas, as
1. “Cattāro’me Cunda sukhallikhānuyogo ekanta-nibbidāya virāgāya nirodhāya states of consciousness, are therefore regarded in Thera-
upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saHvattanti. Katame cattāro?
Idha Cunda bhikkhu vivicc’eva kāmehi… pa;hamaH jhānaH upasampajja vi- vāda Buddhism as congeries of evanescent factors. The
harati… dutiyaH jhānaH… tatiyaH jhānaH… catutthaH jhānaH…” task confronting us is to investigate this analytical approach
DN. 2:131-32.
to the understanding of the jhānas. We must see how these
4. Ibid.
meditative states have been dissected into multiple compo-
5. M. Léon Feer, ed. The Sa,yutta-Nikāya of the Sutta-Pi aka. [Pts. 1-5:
Sagātha-Vagga, Nidāna-Vagga, Khandha-Vagga, Salāyatana-Vagga, and Mahā- nents, scrutinize the internal relations obtaining between
Vagga, edited by M. Léon Feer; pt. 6: Indexes, by Mrs. Rhys Davids], (Pali Text their factors, and determine how the jhānas link together to
Society [Publications], vols, 8, 19, 25, 31, 42, 56. 6 vols. 1884-1904, reprint.
London: Luzac & Co., 1960-70), 5:308 (hereafter cited as SN.).
purify and refine the level of conscious awareness.
6. AN. 4:453-54.

18 19
These issues are addressed principally in Chapters II Chapter V we will explore at length the dynamics of this
through VI of our treatise. In these chapters we will see the gradual purification of consciousness, discussing not only
attainment of jhāna to be a dynamic process by which the the jhāna factors present in each higher jhāna but also the
mind is gradual1y purified of its taints. In Chapter II we new elements that come to prominence with the ascending
take a look at certain preliminaries which must be fulfilled refinement of awareness. Having discussed the higher
as preparation for the practice of meditation. Then in Chap- jhānas and their factors, we will close this chapter with
ter III we turn to examine the process of jhāna attainment some remarks on the relation between the tetradic scheme
itself. The attainment of jhāna, we will see, starts with the of jhānas found in the suttas and a pentadic scheme found
elimination of the defilements obstructing mental collect- in the Abhidhamma.
edness, grouped together as the five hindrances, (pañcanī- Beyond the four jhānas lies another fourfold set of higher
vara1a): sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restless- meditative states which deepen the element of serenity de-
ness and worry, and doubt.1 In this chapter we will examine veloped in the jhānas. These attainments, known as the
the five hindrances both collectively and individually, de- immaterial states (āruppā) because they correspond onto-
termine the extent to which they must be overcome as a logically to the immaterial realms of existence, are the base
prerequisite for entering the jhānas, and discuss the meth- of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness,
ods laid down in the Pāli texts for bringing about their the base of nothingness, and the base of neither perception
elimination. nor non-perception.1 In the Pāli commentaries this set
In Chapter IV we consider the first jhāna in terms of its comes to be called the four immaterial jhānas (arūpaj-
positive factors of endowment. These are principally the jhāna), the four preceding stages being renamed, for the
five components – applied thought, sustained thought, rap- sake of clarity, the four fine material jhānas (rūpajjhāna).
ture, happiness, and one-pointedness2 – called the jhāna Often the two sets are joined together under the collective
factors because they lift the mind to the level of absorption title of the eight jhānas or the eight attainments (a ha
and remain in the first jhāna as its defining constituents. samāpattiyo).
The five factors will be examined individually in detail, In the first part of Chapter Vl we examine the immaterial
then we will see how, together with the other mental phen- jhānas, viewing them in terms of their internal structure
omena present in the jhāna, they function to bring about and sequence of attainment. The second part of the chapter
the mind’s absorption in its object. deals with certain super-normal powers of knowledge,
After reaching the first jhāna the ardent meditator can go called the abhiññās, that become available with the mas-
on to reach the higher jhānas. This is done by eliminating tery of the eight jhānas. Then we close the chapter with
the coarser factors in each jhāna, those that remain being in some remarks on the cosmological implications of the
each case the defining factors of the successive jhānas. In

1. In Pāli: Kāmacchanda, byāpāda, thīnamiddha, uddhaccakukkucca, vicikicchā. 2. In Pāli: Ākāsānañcāyatana, viññāJañcāyatana, ākiñcaññāyatana, nevasaññā-
1. In Pāli: Vitakka, vicāra, pīti, sukha, ekaggatā. nāsaññāyatana.

20 21
jhānas, considered in connection with the doctrines of In Chapter VII, therefore, we consider the nature of wis-
kamma and rebirth. dom and its relation to the cultivation of the jhānas. We
2. Since the refinement of consciousness produced by the will here deal with the two vehicles of serenity and insight
jhānas is not pursued as an end in itself, but remains sub- and the way concentration is developed in each. Then we
ordinated to the goal of liberation from suffering, the inves- will outline the seven stages of purification in terms of
tigations of these early chapters lead directly into our sec- which the Theravāda tradition has ordered the successive
ond area of concern, the precise function the jhānas stages of the path to liberation.
exercise in accomplishing the goal of the Buddhist path. In Chapter VIII we turn to the relation between the jhānas
The question whether or not the jhānas are needed to attain and the higher attainments that result when wisdom
nibbāna is a problem which has long vexed scholars of reaches full maturity. Here we bring to the fore a distinction
Theravāda Buddhism. Some insist that they are absolutely between two levels at which the jhānas can occur – the
necessary, others that they can be entirely dispensed with; mundane (lokiya) and the supramundane (lokuttara). This
both sides claim equal canonical support for their positions. distinction, we will see, is of paramount importance for re-
The controversy has been further complicated by the recog- solving the controversy over the question as to whether or
nition the Theravāda tradition gives to two approaches to not the jhānas are needed for the attainment of deliverance.
the development of the path – one, the “vehicle of serenity” Briefly, the mundane jhānas are states of deep concentrat-
(samathayāna), emphasizing the attainment of the jhānas, ion and serenity pertaining to the preliminary stage of the
the other, the “vehicle of insight” (vipassanāyāna), appar- path, helping to provide the base of concentration needed
ently de-emphasizing them. In the light of this distinction for wisdom to arise. The supramundane jhānas are the lev-
of vehicles it becomes incumbent upon us to determine ex- els of concentration pertaining to the four stages of enlight-
actly to what extent jhāna is required to fulfill the devel- enment called the supramundane paths (lokuttaramagga)
opment of the path. We must clarify the differences be- and to their consequent stages of deliverance resulting from
tween the two vehicles, show the different-kinds of jhāna, them, the fruits (phala).1 In this chapter we will explore in
define the place of the jhānas in each vehicle, and explain detail the differences between the two kinds of jhāna and
why, to the extent that jhāna is not absolutely necessary, its the relations of both to the paths and fruits. Then we will
attainment should still be regarded in Theravāda Buddhism take a look at two special higher meditative attainments –
as desirable and worthy of the effort required. the attainment of fruition and the attainment of cessation –
These issues will be dealt with principally in Chapters VII available only to noble persons standing on the higher pla-
and VIII. The practice of serenity meditation, as we men- nes of liberation. Finally we turn to another question long
tioned already, has the primary purpose of providing a ba-
sis for the development of wisdom, which alone has the 1. The four paths are the path of stream-entry (sotāpattimagga), the path of the
once-returner (sakadāgāmimagga), the path of the non-returner (anāgāmi-
power to actually eradicate the fetters. magga), and the path of arahatship (arahattamagga) they will be explained at
length below. The fruits are named after their respective paths, i.e. the fruit of
stream-entry, etc.

22 23
debated in Theravāda Buddhist circles – the extent to which thus he destroys and eradicates them” hence this state (lok-
the noble persons possess the jhānas in their mundane uttara jhāna) is said to be jhāna in the sense of ‘to burn’.” 1
form. We will close our examination with some remarks on Buddhaghosa says that jhāna has the characteristic mark of
the place of the jhānas among the accomplishments of the contemplation (upanijjhānalakkha1a). Contemplation, he
arahat, the fully liberated man. This final discussion will states, is twofold: the contemplation of the object (āramma-
enable us to evaluate the position assigned to the jhānas in 1ūpanijjhāna) and the contemplation of the characteristics
the spiritual discipline of Theravāda Buddhism. of phenomena (lakkha1ūpanijjhāna). The former type of
contemplation is exercised by the eight attainments of se-
Etymology of Jhāna renity together with their access, since these contemplate
The great Buddhist commentator Bhadantācariya Buddha- the object taken as the basis for developing concentration.
ghosa traces the Pāli word jhāna (Skt. dhyāna) to two verb- For this reason these attainments, particularly the first four,
al forms. One, the etymologically correct derivation, is the are given the name “jhāna” in the mainstream of Pāli medi-
verb jhāyati, meaning to think or to meditate. Buddhaghosa tative exposition. However, Buddhaghosa also allows that
explains: “By means of this yogins meditate, thus it is call- the term can be extended loosely to insight, the paths, and
ed jhāna... The meaning is that they cognize a given ob- the fruits, on the ground that these perform the work of
ject.”1 (Wr. tr.). The commentator offers in addition a more contemplating the characteristics. The commentator ex-
playful derivation of jhāna, intended to illuminate its funct- plains:
ion rather than its verbal source. This derivation traces the Here, insight contemplates the characteristics of im-
word jhāna to the verb jhāpeti meaning “to burn up”, the permanence, [suffering and selflessness]. Insight’s task
reason being: “It burns up opposing states, thus it is called of contemplation is perfected by the path, thus the path
jhāna.”2 (Wr. tr.). The purport of this second account is that is called the contemplation of characteristics. The fruit
jhāna “burns up” or eliminates the mental obscurations contemplates the actual characteristic of cessation, thus
preventing the development of serenity and insight. In this
connection a later Pāli commentator, Ācariya Mahānāma,
writes with specific reference to supramundane jhāna: “He
who has this jhāna born in himself burns up the passions;
1. Saddhammappakāsanī, cited in VajirañāJa Mahāthera, Buddhist Meditation
in Theory and Practice: A General Exposition According to the Pali Canon of
the Theravāda School, (Colombo, Ceylon: M. D. Gunasena & Co., 1962),
pp. 24-25 (hereafter cited as BMTP.). “AjātaH jhāpeti jhānena jhānaH tena pa-
vuccati ti attano santāne pātubhūtena tena tena lokuttarajjhānena taH samaIgi-
1. “Iminā yogino jhāyanti ti pi jhānaH… gocaraH vā cittentī ti attho.” puggalo ajātameva taH taH kilesaH jhāpeti dahati samucchindati. Tena kāra-
Buddhaghosa, [Vinaya-A hakathā (Samanta Pāsādika)], [Vols. 1-2:] Pārāji- Jena taH lokuttaraH jhānanti pavuccati ti attho.” Mahānāma, [Pa;isam-
kaka1da A hakathathā [vol. 3:] Pācityādi A hakathā; [vol. 4:] Cu3avaggādi bhidāmagga A;;hakathā Saddhammapakāsinī Nāma Pa;isambhidāmagga;;ha-
A hakathā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. 4 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddha- kathā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script], 2 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana
sāsana Samiti, 1961), 1:116 (hereafter cited as Vin.A.). Samiti, 1958), 1:257-58 (hereafter cited as Pts.A.).
2. “Paccanikadhamme jhāpeti ti.” Ibid.

24 25
 it is called the contemplation of characteristics.1 The Abhidhamma treats one-pointedness as a distinct men-
(Wr. tr.). tal factor (cetasika) present in every state of consciousness.
In brief the twofold meaning of jhāna as “contemplation” It is a universal mental concomitant with the function of
and “burning up” can be brought into connection with the unifying the mind upon its object, ensuring that each state
meditative process as follows. By fixing his mind on the of consciousness takes one and only one object. Those oc-
object the meditator reduces and eliminates the lower men- casions of one-pointedness which go beyond the bare sta-
tal qualities such as the five hindrances and promotes the bilizing of the mind on an object to give the mind some de-
growth of the higher qualities such as the jhāna factors. gree of steadiness and non-distraction are subsumed under
These, as they emerge, fix upon the object with increasing the name samādhi. Thus the DhammasaIgaJi equates these
force, leading the mind to complete absorption in the ob- more prominent types of one-pointedness with a string of
ject. Then, by contemplating the characteristics of pheno- synonyms inclusive of serenity (samatha), the faculty of
mena with insight, the meditator eventually reaches the su- concentration (samādhindriya), and the power of concen-
pramundane jhāna of the four paths. With this jhāna he tration (samādhibala). From this strict psychological stand-
burns up the defilements and attains the liberating experi- point samādhi can be present in unwholesome states of
ence of the fruits. consciousness as well as in wholesome and neutral states.
In the former it is called “wrong concentration” (micchā-
Jhāna and Samādhi samādhi), in the latter “right concentration” (sammā-
In the vocabulary of Buddhist meditation the word jhāna is samādhi).1
closely connected with another word, samādhi, generally As a technical term in expositions on the practice of medi-
rendered as “concentration.” Samādhi derives from the pre- tation, however, samādhi is limited to one-pointedness of
fixed verbal root sa,-ā-dhā, meaning to collect or to bring the wholesome kind. Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, in the
together, thus suggesting the concentration or unification of Visuddhimagga, defines samādhi as wholesome one-point-
the mind. The word samādhi is almost interchangeable with edness of mind (kusalacittass’ekaggatā), and even here we
the word samatha, “serenity”, though the latter comes from can understand from the context that it is only the whole-
a different root, sam (Skt. śam), meaning “to become some one-pointedness involved in the deliberate transmuta-
calm.” tion of the mind to a heightened level of calm that is in-
In the suttas samādhi is defined as mental one-pointedness, tended by the word samādhi.2 Buddhaghosa explains
cittass’ekaggatā,2 and this definition is followed through samādhi etymologically as “the centering of consciousness
with technically psychological rigor in the Abhidhamma. and consciousness concomitants evenly and rightly on a

1. “Ettha hi vipassanā aniccalakkhaJādīni upanijjhāyati. Vipassanāya upanij- 1. Dhammasa*ga1ipāli, [Pāli Text in Burmese script], (Rangoon, Burma:
jāyanakiccaH pana maggena sijjhatīti maggo lakkhaJūpaniijhānanti vuccati. Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961), pp. 19, 92 (hereafter cited as Dhs.).
PhalaH pana nirodhassa tathalakkhaJaH upanijjhāyatī ti lakkhaJūpanijjhānanti 2. Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), translated from the
vuccati.” Vin.A. 1:116. Pāli by Bhikkhu Ñānamoli. (Colombo, Ceylon: R. Semage, l956), p. 84 (here-
2. MN. 1:301. after cited as PP.).

26 27
single object.”1 He calls it “the state in virtue of which con- ing samādhi can be narrowed down in range to signify only
sciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly one factor, the most prominent in the jhāna, namely one-
on a single object, undistracted and unscattered.”2 pointedness, while the jhāna itself must be seen as encom-
Despite the preciseness of this definition, the word passing the state of consciousness in its entirety, or at least
samādhi is used in the Pāli literature on meditation with the whole group of mental factors individuating that medi-
varying degrees of specificity of meaning. In the narrowest tative state as a jhāna.
sense, as defined by Buddhaghosa, it denotes the particular In the second place, when samādhi is considered in its
mental factor (cetasika) responsible for the concentrating broader meaning it involves a wider range of reference than
of the mind, namely, one-pointedness. In a wider sense it jhāna. The Pāli exegetical tradition recognizes three levels
can signify the states of unified consciousness that result of samādhi.1 The first is preliminary concentration (pari-
from the strengthening of concentration, i.e. the meditative kammasamādhi), which is produced as a result of the nov-
attainments of serenity and the stages leading up to them. ice meditator’s initial efforts to focus his mind on his medi-
And in a still wider sense the word samādhi can be applied tation subject. The second is access concentration (upa-
to the method of practice used to produce and cultivate cārasamādhi), marked by the suppression of the five hin-
those refined states of concentration, here being equivalent drances, the manifestation of the jhāna factors, and the
to the development of serenity (samathabhāvanā). appearance of a luminous mental replica of the meditation
It is in the second sense that samādhi and jhāna come clos- object called the “counterpart sign” (pa ibhāganimitta).
est in meaning, sharing to a large extent the same reference. The third is absorption concentration (appanāsamādhi), the
The Buddha equates right concentration (sammāsamādhi) complete immersion of the mind in its object effected by
with the four jhānas, and in doing so allows concentration the full maturation of the jhāna factors. Absorption con-
to encompass the meditative attainments signified by the centration is equivalent to the eight attainments, the four
jhānas. However, even though jhāna and samādhi can over- jhānas and the four āruppas, and to this extent jhāna and
lap in denotation, certain differences in their suggested and samādhi coincide. However, samādhi still has a broader
contextual meanings prevent unqualified identification of scope than jhāna, since it includes not only the jhānas
the two terms. Firstly, behind the Buddha’s use of the jhāna themselves but also the two preparatory degrees of concen-
formula to explain right concentration lies a more technical tration leading up to them. Further, samādhi also covers a
understanding of the terms. According to this understand- still different type of concentration called “momentary con-
centration” (kha1ikasamādhi), the mobile mental stabliz-
1. Ibid., p. 85. “EkārammaJe cittacetasikānaH samaH sammā ca ādhānaH.”
Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga, edited by Henry Clarke Warren, and revised by
Dhammānanda Kosambi, Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 41 (Cambridge, Mass: 1. Anuruddha, A Manual of Abhidhamma, Being Abhidhammattha Sangaha of
Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 68 (hereafter cited as Vism.). Bhadanta Anuruddhācariya, edited in the Original Pali Text with English
2. PP. p. 85. “Tasmā yassa dhammass’ānubhāvena ekarāmmaJe cittacetasikā Translation and Explanatory Notes, translated by Nārada Mahāthera. (Colom-
samaH sammā ca avikkhepamānā avippakinnā ca hutvā ti;;hanti, idaH samā- bo, Ceylon: Vajirārāma, 1956. Rev. 3d ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka (Ceylon): Buddhist
dhānanti veditabbaH.” Vism., p. 68. Publication Society, 1975) pp. 389, 395-96 (hereafter cited as Nārada, Manual).

28 29
ation produced in the course of insight-contemplation on tion, and right livelihood; the group of concentration the
the passing flow of phenomena. factors of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concen-
tration; the group of wisdom the factors of right view and
Jhāna and the Constituents of Enlightenment right intention. Though wisdom is seen as emerging fully
only after concentration has been established its two factors
The principles of meditative training expounded by the are placed at the beginning of the path because a certain
Buddha during his teaching career were organized by him modicum of right understanding and right intentions are
into seven basic categories comprising altogether thirty- needed to embark upon the threefold discipline of morality,
seven partly identical factors. These factors are known as concentration and wisdom.
the thirty-seven bodhipakkhiyā dhammā, “states pertaining
to enlightenment” or “constituents of enlightenment”. The Of the three factors in the morality group, right speech is
seven categories among which they are distributed are: the abstinence from false speech, slander, harsh speech, and
idle talk; right action is abstinence from killing, stealing,
four foundations of mindfulness, the four right endeavors,
and sexual misconduct; and right livelihood is avoiding a
the four bases of success, the five spiritual faculties, the
wrong means of earning one’s living and following a right-
five spiritual powers, the seven enlightenment factors, and
eous occupation. The Eightfold Path operates at the two
the Noble Eightfold Path.1 The four jhānas enter either di-
levels previously referred to, at the mundane level in the
rectly or implicitly into all these sets of training principles, preliminary stages of self-cultivation and at the supramun-
and to appreciate their significance in the Buddhist disci- dane level with the attainment of the four supramundane
pline it will be of value to see how they do so. We will con- paths. This twofold modality of the path applies to each of
sider first the place of the jhānas in the Noble Eightfold its eight factors. The morality factors, considered in the
Path, the most important and inclusive of the seven groups; Abhidhamma as three distinct cetasikas or mental concom-
then we will go on to note briefly their relation to the other itants, arise at the mundane level whenever a person delib-
sets. erately abstains from some case of moral transgression. At
The eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are right the supramundane level the three factors occur simultan-
view, right intention, right speech, right action, right liveli- eously in the states of supramundane path-consciousness,
hood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentra- performing the function of cutting off the tendencies to-
tion. These eight are frequently divided into three broader wards their opposites.
categories: the group of moral discipline (sīlakkhandha), The three factors of the concentration group also receive an
the group of concentration (samādhikkhandha) and the analytical breakdown in the suttas. Right effort is explained
group of wisdom (paññākkhandha).2 The group of moral as four right endeavors: the endeavor to prevent the arising
discipline comprises the factors of right speech, right ac- of unarisen unwholesome mental states, to eliminate un-
1. Note: the original Pāli names for these categories and their members can be wholesome states already arisen, to cultivate unarisen
found in Appendix 1. wholesome mental states, and to increase wholesome states
2. MN. 1:301. DN 2:291-315. MN. 3:71-78. already arisen. Right mindfulness consists in mindful con-

30 31
templation of the four “foundations of mindfulness” (sa- Concentration cannot become absorbed in its object
tipa hāna), namely, the body, feelings, states of mind, and with one-pointedness entirely through its own nature.
mental objects. Right concentration is the unification of the But it can do so when it gains the assistance of energy
mind into one-pointedness through the four jhānas. At the accomplishing its function of exertion and of mindful-
supramundane level right effort becomes the energy factor ness accomplishing its function of non-forgetfulness...
Therefore concentration alone is includeed in the con-
in the paths and fruits, right mindfulness the factor of atten-
centration group by virtue of its own genus; effort and
tion, and right concentration the factor of mental unifica- mindfulness are included by virtue of their functions.1
tion. As we will see, according to the Theravāda commen- (Wr. tr.).
tators concentration in the mundane portion of practice
need not be developed to the degree of the four jhānas. Concentration functions as a basis for wisdom. As the
However, because the stronger the degree of concentration Buddha says: “Develop your concentration: for he who has
the stabler the basis for insight, the jhānas are still com- concentration understands things according to their reali-
mended as guaranteeing the most reliable groundwork of ty”.2 The wisdom group comprises the two factors of right
mental calm. And when the supramundane paths and fruits view and right intention, the former being an equivalent
are attained, consciousness occurs with a force of absorp- term for wisdom proper, the latter its accompaniment.
tion tantamount to the four (or five) jhānas. Thence the Right view is explained as the undistorted comprehension
jhānas are included as components of the Noble Eightfold of the basic laws and truths structuring actuality. At the
Path, entering via the group of concentration. mundane level it consists in an understanding of the law of
kamma, indicating the moral efficacy of action, as well as
Since the concentration group includes the three factors of of the doctrinal contents of the Dhamma – the three char-
right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration, the acteristics, dependent arising, and the Four Noble Truths.
question might arise about the exact inter-relationship of At the supramundane level right view is the wisdom which
these factors. In the CūXavedalla Sutta the Bhikhunī Dham- directly penetrates the Four Noble Truths by “seeing” nibb-
madinnā states: āna, the unconditioned element. Right intention, its com-
The four foundations of mindfulness are the bases for panion in this group, consists in thoughts of renunciation,
concentration, the four right endeavors are the requi- of benevolence, and of non-injury. At the supramundane
sites for concentration, the repetition, development, and level right intention becomes the purified mental function
cultivation of those same states [i.e. mindfulness and
effort] are the development of concentration.1 (Wr. tr.).
1. “Samādhi attano dhammatāya ārammaJe ekaggabhāvena appetuH na sakko-
The commentary to the sutta explains why the three factors ti. Viriye pana paggahakiccaH sādhente satiyā ca apiXāpanakiccaH sādhentiyā
are grouped together under the heading of the last member laddhūpakāro hutvā sakketi… tasmā samādhiyevattha sajātito samādhikkhand-
of the triad: hena sangahito; vāyāmasatiyo pana kiriyato sangahitā honti.” MN. 2:261.
2. Nyanatiloka, Com., trans., The Word of the Buddha: An Outline of the Teach-
ing of the Buddha in the Words of the Pali Canon, (Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist
1. “Cattāro satipa;;hānā samādhinimittā, cattāro sammappadhānā samādhipar- Publication Society. 1959), p. 93 (hereafter cited as Word of the Buddha).
ikkhārā, yā tesaH yeva dhammānaH āsavanā bhāvanā bahulīkammaH ayaH tat- “Samadhim bhikkhave bhavetha. Samahito bhikkhave bhikkhu yathabhutam
tha samādhibhāvanā ti.” MN. 1:301. pajanati.” SN. 3:13.

32 33
free from lust, ill will, and cruelty, which directs the mind sciousness, and the base consisting in inquiry.1 Since these
towards nibbāna and fixes it upon this object. four constituents of enlightenment are said to be supports
The three groups of path factors lock together as inter- for obtaining concentration, and to be directed towards the
related stages of training which work in harmony to accom- abbhiññās and the supramundane attainments, their con-
plish the goal aspired to by the discipline, full liberation nection with the jhānas is evident.2 The five faculties and
from suffering. From this angle the groups are designated powers comprise the five identical factors – faith, energy,
the three training (tisso sikkhā). The morality group makes mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.3 These are each
up the training in the higher morality (adhisīlasikkhā), the classified as a faculty (indriya) in that they exercise domi-
concentration group the training in the higher conscious- nance in a particular sphere of spiritual endeavor and as a
ness (adhicittasikkhā) and the wisdom group the training in power (bala) in that they cannot be shaken in confrontation
the higher wisdom (adhipaññāsikkhā).1 Each of these train- with their opposites.4 The faculty and power of concentra-
ings arises in dependence on its predecessor and provides tion are said to be found in the four jhānas.5 The seven
the support for its successor. Moral training provides the enlightenment factors are mindfulness, investigation of
foundation for concentration, since mental composure can phenomena, energy, rapture, tranquility, concentration, and
only be established when the coarser impulses towards equanimity.6 Jhāna can be fitted into this group explicitly
ethical transgressions are controlled and restrained. Con- as the enlightenment factor of concentration; it is also
centration provides the foundation for wisdom, since clear closely associated with the factors of rapture, tranquility,
perception of the true nature of phenomena requires the pu- and equanimity, which each rise to prominence in the
rification and unification of the mind. Wisdom reaches its course of developing the jhānas.
climax in the four paths and fruits, which uproot the sub-
tlest strata of defilements and issue in final liberation from
suffering.
From the Noble Eightfold Path we can now turn briefly to
the other groups to see how jhāna fits in with their con-
stituents of enlightenment. The four foundations of mind-
fulness and the four right endeavors are identical, respect-
ively, with right mindfulness and right effort of the Eight-
fold Path. Insofar as these are called the bases (nimitta) and
requisites (parikkhāra) for concentration, and concentration
includes the four jhānas, jhāna can be seen to arise from
the training in these two groups of principles. The four 1. SN. 5:249-93.
2. Ibid., 268.
bases of success are the base of success consisting in zeal,
3. Ibid., 193-252.
the base consisting in energy, the base consisting in con- 4. Dhs., pp. 162-67.
5. SN. 5:196.
1. AN. 1:235-36. 6. Ibid., 63-140.

34 35
 And again:
Chapter Two
For one who is morally corrupt, lacking moral disci-
pline, right concentration is deprived of its supporting
THE PRELIMINARIES TO PRACTICE condition... But for one who is morally virtuous, en-
dowed with moral discipline, right concentration pos-
The jhānas do not arise out of a void but in dependence on sesses its supporting condition.1 (Wr. tr.).
the right conditions. They are states of mind which can
come to growth only when provided with the nutriments From these two statements we can see that any effort to de-
conducive to their development. Therefore, prior to begin- velop jhāna in the absence of moral purity is doomed to
ning meditation, the aspirant to the jhānas must prepare a failure, while when moral discipline is fulfilled the con-
groundwork for his practice by fulfilling certain prelimin- dition is laid for the practice to bear successful fruit.
ary requirements. He first has to purify his moral virtue, Moral purity is indispensable to meditative progress for
since virtue forms the irreplaceable support for concen- several deeply psychological reasons. Firstly, moral purity
tration. Then he must sever the outer impediments to prac- is needed in order to safeguard against the danger of re-
tice and place himself under a qualified teacher. The teach- morse (vippa isāra). Remorse is the nagging sense of guilt
er will assign him a suitable subject for developing jhāna that crops up when the basic principles of morality are ig-
and explain to him the methods of contemplation. After nored or deliberately violated. When it arises it brings rest-
learning the methods the disciple must then seek out a con- lessness, anxiety, and self-reproach, which threaten to dis-
genial dwelling and diligently strive for success. In this rupt inner calm. Scrupulous conformity to virtuous rules of
chapter we will examine in order each of the preliminary conduct protects the meditator from this obstacle to his
steps which have to be fulfilled before commencing to de- practice. Therefore the Buddha states that wholesome
velop jhāna. moral principles (kusalāni sīlāni) have non-remorse as their
benefit and reward, non-remorse has joy and rapture as its
The Moral Foundation for Jhāna benefit and reward, and joy and rapture lead to a succession
of purifying states culminating in concentration.2
A disciple aspiring to the jhānas first has to lay a solid
foundation of moral discipline. As the Buddha says; A second reason necessitating a moral foundation for medi-
If a monk should wish ‘May I be one who obtains at tation follows from an understanding of the purpose of
will, without trouble or difficulty, the four jhānas per- concentration. Concentration, in the Buddhist discipline,
taining to the higher consciousness, dwellings in hap- aims at providing a base for wisdom by cleansing the mind
piness here and now’ – he should fulfill the observance of the dispersive, distracting influence of the defilements.
of moral discipline.1 (Wr. tr.). In order for the concentration exercises to effectively com-
1. “Dussīlassa bhikkhave sīlavipannassa hatūpaniso hoti sammāsamādhi…
1. “ĀkaIkheyya ce bhikkhave bhikkhu: catunnaH jhānānaH abhicetasikānaH sīlavato bhikkhave sīlasampannassa upanisāsampanno hoti sammāsamādhi.”
di;;hadhammasukhavihārānaH nikāmalābhī assaH akicchalābhī akasiralābhī ti AN. 3:19-20.
– sīles’ev’assa paripūrakārī.” MN. 1:33. 2. AN. 5:1-7.

36 37
bat the defilements, the coarser expressions of the latter progress in meditation can be made. However, those aspir-
through the instruments of bodily and verbal action have to ing to reach the higher levels of the jhānas, and to pursue
first be checked. Moral transgressions being invariably mo- the path further to the stages of liberation, are encouraged
tivated by defilements – by greed, hatred, and delusion – to take up the more complete moral discipline pertaining to
when a person acts in violation of the precepts of morality the life of renunciation.
he excites and reinforces the very same mental factors his Pāli Buddhism is unambiguous in its emphasis on the limit-
practice of meditation is intended to eliminate. This in- ations of household life for following the path in its fullness
volves him in a crossfire of incompatible aims which will and perfection. Householders can achieve proficiency in se-
render his attempts at mental purification ineffective. The renity and insight, and even reach the supramundane path
only way he can avoid frustrating his endeavor to purify the and fruits. But by way of providing the conditions for lead-
mind of its subtler defilements is to prevent the unwhole- ing the holy life the inadequacy of household existence as
some inner impulses from breaking out in the coarser form compared to the life of renunciation is clearly recognized.
of unwholesome bodily and verbal deeds. Only when he es-
tablishes control over the outer expression of the defile- Time and again the texts tell us of some householder or
ments can he turn to deal with them inwardly as mental ob- householder’s son who, after gaining faith in the Buddha,
sessions that appear in the process of meditation. But the begins to reflect:
relation of morality to concentration is not one-sided, for as The household life is confining, a path for the dust of
meditation progresses it brings about in turn a greater puri- passion. The going forth into homelessness is like open
fication of morality. As the meditator’s mindfulness gains space. It is not easy for one living at home to lead the
fully complete, fully purified holy life, bright as a
in sharpness and duration it brings to light more clearly the
conch shell.1 (Wr. tr.).
hidden springs of his behavior. This enables him to refrain
from subtler types of bodily and verbal transgression and to Then, following such reflections through, he takes up the
aspire for more purified modes of conduct. course to which they point:
The practice of moral discipline consists, negatively, in ab- Sometime later, having abandoned his stock of possess-
ions, great or small, having left his circle of relations,
stinence from immoral actions of body and speech and,
great or small, he cuts off his hair and beard, puts on
positively, in the observance of ethical principles of pro- the yellow robes, and goes forth from home into the
moting peace within oneself and harmony in one’s relat- homeless life.2 (Wr. tr.).
ions with others. The basic code of moral discipline taught
For those inclined to the homeless life of renunciation,
by the Buddha for the guidance of his lay followers is the
Buddhism offers a supporting communal structure in the
five precepts (pañcasīla): abstinence from taking life, from
form of the Bhikkhu-sangha, the order of monks. After
stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and
leaving the household life, therefore, the aspiring meditat-
from intoxicating drugs and drinks. These principles are
binding as minimal ethical obligations for all practitioners 1. DN. 1:60ff. MN. 1:179ff.
of the Buddhist path, and within their bounds considerable 2. DN. 1:60ff. MN. 1:179ff.

38 39
or, if he is free from impediments, will generally seek ad- The Pātimokkha contains 227 rules incumbent upon all
mission into the order, taking first the lower ordination of who receive full ordination into the Order. The rules pro-
“going forth” (pabbajjā) which makes him a sāma1era or vide the backbone of discipline for the monks. Careful ad-
novice, then the higher ordination (upasampadā) which herence to them serves as the foundation of purified con-
makes him a bhikkhu, a fully ordained monk. The monastic duct needed to ensure success in contemplation.1
life, with its emphasis on purity, simplicity, and seclusion, 2. The moral discipline of sense restraint (indriyasa,-
was especially designed by the Buddha to establish the op- varasīla) means exercising restraint over the sense faculties
timal outward conditions for inner progress in the practice in their reactions to their objective fields. The canonical
of his teaching. The foundation for this practice is the train- text reads:
ing in the higher moral discipline. The moral training for
On seeing a visible object with the eye, he apprehends
bhikkhus has been shaped into a scheme called the fourfold
neither the signs nor the particulars through which if he
purification of morality (catupārisuddhisīla), made up of left the eye faculty unguarded, evil and unprofitable
four components: states of covetousness and grief might invade him, he
the moral discipline of restraint according to the Pāti- enters upon the way of its restraint, he guards the eye
mokkha; faculty, undertakes the restraint of the eye faculty.2
the moral discipline of sense restraint; The same is repeated for the remaining sense faculties and
the moral discipline of purity of livelihood; and their objects. The purpose of this training is to prevent
the moral discipline concerning the use of the requi- sense experience from occasioning the rise of the defile-
sites.1 These provide a neat compendium of monastic ments. Because the untrained mind apprehends sense ob-
ethics and a base for meditation. jects through the “signs” or false notions that they are in-
trinsically attractive and repulsive, agreeable sights,
1. The moral discipline of restraint according to the Pāti-
sounds, odors, tastes, touches, and ideas tend to arouse
mokkha (pātimokkhasa,varasīla) consists in scrupulous
craving and attachment, disagreeable ones to arouse aver-
observance of the rules of the Pātimokkha, the code of
sion and grief. To conquer this dualistic pattern of emo-
training precepts promulgated by the Buddha to regulate
the conduct of the bhikkhus. The Buddha describes this as- Vibha*gapāli, [Pāli Text in Burmese script], (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana
pect of moral discipline thus: Samiti, 1958), p. 253 (hereafter cited as Vibh.).
Here a bhikkhu dwells restrained with the Pātimokkha 1. A corresponding code of discipline containing about 350 rules was estab-
lished for bhikkhunis, the original order of Buddhist nuns, but as the Bhik-
restraint, possessed of the [proper] conduct and resort, khuni-sangha has become defunct this code no longer continues with its full
and seeing fear in the slightest fault, he trains himself force. However, there exist in Theravāda lands independently ordained nuns
by undertaking the precepts of training.2 who do their best to live in accordance with the standards established by the
original Pātimokkha for bhikkhunis.
1. For a detailed treatment of the fourfold purification of morality see 2. PP., p. 16. “So cakkhunā rūpaH disvā na nimittaggāhī hoti nānubyañjanag-
Vism., pp. 13-37; PP., pp. 16-46. gāhī, yatvādhikaraJaH enaH cakkhundriyaH asaHvutaH – viharantaH abhi-
2. PP., p. 16. “ldha bhikkhu pātimokkhasaHvarasaHvuto viharati, ācāragocara- jjhādomanassā pāpakā akusalā dhammā anvassāveyyuH, tassa saHvarāya pa;i-
sampanno anumattesu vajjesu bhayadassāvī, samādāya sikkhati sikkhāpadesu.” pajjati, rakkhati cakkhundriyaH cakkhundriye saHvaraH āpajjati.” MN. 1:l80.

40 41
tional involvement, so detrimental to the nascent pool of Reflecting wisely, he uses the robe only for protection
calm forming within his mind, it is necessary for the aspir- from cold, for protection from heat, for protection from
ing meditator to guard his senses carefully in their encoun- contact with gadflies, flies, wind, burning and creeping
things, and only for the purpose of concealing the pri-
ter with objects. By means of vigilant mindfulness he has
vate parts. Reflecting wisely, he uses alms food neither
to ward off the spontaneous impulses to cling to the pleas- for amusement nor for intoxication nor for smartening
ant and reject the unpleasant, replacing them with a de- nor for embellishment, but only for the endurance and
tached equanimity which can look upon all sense objects continuance of this body, for the ending of discomfort,
equally. and for assisting the life of purity: ‘Thus I shall put a
3. The moral discipline of purified livelihood (ājīvapāri- stop to old feelings and shall not arouse new feelings,
and I shall be healthy and blameless and live in com-
suddhi sīla) requires that the meditator avoid a wrong fort.’ Reflecting wisely, he uses the resting place only
means of livelihood. For a bhikkhu this stricture has an for the purpose of protection from cold, for protection
even more exacting application than the right livelihood from heat, for protection from contact with gadflies,
binding on the laity. A bhikkhu intent on purified liveli- flies, wind, burning and creeping things, and only for
hood has to obtain his basic requisites – robes, food, lodg- the purpose of warding off the perils of climate and en-
ings, and medicines – only in ways consistent with the joying retreat. Reflecting wisely, he uses the requisite
principles of the monastic life. He can obtain them either as of medicine as cure for the sick only for protection
alms offerings freely given by the laity or by making re- from arisen hurtful feelings and for complete immunity
from affliction.1
quests on invitation from faithful supporters. It is strictly
forbidden for a bhikkhu to put forth false claims to spiritual By using the requisites after making these reflections, the
achievement as a way of bolstering his prestige in the eyes meditator can avoid the lure of craving for comfort and en-
of the laity. He must also avoid resorting to such methods joyment. Recognizing the material supports of life to be
as scheming, persuasion, hinting, belittling, and so forth as subordinate in value to a spiritual goal, he is able to devel-
ways of gaining his means of subsistence. op the virtues of contentment, frugality, and simplicity with
regard to his physical requirements.
4. The moral discipline concerning the use of the requisites
(paccayasannissitasīla) follows naturally upon purified
livelihood. After obtaining his requisites by righteous 1. pp., p. 31. “Bhikkhu pa;isaIkhā yoniso cīvaraH pa;isevati. Yāvad’eva sītassa
pa;ighātāya uJhassa pa;ighātāya YaHsa makasa-vātātapa-siriHsapa-samphassā-
means, the bhikkhu is enjoined to use them mindfully, cog- naH pa;ighātāya, yāvadeva hirikopīna-pa;icchādanatthaH. Pa;isaHkhā yoniso
nizant of the real purpose they serve in the framework of piJYapātaH pa;isevati, n’eva davāya na madāya na maJYanāya na vibhūsanāya,
the holy life. To help him maintain this understanding, cer- yāvad’eva imassa kāyassa ;hitiyā yāpanāya vihiHsūparatiyā brahmacariyānug-
gahāya: iti purāJañ ca vedanaH pa;ihaIkhāmi navañ ca vedanaH na uppādes-
tain formulas appropriate to each of the four supports – sāmi yātra ca me bhavissati anavajjatā ca phāsuvihāro cāti. Pa;isaIkhā yoniso
robes, alms-food, lodgings, and medicine – are set down in senāsanaH pa;isevati, yāvad’eva sãtassa pa;ighātāya uJhassa pa;ighātāya óaH-
samakasa-vātātapa-siriHsapasamphassānaH pa;ighātāya, yāvad’eva utuparissa-
the texts as subjects for reflection. The standard formulas yavinodanaH pa;isallānārāmatthaH. Pa;isaIkhā yoniso gilānapaccaya bhesajja-
for these reflections are as follows: parikkhāraH pa;isevati, yāvad’eva uppannānaH veyyābādhikānaH vedanānaH
pa;ighātāya abyāpajjhaparamatāya.” MN. 1:10.

42 43
 Cutting off Impediments work of contemplation. If he is intent on full time medit-
ation he should turn his students over to another teacher
After establishing a basis of purified morality, the aspirant and go off by himself.
is advised to sever any outer impediments (palibodha) he
may have that can hinder his efforts to lead a contemplative 5. Building means new building work. This is always an
life. The Visuddhimagga enumerates these impediments as impediment, since it demands time and mental consider-
ation. To sever this impediment the building work should
ten: a dwelling, family, gain, a class, building, travel, kin,
be completed as soon as possible or handed over to the
affliction, books, and supernormal powers.1
community of monks.
1. A dwelling can be a single room, a hut, or a whole mon- 6. Travel is going on journeys. This should be relinquished
astery. It becomes an impediment for those who allow their in favor of a stable residence conducive to meditation.
mind to become excessively pre-occupied with work and
7. Kin means specifically close fellows in the Order, such
business connected with the dwelling, or with the belong-
as teachers and pupils, and close relations such as mother
ings they have stored there. Meditation requires the aban-
and father, who are afflicted with illness. They should be
donment of concern with the comforts and conveniences of nursed back to health as quickly as possible, or their care
residential life. Thus a meditator who finds his progress turned over to responsible persons.
impeded by attachment to his dwelling is urged to relin-
quish it, and to seek a simple, secluded place of shelter 8. Affliction is any kind of illness, which should be dealt
with by taking the appropriate medicines or, if these fail, by
where he can pursue his practice.
persisting in the practice despite the illness.
2. A family means either relatives or supporters. A disciple
9. Books means the study of scriptures. This is an impedi-
who lives in close association with lay devotees develops
ment for those who find the intellectual work of study ob-
emotional bonds which hinder his progress. He is therefore
structive to their meditation. It should be severed by leav-
advised to develop detachment towards them or to shift to a
ing off study and recitation during the period of intensified
location where intimate involvements are unlikely to arise.
practice.
3. Gains are the four requisites. A bhikkhu who achieves
10. Supernormal powers are an impediment to insight, not
fame and distinction may be frequently sought after by lay
concentration, since they are the products of concentration.
people to receive offerings of the requisites. To thank them
As an impediment they can be cut off simply by neglecting
he must recite blessings and preach the doctrine, thus find-
to exercise them and by abandoning concern for their suc-
ing no chance to practice meditation. In such a case he
cess.
should cut off this impediment by leaving his group and
wandering to a place where he is unknown.
Approaching the Good Friend
4. A class is a group of students. A bhikkhu constantly en-
gaged in instructing students has no time to undertake the The path of practice leading to the jhānas is an arduous
course involving specific subjects of contemplation, precise
1. PP., p. 91. “Āvāso, kulaH, lābho, gaJo, kammaH, addhānaH, ñāti, ābādho, techniques, and skillfulness in dealing with the pitfalls that
gantho, iddhi.” Vism., p. 73.

44 45
lie along the way. The knowledge of how to attain the tice of the Noble Eightfold Path.1 On another occasion,
jhānas has been transmitted through a lineage of teachers when his attendant Meghiya prematurely sought permission
going back to the time of the Buddha himself. Each teacher to go off into solitary retreat, the Buddha explained that
passes his store of accumulated knowledge and experience while the mind is not yet ripe for liberation one thing that
on to his successor pupils, thus ensuring the continuity of leads to its ripening is association with good friends and
the tradition. A prospective meditator is advised to avail companions.2 The Buddha in fact describes himself as the
himself of the living heritage of practice by placing himself good friend par excellence who leads living beings to free-
under the care of a qualified teacher. The teacher will as- dom from birth, aging, suffering, and death.3
sign him a subject of meditation appropriate for his tem- The good friend has the task of assigning the pupil a medi-
perament, instruct him in the methods of developing it, and tation subject. The Visuddhimagga points out that to do so
guide his steps along the path. the good friend must possess the proper qualifications,
Unlike other Indian traditions, which focus upon the guru such as being worthy of reverence and esteem, uttering pro-
figure as an embodiment of divinity or a link between the found speech, and having solicitude for the welfare and
disciple and the divine, Theravāda Buddhism has always progress of his disciples. It says that since the Buddha him-
stressed the pedagogic role of the teacher. This much is in- self is the ideal good friend, while he is alive a meditation
dicated by the term selected in the Pāli texts to designate subject should be sought directly from him. But after the
the teacher of meditation, kalyā1amitta, meaning “good (or Buddha’s passing the qualified meditation teachers that
noble) friend.” The teacher is not the path or an incarnation remain may be ranked in the following descending series:
of the divine, equipped with the means to deliverance in his the great disciples that survive him, an arahat who attains
own person. He is essentially an elder friend and guide, jhānas, a non-returner, a once-returner, stream-enterer, an
who gives guidance along the path he has travelled based ordinary man who obtains jhānas, and various masters of
on his superior wisdom gained through personal exper- the scriptures. After learning of a qualified teacher, the
ience. Even the Buddhas themselves can do no more than prospective meditator should approach him and take up
indicate the path; the rest depends on the efforts of the as- residence in his monastery. He should not ask for a medita-
pirant. tion subject immediately upon arriving, but should first
Nevertheless, the importance of relying on a kalyā1amitta perform the duties of a pupil towards the teacher, doing
is strongly emphasized in the Theravāda Buddhist tradition. them with respect and humility. He should pay homage to
When the Venerable Ānanda approached the Buddha and the teacher in the evening and leave when dismissed. Then
declared that it seemed to him that reliance on good friends after ten days or two weeks have passed, he should create
is half of the holy life, the Buddha corrected him with the an opportunity to see the teacher. When all conditions are
words that reliance on good friends is the whole of the holy 1. SN. 1:88.
life, for it is reliance on good friends that leads to the prac- 2. AN. 4:354-58.
3. SN. 1:88.

46 47
favorable, he can explain the reason for his coming. He The forty meditation subjects are distributed into seven
should dedicate himself to the Buddha and to the teacher, categories. They are enumerated in the Visuddhimagga as
then with a sincere inclination and resolution ask for a sub- follows: ten kasi1as, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollect-
ject of meditation.1 ions, four divine abidings, four immaterial states, one per-
The teacher assigns a meditation subject that is suitable for ception, and one defining.1
the disciple’s temperament. The ancient teachers of the A kasi1a is a device representing a particular quality used
Theravāda tradition recognize six principal character types as a support for concentration. The ten kasi1as are the earth
(carita) into which prospective meditators can be classi- kasi1a, water kasi1a, fire kasi1a, wind kasi1a, blue kasi1a,
fied: These are: the greedy temperament, the hating tem- yellow kasi1a, red kasi1a, white kasi1a, light kasi1a, and
perament, the deluded temperament, the faithful tempera- limited space kasi1a. The word kasi1a has the meaning of
ment, the intelligent temperament, and the speculative “entirety” (sakala hena). It is extended to these ten objects
temperament.2 Which temperament prevails in a particular of meditation in that each represents the entire quality ap-
person is determined by previously accumulated kamma. propriate to itself. As used in the manuals of meditation, a
On the basis either of the power of penetrating others’ kasi1a can signify any of three items: first the ma16ala, the
minds, or by personal observation, or by questioning, the circle or other physical object used as the initial subject of
teacher will size up the temperament of his new pupil; then concentration; second the nimitta, the mental image of the
he will select a meditation subject for him appropriate to object obtained from repeated contemplation of the device;
his temperament. and third the jhāna that arises from meditation on the
nimitta. Here kasi1a is used to indicate principally the
The Subjects of Serenity-meditation physical basis for concentration. This can be either a natur-
The various meditation subjects that the Buddha prescribed ally occuring form of the element or color chosen, or an ar-
on different occasions for the development of serenity have tificially produced device such as a colored or elemental
been systematized in the commentaries into a set called the disk that the meditator can use at his convenience in his
forty kamma hānas. The word kamma hāna means liter- meditation quarters.
ally a place of work. It is applied to the subjects of medi- The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in the decom-
tation since these are the places where the meditator under- position of a corpse. These are: the bloated, the livid, the
takes the work pertaining to his calling, the work of med- festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked
itation. An equivalent term occurring in the texts in āram- and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skele-
ma1a, meaning “object” in general, but in this context the ton. The primary purpose behind these meditations is to re-
object focussed on in developing concentration. duce sensual lust by gaining a clear perception of the repul-

1. PP., p. 100. Vism., p. 80. 1. PP., p. 112. Vism., p. 89. The Pāli names for the forty kamma hānas are
2. PP., p. 102. “Rāgacarito, dosacarito, mohacarito, saddhācarito, buddhicarito, given in the Appendix 2.
vitakkacarito.” Vism., p. 82.

48 49
siveness of the body. In order to gain the “sign” of the pajjhāna), immaterial deliverances (āruppā vimokkhā) or
corpses, actual dead bodies have to be seen. Thence these immaterial attainments (arūpasamāpatti).
subjects are also known as the cemetery meditations. The one perception is the perception of the repulsiveness of
The ten recollections are: the recollections of the Buddha, food. The one defining is the defining of the four elements,
the Dhamma, the Sangha, morality, generosity, and the dei- that is, the analysis of the physical body into the elemental
ties, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of the body, mind- modes of solidity, fluidity, heat, and oscillation.
fulness of breathing, and the recollection of peace. The first The forty kamma hānas are treated in the Pāli commen-
three are devotional contemplations on the sublime quali- tarial texts from two important angles – one their ability to
ties of the “three jewels”, the primary objects of Buddhist induce different levels of concentration, the other their suit-
veneration. The second three are reflections on two cardi- ability for different temperaments.
nal Buddhist virtues and on the devas inhabiting the heav-
enly worlds, intended principally for those still intent on a Not all meditation subjects are equally effective in inducing
higher rebirth. Mindfulness of death is reflection on the in- the deeper levels of concentration. As we explained above,
evitability of death, a constant spur to spiritual exertion. beyond the preliminary stage of initial concentration (pari-
Mindfulness of the body involves the mental dissection of kammasamādhi) concentration can occur either at the level
the body into thirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to of access concentration (upacārasamādhi) or at the level of
perceiving its unattractiveness. Mindfulness of breathing is absorption concentration (appa1āsamādhi), depending up-
awareness of the in-and-out movement of the breath, per- on the strength of the jhāna factors in the meditative state.
haps the most fundamental of all Buddhist meditation sub- Absorption too, consisting in the eight attainments – the
jects. And the recollection of peace is reflection on the four lower jhānas and the four āruppas – can occur at the
qualities of nibbāna. different levels corresponding to these eight attainments.
Therefore the forty kamma hānas are first distinguished on
The four divine abidings are the development of boundless the basis of their capacity for inducing only access or for
loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equan- inducing full absorption as well; then those able to induce
imity. These meditations are also called the “immeasur- absorption are distinguished further according to their abil-
ables” (appamaññā) because they are to be developed to- ity to induce the different levels of jhāna.
wards all sentient beings without qualification or exclusive-
ness. Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leading only to ac-
cess concentration. These are eight recollections – i.e.,
The four immaterial states are the base of boundless space, those excepting mindfulness of the body and mindfulness
the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothing- of breathing – plus the perception of repulsiveness in nutri-
ness, and the base of neither perception nor non-perception. ment and the defining of the four elements. Cultivation of
These are the objects leading to the four corresponding these subjects can cause the hindrances to subside and the
meditative attainments called the immaterial jhānas (arū- jhāna factors to become manifest. However, because they
are occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve an ac-
50 51
tive application of discursive thought they cannot lead con- simplification involved in this scheme has been acknow-
centration beyond the stage of access. The other thirty sub- ledged by ancient teachers, and the possibility of complex
jects can all lead to absorption. combinations of traits finds ready affirmation. But the six-
Of these latter, the ten kasi1as and mindfulness of breath- fold typology is taken to be sufficient as a pragmatic guide-
ing bring all four jhānas their efficiency in this regard due line for the purpose it is intended to serve, the assignment
apparently to their simplicity and freedom from thought of a suitable subject to a meditator.
construction. The ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of The Visuddhimagga divides the forty kamma hānas among
the body bring only the first jhāna, being limited because the different temperaments as follows. The ten kinds of
consciousness can only hold onto them with the aid of ap- foulness and mindfulness of the body, clearly intended to
plied thought (vitakka), which is absent in the second and attenuate sensual desire, are eleven subjects suitable for
higher jhānas. The first three divine abidings can induce those of greedy temperament. Eight subjects, the four div-
the lower three jhānas but not the fourth, since they arise in ine abidings and four color kasi1as, are appropriate for the
association with pleasant feeling (sukha), present in the hating temperament.1 Mindfulness of breathing is one re-
first three jhānas but replaced by neutral feeling in the collection suitable for those of the deluded and the spec-
fourth. Conversely, because it requires the company of neu- ulative temperaments. The first six recollections are appro-
tral feeling and cannot coexist with pleasant feeling, the di- priate for the faithful temperament. Four subjects –
vine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the defin-
fourth jhāna, where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The ing of the four elements, and the perception of repulsive-
four immaterial states conduce to the respective immaterial ness in nutriment – are especially effective for those of in-
jhānas corresponding to their names; but because these lat- telligent temperament. The remaining six kasi1as and the
ter are identical in factorial constitution with the fourth immaterial states are suitable for all kinds of tempera-
jhāna, differing only in their objects, the four immaterial ments. But the kasi1as should be limited in size for one of
states are said to lead to the fourth jhāna. speculative temperament and large in size for one of de-
Since in the main section of the present work we wish to luded temperament.2
follow the progress of meditation through all four jhānas, Immediately after giving this breakdown Buddhaghosa
we will presume the case of a meditator who has taken as adds a proviso to prevent misunderstanding. He states that
his meditation-subject either a kasi1a or mindfulness of this division by way of temperament is made on the basis
breathing. of direct opposition and complete suitability, but actually
The forty kamma hānas are also differentiated according there is no wholesome form of meditation that does not
to their appropriateness for different character types. The suppress the defilements and cultivate virtuous mental fac-
principal temperaments recognized for this purpose are, as 1. Exactly why the color kasi1as are offered as an antidote to hatred is not ex-
we said, six – the greedy, the hating, the deluded, the faith- plained. Perhaps the contemplation of color has a subtle psychological effect of
reducing anger and aversion.
ful, the intelligent, and the speculative. The danger of over-
2. PP., pp. 117-18. Vism., p. 92-93.

52 53
tors. He then cites a passage from the Meghiya Sutta advis- it should be free from inclemencies of weather and from
ing a single meditator to meditate on foulness to abandon harmful insects and animals;
lust, on loving kindness to abandon hatred, on breathing to it should be easy to obtain the four requisites while dwell-
cut off discursive thought, and on impermanence to elimi- ing there; and
nate the conceit “I am”.1 the dwelling should provide ready access to learned elders
and spiritual friends who can be consulted when problems
Choosing a Suitable Dwelling arise in meditation.1 The types of dwelling places com-
The teacher assigns a meditation subject to his pupil appro- mended by the Buddha most frequently in the suttas as
priate to his character, and then explains the methods of conducive to the jhānas are a secluded dwelling in the for-
developing it. He can teach it gradually to a pupil who is est, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a cleft, in a cave,
going to remain in close proximity to him, or in detail to in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, in the open air, or on a
one who will go to practice it elsewhere. If the disciple is heap of straw.2 Having found a suitable dwelling and settled
not going to stay with his teacher he must be careful to se- there, the disciple should maintain scrupulous observance
lect a suitable place for meditation. The Visuddhimagga of the rules of discipline. He should be content with his
mentions eighteen kinds of monasteries unfavorable to the simple requisites, exercise control over his sense faculties,
development of jhāna: a large monastery, a new one, a di- be mindful and discerning in all activities and practice
lapidated one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, meditation diligently as he was instructed. It is at this point
flowers, or fruits, one sought after by many people, one in that he meets the first great challenge of his contemplative
cities, among timber or fields, where people quarrel, in a life, the battle with the five hindrances.
port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one
without access to a spiritual teacher.2 Unless he is already
highly developed a novice meditator should avoid a dwell-
ing with these faults.
The factors which make a dwelling favorable to meditation
are mentioned by the Buddha himself. These are five in
number:
it should be not too far from or too near a village that can
be relied on as an alms resort, and should have a clear path;
it should be quiet and secluded;

1. PP., p. 118. AN. 4:358. 1. PP., pp. 125-26. AN. 5:15.

2. PP., p. 125. Vism., p. 99. 2. MN. 1:181, 269, 274.

54 55
 In this chapter we will focus upon the five hindrances, leav-
Chapter Three ing a detailed consideration of the jhāna factors to the next
chapter. The five hindrances comprise sensual desire (kam-
THE CONQUEST OF THE HINDRANCES ācchanda), ill will, (byāpāda), sloth and torpor (thīna-
In the suttas the Buddha expounds the jhānas in a fourfold middha), restlessness and worry (uddhaccakukkucca), and
scheme, the members of which are called the first, second, doubt (vicikicchā). This group of five merits special atten-
third, and fourth jhāna. The qualified monk, after fulfilling tion because it is the principal classification the Buddha
the preliminary requirements and going off into solitude, uses for the obstacles to meditative development. The de-
passes in turn first from ordinary consciousness into the filements included in this group obstruct not only the first
first jhāna, and then from the first jhāna into each of the jhāna, but the entire thrust of man’s aspiration for the puri-
succeeding jhānas culminating in the fourth. The attain- fication and liberation of his mind. They stand like a wall
ment of any jhāna comes about through a two-sided proc- between man’s sensual and self directed thought-patterns
ess of development. On one side is the elimination of the and his drive towards higher development, preventing pro-
factors obstructive to attaining the jhāna, on the other the gress in the spheres of both serenity and insight.
acquisition of the factors producing its attainment. The
We will begin this chapter with a look at the standard ca-
former set is called its factors of abandonment (pahāna*-
gāni), the latter its factors of possession (samannāgata*- nonical description for the attainment of the first jhāna,
gāni). In the case of the first jhāna the factors of abandon- which opens with an allusion to the hindrances. Then we
ment are the five hindrances (pañcanīvara1a) and its will give a general overview of the five hindrances followed
factors of possession the basic five jhāna factors (pañca- by a more specific account of each hindrance in turn. From
jhāna*gāni). Both sets are spelled out in a passage ascribed here we will go on to examine the abandonment of the hin-
to the venerable Sāriputta, the Buddha’s chief disciple: drances. This discussion will focus on the Buddha’s sys-
Your reverence, in regard to the first meditation, five tematic approach to the conquest of the hindrances, which
factors are abandoned, five are possessed: if a monk views these defilements as originating from particular con-
has entered on the first meditation, desire for sense ditions and to be abandoned by the elimination of their
pleasure is abandoned, malevolence is abandoned, sloth conditions.
and torpor are abandoned, restlessness and worry are
abandoned, and doubt is abandoned, but there is initial
thought and discursive thought, rapture and joy and
one-pointedness of mind. Thus, your reverence, in re-
gard to the first meditation, five factors are abandoned, 3 vols. 1954-59; Reprint. London: Luzac & Co., 1970). 1:354-55 (hereafter
five factors are possessed.1 cited as MLS.). “Pa;hamaH kho āvuso jhānaH pañcaIgavippahīnaH pañcaIga-
samannāgataH: Idh’āvuso pa;hamaH jhānaH samāpannassa bhikkhuno kāmac-
1. I. B. Horner, trans. and ed., The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings chando pahīno hoti, byāpādo pahīno hoti, thīnamiddhaH pahīnaH hoti, uddha-
(Majjhima-Nikāya. [Vol. 1: The First Fifty Discourses (mūlapaJJāsa); vol. 2: cakukkuccaH pahīnaH hoti, vicikicchā pahīnā hoti. Vitakko ca vattati, vicāro
The Middle Fifty Discourses (majjhimapaJJāsa); vol. 3: The Final Fifty Dis- ca pīti ca sukhaH ca cittekaggatā ca. Pa;hamaH kho āvuso jhānaH evaH pañ-
courses (uparipaJJāsa)]. (Pali Text Society [Translation Series nos. 29-31]. caIgavippahīnaH pañcaIgasamannāgataH’ti.” MN. 1:294-95.

56 57
 The Entrance to the Jhāna sual enjoyment, or as the defilement of sense pleasures
(kilesakāma), i.e. the subjective desire for sensual enjoy-
The Buddha describes the attainment of the first jhāna with
ment itself. According to the commentator the phrase
a standard formula recurring throughout the Pāli Canon.
“quite secluded from sense pleasures” serves to show that
The formula runs as follows:
to attain the first jhāna the yogin must remove himself from
Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from sense pleasures, the first hindrance and its objective basis.
unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in The need for such separation is dictated by two consider-
the first jhāna, which is accompanied by applied ations: first by the fact that sense pleasures are the “enemy”
thought and sustained thought with rapture and happi-
or contrary opposite of the first jhāna, which cannot exist
ness born of seclusion.1 (Wr. tr.).
in their presence “just as lamplight cannot exist as long as
Examination of the formula reveals that it divides into two darkness exists”; and second by the fact that sense pleas-
parts, one indicating the states which must be eliminated to ures have to be relinquished to reach the first jhāna “just as
attain the first jhāna, the other the states which accompany the near bank must be relinquished to reach the further
and define the jhāna itself. The elimination of obstructive bank.”1
states is covered by the expression “quite secluded from
If sense pleasures are understood objectively, then the
sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of
phrase “unwholesome states” (akusalādhamma) is inter-
mind” (vivicc’eva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi).
preted to mean all unwholesome states, inclusive of sensual
The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā and the Visuddhimagga
desire. In such a case “seclusion from sense pleasures” will
comment upon these expressions in almost identical terms,
signify bodily seclusion (kāyaviveka), physical aloofness
seeking to relate them to the five hindrances. The commen-
from contact with sensually provocative objects, and “sec-
taries view the phrases “sense pleasures” and “unwhole-
lusion from unwholesome states” will signify mental sec-
some states” as an implicit reference to the hindrances, a
lusion (cittaviveka), mental aloofness from obsession by
quite legitimate position since the Buddha has often stress-
defilements.2 On the other hand, if sense pleasures are un-
ed the need to overcome the hindrances in order to enter the
derstood subjectively, they will be equated specifically with
first jhāna.
one hindrance, the hindrance of sensual desire; the un-
Basing themselves upon the Niddesa and VibhaIga2 the wholesome states will then be equated with all five hind-
commentaries allow a twofold interpretation of “sense rances, including sensual desire insofar as it, too, is un-
pleasures” (kāmehi). They can be understood in the present wholesome. But to avoid redundancy, the commentary says
context either as objective sense pleasures (vatthukāma), that when the first phrase is taken to indicate the hindrance
i.e. enticing sense objects which arouse the desire for sen- of sensual desire, the second should be taken to indicate the
remaining four hindrances. In both cases “seclusion” signi-
1. “Vivicc’eva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaH savicāraH
vivekajaH pi;isukhaH pa;hamaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati.” MN. 1:89. fies mental seclusion through suppression of the defile-
Vibh., p. 245.
1. PP., p. 145. “Andhakāre sati padīpobhāso viya, tesaH pariccāgeneva c’assa
2. Mahā Niddesapāli, [Pāli Text in Burmese script], (Rangoon, Burma:
Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960), pp. 1-2 (hereafter cited as Nd.). Vibh., p. 256. adhigamo hoti, orimatīrapariccāgena parimatīrasseva.” Vism., p. 113.
PP., l46. Vism., p. 113. 2. PP., pp. 145-46. Vism., pp. 83-84.

58 59
ments; the use of the plural, kāmehi and dhammehi, sug- compares the five hindrances unabandoned in oneself to
gests the plurality of forms either class of obsessions can five types of calamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will
assume.1 like a disease, sloth and torpor like imprisonment, restless-
ness and worry like slavery, and doubt like being lost on a
The Five Hindrances: General Account desert road. Release from the hindrances is to be seen as
The five defilements which the Buddha designates as the freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, em-
five hindrances are, as we mentioned, sensual desire, ill ancipation from slavery, and arriving at a place of safety.1
will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. The second set of similes compares the hindrances to five
These five receive the name “hindrances” for the reason kinds of impurities affecting a bowl of water, preventing a
that they hinder and envelop the mind.2 keen-sighted man from seeing his own reflection as it
They hinder and envelop the mind by obstructing the de- really is. The five impurities are appropriately paired off
velopment of meditation in either of its two modes – the with the hindrances: sensual desire is like a bowl of water
mode of serenity (samatha bhāvanā) and the mode of in- mixed with brightly colored paints, ill will like a bowl of
sight (vipassanā bhāvanā). Hence the Buddha calls the five boiling water, sloth and torpor like water covered by mossy
hindrances “obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the plants, restlessness and worry like water blown into ripples
mind, weakeners of wisdom.”3 Again he says: “These five by the wind, and doubt like muddy water.2 Just as the keen-
hindrances, monks, are causes of blindness, causes of loss eyed man would not be able to see his reflection in these
of vision, causes of unknowing, opposed to wisdom, align- five kinds of water, so
ed with vexation, leading away from nibbāna.”4 when one dwells with his mind obsessed and over-
In the suttas the Buddha offers two sets of similes to illu- whelmed by sensual desire (ill will, sloth and torpor,
strate the detrimental effect of the hindrances. The first restlessness and worry, and doubt), without under-
standing as it is the escape from these arisen obsess-
ions, then one does not know and see as it is one’s own
1. PP., p. 147. Vism., p. 114.
2. “CittaH nīvarenti pariyonandhantī ti nīvararanā.” Dhammasa*ga1i A ha-
good, the good of others, or the good of both.3 (Wr. tr.).
kathā [Pāli Text in Burmese script] (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, Because the five hindrances are the states especially ob-
1960), p. 91 (hereafter cited as Dhs.A.).
3. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, and F. L. Woodward, trans. The Book of the Kindred structive to the first jhāna they are called the first jhāna’s
Sayings (Sa,yutta-Nikāya) or Grouped Suttas. [Pt. 1: Kindred Sayings with “factors of abandoning” (pahāna*gāni). The factors of
verses (Sagatha-Vagga), translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids assisted by Sūriyagoda
SumaIgala Thera; pt. 2: The Nidāna Book (Nidāna-Vagga), translated by Mrs. abandonment are the states which have to be abandoned in
Rhys Davids assisted by F. L. Woodward; pt. 3: translated by F. L. Woodward
and edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids; pt. 4: translated by F. L. Woodward with an
Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; pt. 5. (Mahā-Vagga), translated by F. L.
Woodward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids. (Pali Text Society Trans- 1. DN. 1:71-73.
lation Series, vols. 7, 10, 13-15]. 5 vols. 1927-30; reprint. London: Luzac & 2. SN. 5:121-24.
Co., 1956-71), 5:79 (hereafter cited as KS.). “ĀvaraJā nīvaraJā cetaso upak- 3. “Yasmim samaye kāmarāgapariyu;;hitena cetasā viharati kāmarāgaparetena.
kilesā paññāya dubbalīkaraJā.” SN. 5:94. Uppannassa ca kāmarāgassa nissaraJaH yathābhūtaH nappajānāti, attatthaH pi
4. KS. 5:91. “Pañcime bhikkhave nīvaraJā andhakaraJā acakkhukaraJā añ- tasmiH samaye yathābhūtaH na jānāti na passati. ParatthaH pi, ubhayatthaH pi
ñāJakaraJā paññānirodhikā vighātapakkhiyā anibbānasaHvattanikā.” SN. 5:97. tasmiH samaye yathābhūtaH na jānāti na passati.” SN. 5:121-22.

60 61
order for the jhāna to arise.1 But the singling out of these The mind affected through lust by greed for varied ob-
five factors should not be taken to imply that they are the jective fields does not become concentrated on an ob-
only states antithetical to the first jhāna or the only defile- ject consisting in unity, or being overwhelmed by lust,
it does not enter on the way to abandoning the sense-
ments abandoned when the jhāna is attained. To forestall
desire element. When pestered by ill will towards an
this suspicion Buddhaghosa points out, in his exegesis of object, it does not occur uninterruptedly. When over-
the first jhāna formula, that the two phrases “secluded from come by stiffness and torpor, it is unwieldy. When
sense pleasures” (vivicc’eva kāmehi) and “secluded from seized by agitation and worry, it is unquiet and buzzes
unwholesome states of mind” (vivicca akusalehi dham- about. When stricken by uncertainty, it fails to mount
mehi) cover other categories of defilements besides the the way to accomplish the attainment of jhāna. So it is
hindrances. Of the three unwholesome roots (akusala- these only that are called factors of abandoning be-
mūla), the first covers greed, the second hatred and delu- cause they are specifically obstructive to jhāna.1
sion. Of the floods (ogha), bonds (yoga), cankers (āsava), A second reason for confining the first jhāna’s factors of
clingings (upādāna), bodily ties (gantha), and fetters (sa,- abandoning to the five hindrances is to permit a direct
yojana), the first phrase covers the flood, bond, canker, and alignment to be made between the hindrances and the
clinging of sensual desire, the bodily tie of covetousness, jhāna factors (jhāna*gāni). The jhāna factors are five men-
and the fetter of sensual desire; the second phrase covers tal phenomena which strengthen concentration and lift the
the remaining members of these groups. Among the un- mind to the level of jhāna. The five are applied thought (vi-
wholesome states of consciousness mentioned in the Ab- takka), sustained thought (vicāra), rapture (pīti), happiness
hidhamma, the first phrase indicates the eight classes of (sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). Since the five re-
consciousness rooted in greed, the second the remaining main in the first jhāna they come to be called its “factors of
four classes of unwholesome cousciousness – those rooted possession” (samannāgata*gāni). Buddhaghosa states that
in aversion and strong delusion.2 the abandonment of the five hindrances alone is mentioned
Nevertheless, despite this diversity of defilements opposed in connection with jhāna for the reason that the hindrances
to the first jhāna, the five hindrances alone are called its are the direct enemies of the five factors:
factors of abandoning. The principal reason behind this se- Only the hindrances are mentioned subsequently in the
lection, according to the Visuddhimagga, is that “although VibhaIga… in order to show their opposition to, and
other unprofitable things too are abandoned at the moment incompatibility with, the jhāna factors. For the hin-
of jhāna, still only these are specifically obstructive to drances are the contrary opposites of the jhāna factors:
jhāna.”3 Buddhaghosa goes on to show how each hindrance
impedes the mind’s capacity for concentration: 1. PP., p. 152. “Kāmacchandena hi nānāvisayapalobhitaH cittaH na ekattā-
rammaJe samādhiyati; kāmacchandābhibhūtaH vataH na kāmadhātuppahānāya
pa;ipadaH pa;ipajjati; byāpādena c’ārammaJe pa;ihaññamānaH na nirantaraH
pavattati; thīnamiddhābhibhūtaH akammaññaH hoti; uddhaccakukkuccapare-
1. PP., p. 152. Vism., p. 118. taH avūpasantaH eva hutvā paribbhamati; vicikicchāya upahataH jhānādhi-
2. PP., p. 147. Vism., p. 114. gama sādhikaH pa;ipadaH narohati. Iti visesena jhānantarāyakarattā etān ’eva
3. PP., p. 152. Vism., p. 118. pahānaIgānī ti vuttāni.” Vism., p. 118.

62 63
 what is meant is that the jhāna factors are incompatible Sensual desire towards the internal, monks – that is a
with them, eliminate them, abolish them.1 hindrance; sensual desire towards the external – that is
a hindrance. Thus the hindrance of sensual desire that
To support his contention the commentator cites a passage
comes down in the summary by this method becomes
he ascribes to the Pe;aka demonstrating a one-to-one cor- twofold.
respondence between the jhāna factors and hindrances:
Ill will towards the internal, monks – that is a hin-
Concentration is incompatible with lust, happiness drance; ill will towards the external – that is a hin-
[rapture] with ill will, applied thought with stiffness drance. Thus the hindrance of ill will that comes down
and torpor, bliss [happiness] with agitation and worry, in the summary by this method becomes twofold.
and sustained thought with uncertainty [doubt].2
Sloth, monks, is a hindrance; torpor is a hindrance.
Thus each jhāna factor is seen as being assigned the spe- Thus the hindrance of sloth and torpor that comes
cific task of eliminating and abolishing a particular ob- down in the summary by this method becomes twofold.
struction to the jhāna. To correlate these obstructions with Restlessness, monks, is a hindrance; worry is a hin-
the five jhāna factors they are ordered into a scheme of five drance. Thus the hindrance of restlessness and worry
hindrances. that comes down in the summary by this method be-
The same principle also serves to explain the rationale be- comes twofold.
hind the coupling that takes place in two of the hindrances, Doubt towards internal phenomena, monks, is a hin-
“sloth and torpor” and “restlessness and worry.” In an im- drance; doubt towards externals is a hindrance. Thus
portant passage which anticipates the analytical precision the hindrance of doubt that comes down in the sum-
mary by this method becomes twofold.
of the Abhidhamma the Buddha demonstrates a method by
which the five hindrances become tenfold. This is done by This, monks, is the method of explanation according to
dividing three hindrances into two each according to which the five hindrances are ten.1 (Wr. tr.).
whether they take internal or external objects, and the two
compound hindrances into two each by way of their pairs of
1. “Katamo, ca bhikkhave pariyāyo yaH pariyāyaH āgamma pañca nīvaraJā
components: dasa honti?
What, monks, is the method of explanation according Yad api bhikkhave ajjhattaH kāmacchando tad api nīvaraJaH. Yad api bahid-
to which the five hindrances become ten? dhā kāmacchando tad api nīvaraJaH. KāmacchandanīvaraJaH ti iti hidaH ud-
desaH āgacchati, tadaminā petaH pariyāyena dvayaH hoti.
1. PP., p. 147. “VibhaIge upari jhānaIgānaH paccanika-pa;ipakkha-bhāvadas- Yad api bhikkhave ajjhattaH byāpādo tad api nīvaraJaH. Yad api bahiddhā
sanato nīvaraJā’eva vuttāni. NīvaraJāni hi jhānaIgapaccani-kāni; tesaH jhān- byāpādo tad api nīvaraJaH. ByāpādanīvaranaH ti iti hidaH uddesaH āgacchati.
aIgān’eva pa;ipakkhāni viddhaHsakāni vighātakānī ti vuttaH hoti.” Vism., p. 114. Tad aminā petaH pariyāyena dvayaH hoti.
2. PP., p. 147. “Samādhi kāmacchandassa pa;ipakkho, pīti byāpādassa, vitakko Yad api bhikkhave thīnaH tad api nīvaraJaH. Yad api middhaH tad api
thīnamiddhassa, sukhaH uddhaccakukkuccassa, vicāro vicikicchāya ti [ ] nīvaraJaH. ThīnamiddhanīvaraJaH ti iti hidaH uddesaH āgacchati. Tad aminā
Pe;ake vuttā.” Vism., p. 114. petaH pariyāyena dvayaH hoti.
N.B. The Path of Purification’s “happiness” is our “rapture” (pīti), and The Yad api bhikkhave uddhaccaH tad api nīvaraJaH. Yad api kukkuccaH tad api
Path of Purification’s “bliss” is our “happiness” (sukha). The other differences nīvaraJaH. Uddhacca kukkucca nīvaraJanti iti hidaH uddesaH āgacchati. Tad
in translation are more obvious, and can be checked in Appendix 3. aminā petaH pariyāyena dvayaH hoti.

64 65
Thus when analyzed into distinct mental factors (cetasika) The Five Hindrances: Specific Account
the five hindrances break down into seven separate states:
sensual desire, ill will, sloth, torpor, restlessness, worry, Sensual Desire (kāmacchanda)
and doubt. This raises the question why the seven defile- The hindrance of sensual desire is desire for sense pleas-
ments obstructive to the first jhāna are presented as only ures, “sense pleasures” (kāma) here being equated with the
five hindrances rather than as seven. The reason for this pe- “five strands of sense pleasures (pañca kāmagu1ā).1 The
culiarity of arrangement again seems to lie in the economy five strands of sense pleasure are visible forms, sounds,
required to set the jhāna-factors and hindrances in direct smells, tastes, and tangibles which are “desirable, lovely,
opposition. Since there are five jhāna factors the defile- agreeable, pleasing, sensuous, stimulating lust.”2 (Wr. tr.).
ments they oppose must likewise be five. Sloth and torpor Desire for sense pleasures appears in the suttas under a va-
on the one side, and restlessness and worry on the other, riety of names. The DhammasaIgaJi, the first book of the
readily lend themselves to the required coupling. For sloth Abhidhamma-pi;aka, collects together all these names in its
and torpor share the common feature of mental ailment or definition of the hindrance of sensual desire:
indisposition, the former of consciousness itself and the lat- That sensual desire, sensual passion, sensual delight,
ter of its concomitants.1 Restlessness and worry, likewise, sensual craving, sensual fondness, sensual fever, sen-
share the common feature of agitating or disturbing the sual languishing, sensual rapacity which is excited by
mind. Thus it is natural that a single jhāna factor should be the pleasure of the senses – this is called the hindrance
capable of opposing and silencing the two hindrances in of sensual desire.3
each set. According to the method cited in the Visuddhi- This first hindrance thus coincides in meaning with the
magga, sloth and torpor are both countered by applied canker (āsava), flood (ogha), and bond (yoga) of sensu-
thought, restlessness and worry are both countered by hap- ality, with the fetter of sensual lust (kāmarāgasa,yojana),
piness.2 In this way the mutual exclusion of hindrances and and with the clinging to sense pleasures (kāmūpādāna).
jhāna factors becomes the ground for the grouping of the Sensual desire is a form of the root-defilement of greed
hindrances into a fivefold set. (lobha). The Visuddhimagga explains greed in terms of the
four defining categories commonly found in the commen-
Yad api bhikkhave ajjhattaH dhammesu vicikicchā tad api nīvaraJaH. Yad api 1. Dhs.A., p. 402.
bahiddhā dhammesu vicikicchā tad api nīvaraJaH. VicikicchānīvaraJaH ti iti 2. “I;;hā kantā manāpā piyarūpā kāmupasaHhitā rajanīyā.” MN. 1:85.
hidaH uddesaH āgacchati. Tad aminā petaH pariyāyena dvayaH hoti.
3. Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids, trans. A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Eth-
AyaH kho bhikkhave pariyāyo yaH pariyāyaH āgamma pañca nīvaraJā dasa ics of the Fourth Century B. C. Being a translation, Now made for the First
honti.” SN. 5:110. Time from the Original Pali of the First Book in the Abhidhamma Pitaka enti-
1. “ThīnaH citta gelaññaH, middhaH cetasikagelaññaH.” Buddhaghosa, (Dīg- tled Dhamma-SaIgaJi (Compendium of States of Phenomena) with Intro-
ha Nikāya A hakathā (Suma*galavilāsinī)]. [Vol. 1:] Sīlakkhandhavagga hak- ductory Essay and Notes, Oriental Translation Fund, New Series, vol. 12, (Lon-
athā; [vol. 2:] Mahāvagga hakathā; [vol. 3:] Pāthikavagga hakathā. [Pāli Text don: Royal Asiatic Society, 1900), pp. 292-93 (hereafter cited as Psy.Ethics).
in Burmese script]. 3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1968), “Yo kāmesu kāmacchando, kāmarāgo, kāmanandi, kāma taJhā, kāmasineho,
1:189 (hereafter cited as DN.A.). kāma pariXāho, kāma mucchā, kāmajjhosanā, idaH vuccati kāmacchandanivara-
2. PP., p. 147. Vism., p. 114. JaH.” Dhs., p. 232.

66 67
taries – characteristic, function, manifestation, and proxi- onslaught on creatures… slanderous speech… angry fault-
mate cause – with an illustration given as a fifth: finding… wrathful rage.”1 Such actions become fetters and
Greed has the characteristic of grasping an object, like hindrances because they stir into activity the fetter and hin-
birdlime (lit. ‘monkey lime’). Its function is sticking, drance of ill will, reinforcing its detrimental influence upon
like meat put in a hot pan. It is manifested as not giving moral and spiritual development.
up, like the dye of lampblack. Its proximate cause is
The DhammasaIgaJi defines the hindrance of ill will in its
seeing enjoyment in things that lead to bondage. Swell-
ing with the current of craving, it should be regarded as usual way by bringing together its numerous canonical
taking [beings] with it to states of loss, as a swift- synonyms:
flowing river does to the great ocean.1 What is the hindrance of ill will? When annoyance
Sensual desire is distinct in nature from other types of de- springs up at the thought: ‘He has done me harm, is
doing, will do me harm; he has done harm, is doing
sire. The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā differentiates it from
harm, will do harm to someone dear and precious to
the desire to accomplish some aim (kattukamyatā) as well me; he has conferred a benefit, is conferring, will con-
as from the desire for Dhamma (dhammacchanda).2 As a fer a benefit on someone I dislike and object to; or
form of greed the first is invariably unwholesome, the sec- when annoyance springs up groundlessly: all such vex-
ond can assume both wholesome and unwholesome forms, ation, indignation, hate, antipathy, abhorrence, mental
the last is exclusively wholesome. disorder, detestation, anger, fuming, irascibility, hate,
hating, hatred, disorder, getting upset, derangement,
Ill will (byāpāda) opposition, hostility, churlishness, abruptness, disgust
Ill will is used in the suttas as an equivalent for hatred of heart – this is called the hindrance of ill will.2
(dosa) and aversion (pa igha). All three signify resentment The Visuddhimagga explains hatred thus:
directed towards disagreeable persons or objects. Like the It has the characteristic of savageness, like a provoked
other defilements, ill will can either remain inwardly con- snake. Its function is to spread, like a drop of poison, or
tained or can express itself outwardly. In the latter form it its function is to burn up its own support, like a forest
motivates actions such as killing, harsh speech, outbreaks fire. It is manifested as persecuting (dusana), like an
of violence, etc. Thus we find that in the Potaliya Sutta the
1. MLS. 2:27. “Etadeva kho pana saHyojanaH etaH nīvaraJaH yadidaH
word nivara1a is given an extended meaning capable of pāJātipāto… nindāroso… kodhūpāyāso…” MN. 1:361-64.
covering the actions manifesting the internal hindrance: 2. Psy. Ethics, pp. 282-83. “Tattha katamaH byāpādanīvaraJaH? ‘AnatthaH me
“This is indeed a fetter, this is a hindrance, that is to say akarī’ti āghāto jāyati. ‘AnatthaH me caratī’ti āghāto jāyati. ‘AnatthaH me
carissatī’ti āghāto jāyati. ‘Piyassa me manāpassa anatthaH acarī’ti…, anatthaH
caratī…, anatthaH carissatī’ ti āgāto jāyati. ‘Appiyassa me amanāpassa atthaH
1. PP., pp. 529-30. “Lobho ārammaJagahaJalakkhaJo, makka;ālepo viya; ab- acari…, atthaH carati…, atthaH carissati’ti āghāto jāyati. A;;hāne vā pana
hisaIgaraso, ta;;akapāle khittamaIsapesi viya; apariccāgapaccupa;;hāno, telañ- āghāto jāyati. Yo evarūpo cittassa āghāto pa;ighāto pa;ighaH pa;ivirodho, kopo,
janarāgo viya; saIyojanīyadhammesu assādadassanapada;;hāno; taJhānadībhā- pakopo. saHpakopo, doso, padoso, sampadoso, cittassa byāpatti, manopadoso,
vena vaYYhamāno, sīghasotā nadī iva mahāsamuddaH, apāyaH eva gahetvā kodho, kujjanā, kujjitattaH, doso, dussanā, dussitattaH, byāpatti, byāpajjanā,
gacchattī ti da;;habbo.” Vism., p. 396. byāpajjitattaH, virodho, pa;ivirodho, caJdikkaH, asuropo, anattamanatā cit-
2. Dhs.A., p. 402. tassa-idaH vuccati byāpādanīvaraJaH.” Dhs., p. 232.

68 69
 enemy who has got his chance. Its proximate cause is tellect (or mind)”, this should be understood to signify the
the grounds for annoyance.1 incapacitation of the mind in its function as consciousness,
the principal instrument of cognition. And when the text
Sloth and torpor (Thīnamiddha)
speaks of torpor as kāyassa akallatā akammaññatā, liter-
As we saw, the Buddha explains sloth and torpor as a com- ally “indisposition and unwieldiness of the body,” this
pound hindrance which can be regarded as twofold in terms should be understood to signify the incapacitation of the
of its components. The DhammasaIgaJi follows this sug- “mental body” (nāmakāya) made up of the mental factors
gestion through by breaking the compound down into its (cetasika) concomitant with consciousness. Thence the
members and giving separate definitions of sloth (thīna) Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā, in elucidating these defin-
and of torpor (middha): itions, equates kàya with the “mental body consisting of
What is the hindrance of stolidity [sloth] and torpor? the three aggregates,”1 i.e., the groups of feeling, percep-
First distinguish between stolidity [sloth] and torpor. In tion, and mental formations. Thus sloth represents a state
this connection, what is stolidity [sloth]? That which is of inertia on the cognitive or intellective side of the mental
indisposition, unwieldiness of intellect (citta) adhering
process, torpor a corresponding condition on the affective,
and cohering, clinging, cleaving to, stickiness, stolidity
[sloth], that is a stiffening, a rigidity of the intellect – perceptual and volitional sides. The same point is brought
this is called stolidity [sloth]. out by the Dīghanikāya A hakathā when it glosses sloth as
“a sickness of consciousness” and torpor as “a sickness of
What is torpor? That which is indisposition and un-
wieldiness of sense (lit. body), a shrouding, envelop- the mental factors” or “sickness of the three aggregates,”2
ing, barricading within, torpor that is sleep, drowsi- (Wr. tr.) the mental factors being identical with the three
ness, sleep, slumbering, somnolence – this is called mental aggregates – feeling, perception, and volition – co-
torpor. existing with consciousness. Though the DhammasaIgaJi
Now this is the stolidity [sloth] and this is the torpor defines torpor with a number of synonyms suggestive of
which are called ‘the hindrance of stolidity [sloth] and physical sleep, its commentary takes pains to point out that
torpor’.2 what is intended as a hindrance is not the physical tiredness
When the DhammasaIgaJi speaks of sloth as cittassa akal- which necessitates sleep, but the indolence and mental ob-
latā akammaññata, “indisposition and unwieldiness of in- scuration which accompany sleepiness in the case of un-
liberated individuals.
1. PP., p. 532. “So caJYikkalakkhaJo paha;āsiviso viya, visappanaraso visani-
pāto viya, attano nissayadahanaraso vā dāvaggi viya, dusanapaccupa;;hāno
laddhokāso viya sapatto, āghātavatthupada;;hāno.” Vism., p. 398. 1. Buddhaghosa, The Expositor (Atthāsilinī), Buddhagosa’s Commentary on
2. Psy. Ethics pp. 311-12. “Tattha katamaH thīnamiddhanīvaraJaH? Atthi thī- the Dhammasangani, the First Book of the Abhidhamma Pi aka. Translated by
naH, atthi middhaH. Tattha katamaH thīnaH? Yā cittassa akallatā, akammañ- Pe Maung Tin. Revised and edited by C. A. Rhys Davids. Pali Text Society
ñatā, oliyanā, sallīyanā, līnaH, līyanā, līyitattaH, thīnaH, thiyitā, thīyitattaH Translation Series, nos. 8, 9. 2 vols. (London: Luzac & Co., for the Pali Text
cittassa idaH vuccati thīnaH. Tattha katamaH middhaH? Yā kāyassa asallatā, Society, 1920-58), 2:485 (hereafter cited as Expositor. “Kāyassāti khandhattaya
akammaññatā, ānāho, pariyonāho, antosamorodho, middhaH, soppaH, pacalāy- saIkhātassa nāmakāyassa.” Dhs.A., p. 409.
ikā, soppaH, supanā, supitattaH, idaH vuccati middhaH. Iti idaH ca thīnaH, 2. “ThīnaH cittagelaññaH.” DN.A. 1:189. “MiddhaH cetasikagelaññaH; midd-
idaH ca middhaH. IdaH vuccati thīnamiddhanīvaraJaH.” haH khandhattaya gelaññaH.” Ibid., 3:210.

70 71
The Visuddhimagga follows the lead of the suttas and Ab- called worry. Now this is excitement [restlessness] and
hidhamma in also giving separate definitions of sloth and this is the worry which are what is called ‘the hin-
torpor consistent with those in the other commentaries: drance of excitement [restlessness] and worry.’1
Herein, stiffness [sloth] has the characteristic of lack of The Visuddhimagga also gives separate treatment to rest-
driving power. Its function is to remove energy. It is lessness and worry, explicating each in terms of the famil-
manifested as subsiding. Torpor has the characteristic iar defining categories. With regard to restlessness the trea-
of unwieldiness. Its function is to smother. It is mani- tise says:
fested as laziness, or it is manifested as nodding and
It has the characteristic of disquiet, like water whipped
sleep. The proximate cause of both is unwise attention
by the wind. Its function is unsteadiness, like a flag or
to boredom, sloth, and so on.1
banner whipped by the wind. It is manifested as tur-
Restlessness and Worry (Uddhaccakukkucca) moil, like ashes flung up by pelting with stones. Its
proximate cause is unwise attention to mental disquiet.
As in the previous case, here too the Buddha divides this It should be regarded as distraction of consciousness.2
compound hindrance into its two components before re-
Worry is explained in the following way:
combining them into one: “Restlessness, monks, is a hin-
drance; worry is a hindrance. Thus the hindrance of rest- It has subsequent regret as its characteristic. Its func-
lessness and worry that comes down in the summary by tion is to sorrow about what has and what has not been
done. It is manifested as remorse. Its proximate cause is
this method becomes twofold.”2 The DhammasaIgaJi again
what has and what has not been done. It should be re-
picks up on this method and defines the two terms sepa- garded as slavery”.3
rately:
What is the hindrance of excitement [restlessness] and
worry? What is excitement? That excitement of mind
which is disquietude, agitation of heart, turmoil of
mind: that is called excitement [restlessness]. 1. Psy. Ethics, p. 312-13. “Tattha katamaH uddhaccakukkucca nīvaraJaH? Tat-
What is worry? Consciousness of what is lawful in tha katamaH uddhaccaH? YaH cittassa uddhaccaH avupasamo cetaso vikkhepo
something that is unlawful; consciousness of what is bhantattaH cittassa. IdaH vuccati uddhaccaH.
unlawful in something that is lawful; consciousness of Tattha katamam kukkuccaH? Akappiye kappiya saññitā, kappiye akappiya
saññitā, avajje vajja saññitā; vajje avajja saññitā; yaH evarupaH kukkuccaH
what is immoral in something that is moral; conscious- kukkuccāyanā, cetaso vippa;isāro, manovilekho, idaH vuccati kukkuccaH. Iti
ness of what is moral in something that is immoral: all idaH ca uddhaccaH idaH ca kukkuccaH idaH vuccati uddhaccakukkuccanīva-
this sort of worry, fidgeting, overscrupulousness, re- raJaH.” Dhs., p. 233.
morse of conscience, mental scarifying – this is what is 2. PP., p. 530. “TaH avūpasamalakkhaJaH, vàtābhighātacalajalaH viya; ana-
va;;hānarasaH. Vātābhighātacaladhajapatākāviya; bhantattapaccupa;;hānaH,
1. PP., p. 530. “Tattha thinaH anussāhalakkhaJaH, viriyavinodanarasaH, pāsāJābhighātasamuddhatabhasmaH viya; cetaso avūpasame ayoniso manasi-
saHsīdanapaccupa;;hānaH; middhaH akammaññatalakkhaJaH, onahanarasaH, kārapada;;hānaH; cittavikkhepo, ti da;;habbaH.” Vism., p. 397.
līnatāpaccupa;;hānaH, pacalāyikā-niddāpaccupa;;hānaH vā; ubhayaH pi arati- 3. PP., p. 532. “TaH pacchānutāpalakkhaJaH, katākatānusocanarasaH. Vippa;i-
vijambhikādīsu ayoniso manasikārapada;;hānaH.” Vism., p. 397. sārapaccupa;;hānaH, katākatapada;;hānaH, dāsabyaH iva da;;habbaH.”
2. See above, p. 64. Vism., p. 398:

72 73
Doubt (Vicikicchā) leading to the end of suffering. Doubt regarding the past,
The Buddha explains doubt as principally uncertainty and future, and both applies to past lives, future lives, and both.
lack of conviction in regard to four items: the Buddha, the And doubt regarding causally determined states is perplex-
Dhamma, the Sangha, and the training.1 Elsewhere he ity over the twelvefold formulation of dependent arising.1
speaks of perplexity regarding the past, the present, and the It is evident from these definitions and descriptions that the
future, and again about the removal of doubt in regard to species of doubt classed as a hindrance is skeptical indecis-
dependent arising.2 The DhammasaIgaJi says: ion with respect to the fundamental tenets of Buddhist doc-
To doubt, to be perplexed about the Master… the Doc- trine and practice. The doubt to be abandoned is not the
trine… the Order, about the Discipline, about the past, freedom of philosophical inquiry, which the Buddha openly
the future, about both the past and the future, as to encouraged in those who sought to gain personal convict-
whether there be an assignable cause of states causally ion of truth, but stubborn disbelief and perplexity regarding
determined – it is this kind of doubt, this working of the principles needed for higher development. As long as
doubt, this dubiety, puzzlement, perplexity, distraction, such doubt persists, the mind is too obscured by confusion
standing at cross-roads; collapses, uncertainty of grasp;
to embark on the path leading to higher attainments. As the
evasion, hesitation, incapacity of grasping thoroughly,
stiffness of mind, mental scarifying that is called per- Visuddhimagga says, doubt has the function of wavering,
plexity [hindrance of doubt].3 the manifestation of indecisiveness, and it acts as an ob-
struction to practice.2
The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā explains that doubt in re-
gard to the Master is doubt as to whether or not any person
has existed endowed with the physical and spiritual quali-
Seclusion from the Hindrances
ties of a Buddha. Doubt regarding the Doctrine is doubt Kinds of Seclusion
about the existence of the supramundane paths, fruits, and
The stock passage describing the attainment of the first
nibbāna. Doubt regarding the Sangha is skepticism with re-
jhāna, with which we began the present chapter, says that
spect to the existence of holy persons or the fruitfulness of
the jhāna is attained by a bhikkhu who is “secluded from
gifts to the Order. Doubt regarding the discipline questions
sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of
the effectiveness of morality, concentration, and wisdom in
mind’.3 Now that we have determined the purport of the
1. MN. 1:101. phrase “unwholesome states of mind” to be the five hin-
2. 1bid., pp. 8, 260. drances, we must inquire into the meaning of the word “se-
3. Psy. Ethics. p. 260. “Tattha katamaH vicikicchānīvaraJaH? Satthari clusion” (viveka). The Visuddhimagga in its gloss of this
kaIkhati vicikicchati; dhamme kaIkhati vicikicchati; sanghe kaIkhati vicikic- passage, explains that there are three kinds of seclusion
chati; sikkhāya kaIkhati vicikicchati; pubbante kaIkhati vicikicchati; aparante
kaIkhati vicikicchati; pubbantāparante kaIkhati vicikicchati; idappaccayatā relevant to the present context – namely, bodily seclusion
pa;iccāsamuppannesu dhammesu kaIkhati vicikicchati: sā evarūpā kaIkhā kaI-
1. Dhs.A., pp. 388-89.
khāyanā kaIkhāyitattaH, vimati, vicikicchā, dveXhakaH, dvedhāpatho, saHsa-
yo, anekamsaggāho, āsappanā, parisappanā, apariyodahanā, thambhitatthaH, 2. PP., p. 533. Vism., p. 398.
cittassa mano vilekho, idaH vuccati vicikicchānīvaraJaH.” Dhs., pp. 233-34. 3. See p. 56.

74 75
(kāyaviveka), mental seclusion (cittaviveka), and seclusion doning by suppression, by substitution of opposites, by cut-
by suppression (vikkhambhanaviveka).1 These three terms ting off, by tranquilization, and by deliverance.”1 (Wr. tr.).
allude to two distinct sets of exegetical categories, which The Pa;isambhidāmagga explains them as follows:
must be considered to bring their meaning to light.
For one developing the first jhāna, the hindrances are
The first two terms pertain to a threefold arrangement abandoned by way of suppression. For one developing
made up of bodily seclusion, mental seclusion, and “seclu- concentration partaking of penetration, wrong views
sion from the substance” (upadhi viveka). The first means are abandoned by way of substitution of opposites. For
physical withdrawal from active social engagement into a one developing the supramundane path that leads to
condition of solitude for the purpose of devoting time and their destruction, (defilements) are abandoned by way
of cutting off. At the moment of fruition they are aban-
energy to spiritual development. The second, which gener-
doned by way of tranquillization. And abandoning by
ally presupposes success in the first, means the seclusion of deliverance is nibbāna, cessation.2 (Wr. tr.).
the mind from its entanglement in defilements and dis-
tracted thoughts; it is in effect equivalent to jhāna, or at These five types of abandonment are elucidated more fully
least the access level of concentration (upacāra samādhi). in the commentaries.
The third, “seclusion from the substance,” is nibbāna, lib- 1. The Visuddhimagga says that “abandoning by suppress-
eration from the elements of phenomenal existence.2 The ion” occurs whenever “any of the mundane kinds of con-
achievement of the first jhāna does not depend on the third, centration suppresses opposing states such as the hindran-
from which it is still quite remote, but it does require physi- ces,”3 as illustrated by the pressing down of water-weed by
cal solitude and the separation of the mind from obses- placing a porous pot on weedfilled water. Though the can-
sions. Hence the Visuddhimagga mentions bodily and men- onical text mentions only the first jhāna as an example,
tal seclusion as pre-conditions for entering the jhāna, the Buddhaghosa remarks that this is mentioned because sup-
former applying particularly to sense stimuli. the latter to pression is obvious then, but suppression also occurs before
the hindrances. and after the jhāna, when the hindrances do not invade
The third type of seclusion pertinent to the context, seclus- consciousness by reason of the force of concentration.4
ion by suppression, belongs to a different scheme generally 1. “Pañca pahānāni: vikkhambhanappahānaH, tadaIgappahānaH, samucche-
discussed under the heading of “abandonment” (pahāna) dappahānaH, pa;ippassaddhippahānaH, nissaraJappahanaH.” Pa isambhida-
rather than “seclusion.” The basis for this classificatory set maggapāli [Pāli Text in Burmese script], (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana
Samiti, 1962), p. 26 (hereafter cited as Pts.).
is a passage in the canonical exegetical work, the Pa;isam-
2. “Vikkhambhanappahānā ca nīvaraJānaH pa;hamaH jhānaH bhāvayato,
bhidāmagga, recording five kinds of abandoning: “Aban- tadaIgappahānā ca di;;higatānaH nibbedhabhāgiyaH samādhi bhāvayato, sam-
ucchedappahānañ ca lokuttaraH khayagāmimaggaH bhāvayato, pa;ippassadd-
hippahānañca phalakkhaJe, nissaranappahānañca nirodho nibbānaH.”
Ibid., pp. 26-27.
3. PP., p. 812. “Tena tena lokiyasamādhinā nīvaraJādīnaH paccanikadhammā-
1. Vism., p. 113. naH vikkhambhanaH, idaH vitkkhambhanappahānaH nāma.” Vism., p. 596.
2. MLS. 1:135. MN. 1:104. 4. PP., p. 812. Vism., p. 596.
76 77
2. The “abandoning by substitution of opposites” is defined 4. “‘Abandoning by tranquillization’ is the tranquillizing or
as subsiding of the defilements at the moments of ‘fruition’
the abandoning of any given state that ought to be following the noble path consciousness”1 (Wr. tr.). It marks
abandoned through the means of a particular factor of the release consequent upon the destruction of defilements
knowledge, which as a constituent of insight is opposed effected by the path.
to it, like the abandoning of darkness at night through
the means of light.1 5. “‘Abandoning by deliverance’ is nibbāna, in which all
that is conditioned is abandoned by deliverance from all
This type of abandoning, in other words, represents a form
that is conditioned.”2 (Wr. tr.).
of factor-substitution in which the arising of a particular
species of insight-knowledge cancels out and vanquishes a Thus when the Visuddhimagga says that the achievement of
corresponding kind of error. The Visuddhimagga cites as the first jhāna is contingent on seclusion by suppression,
examples the abandoning of the perceptions of perman- we must understand this to mean that it requires the aban-
ence, pleasure, and self through the contemplations of im- donment of the hindrances by way of the abandoning by
permanence, suffering, and non-self, the principal forms of suppression.
insight-knowledge.2 Its commentary adds that insight is not
the only type of abandoning by substitution of opposites, The Plane of Abandonment
since the latter can also occur in other ways such as through The abandoning of the five hindrances is a necessary con-
the purification of morality, which replaces unwholesome dition for the attainment of the first jhāna. The abandoning
states with wholesome ones.3 of the hindrances does not by itself necessarily indicate that
the first jhāna has been achieved, but in order for the jhāna
3. “Abandoning by cutting off” is a name for “the abandon-
to be achieved the hindrances have to be abandoned. The
ing of the states beginning with the fetters by the noble
type of abandoning relevant to the attainment of jhāna is
path knowledge in such a way that they never occur again,
abandoning by suppression. The suppression of the hin-
like a tree struck by a thunderbolt.”4 This mode of abandon-
drances prepares the mind for entrance upon the jhāna by
ing comes about when the supramundane wisdom of the
creating a situation conducive to its actualization. The
noble path consciousness eradicates the seeds or latencies
jhāna and suppression can thus be understood to exist in a
of the defilements severing the possibility of their re-
relationship where the arising of the jhāna is dependent on
occurrence.
the prior suppression of the hindrances, and the persistence
1. PP., p. 813. Vism., pp. 596-97.
1. “YaH pana phalakkhaJe pa;ippassaddhattaH kilesānaH etaH pa;ip-
2. Ibid. passaddhippahānaH nāma.” Buddhaghosa, [Majjhima Nikāya A hakathā (Pa-
3. Dhammapāla, [Visuddhimagga Mahā Tīkā] Paramatthamañjūsā Nāma pañcasūdanī)], [Vol. 1-2] Mūlapa11āsa hakathā; [vol. 3:] Majjhimapa11ā-
Visuddhimagga Mahā īkā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. 2 vols. (Rangoon, sa hakathā; [vol. 4:] Uparipa11āsa hakathā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script].
Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960), 2:208-209 (hereafter cited as Vism.T.). 4 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1957), 1:24-25 (hereafter
4. PP., p. 816. “YaH pana, asanivicakkhābhihatassa rukkhassa viya ariyamagga- cited as MN.A.).
ñāJena saHyojanādīnaH dhammānaH yathā na puna pavattanti evaH pahānaH, 2. “YaH sabbasaIkhatanissa;attā pahīnā sabbasankhataH nibbānaH etaH nis-
idaH samucchedappahānaH nāma.” Vism., p. 598. saraJapahānaH nāma.” Ibid., 25.

78 79
of the hindrances is obstructive to the attainment of the tion and worry, and sustained thought with un-
jhāna. certainty’.1
The work of suppressing the hindrances begins with the With continued practice the “learning sign” gives rise to a
first efforts to focus the mind in concentration upon one of purified luminous reproduction of itself called the “coun-
the prescribed objects for the development of jhāna, such terpart sign” (pa ibhāga nimitta).2 The manifestation of the
as the kasi1as. As the meditator fixes his mind on the ini- counterpart sign marks the complete suppression of the
tial object, a point is reached where he can apprehend the hindrances and the attainment of a degree of concentration
object as clearly with his eyes closed as with them open. known as “access concentration” (upacārasamādhi): “But
This visualized object is called the “learning sign” (ug- as soon as it (counterpart sign) arises the hindrances are
gahanimitta).1 As he concentrates on the learning sign, his quite suppressed, the defilements subside, and the mind be-
efforts call into play certain mental factors intermittently comes concentrated in access concentration.”3
present in normal consciousness but which now grow in All three events – the suppression of the hindrances, the
force, duration, and prominence as a result of the medita- arising of the counterpart sign, and the entrance upon ac-
tive exertion. These mental factors activated by the pre- cess concentration – take place at precisely the same mo-
liminary work of concentration are applied thought (vi- ment, without interval. And though previously the process
takka), sustained thought (vicāra), rapture (pīti), happiness of mental cultivation may have required the elimination of
(sukha), and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). When they reach different hindrances at different times, when access is ach-
full maturity they will become the jhāna-factors, but in the ieved they all subside together:
preliminary stage of concentration they represent the jhāna Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart sign
only in embryonic form. These factors are incompatible his lust is abandoned by suppression owing to his giv-
with the hindrances and function as their precise antidotes. ing no attention externally to sense desires (as object).
Thence their repeated cultivation excludes the hindrances, And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill will is
attenuates them, and holds them at bay. As the Visuddhi- abandoned too, as pus is with the abandoning of blood.
magga explains: Likewise stiffness and torpor is abandoned through ex-
ertion of energy, agitation and worry is abandoned
The hindrances are the contrary opposites of the jhāna through devotion to peaceful things that cause no re-
factors: what is meant is that the jhāna factors are in- morse; and uncertainty about the Master who teaches
compatible with them, eliminate them, abolish them.
And it is said accordingly in the Pe;aka: ‘Concentration 1. PP., p. 147. “NīvaranāJi hi jhānaIgapaccanikāni; tesaH jhānaIgāneva
is incompatible with lust, happiness with ill will, ap- pa;ipakkhāni viddhaIsakāni vighātakāni ti vuttaH hoti. Tathā hi, ‘samādhi
plied thought with stiffness and torpor, bliss with agita- kāmacchandassa pa;ipakkho, pīti byāpādassa, vitakko thīnamiddhassa, sukhaH
uddhaccakukkuccassa, vicāro vicikicchāyā’ti [ ] Pe;ake vuttaH.”
Vism., p. 114.
2. PP., p. 130. Vism., p. 102.
3. PP., p. 131. “Uppannakālato ca pan’assa pa;;hāya nīvaraJāni vikkhambhitāni
eva honti, kilesā sannisinnā vā, upacārasamādhinā cittaH samāhitaH evā ti.”
1. PP., p. 130. Vism., p. 101-102. Vism., p. 102.

80 81
 the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, seems to be the canonical paradigm for access concen-
is abandoned through the actual experience of the dis- tration. Though the mental factors determinative of the
tinction attained. So the five hindrances are aban- jhāna are present in access concentration, they do not as yet
doned.1
possess sufficient strength to give this state the full qualifi-
The term “access concentration” does not appear as such in cation of the first jhāna. They are strong enough only to ex-
the four main nikāyas of the Suttapi;aka, but only in the clude the hindrances and hold them at bay. This prelimi-
commentaries. However, a state intermediate between nor- nary state, as we said, is a necessary prelude to the attain-
mal consciousness and full concentration, in which the ment of jhāna, but does not itself possess a powerful
hindrances are overcome, is clearly implied by a number of enough degree of mental unification to actually place the
passages. Thus in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta it is said: mind in full absorption. With continued practice, however,
But when these five hindrances have been put away the nascent jhāna factors will grow in strength until they
within him, he looks upon himself as freed from debt, gain sufficient force to issue in the first jhāna.
rid of disease, out of jail, a free man, and secure.
Thus, beginning from the ordinary distracted condition of
And gladness springs up within him on his realising the untrained mind, a yogin begins developing concentra-
that, and joy arises to him thus gladdened, and so re- tion. This initial practice arouses certain mental factors
joicing all his frame becomes at ease, and being thus at
which counter the hindrances and unify the mind upon its
ease he is filled with a sense of peace and in that peace
his heart is stayed.2 object. The complete suppression of the hindrances marks
the achievement of access concentration. The attainment of
The state where the hindrances are abandoned but the mind jhāna then lies close at hand. When, through further appli-
has not yet become fully concentrated in the first jhāna cation, these factors can unify the mind to the degree of
1. PP., p. 196. “Tassa pa;ibhāganimittapa;ilābhasamakālaH eva, bahiddhā immersion in its object, the jhāna is actually attained.
kāmānaH amanasikārā vikkhambhanavasena kāmacchando pahīyati; anunayap-
pahānen’eva’assa lohitappahānena pubbo viya byāpādo pi pahīyati; tathā ārad-
dhaviriyatāya thīnamiddhaH avippa;isārakarasantadhammānuyogavasena udd-
The Causal Arising of the Hindrances
haccakukkuccaH, adhigatavisesassa paccakkhatāya pa;ipattidesake Satthari The five hindrances, the Buddha teaches, are like all other
pa;ipattiyaH pa;ipattiphale ca vicikicchā’ti pañca nivaraJāni pahīyanti.”
Vism., p. 155. phenomena causally conditioned, arising and subsiding in
2. T. W. Rhys Davids and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, trans. Dialogues of the Buddha correlation with other things which serve as their supports.
(Dīgha Nikāya). [Vol. 1: translated by T. W. Rhys Davids; vols. 2-3: translated When these supports are present the hindrances spring up
by T. W. Rhys Davids and C. A. F. Rhys Davids. (Sacred Books of the Bud-
dhists, vols. 2-4]. 3 vols. 1889-1921; reprint, London: Luzac & Co., 1956-77), and grow, when the supports are removed they fade away
1;84 (hereafter cited as Dial.). “Seyyathā pi mahā rāja ānanyaH yathā ārogyaH and disappear. Since the hindrances thus depend on other
yathā bandhanā mokkhaH yathā bhujissaH yathā khemanta bhūmiH, evaH eva factors for their origination and cessation, the suppression
kho mahā-rāja bhikkhu ime pañca nīvaraJe pahīne attani samanupassati.
Tassa ime pañca nīvaraJe pahīne attani samanupassato pāmujjaH jāyati, pa-
and elimination of the hindrances requires an understand-
muditassa pīti jāyati, pīti-manassa kāyo passambhati, passaddha kāyo sukhaH ing of these factors, what they are and how to overcome
vedeti, sukhino cittaH samādhiyati.” DN. 1:72. them.

82 83
As part of his program for the conquest of the hindrances, As this statement points out, the five hindrances while
the Buddha has taken special care to provide an exact ac- “nourishing” ignorance are nourished in turn by the three
count of their genetic groundwork. This account proceeds wrong ways of practice, non-restraint of the senses, lack of
at both the general and particular level, laying bare the mindfulness and self-composure, unwise consideration, and
causes for the hindrances as a group and for each individual so on. Through unwise consideration a man fails to control
member of this group. In the AIguttara Nikāya, the Bud- his mind. Lacking mindfulness he allows his senses to
dha includes the five hindrances in a sequence of condi- roam unchecked in their objective fields, seeking sensual
tions nourishing and sustaining ignorance, itself the fun- gratification. Obsessed by sense stimuli, he then engages in
damental root of sa,sāra: the three wrong ways of practice – bodily, verbal, and men-
Ignorance, I declare, monks, has its nutriment. It is not tal misconduct – and these actions reinforce the hindrances,
without nutriment. And what is the nutriment of igno- which then maintain the ignorance that holds him in bond-
rance? ‘The five hindrances’ should be the reply. I de- age.
clare, monks, that the five hindrances have their nutri-
The Buddha often calls attention to the crucial role played
ment, are not without nutriment. And what is the nutri-
ment of the five hindrances? ‘The three wrong ways of by “unwise consideration” (ayoniso manasikāra) in the
practice’ should be the reply. They too have their nu- arising of unwholesome states. Unwise consideration is
triment. What? ‘nonrestraint of the sense faculties’ “inexpedient reflection, reflection on the wrong track” (an-
should be the reply. They too have their nutriment. upāyamanasikāra). It is reflection which apprehends its ob-
What? ‘Lack of mindfulness and self-composure’ ject through the four “perversions” (vipallāsa), considering
should be the reply. That, too, has its nutriment, I de- the impermanent as permanent, pain as pleasure, non-self
clare. What? ‘Lack of thorough work of mind’ [unwise
consideration] should be the reply. And what is the nu-
triment of that? ‘Lack of faith’ should be the reply.
What is the nutriment of that? ‘Not listening to true L. Woodward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids. (Pali Text Society
Dhamma’ I declare, monks. That not listening to true Translation Series nos. 22, 24, 25-27]. 5 vols. 1932-36; reprint, London: Luzac
& Co., l936-79), 5:79 (hereafter cited as GS.). “Avijjamp’āhaH bhikkave
Dhamma has its nutriment, is not without nutriment.
sāhāraH vadāmi. No anāhāraH. Ko cāhāro avijjā? Pañca nīvaraJāti’ssa vacanī-
And what is the nutriment of not listening to true yaH. Pañcap’āhaH bhikkhave nīvaraJe sāhāre vadāmi. No anāhāre. Ko cāhāro
Dhamma? ‘Not following after the very man’ should be pañcannaH nīvaraJānaH? TīJi duccaritānīti’ssa vacanīyaH. TīJi p’āhaH
the reply.1 bhikkhave duccaritāni sāhārāni vadāmi, no anāhārāni. Ko cāhāro tiJJaH ducca-
ritānaH? IndriyasaHvaroti’ssa vacanīyaH. IndriyasaHvaraH p’āhaH bhikkhave
sāhāraH vadāmi no anāhāraH. Ko cāhāro indriyasaHvarassa? Asatāsampajañ-
1. F. L. Woodward and E. M. Hare, trans. The Book of the Gradual Sayings ñanti’ssa vacanīyaH… Asatāsampajaññā p’āhaH bhikkhave sāhāraH vadāmi;
(A*guttara-Nikāya) Or More-Numbered Suttas. [Vol. 1: (Ones, Twos, Threes), no anāhāraH… Ko cāhāro asatāsampajaññassa? Ayoniso manasikāroti’ssa va-
translated by F. L. Woodward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. canīyaH. AyonisomanasikāraH p’āhaH bhikkhave sāhāraH vadāmi; no anāhā-
2: (The Book of the Fours), translated by F. L. Woodward with an Introduction raH. Ko cāhāro ayonisomanasikārassa? Assaddhiyanti’ssa vacanīyaH. Assad-
by Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. 3: (The Books of the Fives and Sixes), translated by dhiyaH p’āhaH bhikkhave sāhāraH vadāmi; no anāhāraH. Ko cāhāro assaddhi-
E. M. Hare with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. 4: (The Books of the yassa? Asaddhammasavananti’ssa vacanīyaH. AsaddhammasavanaH p’āhaH
Sevens, Eights and Nines), translated by E. M. Hare with an Introduction by bhikkhave sāhāraH vadāmi; no anāhāraH. Ko cāhāro asaddhamasavanassa?
Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. 5: (The Book of the Tens and Elevens), translated by F. Asappurisa saHsevoti’ssa vacanīyaH.” AN. 5:113.

84 85
as self, and the foul as beautiful.1 This wrong reflection is without nutriment, in the same way the five hindrances
particularly instrumental in causing the arising and growth are sustained by nutriment, stand in dependence on nu-
of all the five hindrances: triment, and do not stand without nutriment.
In him who practices unmindful observation sensual 1. What, monks, is the nutriment for the arising of
desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, excitement and flurry unarisen sensual desire, and for the growth and expan-
[restless and worry], and doubt, if not already arisen, sion of sensual desire that has already arisen? There is,
arise, and if already arisen, sensual desire, ill will, sloth monks, the beautiful appearance of things. Habitual
and torpor, excitement and flurry [restlessness and unwise consideration of that is the nutriment for the
worry], and doubt are conducive to increasing, and arising of unarisen sensual desire, and for the growth
growth thereof.2 (Wr. tr.). and expansion of sensual desire that has already arisen.
2. And what, monks, is the nutriment for the arising of
But unwise consideration functions not only as a general
unarisen ill will, and for the growth and expansion of
cause for the hindrances as a group; it is a specific cause ill will that has already arisen? There is, monks, the re-
for each of the hindrances individually as well. As the gen- pulsive appearance of things. Habitual unwise consid-
eral phenomenon of incorrect attention unwise consider- eration of that is the nutriment for the arising of
ation serves as the common ground for all the hindrances. unarisen ill will…
Acts of incorrect attention, however, always take on par- 3. And what, monks, is the nutriment for the arising of
ticular forms which can be correlated with particular hin- unarisen sloth and torpor…? There is, monks, discon-
drances. Differences in the modes in which unwise consid- tent, drowsiness, langour, surfeit after meals, and slug-
eration occurs are determined by the variations in its gishness of mind. Habitual unwise consideration of
objects and associated factors. Depending on these variat- them is the nutriment for the arising of unarisen sloth
ions, unwise consideration becomes a cause for each sepa- and torpor…
rate hindrance: 4. And what, monks, is the nutriment for the arising of
unarisen restlessness and worry…? There is, monks,
Just as this body, monks, is sustained by nutriment,
non-tranquility of mind. Habitual unwise consideration
stands in dependence on nutriment, and does not stand
of that is the nutriment for the arising of unarisen rest-
lessness and worry.
1. Soma Thera, trans., The Way of Mindfulness, being a translation of the Sa-
tipa;;hāna Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya; its Commentary, the Satipa;;hāna
5. And what, monks, is the nutriment for the arising of
Sutta VaJJanā of the Papañcasūdanī of Buddhaghosa Thera; and Excerpts from unarisen doubt…? There are, monks, matters which are
the Līnatthapakāsanā [īkā, Marginal Notes, of Dhammapāla Thera on the grounds for doubt. Habitual unwise consideration of
Commentary, (Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society, 1941-1967), p. 116 them is the nutriment for the arising of unarisen
(hereafter cited as Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness). doubt…1 (Wr. tr.).
2. “Ayoniso bhikkhave manasikaroto anuppanno ceva kāmachando uppajjati
uppanno ca kāmacchando bhīyyobhāvāya vepullāya saHvattati. Anuppanno
ceva byāpādo uppajjati… AnuppannaH ceva thīnamiddhaH…, uddhaccak-
ukkuccaH…, Ayoniso ca bhikkhave manasikaroto anuppannāceva vicikicchā 1. “Seyyathāpi bhikkhave ayaH kāyo āhāra;;hitiko āhāraH pa;icca ti;;hati anā-
uppajjati, uppannā ca vicikicchā bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saHvattati.” hāro no ti;;hati. EvaH eva kho bhikkhave pañca nīvaraJā āhāra;;hitikā āhāraH
SN. 5:93-94. pa;icca ti;;hanti, anāhāraH no ti;;hanti.

86 87
Thus we see that the five hindrances arise and increase, in ties needed to overcome the hindrances are not beyond
general, through engagement in the three wrong ways of man’s capacity for development, provided only that he is
practice, lack of sense control, lack of mindfulness, and given the proper methodology. It is the purpose of the
unwise consideration. Specifically, sensual desire arises Buddha’s discipline to provide precisely that methodology
through unwise consideration of the attractive appearance which leads to the conquest of the hindrances and thereby
of things, ill will through unwise consideration of the re- of ignorance itself.
pulsive features of things, sloth and torpor through unwise The final conquest of the hindrances is effected exclusively
consideration of states conducive to lethargy, restlessness by the four supramundane paths. To reach the path the de-
and worry through unwise consideration of disturbing velopment of insight (vipassanā) is indispensable, since in-
states, and doubt through unwise consideration of matters sight into the true characteristics of phenomena issues in
provocative of doubt. the supramundane wisdom of the path. But in order for in-
sight to arise, the hindrances have to be attenuated to a de-
The Elimination of the Hindrances gree where they no longer disrupt the process of contem-
Once the genetic basis for the rise and growth of the hin- plation.
drances becomes clear, the way to counteract and eliminate The canonical texts offer two basic approaches to the pre-
them follows as a matter of course. Since the hindrances liminary overcoming of the hindrances. One is the sup-
occur in dependence on specific causes and conditions, pression of the hindrances by the development of serenity
their control and conquest requires simply that their gener- (samatha), either access concentration or jhāna; the other
ative causes be removed. Though the actual achievement of is their elimination in the course of developing insight. The
such a stoppage may be difficult and require diligent effort, former is described in the discourses of the Buddha ex-
it is the fundamental optimism of Buddhism that the quali- pounding the stages of the “gradual training,” the latter in
the discourses on the practice of satipa hāna, “the found-
[1] Ko ca bhikkhave āhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya uppan- ations of mindfulness”.1
nassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? Atthi bhikkhave subha-
nimittaH; tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro ayaH āhāro anuppannassa vā Two different approaches are offered because of the differ-
kāmacchandassa uppādāya uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya ing mental dispositions of disciples. Disciples of a contem-
vepullāya.
plative bent generally incline to first attain concentration by
[2] Ko ca bhikkhave āhāro anuppannassa vā byāpādassa uppādāya uppannassa
vā byāpādassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? Atthi bhikkhave pa;ighanimittaH. suppressing the hindrances through jhāna and then move
Tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro ayaH āhāro anuppannassa vā byāpādassa on to the development of insight. These are called practi-
uppādāya uppannassa vā byāpādassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.
tioners of the vehicle of serenity (samathayānika) who de-
[3] … thīnamiddhassa…? Atthi bhikkhave arati tandivijambhitā, bhattasam-
mado, cetaso ca līnattaH; tattha… velop “insight preceded by serenity.” Other disciples, of an
[4] … uddhaccakukkuccassa…? … cetaso avūpasamo… intellectual bent, are generally disposed to strive immedi-
[5] … vicikicchāya uppādāya…? Atthi bhikkhave vicikicchā;;hāniyā dhammā,
tattha ayoniso manasikārabahulīkāro ayaH āhāro anuppannāya vā vicikicchāya 1. For the gradual training, see DN. 1:47-86. MN. 1:175-84; 271-80. For sa-
uppādāya uppannāya vā vicikicchāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.” SN. 5:64-65. tipa hāna, see DN. 2:290-315 and MN. 1:55-63.

88 89
ately for insight, leaving until later the task of deepening able the opportunity to follow after superior men and to
concentration. These are called practitioners of the vehicle hear the true Dhamma. The gain of faith in the teaching
of insight (vipassanāyānika) who develop “serenity pre- leads to commitment to the training, which proceeds ac-
ceded by insight.” Both types must eventually cultivate in- cording to a graded step-by-step structure designed to lead
sight by practising the foundations of mindfulness, since the practitioner gradually to the goal of liberation.
insight-wisdom is needed to reach the supramundane path. The most elementary step along the path is the observance
They differ, not with respect to the inclusion of insight, but of moral discipline. The moral precepts, varying in range
in the sequence they follow to develop insight. The practi- from the five precepts for the laity to the full code of Vi-
tioner of serenity attains jhāna then cultivates insight, and naya rules for monks, have the purpose of inculcating re-
finally reaches the path. The practitioner of insight reaches straint of body and speech. Since the unwholesome mental
the path directly by cultivating insight, without relying on a states motivating bodily and verbal misconduct grow
foundation of jhāna. stronger when such actions are indulged in, to overcome the
We will now consider in turn each of the two approaches to defilements it is necessary to begin by controlling their
the overcoming of the hindrances, taking first the approach coarser expressions by way of physical and verbal activity.
of the gradual training, in which the attainment of serenity This control is exercised by acting in conformity with the
is emphasized, and then the approach of the foundations of rules of conduct. By careful observance of the moral code,
mindfulness, which emphasizes the direct development of the disciple can eliminate the bodily and verbal modes of
insight. Finally we will briefly note the way the hindrances misconduct which nourish the five hindrances, thereby
are eradicated by the four supramundane paths. weakening their outer impulsive force.
The mere observance of moral rules, however, is not suffic-
The Way of the Gradual Training
ient to combat the hold of the defilements upon the interior
We saw above that the hindrances are maintained by a se- processes of the mind. The defilements must be dealt with
ries of conditions beginning with failure to follow after su- at their own level by being subjected to a thoroughgoing
perior men and continuing on through not listening to the mental discipline. This training begins with the restraint of
true Dhamma, lack of faith, unwise consideration, absence the senses (indriya sa,vara). Seeing a visible form with
of mindfulness and self-possession, non-restraint of the the eye, or cognizing any object with any sense faculty, the
senses, and engagement in the three wrong ways of prac- disciple does not seize upon its general appearance or de-
tice. The standard canonical presentation of the gradual tails, but controls, guards, and masters his sense faculties.1
training, as found for example in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta, Since apprehension of the general appearance and details
shows the way this originative pattern is reversed.1 The of sensually attractive and repulsive objects can become a
presentation begins with the appearance in the world of the ground for attachment and aversion, the meditator has to
Buddha and his teaching of the doctrine, which make avail- avoid this entrancement with sense objects, confining his

1. Dial., 1:3-26; DN. 1:64-69. 1. DN. 1:70. MN. 1:180-81.

90 91
attention to the bare data without elaborating upon them doubt, he lives doubt-crossed; unperplexed as to the
through subjective commentary. Then, endowed with this states that are skilled, he purifies his mind of doubt.1
self-restraint, the disciple develops mindfulness and dis- The elimination of the hindrances requires, first of all, that
cernment (satisampajañña) in all his activities, movements, the meditator honestly appraises his inner condition by way
and modes of deportment.1 By examining everything he of introspective self-scrutiny: “If a monk while considering
does with full awareness and clear comprehension, he can knows thus: ‘the five hindrances have not been got rid of by
prevent these activities from becoming bases for the arising me,’ he should make an effort to get rid of them.”2 When
of the hindrances. To avoid attachment and aversion with sensuality, ill will, and the other hindrances are present, “he
respect to the physical supports of life, he is further en- knows with understanding that they are present.”3 Then,
joined to cultivate contentment (santu hi) with a bare when their presence has been detected, what is required is
minimum of robes, food, medicine, and shelter.2 knowledge of their appropriate antidotes. Since all the hin-
These preliminary trainings in morality, restraint of the drances arise, as we saw, through unwise consideration, it
senses, mindfulness and discernment, and contentment pro- follows that the most efficient general way to overcome
vide the necessary preparation for the cultivation of the them is to alter the manner in which things are attended to.
higher consciousness through the practice of meditation. This means, in effect, to replace unwise consideration with
Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is wise consideration (yonisomanasikāra). Wise consideration
prepared to go into solitude to develop the jhānas, and it is is consideration which accords with the true nature of
here that he meets the hindrances in direct confrontation. things; it is “expedient reflection, reflection going on the
He, returning from alms-gathering after his meal, sits right track,… reflection that considers the facts of imper-
down cross-legged holding the back erect, having made manence, suffering, soullessness, and impurity according
mindfulness rise up in front of him. He, having got rid
of covetousness for the world, lives with a mind devoid
of coveting, he purifies the mind of coveting. By get-
ting rid of the taint of ill will, he lives benevolent in
mind; and compassionate for the welfare of all crea- 1. MLS. 1:227. “So pacchābhattaH piJYapāta-pa;ikkanto nisīdati pallaIkaH
tures and beings, he purifies the mind of the taint of ill ābhujitvā ujuH kāyaH paJidhāya parimukhaH satiH upa;;hapetvā. So abhij-
will. By getting rid of sloth and torpor, he lives devoid jhaH loke pahāya vigatābhijjhena cetasā viharati, abhijjhāya cittaH parīsodheti.
of sloth and torpor; perceiving the light, mindful and Vyāpāda-padosaH pahāya avyāpanna-citto viharati, sabba-pāJa-bhūtahitānu-
kampī vyāpāda-padosā cittaH parisodheti. ThīnamiddhaH pahāya vigata-thīna-
clearly conscious, he purifies the mind of sloth and middho viharati, ālokasaññī sato sampajāno thīna-middhā cittaH parisodheti.
torpor. By getting rid of restlessness and worry, he lives Uddhacca-kukkuccaH pahāya anuddhato viharati, ajjhattaH vūpasanta citto
calmly, the mind subjectively tranquillised, he purifies uddhacca-kukkuccā cittaH parisodheti. VicikicchaH pahāya tiJJa vicikiccho
the mind of restlessness and worry. By getting rid of viharati, akathaHkathī kusalesu dhammesu vicikicchāya cittaH parisodheti.”
MN. 1:181. DN. 1:71.
2. MLS. 3:344. “Sace, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaH jānāti: ‘Appahīnā kho
me pañca nīvaraJā’ti, tena, … bhikkhunā pañcannaH nīvaraJānaH pahānāya
1. DN. 1:70. MN. 1:181. vāyamitabbaH.” MN. 3:295.
2. DN. l:71. MN. 1:180. 3. DN. 2:300-301.

92 93
to reality.”1 By correcting the subtle perceptual and cog- and wise consideration of wholesome and unwholesome
nitive distortions which supply the hindrances with food for states (kusalākusaladhammā) counteracts doubt.1
growth, the constant cultivation of wise consideration re- In the commentaries the Buddha’s miscellaneous suggest-
moves the hindrances and holds them at bay: “But, monks, ions on the elimination of the hindrances are organized into
in him who gives systematic attention, sensual desire a systematic exposition of six measures conducive to the
(… doubt) which has not arisen does not arise, and if it has vanquishing of each hindrance. Sensual desire is to be
arisen it is abandoned.”2 abandoned by:
Just as each hindrance has its individual nutriment in the Taking up the sensuously inauspicious subject of medi-
particular kind of unwise consideration corresponding to its tation; application for the development of the jhāna on
own unique operative mode, so each hindrance has its the sensuously inauspicious subject of meditation; the
“non-nutriment” (anāhāra), the cause for its elimination, in guarded state of the controlling faculties of sense; mod-
the appropriate kind of wise consideration. eration in food; the sympathy and support of good men
in the endeavour; stimulating talk that helps the ac-
And what, monks, is no food for the arising of sensual complishment of the object in view.2
lust not yet arisen, or for the more-becoming and
growth thereof, if already arisen? There is, monks, the Ill will or anger is overcome by the following six measures:
repulsive feature of things. Systematic attention thereto, Taking up the practice of the love subject of medit-
if made much of, is no food for the arising of sensual ation; applying oneself to the development of jhāna on
lust, if not yet arisen, or for its more-becoming and the thought of love; reflection on one’s action as one’s
growth if already arisen.3 own property; abundance of wise consideration; sym-
Similarly, wise consideration of the mental liberation of pathetic and helpful companionship of the good; and
loving kindness (mettācetovimutti) counteracts ill will; wise stimulating talk that assists the development of the
thought of love and the overthrow of anger.3
consideration of the elements of effort (ārambhadhātu), ex-
ertion (nikkamadhātu), and striving (parakkamadhātu) The six things leading to the conquest of sloth and torpor
counteracts sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquil- are:
ity (cetaso vūpasama) counteracts restlessness and worry; The seeing of the reason of sloth and torpor in the fact
of eating too much, or gluttony; the changing of the
1. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 117. “Yoniso manasikāro nāma upāya- postures completely; reflection on the perception of
manasikāro patha manasikāro anicce aniccanti vā dukkhe dukkhanti vā anattani light; staying in the open; sympathetic and helpful
anattāti vā asubhe asubhanti vā manasikāro.” MN.A. 1:286.
2. KS. 5:7l. “Yoniso ca kho bhikkhave manasikaroto anuppanno ceva kāmac-
chando (… vicikicchā) nūppajjati. Uppanno ca kāmacchando (… vicikicchā) 1. Ibid., pp. 105-106.
pahīyati.” SN. 5:85. 2. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 117. “Asubhanimittassa uggaho asub-
3. KS. 5:88. “Ko ca bhikkhave anāhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa up- habhāvanānuyogo indriyesu guttadvāratā bhojane mattaññutā kalyāJamittatā
pādāya uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? Atthi bhikk- sappāyakathā’ti.” MN.A. 1:286.
have asubbanimittaH. Tattha yonisomanasikārabahulīkāro ayaH anāhāro anup- 3. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 120. “Mettānimittassa uggaho mettāb-
pannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhi- hāvanānuyogo kamassakatāpaccavekkhanā pa;isankhanābahulatā kalyāJamitta-
yyobhāvāya vepullāya.” SN. 5:105. tā sappāyakathā’ti” MN.A. 1:287.
94 95
 companionship of the good; and stimulating talk that tration. Therefore his enjoyment of jhāna will be short and
assists in dispelling sloth and torpor.1 superficial.
The six things conducive to eliminating restlessness and When a bhikkhu enters upon a jhāna without (first)
worry are: completely suppressing lust by reviewing the dangers
Knowledge; questioning; understanding of disciplinary in sense desires, etc., and without (first) completely
rules; association with those more experienced and tranquillising bodily irritability by tranquillising the
older than oneself in the practice of things like virtue; body, and without (first) completely removing stiffness
sympathetic and helpful companionship; and stimulat- and torpor by bringing to mind the elements of initia-
ing talk that helps the rejection of mental agitation and tive, etc., and without (first) completely abolishing agi-
worry.2 tation and worry by bringing to mind the sign of seren-
ity, etc., and without (first) completely purifying his
And the following six measures lead to the transcendence mind of other states that obstruct concentration, then
of doubt: that bhikkhu soon comes out of that jhāna again, like a
The state of being learned in the Buddha’s teaching; of bee that has gone into an unpurified hive, like a king
inquiring about the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Or- who has gone into an unclean park.1
der of Real Saints; of understanding thoroughly the na-
ture of the Discipline; of being decided about the truth The Way of Mindfulness
of the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Order of the Real In the Satipa;;hāna Sutta, the “Discourse on the Found-
Saints; sympathetic and helpful companionship; and ations of Mindfulness,”2 the Buddha proposes a different
stimulating talk that helps to dispel doubt.3 technique for overcoming the hindrances, one which util-
The suppression of hindrances effected by these techniques izes direct, mindful observation of the hindrances them-
is necessary not only as a preliminary for entering upon selves as a method for loosening their hold upon the mind.
jhāna, but also to ensure the ability to extend the attain- This approach presupposes the same basic set of prelimi-
ment and make it last long. Even if a meditator can over- naries observed in following the gradual training: moral
come the hindrances by force of sheer concentration, if he discipline, restraint of the senses, mindfulness and dis-
has not weakened their grip on the subliminal layers of the cernment, and contentment. However, instead of employing
mind by right reflection and mental application, they will a variety of techniques to counteract the hindrances with
tend to break through the absorption and dispel his concen- the aim of reaching jhāna, the method of mindfulness pro-
ceeds directly to the contemplation of mental and bodily

1. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 123. “Atibhojane nimittaggāho iri- 1. PP., p. 157. “Yo hi bhikkhu kāmādīnavapaccavekkhanādīhi kāmacchandaH
yāpathasamparivattanatā ālokasaññāmanasikāro abbhokāsavāso kalyāJamittatā na su;;hu vikkhambhetvā, kāyapassaddhivasena kāyadu;;hullaH na su;;hu pa;i-
sappāyakathā’ti.” MN. A. 1:288. passaddhaH katvā, ārambhadhātumanasikārādivasena thīnamiddhaH na su;;hu
2. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 124. “Bahussutatā paripucchakatā vi- pa;ivinodetvā, samathanimittamanasikārādivasena uddhaccakukkuccaH na su;-
naye pakataññutā vuddhasevitā kalyāJamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” MN.A. 1:289. ;hu samūhataH katvā, aññe pi samādhiparipanthe dhamme na su;;hu visodhet-
3. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 126. “Bahussutatā paripucchakatā vi- vā jhānaH samāpajjati, so avisodhitaH āsayaH pavi;;habhamaro viya, avisud-
naye pakataññutā adhimokkhabahulatā kalyāJamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” dhaH uyyānaH pavi;;harājā viya ca, khippaH-eva nikkhamati.” Vism., p. 122.
MN.A. 1:290. 2. DN. 2:290-315. MN. 1:55-63.

96 97
phenomena with the aim of arousing insight. The diverse Since it is impossible for a meditator to completely avoid
phenomena of body and mind are classified into four situations tending to provoke the hindrances into activity,
“foundations of mindfulness”: the body (kāya), feelings he requires a technique which enables him to deal with
(vedanā), states of mind (citta), and mental objects (dham- them effectively at the causal level – to prevent them from
ma). The confrontation with the hindrances enters into the arising if possible, or to eliminate them swiftly and surely
last set, the contemplation of mental objects (dhammānu- if they should arise. Mindful observation provides him with
passanā), where it comes as the first exercise in this group: just such a technique. Through bare attention to the hin-
Here, O bhikkhus, a bhikkhu lives contemplating the drances, he is able to gain clear comprehension of their in-
mental objects in the mental objects of the five hin- dividual nature and to discern their causes and conditions.
drances. Contemplation of the hindrances is a means both to calm
How, O bhikkhus, does a bhikkhu live contemplating and insight. By directly facing each hindrance that presents
mental objects in the mental objects of the five hin- itself, the meditator is able to divest it of the destructive
drances? power it can freely exercise when it escapes undetected.
Here, O bhikkhus, when sensuality is present, a bhik- Repeated introspective self-examination, performed with
khu with understanding knows: ‘I have sensuality,’ or complete sincerity, gives him the self-knowledge required
when sensuality is not present he with understanding to transform and purify the direction of his mental life. In
knows: ‘I have no sensuality’. He understands how the this way mindfulness of the hindrances becomes a means to
arising of the non-arisen sensuality comes to be; he the development of concentrated calm.
understands how the abandoning of the arisen sensual-
ity comes to be; and he understands how the The same contemplation, when directed towards the hin-
non-arising in the future of the abandoned sensuality drances as bare instances of phenomena exhibiting the uni-
comes to be… anger is present… sloth and torpor are versal features of phenomena, becomes a means for gaining
present… agitation and worry are present… When insight (vipassanā). By observing the rise and fall of the
doubt is present, he with understanding knows: ‘I have mental processes associated with the hindrances, the medi-
doubt’. He understands how the arising of non-arisen tator gains insight into the fact of impermanence (anicca).
doubt comes to be; he understands how the abandoning By attending to their restless nature and disturbing effects,
of the arisen doubt comes to be; and he understands
how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned
he sees the truth of suffering (dukkha). And by viewing the
doubt comes to be.1 hindrances as mere impersonal events, devoid of any sub-
stance or ego-oriented reference point, he comes to an ap-
1. Dial., 2:334-35. “Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu santaH vā ajjhattaH kāmacchan- preciation of the truth of selflessness (anattā). If these in-
daH ‘atthi me ajjhattaH kāmacchando’ti’ pajānāti, asantaH vā ajjhattaH kām- sights are pursued and developed to the deeper levels they
acchandaH ’n’atthi me ajjhattaH kāmacchando’ti pajānāti. Yathā ca anuppan-
nassa kāmacchandassa uppādo hoti taH ca pajānāti, yathā ca uppannassa
imply, they could even issue in the attainment of the supra-
kāmacchandassa pahānaH hoti taH ca pajānāti, yathā ca pahinassa kāmacchan-
dassa āyatiH anuppādo hoti taH ca pajānāti… ajjhattaH vyāpādaH… thīna- kiccha’ti pajānāti. Yathā ca anuppannāya vicikicchāya uppado hoti taH ca pa-
middhaH… uddhaccakukkuccaH… vicikicchaH ’atthi me ajjhattaH vicikic- jānāti, yathā ca uppanāya vicikicchāya pahānaH hoti taH ca pajānāti, yathā ca
chā’ti pajānāti, asantaH vā ajjhattaH vicikicchaH ’n’atthi me ajjhattaH vici- pahīnāya vicikicchāya āyatiH anuppādo hoti taH ca pajānāti.” DN. 2:300-301.

98 99
mundane path. In this way the method of mindfulness is cidentally develops momentary concentration which elimi-
able to transform even obstacles to meditation into integral nates the hindrances, then he arouses insight.
parts of the meditative process.
The Eradication of the Hindrances
In the practice of insight meditation no deliberate effort is
In the jhāna the hindrances are abandoned only by way of
made to develop concentration. Since the practitioner does
suppression. Though inactive, they still remain as dorman-
not confine his attention to a single object, the arising of
cies in the mental continuum, capable of cropping up again
concentration at the access or absorption level is imposs-
if sufficiently stimulated. The actual eradication of the hin-
ible. Insight meditation involves the contemplation of the
drances requires the wisdom of the supramundane paths,
constantly changing flow of phenomena. its object is shift-
which abandons the hindrances by cutting them off at the
ing from moment to moment, as one phenomenon passes
root. This abandonment by cutting off (samucchedappa-
away to be replaced by the next. Thus the stability of a sin-
hāna) is accomplished with respect to different hindrances
gle focal point essential to attaining jhāna is absent.
by different paths in the four stages of supramundane de-
Nevertheless, the practice of insight does produce a spon- velopment. According to the Visuddhimagga, the first path,
taneous kind of concentration existing concurrently with it- the path of stream-entry (sotāpattimagga), cuts off the hin-
self. This kind of mental unification, called “momentary drance of doubt. The second, the path of the once-returner
concentration” (kha1ika samādhi) comes into being (sakadāgāmi magga), weakens all the hindrances but cuts
through the fixity with which the mind attends to the off none. The third, the path of the non-returner (anāgāmi
changing phenomena. As the mind examines undistractedly magga), cuts off the hindrances of sensual desire, ill will,
the phenomenal process, the successive moments of con- and worry. And the fourth, the path of arahatship (arahatta
templation acquire a concentrative power equal to the task magga), cuts off the remainder – sloth and torpor and rest-
of suppressing the hindrances. Though it does not possess lessness.1 Thus it is only the arahat who has completely
the force needed to attain jhāna, this momentary concen- overcome all the hindrances. In the arahat, the Buddha ex-
tration arisen through insight-practice is sufficiently strong plains, “these five hindrances are abandoned, cut down at
to prevent the hindrances from disturbing contemplation the root, made like a palmtree stump, made something that
and to allow the wisdom of insight to arise. Thus even has ceased to be, so as not to grow again in future time.”2
without developing jhāna the practitioner of bare insight
can build up concentration moment by moment, giving him The Benefits of Abandoning the Hindrances
enough mental unification to serve as a basis for insight From the perspective of Pāli Buddhism, the reduction and
and attainment of the path. elimination of the five hindrances is essential not only to
In sum, the practitioner of serenity first suppresses the hin- the attainment of jhāna, but to all aspects of man’s moral
drances by access concentration or jhāna, then begins to
develop insight. The practitioner of bare insight begins by 1. PP., p. 802. Vism., p. 589.
contemplating the four foundations of mindfulness. He in- 2. “TesaH pañca nīvaraJā pahīnā ucchinnamūlā tālāvatthukatā anabhāvakatā
āyatiH anuppādadhammā.” SN. 5:327.

100 101
and spiritual development. The hindrances represent an en- demerits’, for indeed one entire mass of demerit are the
tire spectrum of defiled mental states. Their presence im- five hindrances.”1
plies the presence as well of the unwholesome roots, the The abandonment of the hindrances marks the beginning of
floods, bonds, cankers, clinging, ties and fetters.1 They are freedom: “But when these five hindrances have been put
like a debt, a disease, imprisonment, slavery, and a desert away within him, he looks upon himself as freed from debt,
road.2 When they overpower the mind a man can perceive rid of diseases, out of jail, a free man, and secure.”2 With
neither his own good, the good of others, or the good of the hindrances abandoned, there is no limit to the possibil-
both.3 Under their influence he will do what he should not ities for spiritual growth. Just as gold free from the five im-
do and neglect what he ought to do.4 They corrupt the mind purities will be pliant and supple, radiant and firm, and can
and weaken wisdom.5 They cause spiritual blindness and be wrought well, so, the Buddha says:
ignorance, destroy wisdom, lead to vexation, and distract
If the mind is freed of these five impurities, it will be
from nibbāna.6 Just as gold impaired by five impurities –
pliant and supple, will have radiant lucidity and firm-
iron, copper, tin, lead, and silver – is not pliant and wieldy, ness, and will concentrate well upon the eradication of
lacks radiance, is brittle, and cannot be wrought well, so the taints. To whatever state realizable by the higher
the mind, corrupted by the five hindrances, “is not pliant mental faculties one may direct the mind, one will, in
and wieldy, lacks radiant lucidity and firmness and cannot each case, acquire the capacity of realization, if the
concentrate well upon the eradication of the taints.”7 There- (other) conditions are fulfilled.3
fore the Buddha can say of them: “Rightly speaking a per- The abandonment of the five hindrances is the precondi-
son, bhikkhus, would call the five hindrances ‘a heap of tion, not only for the attainment of jhāna, but for all other
higher achievements. It is by the abandoning of the hin-
drances that the four Brahmavihāras4 become possible, as
the meditator must purge his mind of the hindrances prior
1. PP., p. 147. Vism., p. 87.
1. KS. 5:124. “Akusalarāsi ti bhikkhave vadamāno pañcanīvaraJe sammāvada-
2. Dial., 1:84. DN. 1:73. māno vadeyya. Kevalo hāyaH bhikkhave akusalarāsi yadidaH pañcanīvaraJā.”
3. KS. 5:103. “AtthatthaH pi… paratthaH pi… ubhayatthaH pi tasmiH samaye SN. 5:145.
yathābhūtaH na jānāti na passati.” SN. 5:121-22. 2. Dial. 1:84. “Seyyathā pi mahārāja ānanyaH yathā ārogyaH yathā bandhanā
4. AN. 2:67 mokkhaH yathā bhujissaH yathā khemantabhūmiH, evaH eva kho mahārāja
5. KS. 5:79. “Cetaso upakkilesā paññāya dubbalikaraJā.” SN. 5:94. bhikkhu ime pañca nīvaraJe pahīne attani samanupassati.” DN. 1:73.
6. KS. 5:81. “NīvaraJā andhakaraJā acakkhukaraJā aññāJakaraJā paññānirod- 3. Nyānaponika, Five Mental Hindrances, pp. 2-3. “Yato ca kho bhikkhave cit-
hikā vighātapakkhiyā anibbānisaHvattanikā.” SN. 5:97. taH imehi pañcahi upakkilesehi vimuttaH hoti, taH hoti cittaH mudu ca kam-
maniyaH ca pabhassaraH ca na ca pabhaIgu sammā samādhiyati āsavānaH
7. Nyānaponika Thera, trans. and ed., The Five Mental Hindrances And Their khayāya. Yassa yassa ca abhiññāsacchikaraJīyassa dhammassa cittaH abhin-
Conquest, Selected Texts from the Pali Canon and the Commentaries. (Kandy, nāmeti abhiññāsacchikiriyāya tatra tatra’eva sakkhibhabbataH pāpuJāti sati
Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society, 1961), p. 2 (hereafter cited as Nyānapon- sati āyatane.” AN. 3:17-17.
ika, Five Mental Hindrances). “EvaH eva kho bhikkhave pañcime cittassa 4. To speak of the Brahmavihāras as an alternative to the attainment of jhāna is
upakkilesā, yehi upakkilesehi upakkili;;haH cittaH na ceva mudu hoti, na ca perhaps misleading. The emotional states comprised by the Brahmavihāras are
kamaniyaH na ca pabhassaraH pabhaIgu ca na ca sammāsamādhiyati āsavā- meditation subjects used to achieve serenity, and the full development of the
naH khayayā.” AN. 3:16. Brahmavihāras issues in the jhānas.
102 103
to suffusing the world with the sublime emotions of loving mindfulness; and developing correctly the seven factors
kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.1 of enlightenment.1 (Wr. tr.).
Before teaching a receptive disciple the Four Noble Truths, Even the perfectly enlightened Buddhas of the past, pre-
the Buddha always made sure that his mind was “ready, sent, and future awaken to supreme, perfect enlightenment
malleable, devoid of the hindrances”2 (vinīvara1acitta) in by having first abandoned the five hindrances.2 Thus the
order to ensure his ability to grasp this profound doctrine, Buddha can prescribe his teaching for the destruction of
inaccessible to a defiled mind. Freedom from the hin- these impediments: “It is for the full comprehension, entire
drances is thus a requisite for the arising of the “eye of understanding, destruction, elimination of these five hin-
Dhamma,” the direct insight into the truth which leads to drances that the Noble Eightfold Path should be cultivated.3
the first level of liberation, the stage of stream-entry
(sotāpatti). Those who have entered the stream and are
training to attain “supreme security from bondage” dwell
having abandoned the five hindrances.3 It is when his mind
has become “composed, quite purified, quite clarified,
without blemish, without defilement, grown soft and
workable, fixed, immovable,”4 that the disciple can direct it
to attain the triple knowledge (tevijjā) – the recollection of
former lives, the knowledge of the passing away and re-
appearance of beings, and the knowledge of the destruction
of the cankers.5 All who reach liberation first abandon the
hindrances:
All those who are emancipated from the world, who
were emancipated or will be emancipated, are emanci-
pated by abandoning the five hindrances which are cor-
ruptions of the mind and weakening of wisdom, estab-
lishing their minds well in the four foundations of

1. DN. 3:49-50.
2. DN. 1:110. MN. l:380. 1. “Ye kho keci lokamhā niyyiHsu vā niyyanti vā niyyissanti vā, sabbe te pañca
3. KS. 5:29. “Ye te āvuso Mahānāma bhikkhū sekhā appattamānasā anuttaraH nīvaraJe pahāya cetaso upakkilese paññāya dubbalīkaraJe catusu satipa;;hā-
yogakkhemaH patthayamānā viharanti, te pañca nīvaraJe pahāya viharanti.” nesu supati;;hitacittā sattabojjhaIge yathābhūtaH bhāvetvā evaH ete lokamhā
SN. 5:327. niyyiHsu vā niyyanti vā niyyissanti vā.” AN. 5:195.
4. MLS. 1:228-29. “So evaH samāhite citte parisuddhe pariyodāte anaIgane 2. Dial. 2:89. DN. 2:83.
vigatūpakkilese mudubhūte kammaniye ;hite ānejjappatte,” MN. 1:182. 3. KS. 5:49-50. “ImesaH kho bhikkhave pañcannaH nīvaraJānaH abhiññāya
5. “PubbenivāsānussatiñāJāya… sattānaH cutūpapātañāJāya… āsavānaH kha- pariññāya parikkhayāya pahānāya ayaH ariyo a;;haIgiko maggo bhāvetab-
yañāJāya cittaH abhininnāmeti.” MN. 1:183. bo’ti.” SN. 5:60.
104 105
 cial attention to the specific qualities and functions these
Chapter Four phenomena possess in the structure of the jhāna, as oppos-
ed to their occurrence elsewhere. Then we will take a gen-
THE FIRST JHÀNA AND ITS FACTORS eral overview of the jhāna itself in order to make it clear
The attainment of jhāna, as we said at the outset of the last that the first jhāna is not just a chance combination of un-
chapter, can be understood from two points of view: one is connected factors but an organic unity of many coordinate
the elimination of the states obstructive to its attainment, states. This will be followed by a look at the place of the
the factors to be abandoned (pahāna*gāni); the other the jhāna in the process of consciousness, the cognitive series
acquisition of the states constituting its attainment, the fact- used to show the dynamic nature of experience. We will
ors of possession (samannāgata*gāni) or jhāna factors conclude the chapter with some remarks on the ways of
(jhāna*gāni). In the case of the first jhāna the factors to be perfecting the first jhāna, a necessary prelude to the higher
abandoned are the five hindrances. As the meditator strives development of concentration.
with diligence to develop concentration he eventually suc-
ceeds in suppressing the hindrances, entering the threshold Vitakka: A. General
stage of access concentration (upacārasamādhi) where the The word vitakka, derived from the Pāli root tak (Skt. tark)
jhāna factors are contained in fledgling form. Then, with meaning “to think,” frequently appears in the texts in con-
continued exertions, the jhāna factors ripen to the point junction with the other word vicāra, which derives from the
where they can thrust the mind into the first jhāna, the ini- root car (P. & Skt.) meaning “to move.” The two together
tial stage of absorption (appa1āsamādhi). signify two interconnected but distinct aspects of the
The jhāna factors are the five mental states: applied thought process. The primary word takka means literally
thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicāra), rapture (pīti), “thinking”; the prefix vi gives it a strengthened sense, so
happiness (sukha), and one-pointedness of mind (cittass’- that vitakka means pronounced or decisive thinking.1
ekaggatā). Four of these are mentioned in the formula for The word vitakka is often found in the suttas in various
the jhāna; the fifth, one-pointedness, is added elsewhere.1 contexts all suggestive of this meaning of thought. It ap-
Having led the mind to the jhāna, these five phenomena pears in several places as the final term in a sequence pre-
remain in the jhāna as its constituting factors. They do not ceded by feeling (vedanā) and perception (saññā). Thus re-
enter the first jhāna as mere extrinsic adjuncts, but as de- ferring to himself, the Buddha states that he is aware in
fining properties, giving it a distinct shape and character. every case of the arising, persistence, and passing away of
Thence to understand the first jhāna it is necessary to ap- feelings, perceptions, and vitakkas:
proach it via a study of its factors. Here, Ananda, in the Tathāgata feelings are understood
In the present chapter we will examine in detail each of the as they arise, as they remain present, as they pass away;
five factors belonging to the first jhāna. We will give spe- perceptions are understood as they arise, as they remain

1. For the formula, see Chapter III, p. 52. 1. “Balavatara takkassa etaH nāmaH.” Dhs.A., p. 187.

106 107
 present, as they pass away; applied thoughts (vitakkā) of speech.”1 (Wr. tr.). The commentary defines “activity of
are understood as they arise, as they remain present, as speech” as that which “causes, creates, or activates
they pass away.1 (Wr. tr.). speech,”2 (Wr. tr.), and classifies as activities causing
Vitakka takes the same objects as perception. It is divided speech vitakka, vicāra, and the wholesome and unwhole-
into six classes by way of its objects; thus there are some volitions motivating verbal expression. The sub-com-
thoughts about forms, thoughts about sounds, thoughts mentary to the sutta explains that vitakka and vicāra are
about smells, thoughts about tastes, thoughts about tangi- said to activate speech because “the mind without vitakka
bles, and thoughts about ideas. Because vitakka has the and vicāra is unable to make a verbal sound.”3 (Wr. tr.).
same objects as perception, but follows the latter in the ac- Since the inner verbal formulation of ideas precedes and
count of the cognitive process, it is clearly a development governs their articulation through the apparatus of verbal
and advance beyond the perceptual function. This is borne expression, the key factors in the thinking process are also
out by the MadhupiJYika Sutta where vitakka is shown fol- the mainsprings of intelligible speech.
lowing perception in the process by which mental impedi- The thought element in vitakka again comes to light in the
ments (papañca) come to obsess the mind. The great disci- use of the doubly augmented word parivitakka to mean “re-
ple Mahākaccāyana explains that in dependence on the flection” or “ratiocination.” We frequently see in the texts
sense faculties and their objects consciousness arises. The an individual sitting in solitude give rise to a chain of pari-
meeting of the faculty, object, and consciousness is contact vitakkas, reflections or reasonings in his mind, which he
(phassa). In dependence on contact feeling arises. Then: then expresses outwardly at a later time. Thus, for example,
“What one feels one perceives; what one perceives one when the Buddha was considering the difficulties the aver-
thinks about; what one thinks about becomes an impedi- age person would meet in understanding the Dhamma, it is
ment.”2 (Wr. tr.). said: “Then as the Lord was meditating in seclusion a rea-
The understanding of vitakka as thought is further support- soning arose in his mind thus...”4 “Reflections on reasons”
ed by an important passage from the Culavedalla Sutta. (akaraparivitakka) is further mentioned as one of the in-
Here the wise bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā describes vitakka
and vicāra as “activity of speech” (vacisa,khāra), giving 1. Pubbe kho āvuso vitakketvā vicāretvā pacchā vācaH bhindati. Tasmā vitakka
vicārā vacīsaIkhāro.” MN. 1:301.
as the reason: “Having first had applied thought and sus-
2. “VācaH saIkharoti karoti nibbatteti ti vacisaIkhāro.” MN.A. 2:263.
tained thought, one subsequently breaks out into speech, 3. “Na hi taH vitakka vicārarahitacittaH vacighosaH nibbattetuH sakkoti.”
therefore applied thought and sustained thought is activity Dhammapāla, [Majjhima Nikāya !īka] [vols. 1-2] Mulapa11āsa īkā; [vol. 3:]
Majjimapa11āsa īkā… Uparipa11āsa īkā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script].
3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960-61], 2:383 (hereafter
cited as MN.T.).
1. “Idha Ānanda Tathāgatassa viditā vedanā uppajjanti, viditā upa;;hahanti, vid- 4. I. B. Horner, trans. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pi aka), Vols. 1-3:
itā abbhattaH gacchanti; viditā saññā, viditā vitakkā uppajjanti. viditā upa;;ha- (Suttavibhanga), vol. 4: (Mahāvagga), vol. 5: (Cullavagga), vol. 6: (Parivāra),
hanti, viditā abbhattaH gacchanti.” MN. 3:124. [Sacred Books of the Buddhists Series, vols. 10-11, 13-14, 20, 25], 6 vols.
2. “YaH vedeti taH sañjānāti, yaH sañjānāti taH vitakketi, yaH vitakketi taH (London: Luzac & Co., 1951-72), 4:6 (hereafter cited as BD.). “Atha kho bha-
papañceti.” MN. 1:111-12. gavato rahogatassa patisallīnassa evaH cetaso parivitakko udapādi.” Vinp. 1:4.

108 109
adequate grounds for adopting a belief rejected in the fa- translated “thought,” “intention,” or “aim” – as an inter-
mous passage of the Kālāma Sutta.1 changeable equivalent of vitakka. In one passage of the
Elsewhere the Buddha speaks of eight thoughts of a great Mahācattarīsaka Sutta the Buddha defines sammāsa,-
man (mahāpurisā vitakkā), which he recommends to his kappa, the “right intention” occurring in the supramundane
disciples. These are the thoughts that the Dhamma is path, by a chain of synonyms inclusive of vitakka.1 The
DhammasaIgaJi, in its analysis of the states, picks up these
1. for one who wants little. synonyms and gives a definition of wholesome vitakka
2. for one who is contented. identical in all respects with the sutta definition except that
3. for the secluded, it omits the phrases limited to the supramundane path.
4. for the energetic, The ratiocination, the conception (vitakka), which on
5. for one who is mindful, that occasion is the disposition [intention], the fixation,
6. for the composed, the focussing, the application of the mind, right inten-
7. for the wise, and tion – this is the “conception” (vitakka) that there then
is.2
8. for one who delights in freedom from impediments.2
The DhammasaIgaJi A;;akathā elaborates upon these
Here the identification of vitakka with thought appears terms as follows:
quite explicit.
“Intention” (sa,kappa) conveys the sense of tho-
Nevertheless, although vitakka does function as an essen- rough-designing. And fixation is the applying the se-
tial ingredient in discursive thinking, it would be premature lective mind to the object. Next, “focussing” is a term
to equate it flatly with verbally formulated thought. The for “strong fixation,” intensified by a prefix. Then,
reason for this qualification is that vitakka also occurs in “uplift of mind” [application of the mind] is the elevat-
states of consciousness where thought formulation is not in ing or setting up of consciousness on to an object. And
evidence, as for example in the consciousness of the first “right intention” is intention which is praiseworthy,
which has won to a moral state because of its veracity
jhāna, in the supramundane consciousness of the noble
and progressiveness.3
path, as well as in more primitive types of bare sense cog-
nition. Thence the question arises as to whether vitakka has The explicative phrase which reveals most about the actual
a more elemental meaning than verbalized thinking, and if nature and function of vitakka is the expression cetaso ab-
so, what that meaning is. 1. MN. 3:73.
The answers to these questions are provided by the Abhi- 2. Psy. Ethics, pp. 10-11. “Yo tasmim samaye takko vitakko, saHkappo, appanā,
byappanā, cetaso abhiniropanā, sammā saHkappo, ayaH tasmiH samaye vi-
dhamma, building upon a suggested solution already found takko hoti.” Dhs., p. 18.
in the suttas. The suttas use the word sa,kappa – usually 3. Expositor, 1:189. “Balavatara takkassetaH nāmaH. Su;;hu kappanavasena
saHkappo. EkaggaH cittaH ārammaJe appetīti appanā. DutiyapadaH upasag-
gavasena vaYYhitaH. Balavatarā vā appanā byappanā. ĀrammaJe cittaH abhi-
1. AN. 1:189. niropeti cetaso abhiniropanā. Yathāvatāya niyyānikatāya ca kusalabhāvappatto
2. AN. 5:385. pasattho saHkappoti sammāsamkappo.” Dhs.A., p. 187.

110 111
hiniropanā, “the application of mind,” which is explained a concept; in judgments (vinicchaya-vīthi), to a propo-
as the lifting or mounting of consciousness onto the object. sition; in reasoning (takkavīthi), alluded to, but not dis-
The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā singles out this aspect as cussed in my Essay (it belongs to the province of
logic), to a syllogism or an inference. In doubt, vitakka
the primary characteristic of vitakka and illustrates it with a
is a directing now to one object, now to another, back
brief analogy: again, etc. In distraction vitakka is a directing of mind
Its [main] characteristic is the lifting of consciousness to several objects one after another. In first jhāna, vi-
on to the object; having an object, it lifts consciousness takka is a directing of mind to the ‘after-image’ etc.,
up to it. As someone depending on a relative or friend and in transcendental consciousness, vitakka is a di-
dear to the king ascends the king’s palace, so depend- recting of mind to nibbāna, the Ideal. So engaged it is
ing on initial application the mind ascends the object. called sammā-sa,kappa, perfect aspiration.1
Therefore it has been said that initial application lifts
A problem seems to arise from the fact that, according to
the mind on to the object.1
the abhidhammic system of analysis, vitakka is not a uni-
This function of applying the mind to the object seems to versal concomitant of consciousness. It is not present in
be the unifying element underlying the different modes in every state of consciousness. So the question arises how, in
which vitakka occurs, giving it a single quality despite the those states of consciousness devoid of vitakka, the mind
diversity of its applications. In the processes of discursive can be mounted onto its object. The commentary to the
thinking, thought-conception, and imagination the oper- Majjhima Nikāya answers that when vitakka is absent the
ation of vitakka may be more conspicuous than in other mind is directed upon its object through its own nature (at-
cognitive processes. But wherever it occurs its directive tano dhammatāya), without dependence on other states.2 At
function is at work, becoming especially prominent in the the level of the second jhāna, after vitakka has subsided,
first jhāna, where discursive thought has subsided but vi- the mind remains focussed on its object even more intense-
takka remains. ly than before, despite the absence of vitakka. The Majjhi-
ma Nikāya subcommentary explains that a state of mind
In an illuminating discussion, Shwe Zan Aung shows how
without vitakka can mount upon the object by the power of
the directing of the mind and its concomitants to an object
vitakka itself through the force of previous experience. Just
is the elemental meaning of vitakka, applicable in every
as a person who has become familiar with a king can enter
case where its operation is discernible. Aung explains:
his dwelling freely without hesitation, so the mind which
[In cognition of sense objects] the element of vitakka is has gained experience of the object by means of vitakka
present as a directing of concomitant elements to a sen-
sible object. In imagination vitakka directs to an image;
in conception, to an idea; in symbolical conception, to
1. Anuruddha, Compendium of Philosophy, Being a Translation Now made for
the First Time from the 0riginal Pali of the Abhidhammattha Sa1gaha. Trans-
1. Expositor, 1:151. “SvāyaH ārammaJe cittassa abhiniropanalakkhaJo. So hi lated with Introductory Notes and essay by Shwe Zan Aung. Revised and edited
ārammaJe cittaH āropeti. Yathā hi koci rājavallabhaH ñātiH vā mittaH vā nis- by Mrs. Rhys Davids (Pali Text Society Translation Series, vol. 2; London: H.
sāya rājagehaH ārohati. EvaH vitakkaH nissāya cittaH ārammaJaH ārohati.” Frowde, 1910-63), p. 238 (hereafter cited as Compendium).
Dhs.A., p. 157. 2. MN.A. 4:93.

112 113
can remain focussed on the object even after vitakka has rooted in hatred or aversion. In describing his practice dur-
left the mind.1 ing his search for enlightenment the Buddha explains that
he divided vitakkas into two categories, the wholesome and
Vitakka: B. Specific the unwholesome. On the unwholesome side he placed
Vitakka can be divided into two kinds – the wholesome thoughts of sensuality, thoughts of ill will, and thoughts of
(kusala) and the unwholesome (akusala). We will now ex- harming. Whenever one of these thoughts would arise in
amine each of these two types of vitakka, beginning with him he would dispel it by reflecting that these thoughts
the unwholesome, then deal with vitakka in the specific lead to the harm of oneself, to the harm of others, and to
context of the first jhāna and as a factor in the supramun- the harm of both; they are destructive of wisdom, conduce
dane path. to vexation, and lead away from nibbāna.1 He then explains
that whenever one frequently thinks and ponders on these
Akusala Vitakka unwholesome thoughts, the mind inclines to them and
In itself vitakka is neither unwholesome (akusala) nor makes them habitual.2
wholesome (kusala). It is merely the intrinsically indeter- Unwholesome thoughts (akusalavitakka) are also called
minate function of directing the mind and its concomitants unwholesome intentions (akusalasa,kappa), the words vi-
onto the object. Its moral quality is determined by its asso- takka and sa,kappa being used interchangeably. Thus the
ciated factors, especially its underlying roots. When it is as- Buddha also declares that there are three unwholesome in-
sociated with the unwholesome roots – greed (lobha), ha- tentions – namely, intentions for sense pleasures, for ill
tred (dosa), and delusion (moha) – it becomes unwhole-
will, and for harming. In the SamanamaJYikā Sutta the
some vitakka, When it is associated with the wholesome
Buddha states that these unwholesome intentions originate
roots – non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa), and non-
from perception:
delusion (amoha) – it becomes wholesome vitakka. The vi-
takka influenced by these roots can reach expression physi- And how, carpenter, do these unskilled intentions
cally as unwholesome bodily action (akusalakāyakamma) originate? Their origination is spoken of too. It should
or verbally as unwholesome verbal action (akusalavacī- be answered that their origination is in perception.
Which perception, for perceptions are many, various,
kamma). If it does not express itself outwardly it remains
diverse? Perception of sense-pleasure, perception of
internal pertaining to unwholesome mental action (aku- malevolence, perception of harming – originating from
salamanokamma). these are unskilled intentions.3
Unwholesome vitakkas are enumerated in the suttas as
threefold: thoughts of sensuality (kāmavitakka), thoughts of
1. MN. 1:115-18.
ill will (byāpādavitakka), and thoughts of harming (vihi*-
2. Ibid.
sāvitakka). The former is thought rooted in the factor of 3. MLS. 2:226. “Ime ca, ;hapati, akusalasaHkappā kiH samu;;hānā? Samu;;hā-
greed; the latter two are differing expressions of thought nā pi nesaH vuttaH. Saññāsamu;;hānā ti’ssa vacanīyaH. Katamā saññā? Saññā
pi hi bahu anekavidhā nānappakārikā, kāmasaññā byāpādasaññā vihiHsā
1. MN.T. 3:307. saññā; itosamu;;hānā akusalasaHkappā.” MN. 2:27.

114 115
In the SaHyutta Nikāya the Buddha explains that intentions In striving for jhāna, a yogin will have to eliminate all un-
of sensuality arise in dependence on sensual perceptions wholesome vitakkas. These will be the vitakkas associated
and issue in sensual desire (kāmacchanda), the fever of with the five hindrances. The vitakka associated with the
sensuality (kāmapari3āha), and the search for sensual grati- first hindrance, sensual desire, is clearly thought of sense
fication (kāmapariyesanā). Engaged in this sensual search pleasures. Thoughts of ill will and thoughts of harming will
the worldling practices wrongly in three ways: by body, cluster around the hindrance of ill will. The vitakkas con-
speech, and mind. The same pattern is repeated for intent- nected with the remaining hindrances can be seen as com-
ions of ill will and intentions of harming.1 prised in the “evil, unwholesome states” which a monk has
Beyond these three, other minor types of unwholesome to overcome in the course of his training. The texts record
thoughts are spoken of in an unspecified way as “evil un- several minor distracting thoughts as “thoughts about rela-
wholesome thoughts” (pāpakā akusalā vitakkā). The Bud- tives, thoughts about one’s district, and thoughts about
dha declares that the suppression and elimination of all one’s reputation.”1 The Buddha declares that all unwhole-
unwholesome thoughts and intentions is one of the essent- some thoughts cease without remainder in the first jhāna,
ial disciplines of the spiritual life. He says that a monk in the practice for eliminating unwholesome thoughts being
training the four right endeavors – the endeavor to abandon arisen
unwholesome states, to prevent unarisen unwholesome
... wisely reflective, does not give in to thought about
states from arising, to arouse unarisen wholesome states,
sense pleasures that has arisen, he gets rid of it, he
eliminates it, makes an end of it, sends it to its ceasing; and to develop arisen wholesome states.2
he does not give in to malevolent thought... to thought
of harming... to evil unskilled mental objects that have Kusala Vitakka
constantly arisen, he gets rid of them, eliminates them, Kusala vitakka or wholesome thought occurs at three lev-
makes an end of them, sends them to their ceasing.2 els:
He also states that when unwholesome perceptions arise in
the wholesome thought of ordinary morally virtuous states
a recluse or brahmin, if he does not quickly dispel them and
of consciousness,
eliminate them “he both fares ill here, with trouble, despair,
yearning, and at the separation of the body, after death, has the wholesome thought of the first jhāna, and
to expect a bad destiny.”3
the wholesome thought of the supramundane path con-
sciousness present as noble right intention (ariya sammā
sa,kappa).
1. KS. 2:105-106. SN. 2:150-51.
2. MLS. 1:15. “… pa;isamkhā yoniso uppannaH kāmavitakkaH nādhivāseti pa-
jahati vinodeti byantikaroti anabhāvam gameti,… byāpādavitakkaH…, vihiH-
sāvitakkaH… uppannuppanne pāpake akusale dhamme nādhivāseti pajahati 1. GS. 1:232. “Ñātivitakko janapada vitakko anavaññatti pa;isaHyutto vi-
vinodeti byantikaroti anabhāvaH gameti.” MN. 1:11. takko.” AN. 3:254.
3. KS. 2:106. SN. 2:152. 2. MN. 2:27.

116 117
Ordinary kusala vitakka search for renunciation (nekkhammapariyesanā). Engaged
Vitakka becomes wholesome in association with the three in this search the noble disciple practices rightly in three
wholesome roots, of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delus- ways: by body, speech, and mind. The same pattern is re-
ion. Kammically wholesome thoughts that do not directly peated for intentions of benevolence and harmlessness.1
involve a higher spiritual experience are analyzed in the In the VitakkasaJ;hāna Sutta the Buddha recommends five
suttas as threefold: thoughts of renunciation (nekkhamma- methods of using wholesome thoughts (kusalavitakka) to
vitakka), thoughts of benevolence (abyāpādavitakka), and overcome unwholesome thoughts (akusalavitakka), here
thoughts of harmlessness (avihi*sāvitakka). These three classified by way of their roots as connected with desire,
are the direct antitheses of the three unwholesome hatred, and delusion. One method involves applying a
thoughts. The thought of renunciation opposes the thought wholesome thought to eliminate the unwholesome thought
of sensuality, the thought of benevolence the thought of ill directly opposed to it:
will, the thought of harmlessness the thought of harming. Like an experienced carpenter or carpenter’s appren-
The Buddha explains that when he was a Bodhisatta he es- tice, striking hard at, pushing out, and getting rid of a
tablished a category of wholesome thoughts into which he coarse peg with a fine one, should the bhikkhu in order
put the three thoughts of renunciation, benevolence, and to get rid of the adventitious object, reflect on a differ-
harmlessness. He understood that these thoughts conduce ent object which is connected with skill. Then the evil
neither to the harm of oneself, to the harm of others, or to unskillful thoughts connected with desire, hate and de-
lusion are eliminated; they disappear. By their elimina-
the harm of both, that they lead to the growth of wisdom, to
tion, the mind stands firm, settles down, becomes uni-
freedom from vexation, and to the attainment of nibbāna. fied, and concentrated, just within (his subject of
Moreover, he declares, by thinking and pondering on the meditation).2
thought of renunciation one can expel thoughts of sensual-
The other four ways of overcoming unwholesome thoughts
ity; by thinking thoughts of benevolence one can expel
are
thoughts of ill will; and by thinking thoughts of harmless-
ness one can expel thoughts of harming.1 pondering on their disadvantages (ādīnava),
Wholesome thoughts are also spoken of in the suttas under 1. KS. 2:106. SN. 2:151-52.
the name “wholesome intentions” (kusalasa,kappa), 2. Soma Thera, Comp. trans. and ed., The Removal of Distracting Thoughts, Vi-
takka-Sa1 hāna Sutta. A Discourse of the Buddha (Majjhima-Nikāya No. 20).
which are of the same threefold nature.2 The Buddha de- (Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society, 1960), p. 1. “Seyyathāpi bhikk-
clares that the intention of renunciation originates from the have dakkho palagaJYo vā palagaJYantevāsī vā sukhumāya āJiyā olārikaH
perception of renunciation (nekkhammasaññā). It issues in āJiH abhinīhaneyya, abhinivajjeyya – evaH eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhuno yaH
nimittaH āgamma yaH nimittaH manasikaroto uppajjanti pāpakā akusalā vi-
the desire for renunciation (nekkhammacchanda), the takkā chandūpasaHhitā pi, dosūpasaHhitā pi mohūpasaHhitā pi, tena bhikk-
yearning for renunciation (nekkhammapari3āha), and the have bhikkhunā tamhā nimittā aññaH nimittaH manasikātabbaH kusalū-
pasaHhitaH; tassa tamhā nimittā aññaH nimittaH manasikaroto kusalūpasaH-
hitaH ye pāpakā akusalā vitakkā chandūpasaHhitā… te pahīyanti te abbhatt-
1. MLS. 1:150. MN. 1:116. haH gacchanti, tesaH pahānā ajjhattaH eva cittaH santi;;hati sannisīdati ekodi
2. MLS. 2:227. MN. 2:27. hoti samādhiyati.” MN. 1:119.

118 119
trying not to pay any attention to them, at and thresh – for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, to
reflecting on the removal of the [thought] source of those have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by
unskilful thoughts, and applied thought.”1
with clenched teeth and tongue pressing the palate, re- In the context of jhāna, vitakka is qualified by another
straining, subduing, and beating down the [evil] mind by term, appanā, meaning absorption. The Milindapañha
the [good] mind.1 states this quality of absorption to be the salient character-
istic of vitakka: “Vitakka, your majesty, has the character-
This advice is given to a bhikkhu who is training himself to istic of absorption. Just as a carpenter drives (appeti) a
attain the higher consciousness (adhicitta), an equivalent well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint so vitakka has the
term for jhāna. When unwholesome thoughts arise from characteristic of absorption.”2 (Wr. tr.). Shwe Zan Aung
time to time hindering his progress, he can develop whole- makes explicit the distinction between vitakka in ordinary
some thoughts to overcome them. The commentary ex- states of consciousness and vitakka on occasions of jhāna
plains that he should reflect on an unlovely object (asubha- as follows:
nimitta) in order to overcome lustful thought connected Ordinary vitakka merely throws its concomitants onto
with living beings and on impermanence in order to over- the surface, so to speak, of an object – i.e., it is the ini-
come thoughts of desire connected with inanimate objects. tiative element in cognition of a superficial kind. But
He should cultivate loving kindness in order to overcome appana-vitakka is mind penetrating into the inwardness
hatred towards living beings and on the modes of material- or import of its object, and it has come to be applied to
ity (dhātumanasikāro) to overcome hatred towards inani- samādhi, ‘concentration’ or developed individualiza-
mate objects.2 tion of thought.3
Vitakka at the level of absorption is compared to a solid
Kusalavitakka in jhāna body, which sinks to the bottom of water and remains fixed
The general function of vitakka, as we have seen, is to di- there; the vitakka of ordinary consciousness is compared to
rect the mind and its associated factors onto the object. In a hollow ball which stays under the water when held down
jhāna this function becomes stronger and more pronounced by pressure but rises to the surface when the pressure is
than on other occasions. On occasions of jhānic conscious- removed.4 The word appanā used to define vitakka comes
ness it would perhaps be more exact to say that vitakka to be applied to concentration of the jhānic level, called
thrusts its concomitants into the object rather than that it
directs them onto the object. The Visuddhimagga thus 1. PP., p. 148. “Āhanana-pariyāhananaraso, tathā hi tena yogāvacaro āramma-
JaH vitakkāhataH vitakkapariyāhataH karotī ti vuccati.” Vism., p. 114.
characterizes the function of jhānic vitakka to be “to strike
2. “AppanālakkhaJo mahārāja vitakko. Yathā mahārāja vaYYhakī suparikam-
makataH dāruH sandhismiH appeti, evaH kho mahārāja appanālakkhaJo vi-
1. Ibid. 119ff. takkho’ti” V. Trenckner, ed. The Milindapañho, Being Dialogues Between King
2. Reflection on materiality (dhātumanasikāra) means the reflection on the Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Nagasena (Pali Text Society Publication Series
elements of which all tangible objects are made. When one reflects on the ba- no. 69; London: Luzac & Co., for the Pali Text Society, 1880-1962), p. 62
sic material elements one would realize that no one particular element is re- (hereafter cited as Milp.).
sponsible for the cause of his anger. This realization helps him eliminate hatred 3. Compendium, p. 57.
toward material objects. 4. Ibid.
120 121
appanā samādhi or “absorption-concentration” in contrast In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent.
to the pre-jhānic concentration called upacāra samādhi or But the counterpart sign appears as if breaking out
“access concentration.” from the learning sign, and a hundred times, a thou-
sand times, more purified, like a looking-glass disk
The object of jhāna into which vitakka thrusts the mind and drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well
its concomitants is the counterpart sign (pa ibhāganimitta). washed, like the moon’s disk coming out from behind a
We already met this object in our discussion of the sup- cloud, like cranes against a thunder cloud. But it has
pression of the hindrances, but its nature must now be fur- neither colour nor shape; for if it had, it would be cog-
ther clarified. When a meditator begins his practice for the nizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension
attainment of jhāna, he takes a preliminary object such as a [by insight] and stamped with the three characteristics.
colored or elemental kasi1a and concentrates on it until he But it is not like that. For it is born only of perception
is able to visualize it with his eyes closed as clearly as in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere
when he looks at it with eyes open. Whenever he notices mode of appearance.1
that the object is not clear he should open his eyes and look The counterpart sign is the object of both access concen-
at the object again until he is able to build up a clear mental tration and jhāna. The difference between the latter two
impression of its mode of appearance. Then, remembering consists, not in their object, but in the strength of their re-
the appearance of the object, he should shut his eyes again spective jhāna factors. In the former the jhāna factors are
and repeat the process of visualization as long as is re- still weak and not yet fully developed. In the latter they are
quired. When the object comes into focus when he attends developed to the point where they can actually thrust the
to it with eyes shut as clearly as it does when he looks at it mind into the object with the force of full absorption. In
with open eyes the learning sign (uggahanimitta) is said to this process of thrusting, the factor most responsible for
have arisen.1 At this point the yogin should leave off the bringing about the mind’s absorption in the counterpart
physical object and focus solely on the learning sign, de- sign is the factor of vitakka.
veloping it “by reiterated reaction to it and by striking at it
with applied thought and sustained thought.”2 Since vitakka in jhāna is associated with the wholesome
roots, it will take form as a wholesome thought of renunci-
As he practices thus the jhāna factors grow in strength, ation, of benevolence and of harmlessness. Its occurrence
each suppressing its respective hindrance. Vitakka, as we in these modes stems from the abandonment of the hin-
saw, counters the hindrance of sloth and torpor, eventually drances of sensual desire and ill will, the defilements re-
reducing it to a state of complete suppression. When the
hindrances are suppressed and the defilements subside the 1. PP., p. 130. “Uggahanimitte kasiJadoso paññāyati. Pa;ibhāganimittaH, thavi-
mind enters access concentration. At this time the learning kato nihatādāsamaJYalaH viya, suddhotasaIkhathalaH viya, valāhakantarā nik-
sign is replaced by the counterpart sign. The Visuddhi- khantacandamaJYalaH viya, meghamukhe balākā viya, uggahanimittaH padā-
letvā nikkhantaH iva tato sataguJaH sahassaguJaH suparisuddhaH hutvā upa;-
magga explains the difference between the two signs thus: ;hāti. TaH ca kho pana n’eva vaõõavantaH, na saJ;hānavantaH. Yadi hi taH
īdisaH bhaveyya, cakkhuviññeyyaH siyā oXārikaH sammasanūpagaH tilakkha-
1. PP., p. 130. Vism., pp. 101-102. JabhāhataH. Na pan’etaH tādisaH. KevalaH hi samādhilābhino upa;;hānākāra-
2. PP., p. 130. Vism., pp. 101-102. mattaH saññājaH etan ti.” Vism., p. 102.

122 123
sponsible for the three unwholesome thoughts of sensuality, for nonharming. This, monks, is right purpose that...
ill will, and harming. Since vitakka is needed to directly ripens unto cleaving.
counter the hindrance opposite to itself, it performs the task And what, monks, is the right purpose that is ariyan,
of suppressing sloth and torpor. And since vitakka has the cankerless, super-mundane, a component of the Way?
general function of directing the mind to the object, it will Whatever, monks, is reasoning, initial thought, pur-
also thrust the mind into the counterpart sign, keeping it pose, an activity of speech through the complete focus-
sing and application of the mind in one who, by devel-
fixed and focussed there with the intensity of absorption-
oping the ariyan Way, is of ariyan thought, of canker-
concentration. less thought, and is conversant with the ariyan Way –
this, monks, is right purpose that is ariyan, cankerless,
Kusalavitakka in the Noble Path
supermundane, a component of the Way.1
The highest form of wholesome vitakka is the vitakka in-
Right intention in this latter sense is still a wholesome
cluded in the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold
thought of renunciation, benevolence, and harmlessness,
Path, with its eight factors, operates at two levels – the
since it is associated with non-greed and non-hatred. Its
mundane and the supramundane. The mundane (lokiya)
primary characteristic, however, is its ability to lead the
path is developed on occasions of wholesome conscious-
mind into absorption upon its supramundane object. There-
ness when the aspirant is striving to reach penetration of
fore it is this aspect which the Buddha emphasizes in his
the Four Noble Truths and to eradicate defilements. The
definition of the ariyan sammāsa,kappa.
supramundane (lokutara) path arises when the practice is
fully mature. When this path arises it penetrates the four
truths by realizing nibbāna as its object, simultaneously Vicāra
eradicating defilements. Although the word vicāra and its derivatives almost in-
Wholesome vitakka figures on both levels of the noble path variably appear in the suttas in conjunction with the word
as sammāsa,kappa, “right intention”, the second factor of vitakka and its derivatives, the use of two distinct terms and
the path. At the mundane stage it is the threefold whole- the occasional recognition that one can occur without the
some thought of renunciation, benevolence, and harmless- other suggest that they represent different aspects of the
ness. At the supramundane level it is the directive factor of thought-process. Since vicāra always comes after vitakka it
consciousness which thrusts the mind upon its object, in would seem to be a more developed phase of thought, and
this case nibbāna, the unconditioned element. The Buddha
clarifies the twofold division of right intention in the Ma- 1. MLS. 3:116. “Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāsaHkappo sāsavo puññabhāgiyo
hācattārīsaka Sutta as follows: upadhivepakko? NekkhammasaHkappo, avyāpādasaHkappo avihiHsāsaHkap-
po – ayaH, bhikkhave sammāsaHkappo sāsavo puññaabhāgiyo upadhivepakko.
And what, monks, is the right purpose that has cankers, Katamo ca bhikkhave, sammāsaHkappo ariyo anāsavo lokuttaro maggaIgo? Yo
is on the side of merit, and ripens unto cleaving? Pur- kho, bhikkhave, ariyacittassa anāsavacittassa ariyamaggassa samaIgino ariya-
pose for renunciation, purpose for non-ill will, purpose maggaH bhāvayato takko vitakko saHkappo appanā vyappanā cetaso abhiniro-
panā vācīsaHkharo, ayaH bhikkhave sammāsaHkappo ariyo anāsavo lokuttaro
maggaIgo.” MN. 3:73.

124 125
this suspicion is borne out by the Abhidhamma and com- largely operate in the stage of investigation and other proc-
mentaries. The DhammasaIgaJi defines vicāra thus: esses, and would strongly operate in all processes of com-
The process, the sustained procedure (vicāra), the pro- parison or discrimination.”1
gress and access [of the mind] which on that occasion The commentaries spell out the differences between vi-
is the [continuous] adjusting and focusing of thought – takka and vicāra as follows:
this is discursive thought that there then is.1
And though sometimes not separate, applied thought is
The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā and Visuddhimagga clarify the first impact of the mind in the sense that it is both
this somewhat cryptic definition by analyzing vicāra in gross and inceptive like the striking of a bell. Sustained
terms of its characteristic, function, and manifestation: thought is the act of keeping the mind anchored, in the
Sustained thinking (vicara1a) is sustained thought sense that it is subtle with the individual essence of
(vicāra); continued sustainment (anusañcara1a), is continued pressure, like the ringing of the bell.2
what is meant. It has the characteristic of continued Buddhaghosa gives six analogies to illustrate the relation-
pressure on (occupation with) the object. Its function is ship between vitakka and vicāra.
to keep conascent [mental] states [occupied] with that.
It is manifested as keeping consciousness anchored [on 1. Vitakka is analogous to the movement of a bird taking
that object].2 off into the air by flapping its wings, vicāra to its moving
through the air gracefully and leisurely with outspread
From this explanation several features of vicāra emerge.
wings.
Firstly, by way of etymology, vicāra connotes continued
movement; thus it is the mind’s continued movement in fo- 2. Vitakka is comparable to a bee’s flying towards a flower,
cussing upon the object. Secondly, by way of function, vicāra to its buzzing around the flower.
vicāra performs the task of fixing the mind and its states 3. Vitakka is like the striking of a bell, vicāra like its rever-
upon the object; it keeps them anchored there, sustaining beration.
the work of mental application effected by vitakka. And
4. Vitakka is like the hand that holds firmly a tarnished
thirdly, vicāra plays the role of examination. Through its
metal dish that has to be cleaned; vicāra is like the other
sustainment of the mind on the object it enables the mind
hand that rubs it with powder, oil, and a woolen pad.
to inspect, examine and investigate the object’s properties.
As Shwe Zan Aung says: “Vicāra is the continued exercise 5. Vitakka is like the supporting hand of a potter when he is
of the mind on that object.”3 And again: “Vicāra may making a pot, vicāra like the hand that moves back and
forth.
1. Psy. Ethics, p. 11. “Yo tasmiH samaye cāro vicāro anuvicāro upavicāro cit-
tassa anusandhānatā anupekkhanatā. AyaH tasmiH samaye vicāro hoti.”
Dhs., p. 18. 1. Ibid., p. 40.
2. PP., p. 148. Vism., p. 114. “VicaraJaH va vicāro. AnusañcaranaJti vuttaH 2. PP., p. 148. “Sante pi ca nesaH katthaci avippayoge, oXārika;;hena pubbaIga-
hoti. SvāyaH ārammaJānumajjanalakkhaJo. Tatha sahajatānuyojana raso. Cit- ma;;hena ca ghaJ;ābhighāto viya cetaso pa;hamābhinipāto vitakko; sukhum-
tassa anuppabandhapaccupa;;hāno.” Dhs.A., p. 158. a;;hena anumajjanasabhāvena ca ghaJ;ānuravo viya anuppabandho vicāro.”
3. Compendium, p. 17. Vism., p. 115.

126 127
6. Vitakka is like the compass pin that stays fixed to the Again, he says that faith leads to gladness, gladness to rap-
center when one is drawing a circle, vicāra like the pin that ture, and rapture to tranquility.1 Gladness arises from seeing
revolves around.1 the abandonment of the hindrances. The Buddha says that
These similes make it clear that despite their constant con- when the disciple sees the five hindrances abandoned in
comitance, vitakka and vicāra perform different tasks, the himself “gladness (pāmojja) springs up within him on his
former having a functional priority over the latter. Vitakka realising that, and joy (pīti) arises to him thus gladdened,
brings the mind to the object, vicāra fixes and anchors it and so rejoicing all his frame becomes at ease.”2 Tranqui-
there. Vitakka focuses the mind on the object, vicāra ex- lity (passaddhi) follows rapture and leads to a feeling of
amines and inspects what is focussed on. Vitakka brings a happiness (sukha), on the basis of which the mind becomes
deepening of concentration by again and again leading the concentrated, entering the first jhāna. Thus we can see that
mind back to the same object, vicāra sustains the concen- rapture precedes the actual arising of the first jhāna, but
tration achieved by keeping the mind anchored on that ob- persists through the remaining stages and continues on as a
ject. In their union they are indispensable for the achieve- jhāna factor up to the third jhāna.
ment and stabilization of the first jhāna. For an analytic treatment of pīti, we must turn to the Abhi-
dhamma pi;aka and the commentaries. The DhammasaI-
Pīti gaJi defines the term thus:
The third jhāna factor present in the first jhāna is pīti, usu- What on that occasion is joy (pīti)? The joy which on
ally translated “joy” or “rapture”. The Venerable Ñānamoli, that occasion is gladness, rejoicing at, rejoicing over,
mirth and merriment, felicity, exultation, transport of
in his translation of the Visuddhimagga, renders it by “hap-
mind – this is the joy that there then is.3
piness”, but this rendering seems misleading since most
translators use “happiness” as an English equivalent for The commentaries pinpoint pīti in terms of its verbal deri-
sukha, the quality of pleasurable feeling present in the vation, characteristic, function, and manifestation:
jhāna as its fourth factor. We will render pīti by “rapture”, It refreshes (pīnayati), thus it is [rapture]. It has the
thus maintaining the connection of the term with ecstatic characteristic of endearing. Its function is to refresh the
meditative experience. body and the mind, or its function is to pervade (thrill
with rapture). It is manifested as elation.4
In the suttas pīti is sometimes said to arise from another
aligned quality called pāmojja, translated as “joy” or “glad-
ness.” Thus the Buddha states that with virtuous rules of
1. KS. 2:26-27. SN. 2:30
conduct as support, freedom from remorse (avippa isāra)
2. Dial. 1:84. DN. 1:73.
arises; freedom from remorse leads to gladness, gladness to 3. Psy. Ethics, p. 12. “Katamā tasmiH samaye pīti hoti? Yā tasmiH samaye pīti
rapture, and rapture to tranquility (passaddhi).2 pāmojjaH āmodanā pamodanā hāso pahāso vitti odagyaH attamanatā cittassa;
ayaH tasmiH samaye pīti hoti.” Dhs., p. 18.
1. Ibid. 4. PP., p. 149. “PītisukhaH ti ettha pīnayati ti piti. Sā saHpiyāyanalakkhanā;
2. GS. 5:5. AN. 5:4-5. kāyacittapīnanarasā, pharaJarasā vā; odagyapaccupa;;hānā.” Vism., P. 115.

128 129
Rapture is closely associated with happiness (sukha), but pervading rapture pervades the whole body. To illustrate
remains different in nature. Happiness is a feeling and thus the power of uplifting rapture, the commentaries relate the
belongs to the aggregate of feelings (vedanākkhandha). story of the elder Mahātissa, who “aroused uplifting [rap-
Rapture, on the other hand, belongs to the aggregate of ture] with the Enlightened One as object, and rose into the
mental formations (sa*khārakkhandha). It is not hedonic air like a painted ball bounced off a plastered floor.”1 They
but directive, referring to the object of consciousness. Shwe also relate the story of a young girl who aroused uplifting
Zan Aung explains that “pãti abstracted means interest of rapture while contemplating the thought of a shrine and
varying degrees of intensity, in an object felt as desirable, travelled to the shrine through the air, arriving before her
or as calculated to bring happiness.”1 When defined in parents who went there by foot.2
terms of agency pīti is that which creates interest in the ob- The five kinds of rapture are evidently ranked in degrees of
ject; when defined in terms of its nature it is the interest intensity, minor rapture representing the weakest degree
created in the object. The Abhidhamma subcommentaries and all-pervading rapture the strongest. The five in sequ-
state: “It is said that pīti has, as its characteristic mark, ence bring about the gradual perfection of concentration:
grasping the object qua desirable.”2 Because it creates a
Now this fivefold [rapture], when conceived and matur-
positive interest in the object, the jhāna factor of pīti is able
ed perfects the twofold tranquility, that is, bodily and
to counter and suppress the hindrance of ill will. Ill will is a mental tranquility. When tranquility is conceived and
state of aversion implying a negative evaluation of the ob- matured, it perfects the twofold bliss, that is, bodily and
ject. When pīti as pleasurable interest arises in the object it mental bliss. When bliss is conceived and matured, it
supplants the negative tendency towards aversion. perfects the threefold concentration, that is, momentary
concentration, access concentration, and absorption
Both the Visuddhimagga and Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā
concentration.3
present a gradation of pīti into five categories: minor rapt-
ure (khuddikā pīti), momentary rapture (kha1ikā pīti), Minor rapture is generally the first to appear in the pro-
showering rapture (okkantikā pīti), uplifting rapture (ubbe- gressive development of meditation, coming into being as
gā pīti), and pervading rapture (phara1ā pīti).3 Of these defilements subside and the meditator experiences indicat-
five types, minor rapture is said to be able to raise the hairs ions of successful concentration. Momentary rapture comes
on the body. Momentary rapture is like lightning produced next. Though stronger in its impact than the earlier grade,
moment by moment. Flooding rapture descends on the momentary rapture, as its name indicates, is still ephemeral
body and disappears like the waves breaking on the sea-
shore. Transporting rapture is able to lift the physical body 1. PP., pp 149-50. Vism., p. 116. Dhs.A., pp. 158-59.
2. Ibid.
and cause it to move from one place to another. All-
3. PP., p. 150. “Sā pan’esā pañcavidhā pīti gabbhaH gaJhantī paripākaH gac-
chantī duvidhaH passaddhiH paripūreti, kāyapassaddhiH ca cittapassaddhiH
1. Compendium, p. 243.
ca. Passaddhi gabbhaH gaJhantī paripākaH gacchantī duvidhaH pi sukhaH
2. “ĀrammaJaH kallato gahana lakkhaJā ti vuttaH.” Three !ikas, p. 75. [quot- paripūreti, kāyikaH ca cetasikaH ca. SukhaH gabbhaH gaJhantaH paripākaH
ed in Compendium, p. 243]. gacchantaH tividhaH samādhiH paripūreti, khaJikasamādhiH, upacāra samā-
3. PP., p. 149. Vism., pp. 115-16. Dhs.A., p. 158. dhiH, appanāsamādhiH ti.” Vism., p. 117.

130 131
and cannot be sustained for long. Showering rapture runs ing of the Buddhas is sukha,”1 sukha means root or basis of
through the body, producing a great thrill but without leav- happiness. In the passage “Since, O Mahāli, form is sukha,
ing a lasting impact. Uplifting rapture is more sustained but falls and descends on sukha,”2 the word signifies a pleasur-
still tends to disturb concentration. The form of rapture able object. In the statement “Merit, monks, is a synonym
most conducive to the deepening of concentration is all- for sukha,”3 sukha means a cause of happiness. When it is
pervading rapture. The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā des- said: “They know not sukha who see not Nandana,”4 sukha
cribes the effect of this rapture thus: “When all-pervading signifies a station (or plane of existence) occasioning hap-
rapture arises, the whole body is completely surcharged, piness. In the statement “These states constitute a sukha
blown like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern pouring life in this very world,”5 sukha means freedom from trou-
forth a mighty flood of water.”1 The Visuddhimagga states bles. And in the phrase “Nibbāna is the supreme sukha,”6
that what is intended by the jhāna factor of rapture is this sukha is nibbanic happiness.
all-pervading rapture, “which is the root of absorption and As a factor of the first jhāna sukha signifies felt happiness
comes by growth into association with absorption.”2 or pleasant feeling. The word is explicitly defined in this
sense in the VibhaIga’s analysis of the first jhāna: “There-
Sukha in, what is happiness? Mental pleasure, mental happiness,
The next jhāna factor is sukha (happiness). The word “suk- the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, pleas-
ha” is used both as a noun meaning “happiness”, “ease”, urable and happy feeling born of mind-contact – this is
“bliss”, or “pleasure”, and as an adjective meaning “bliss- called ‘happiness’.”7 (Wr. tr.). The Visuddhimagga explains
ful” or “pleasant”. The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā presents that happiness in the first jhāna has the characteristic of
a number of canonical uses of the term: “sukha” can mean gratifying, the function of intensifying associated states,
pleasurable feeling (sukhavedanā), the root of happiness and as manifestation, the rendering of aid (to its associated
(sukhamūlā), pleasurable object (sukhāramma1ā), a cause states).8
of happiness (sukhahetu), an objective station occasioning To understand precisely the nature of the happiness present
happiness (sukhapaccaya hānā), freedom from trouble in the first jhāna, a brief discussion of the Buddhist analy-
(abyāpajjha), nibbānic happiness, etc.3 In most contexts
1. Ambalangoda Polvatte Buddhadatta Mahathera, trans. and ed., Dhamma-
sukha means pleasurable feeling. When it is said “The aris- padam: An Anthology of Sayings of the Buddha. (Colombo, Sri Lanka: Apothe-
caries Co., n.d.), v. 104 (hereafter cited as Dhp.).
2. SN. 3:69.
3. AN. 4:89.
1. Expositor, 1:154. “PharaJa pītiyā pana uppannāya sakala sarīraH dhamitvā 4. SN. 1:5,200.
pūritava;;i viya mahatā udakoghena pakkhandappatakucchi viya ca anuparip- 5. AN. 4:382.
phātaH hoti.” Dhs.A., p. 160. 6. Dhp., vs. 203,204.
2. PP., p. 151. “Tāsu yā appaJā samādhissa mūlaH hutvā vaYYhamānā samādhi- 7. “Tattha katamaH sukhaH? YaH cetasikaH sukhaH cetosamphassajaH suk-
sampayogamgatā pharaJa pīti, ayaH imasmiH atthe adhippetā pītī ti.” Vism., p. 117. haH vedayitaH cetosamphassajā sātā sukhā vedanā.” Vibh., pp. 83-84.
3. Expositor, 1:52-53. Dhs.A., pp. 160-61. 8. PP., p. 151. Vism., p. 117.

132 133
sis of feeling is necessary. Feeling (vedanā) is a mental fac- imity” (upekkhā). Thus on the fivefold division we find the
tor present in all types of consciousness; that is, it is a uni- following five types of feeling: pleasure, joy, pain, displeas-
versal concomitant of experience (sabbacittasādhāraõā ure, and equanimity.1 According to the Abhidhamma, pleas-
cetasika). Feeling has the characteristic of being felt (ve- ure and pain are found only in association with body-con-
dayita lakkha1ā), the function of experiencing (anubhav- sciousness, joy and displeasure only in association with
ana rasā), and as manifestation the gratification of the mind-consciousness, and equanimity in association with
mental factors (cetasika-assādapaccupa hānā).1 It is in- both mind-consciousness and the other four classes of
variably said to be born of contact (phassa). Contact is the sense consciousness.2
coming together (sa*gati) of a sense object, a sense faculty, The VibhaIga statement that the sukha of the first jhāna is
and the appropriate type of consciousness. When these mental happiness born of mind-contact means that it is a
three come together consciousness makes contact with the form of joy or somanassa. In the AIguttara Nikāya the
object. It experiences the affective quality of the object, Buddha enumerates contrasting types of mental happiness:
and from this experience a feeling arises keyed to the ob- the happiness of the household life and that of monastic
ject’s affective quality.2 life, the happiness of sense pleasures and that of renunci-
Since contact is of six kinds by way of the six sense facul- ation, happiness with attachments and taints and happiness
ties, feeling is also of six kinds corresponding to the six without attachments and taints, worldly happiness and
kinds of contact from which it is born. There is feeling spiritual happiness, the happiness of concentration and
born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling happiness without concentration, etc.3 Happiness associated
born of nose, tongue, body, and mind-contact.3 Feeling is with greed and directed to pleasurable forms, sounds,
also divided by way of its affective tone either into three or smells, tastes, and tangibles is sensual happiness (kāma-
five classes. On the threefold division there is pleasant feel- sukha). Happiness associated with the wholesome roots
ing (sukhāvedanā), painful feeling (dukkhāvedanā), and produced by the renunciation of sensual enjoyments is
neither pleasant nor painful feeling (adukkhamasukhā ve- spiritual happiness (nirāmisasukha) or the happiness of re-
danā), i.e., neutral feeling. The pleasant feeling may be nunciation (nekkhammasukha). The happiness of jhāna is a
subdivided into bodily pleasant feeling (kāyika sukha) spiritual happiness born of seclusion from sense pleasures
called “pleasure” (sukha) and mental pleasant feeling (ceta- and the hindrances (pavivekasukha). It is also a happiness
sikasukha) called “joy” (somanassa). The painful feeling of concentration (samādhisukha).
may also be subdivided into bodily painful feeling (kāyika- The Buddha shows that happiness is causally conditioned.
dukkha) called “pain” (dukkha) and mental painful feeling It arises in the sequence of conditions issuing in liberation.
(cetasikadukkha) called “displeasure” (domanassa). In this In this sequence it follows rapture (pīti) and tranquility
system of classification the neutral feeling is called “equan-
1. Expositor, l:145f. Dhs.A. pp. 83-84. 1. MN. 1:398-400.
2. MN. 3:242-43. 2. Narada, Manual, pp. 143ff.
3. SN. 2:3. 3. AN. 1:80-81.

134 135
(passaddhi) and leads to concentration (samādhi). The pīti but pīti does not always accompany sukha: “Where
Upanisā Sutta says: “Gladness is the supporting condition there is pīti there is sukha but where there is sukha there is
for rapture; rapture is the supporting condition for tranquil- not necessarily pīti.”1 (Wr. tr.). In the third jhāna there is
ity, tranquility for happiness, happiness for concentration.”1 sukha but no pīti. Pīti, as we noted, belongs to the aggre-
(Wr. tr.). The commentary explains that “gladness” (pāmoj- gate of mental formations, sukha to the aggregate of feel-
ja) represents the initial forms of rapture, “pīti” the stronger ings. The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā explains pīti as “de-
forms. “Tranquility” (passaddhi) is the calm that emerges light in the attaining of the desired object” and sukha as
through the subsiding of defilements; the happiness (sukha) “the enjoyment of the taste of what is acquired.” The text
to which it leads the commentary calls “the happiness pre- illustrates the difference between them by means of a vivid
ceding absorption”2 and the subcommentary “the happiness simile.
pertaining to the access to jhāna”.3 The resulting con- Rapture is like a weary traveller in the desert in sum-
centration is the pādakajjhāna, the jhāna forming a basis mer, who hears of, or sees water or a shady wood. Ease
for insight. From this we can infer that the happiness in- is like his enjoying the water or entering the forest
cluded in this causal sequence is the nascent jhāna factor of shade. For a man who, travelling along the path
sukha, which begins to emerge in the access stage and through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is
reaches full maturity in the actual jhāna itself. But since thirsty and desirous of drink, if he saw a man on the
way, would ask, ‘Where is water?’ The other would
sukha is always present whenever pīti is present, it follows
say, ‘Beyond the wood is a dense forest with a natural
that sukha must have arisen at the very beginning of the se- lake. Go there, and you will get some.’ He hearing
quence. In the stage bearing its name it only acquires spe- these words would be glad and delighted, and as he
cial prominence, not a first appearance. When happiness went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground
gains in force, it exercises the function of suppressing its and become more glad and delighted. Going onwards,
direct opposite, the hindrance of restlessness and worry, he would see man with wet clothes and hair, hear the
which causes unhappiness through its agitating nature. sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense
forest of green like a net of jewels growing by the edge
Pīti and sukha link together in a very close relationship, so of the natural lake, he would see the water lily, the lo-
that it may be difficult to distinguish them. Nevertheless tus, the white lily, etc., growing in the lake, he would
the two are not identical states. Sukha always accompanies see the clear transparent water, he would be all the
more glad and delighted, [118] would descend into the
1. “Pāmojjūpanisā pīti; pītūpanisā passaddhi; passaddhūpanisaH sukhaH; suk- natural lake, bathe and drink at pleasure and, his op-
hūpaniso samādhi.” SN. 2:30. pression being allayed, he would eat the fibres and
2. “Appanāya pubbabhāgasukhaH.” Buddhaghosa, [Sa,yutta Nikāya A ha- stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus,
kathā] Sāratthappakāsinī Nāma Sa,yutta hakathā, [Pāli Text in Burmese carry on his shoulders the roots of the mandalaka, as-
script], 3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1957), 2:50 (hereafter
cited as SN.A.).
cend from the lake, put on his clothes, dry the bathing
3. “UpacārajjhānasahitasukhaH.” Dhammapāla, [Sa,yutta Nikāya Tīka] Sa,-
yutta ikā (Pāli Text in Burmese script] 2 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddha- 1. “Yattha pīti tattha sukhaH yattha sukhaH tattha na niyamato pīti.”
sānana Samiti, 1961), 2:65 (hereafter cited as SN.T.). Vism., p. 117. Dhs.A., p. 160.

136 137
 cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade where the breeze dant might strew bath powder in some copper basin
blew ever so gently lay himself down and say: ‘O bliss! and gradually sprinkling water, knead it together so
O bliss!’ Thus should this illustration be applied: The that the bath-ball gathered up the moisture, became en-
time of gladness and delight from when he heard of the veloped in moisture and saturated both in and out, but
natural lake and the dense forest till he saw the water is did not ooze moisture, even so a monk steeps, drenches
like rapture having the manner of gladness and delight fills and suffuses this body with zest and ease born of
at the object in view. The time when, after his bath and solitude, so that there is not one particle of the body
drink he laid himself down in the cool shade, saying, that is not pervaded by this lone-born zest [rapture] and
‘O bliss! O bliss!’, etc., is the sense of ease grown ease [happiness].1
strong, established in that mode of enjoying the taste of
This statement raises the question how mental qualities like
the object.1
rapture and happiness can suffuse a physical substance like
Pīti and sukha co-exist in the first jhāna. Therefore the the body. The subcommentary provides an answer. It says
commentarial simile should not be taken to imply that the that “the material form produced by consciousness suffuses
two are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to suggest that pīti every area where there is material form produced by kam-
gains prominence before sukha, for which it helps provide a ma.”2 (Wr. tr.). The “material form produced by kamma” is
causal foundation. the yogi’s physical body. The physical body contains mate-
In the description of the first jhāna, pīti and sukha are said rial phenomena of four modes of origination; that is, mate-
to be “born of seclusion.” The VibhaIga elaborates: “They rial phenomena produced by kamma (kammaja, rūpa,),
are born, well born, come into existence, come well into by consciousness (cittaja, rūpa,), by temperature (utuja,
existence, appear in this seclusion. Therefore ‘born of se- rūpa,), and by food (āhāraja, rūpa,).3 When the yogin
clusion’ is said.”2 (Wr. tr.). The rapture and happiness born attains to jhāna, the jhāna consciousness produces a subtle
of seclusion, the Buddha states, suffuse the whole body of kind of material form which suffuses his physical body.
the meditator in such a way that there is no part of his body Since this material form is produced by a consciousness as-
which remains unaffected by them. This he explains with
the help of the following illustration: 1. GS. 3:17-18. “So imaH eva kāyaH vivekajena pītisukhena abhisandeti pari-
sandeti paripureti parippharati, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa vivekajena
Monks, take the case of a monk, who, aloof from sen- pītisukhena apphu;aH hoti. Seyyathāpi bhikkhave dakkho nahāpako vā nahā-
suous appetites, enters and abides in the first jhāna; he pakantevāsī vā kaHsathāle nahāniya cuJJāni okiritvā udakena paripphosakaH
steeps and drenches and fills and suffuses this body paripphosakaH sanneyya, sā’ssa nahāniya piJYi snehānugatā snehaparetā sān-
tarabāhirā phutā snehena na ca paggharati, evaH eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhu
with zest [rapture] and ease [happiness] born of soli- imaH eva kāyaH vivekajena pīti sukhena abhisandeti parisandeti paripūreti
tude, so that there is not one particle of the body that is parippharati, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa vivekajena pītisukhena apphu;aH
not pervaded by this lone-born zest [rapture] and ease hoti.” AN. 3:25. DN. 1:74.
[happiness]. Monks, just as a handy bathman or atten- 2. “Yathāyathā kammajarūpaH tathā tathā cittajarūpassa abhibyāpanato, tenāha
’upādinnakasantatī’ti ādi.” Dhammapāla, [Dīgha Nikāya !īkā]. [Vol. 1:] Sīla-
kkhandhavagga īkā [vol. 2:1 Mahāvagga īkā; [vol. 3:] Pāthikavagga īkā, [Pāli
1. Expositor, 1:155-56. Dhs.A., pp. 160-61. Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti,
2. “Te imasmiH viveke jātā honti, sañjātā nibbattā, abhinibbattā, pātubhūtā. 1960-61), 1:263 (hereafter cited as DN.T.).
Tena vuccati vivekajanti.” Vibh., p. 267. 3. Vism., pp. 526-29. Nārada, Manual, p. 302.

138 139
sociated with rapture and happiness, the impression is cre- the first jhāna in exactly the same way.1 Buddhaghosa too
ated that rapture and happiness themselves suffuse the gives commentarial support to this position:
whole physical body. Although the unification of mind is not actually listed
among these factors in the (summary) version [begin-
Ekaggatā ning] “which is accompanied by application and sus-
tained thought” [Vbh. 245], nevertheless it is men-
Unlike the previous four jhāna factors, ekaggatā or one- tioned [later] in the VibhaIga as follows: “‘jhāna’: it is
pointedness is not specifically mentioned in the standard applied thought, sustained thought, happiness, bliss,
formula describing the first jhāna. This omission has led unification” [Vbh. 257], and so it is a factor too: for the
some scholars to question the legitimacy of including one- intention with which the Blessed One gave the sum-
pointedness among the jhāna factors. However, a more mary is the same as that with which he gave the exposi-
thorough examination of the canon and commentaries re- tion that follows it.2
veals this suspicion to be groundless. Thus the suttas, the Abhidhamma, and the commentaries –
Though one-pointedness is not found in the standard sut- our three authorities – all support the inclusion of ekaggatā
tanta description of the first jhāna it is set forth as a factor as a jhāna factor. It may be that the prominence of ekag-
of the jhāna in the Mahāvedalla Sutta where the Venerable gatā in the attainment of jhāna was so evident that it was
Sāriputta states: “The first meditation is five-factored: if a felt unnecessary to mention it separately.
monk has entered on the first meditation there is initial A formal definition of ekaggatā in terms of its synonyms is
thought and discursive thought and rapture and joy and
given in the DhammasaIgaJi:
one-pointedness of mind. Thus, your reverence, is the first
meditation five-factored.”1 Further, in the Anupada Sutta What on that occasion is self-collectedness [one-
one-pointedness is also said to be present in the first jhāna, pointedness] (cittass ’ekaggatā)? The stability, solidity,
absorbed steadfastness of thought which on that occa-
coming fifth in a list of constituent factors immediately
sion is the absence of distraction, balance, imperturbed
preceded by the four familiar jhāna factors.2 mental procedure, quiet, the faculty and the power of
In the Abhidhamma the status of one-pointedness as a concentration, right concentration – this is the self-
jhāna factor is well-established. The VibhaIga, in its chapt- collectedness [one-pointedness] that there then is.3
er on the jhānas, states immediately after the standard
jhāna formula: “[First] jhāna: vitakka vicāra pīti sukha cit-
tass’ekaggatā.”3 The medieval compendium Abhidham- 1. Nārada, Manual, p. 42.
mattha Sa*gaha defines the wholesome consciousness of 2. PP., p. 153. “Tattha cittekaggatā kiñcāpi, savitakkaH savicāraH ti imasmiH
pā;he na niddi;;hā, tathāpi VibbaIge ’Jhānanti vitakko vicāro pīti sukhaH citte-
1. MLS. 1:354. “Pa;hamaH kho āvuso jhānaH pañcangikaH: Idh’āvuso kaggatā’ti [Vbh. 257] evam vuttattā aIgaH eva. Yena hi adhippāyena Bhaga-
pa;hamaH jhānaH samāpannassa bhikkhuno vitakko ca vattati vicāro ca pīti ca vatā uddeso kato, so yeva tena VibhaIge pakāsito ti.” Vism., p. 119.
sukhaI ca cittekaggatā ca. Pa;hamaH kho āvuso jhānaH evaH pañcangikaH 3. Psy. Ethics, pp. 13-14. “Katama tasmiH samaye cittassekaggatā hoti? Yā
ti.” MN. 1:294. tasmiH samaye cittassa ;hiti, san;hiti ava;hiti avisāhāro, avikkhepo avisāhata-
2. See below, p. 153. mānasā samatho samādhindriyaH samādhibalaH sammā samādhi, ayaH tas-
3. Vibh., p. 274. miH samaye cittassekaggatā hoti.” Dhs., p. 19.

140 141
In this definition “stability” ( hiti) indicates the mind’s pass, so in moral [consciousness], one-pointedness of
ability to stand unshaken on its object, an ability present to mind is strong.1
some degree in every state of consciousness as a requisite As a jhāna factor one-pointedness is always directed to a
for focussing upon a single object. Shwe Zan Aung points wholesome object. It serves to ward off unwholesome in-
out that ekaggatā is in reality fluences. In particular it is opposed to the hindrance of sen-
that state of mind which is conscious of one and only sual desire (kāmacchanda), which it counters and elimin-
one object, because it is not distracted by a plurality of ates. As the hindrances are absent in jhāna one-pointedness
possible objects... It is the fact in (a given state of) con- acquires special strength, based on the previous sustained
sciousness, of having a single point (eka-agga) as ob- effort of concentrating the mind. Its stabilizing function is
ject. In other words, it is the germ of all attentive, se- reinforced by the cooperation of the other jhāna factors. In
lective, focussed, or concentrated consciousness.1
the jhāna consciousness initial thought thrusts the mind
As giving this ability ekaggatā is listed among the univer- upon the object, sustained thought keeps it anchored there,
sal concomitants of consciousness (sabbacittasādhāra1a).2 rapture and happiness encourage its interest and satisfaction
As a universal mental concomitant, ekaggatā is present in in the object. The effect is that in jhāna one-pointedness
unwholesome consciousness as well as wholesome, but its picks up a stabilizing power which cannot be easily over-
function there is not strong. It is constantly being under- come by distracting influences. Jhānic one-pointedness is
mined by the defilements and hindrances, most notably by therefore also called the “power of concentration” (samā-
restlessness (uddhacca), a mental factor common to all un- dhibala). It brings the mind to a state of serenity (samatha)
wholesome states of mind. The Dhammasa*ga1i A akathā which helps mature the other spiritual faculties and acts as
illustrates the difference between unwholesome and whole- a foundation for liberating insight (vipassanā).
some one-pointedness with the following simile: One-pointedness is used in the Pāli texts as a synonym for
As by sprinkling a dusty place with water and smooth- samādhi (concentration). In fact, as we pointed out above,
ing it, the dust subsides only for a short time and again samādhi is defined explicitly in the Visuddhimagga as
resumes its original condition whenever it is dry, so in wholesome one-pointedness of mind.2 Buddhaghosa pres-
the immoral portion, one-pointedness of mind is not ents the etymology of samādhi in a way which suggests its
strong. And as when we sprinkle a place with water identity with one-pointedness:
poured from pots and dig it up with spades and cement
it by beating, pounding and kneading, an image is re-
flected there as in a burnished glass, and the reflection 1. Expositor, 1:190. “Yathā hi raju;;hāna;;hāne udakena sincitvā sammatthe
is true any moment though a hundred years were to thokameva kālaH rajo sannisīdati. Sukkhante sukkhante puna pakatibhāvena
vu;;hāti. EvaH eva akusalapakkhe cittekaggatā na balavatī hoti. Yathā pana tas-
miH ;hāne gha;ehi udakaH āsiñcitvā kudālena khaJitvā āko;anamaddanagha-
;hanāni katvā upalitta ādāse viya chāyā paññāyati. Vassasatātikkamepi tammu-
huttakaH viya hoti. EvaH eva kusalapakkhe cittekaggatā balavatī hoti.”
1. Compendium, p. 241. Dhs.A., p. 188.
2. Narada, Manual, p. 77. 2. PP., p. 84. “Kusalacittass’ekaggatā.” Vism., p. 68.

142 143
 It is the centering (ādhāna) of consciousness and con- and concentration spring up from freedom from remorse
sciousness concomitants evenly (sama,) and rightly (avippa isāra) which is itself generated by observing pure
(sammā) on a single object; placing is what is meant. principles of conduct (kusalāni sīlāni).1
So it is the state, in virtue of which consciousness and
its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single From these passages we see that concentration, the one-
object undistracted and unscattered, that should be un- pointedness of jhānic intensity, arises out of distinct con-
derstood as concentrating.1 ditions. Rapture produces calm or tranquility of body and
Concentration is explained as having the characteristic of mind, tranquility produces bodily and mental happiness,
non-distraction, the function of eliminating distractions, as happiness in turn conduces to gaining complete one-point-
its manifestation non-wavering. The Dhammasa*ga1i A a- edness, the fifth jhāna factor. When excitement is present
kathā gives a somewhat different characterization of con- in the form of the hindrances, one-pointedness is feeble and
centration. It says that concentration has the characteristic cannot reach the level of samādhi. But when the excitement
of leadership, the function of welding together the co-exist- of the hindrances subsides, joy and happiness arise leading
ent states as water kneads bath-powder into a paste, peace to a deepening of concentration. This concentration exer-
of mind or knowledge as its manifestation, and happiness cises the task of overcoming sensual desire, the most subtle
as its proximate cause.2 type of excitement.
The statement that happiness (sukha) is the proximate The Buddha declares concentration to be the leader of all
cause of concentration (samādhi) alludes to the causal se- (wholesome) dhammas.2 How this is so the Venerable
quence of spiritual development already discussed. In the Nāgasena illustrates with two picturesque similes:
Sāmaññaphala Sutta the Buddha says that when the yogi
sees that the five hindrances are abandoned in him gladness As all the rafters of the roof of a house, O king, go up
(pāmojja) springs up. Out of gladness rapture (pīti) arises. to the apex, slope towards it, are joined on together at
it, and the apex is acknowledged to be the top of all; so
The body of one filled with rapture becomes tranquil; one
is the habit of meditation [samādhi] in its relation to
whose body is tranquil experiences happiness; the mind of other good qualities.
one who is happy becomes concentrated.3 Elsewhere the
Buddha states that gladness and the remaining factors of It is like a king, your Majesty, when he goes down to
battle with his army in his fourfold array. The whole
the sequence arise in one whose senses are controlled and
army – elephants, cavalry, war chariots and bowmen –
whose mind is not corrupted by cognizable sense objects.4 would have him as their chief, their lines would incline
Again he says that gladness, rapture, tranquility, happiness, towards him, lead up to him, they would be so many
mountain slopes, one above another, with him as their
1. PP., p. 85. “EkārammaJe citta cetasikānaH samaH sammā ca ādhānaH;
;hapanaHti vuttaH hoti, tasmā yassa dhammassānubhāvena ekārammaJe citta- summit, round him they would all be ranged.3
cetasikā samaH sammā ca avikkhepamānā avippakiJJā ca hutvā ti;;hanti, idaH
samādhānanti veditabbaH.” Vism., p. 68. 1. AN. 4:107.
2. Expositor, 1:157. Dhs.A., pp. 161-62. 2. AN. 4:107.
3. DN. 1:73. 3. T. W. Rhys Davids, trans. and ed., The Questions of King Milinda. (The Sa-
4. SN. 4:78. cred Books of the East, vol. 25; Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1890),
144 145
 An Overview of the First Jhāna mental states are present. These represent a smaller number
of factors spread out with repetitions over twelve general
Five mental states have been selected and designated by the
categories.2 The synoptical Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha, re-
Buddha as the factors of the first jhāna, but these five are
ducing this list to its essentials in terms of distinct mental
not the only mental phenomena present in the jhāna. The
factors, proposes a set of thirty-three concomitants always
first jhāna contains a great number of mental phenomena
contained in the first jhāna consciousness. Thirteen are
functioning together in unison as coordinate members of
variable factors: seven – contact, feeling, perception, volit-
the first jhāna state of consciousness. Already in the Anu-
ion, one-pointedness, the life-faculty, and attention – com-
pada Sutta the Buddha praises the analytical perspicacity of
mon to all states of consciousness, and six – applied
the Venerable Sāriputta in contemplating the multitude of
thought, sustained thought, decision, energy, rapture, and
factors belonging to the makeup of the jhāna:
desire – general non-universal variables. There are present
And those things which belong to the first meditation as well the nineteen beautiful factors (sobhana) which ac-
[jhāna]: initial thought and sustained thought and rap-
company all wholesome mental states: faith, mindfulness,
ture and joy and one-pointedness of mind, impinge-
ment, feeling, perception, will, thought, desire, deter- shame, moral dread, non-attachment, non-hatred, equan-
mination, energy, mindfulness, equanimity, attention, imity, tranquility of the (mental) body and the mind, light-
are uninterruptedly set up by him; known to him these ness of the (mental) body and the mind, pliancy of the
things arise, known they persist, known they disap- (mental) body and the mind, adaptability of the (mental)
pear.1 body and the mind, proficiency of the (mental) body and
In the Abhidhamma literature this list is extended still fur- the mind, and rectitude of the (mental) body and the mind.1
ther with great analytical detail. The DhammasaIgaJi, the In addition the faculty of wisdom (paññindriya) is always
primary text of the canonical Abhidhamma, states that on present in jhāna. The two illimitables, compassion (kar-
the occasion of the first jhāna consciousness about sixty u1ā) and sympathetic joy (muditā), may also be present in-
dividually, thus bringing the total of states possible in the
first jhāna up to thirty-five.2 The divine abodes (brahma-
pp. 60-61 (hereafter cited as QKM.). “Yathā Mahārāja kū;āgārassa yā kāci go-
pānasīso sabbe te kū;aHgamā honti kū;a ninnā, kū;asamosaraJā, kūtaH tāsaH
vihāra) of loving kindness (mettā) and equanimity (upekk-
aggaH-akkhāyati, evaH eva kho mahārāja yekeci kusaladhammā sabbe te hā) are covered by the factors of non-hatred and equanim-
samādhi pamukhā honti samādhi ninnā, samādhi ponā samādhi pabbhārāti. ity, of which they represent certain intensifications.
Yathā mahārāja, koci rājā caturaIginī senāya saddhiH saIgāmaH otareyya,
sabbā va senā, hatthī ca assā ca rathā ca pattī ca tappamukhā bhaveyyuH tan-
ninnā, tapponā tappabbhārā, taH yeva anupariyāyeyyuH, evaH eva kho ma-
hārāja, ye keci kusaladhammā sabbe te samādhi pamukhā samādhi ninnā samā- 1. Narada. Manual pp. 77-78. “Phasso, vedanā, saññā, cetanā, ekaggatā, jīvit-
dhi ponā samādhi pabbhārā.” Milp., pp. 38-39. indriyaH, manasikāro, vitakko, vicāro, adhimokkho, viriyaH, pīti, chando; sad-
1. MLS. 3:78. “Ye ca pa;hamajjhāne dhammā vitakko ca vicāro ca pīti ca suk- dhā, sati, hiri, ottappaH, alobho, adoso, tatramajjhattatā, kāyapassaddhi, citta-
haH ca cittekaggatā ca phasso vedanā saññā cetanā cittaH chando adhimokkho passaddhi, kāyalahutā, cittalahutā, kāyamudutā. cittamudutā, kāyakammaññatā,
viriyaH sati upekkhā manasikāro, tyāssa dhammā anupadavavatthitā honti, cittakammaññatā, kāyapāguññatā, cittapāguññatā, kāyujjukatā, cittujjukatā.”
tyāssa dhammā viditā uppajjanti, viditā upa;;hahanti, viditā abbhatthaH gac- Ibid., p. 78.
chanti.” MN. 3:25. 2. Ibid., pp. 131-32.

146 147
Of all these states only five – vitakka, vicāra, pīti, sukha, do not consititute the first jhāna until the hindrances are
and ekaggatā – are called the factors of the first jhāna. The eliminated.
reason is that “when these are arisen jhāna is said to be Each jhāna factor serves as support for the one which suc-
arisen.”1 The jhāna is not something apart from these fact- ceeds it. Vitakka must apply the mind to the object in order
ors which possesses them but the constellation of these fac- for vicāra to sustain and anchor it there. Vicāra supports
tors themselves: the arising of rapture since it is only when the mind is an-
But just as ‘The army with the four factors’ and ‘music chored on the object that it can develop the interest needed
with the five factors’ and ‘The path with the eight fac- for rapture to occur. As rapture grows and matures it brings
tors (eightfold path)’ are stated simply in terms of their to maturity happiness. This spiritual happiness, by provid-
factors, so this too should be understood as stated sim-
ing an alternative to the fickle pleasures of the senses, en-
ply in terms of its factors when it is said to have ‘five
factors’ or ‘possess five factors’.2 courages the growth of one-pointedness. Desire for sensual
pleasure unsettles the mind, preventing the arising of con-
None of the factors, taken in separation from the rest, can centration. As the mind begins to find rapture and happi-
constitute the first jhāna. For the jhāna to arise they all ness in a wholesome meditation object, sensual desire is
must be present together, exercising their special jhānic reduced permitting concentration to become stronger. Even
functions of inhibiting the hindrances opposed to them- if there is no sensual desire in the mind, one-pointedness
selves and of bringing the mind into absorption on the ob- would not become strong if there were no happiness. In this
ject. The five mental phenomena are only jhāna factors by way, as Nāgasena has explained, all the other wholesome
virtue of these special functions. Ordinary vitakka, for ex- states incline, slope, and lead towards concentration, which
ample, is not a jhāna factor if it does not counter sloth and stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a house.
torpor. Sloth and torpor and vitakka can co-exist in many
ordinary states of consciousness, but when vitakka is being In order for a state of mind to qualify as a first jhāna state
developed towards attaining jhāna it expels and excludes of consciousness the five jhānic factors must not only be
the hindrance of sloth and torpor. Therefore the vitakka in able to inhibit and occlude the five hindrances, but must
jhāna is of a high quality and specialized function support- also be able to thrust the mind into the object with absorp-
ing concentration. Similarly for doubt and vicāra. Vicāra tion intensity. If the factors are present only in part, if they
can be present in the mind while one is in a state of doubt, are all present but lack sufficient strength to exclude the
but as long as doubt is present vicāra cannot become a hindrances, if they can exclude the hindrances but cannot
jhāna factor. When vicāra is directed to jhāna then it shuts put the mind into absorption, the state of consciousness is
out doubt. The same applies to the other three factors. No not the first jhāna. But when they arise together performing
matter how strong rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness their individual functions in the production of absorption,
might become in a mind obsessed by the hindrances, they the first jhāna has arisen complete in its possession of five
factors. The Visuddhimagga explains this cooperative en-
1. PP., p. 152. Vism., p. 118. deavor culminating in jhāna thus:
2. PP., p. 152-53. Vism., p. 118.

148 149
 But applied thought directs the mind onto the object; inconceivable rapidity that it is impossible for an average
sustained thought keeps it anchored there. Happiness person to note the distinct mental moments. Experience as
produced by the success of the effort refreshes the we know it is a coarse fusion of a multiplicity of cittas in-
mind whose effort has succeeded through not being
discernible in their uniqueness and discreteness.
distracted by those hindrances; and bliss intensifies it
for the same reason. Then unification aided by this di- According to the Abhidhamma philosophy, cittas do not
recting onto, this anchoring, this refreshing and this in- occur in isolation but as parts of a series. These series are
tensifying, evenly and rightly centers the mind with its of two types. One is the passive stream of consciousness
remaining associated states on the object, consisting in which functions as the underlying “limb of becoming,” the
unity. Consequently possession of five factors should life-continuum (bhava*ga). The second type is the process
be understood as the arising of these five, namely ap-
plied thought, sustained thought, happiness, bliss, and
of active consciousness, by which clear perceptions are
unification of mind. For it is when these are arisen that made, thoughts and volitions generated, and actions per-
jhāna is said to be arisen, which is why they are called formed. This active process is called the cittavīthi.
the five factors of possession.1 The bhava*ga or stream of consciousness is made up of a
succession of cittas proceeding through beginningless time.
The Jhāna Thought-Process With each new life the bhava*ga springs up in the mother’s
The commentaries and later analytical treatises of the womb at the moment of conception (in the case of human
Theravāda tradition connect the process of jhāna attain- or animal life). It is rooted in ignorance (avijjā), supported
ment with the account of the cognitive process (cittavīthi) by the desire to exist (bhavata1hā), and given its specific
presented in the Abhidhamma. The Abhidhamma analyzes form and character by the generative kamma of the past.
experience into a succession of discrete, causally connected Through the course of a lifetime it continues to function
occasions of consciousness called cittas or citt’uppādas. whenever the mind is free from active thought processes. It
Each citta endures for only a small fraction of a second yet is most conspicuous in deep sleep, but it also occurs very
can still be divided into three stages: a stage of arising (up- briefly innumerable times during waking life between oc-
pāda) when it originates, a stage of duration ( hiti) during casions of active perception and cognition.
which it undergoes transformation, and a stage of dissolut- When a sensory datum or idea impinges on the mind, the
ion (bha*ga) when it breaks up and ceases, yielding to its passive flow of the life continuum is interrupted. The mind
immediate successor. Cittas succeed one another with such then enters a phase of active consciousness, after which it
1. PP., p. 152. “Yasmā pana vitakko ārammaJe cittaH abhiniropeti, vicāro an-
returns to its passive state. The process of jhāna attainment
uppabandhati, tehi avikkhepāya sampāditapayogassa cetaso payogasampatti- occurs as such an active process of cognition. When the
sambhavā pīti pīJanaH, sukhaH ca upabrūhanaH karoti, atha naH sāsesasam- mind has been freed from the hindrances and fully prepared
payuttadhammaH etehi abhiniropanānuppabandhanapīJanānūpabrūhanehi anu-
ggahitā ekaggatā ekattārammaJe samaH sammā ca ādhiyati, tasmā vitakko,
for the attainment of absorption-concentration (appanā-
vicāro, pīti, sukhaH, cittekaggatā ti imesaH pañcannaH uppattivasena pañcaI- samādhi), the mind which has subsided into the life-con-
gasamannāgatatā veditabbā. Uppannesu hi etesu pañcasu jhānaH uppannaH tinuum is stimulated to break out from it by the force of
nāma hoti. Ten’assa etāni pañca samannāgataIgāni ti vuccanti.” Vism., p. ll8.

150 151
previous intention. This break consists of three moments. sive state of the life-continuum, since the first jhāna con-
The first is simply the past moment of the life-continuum sciousness is close to the passive continuum.
(atītabhavanga); the second is the vibration of the contin- This process can be made more vivid by the following dia-
uum (bhava*ga calana), caused by the decisive intention; gram:
the third is the cutting off or arrest of the passive stream of A B
consciousness (bhava*ga upaccheda), as active conscious- _________ _____________________
ness is about to supervene. Immediately after this arrest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
moment the mind, well-impressed with the counterpart bh l ch m p u a g jh bh bh bh bh bh bh bh bh
sign of the meditation subject, rises up in active form, ad-
Here line A represents the four great thought moments pre-
verting to the object and cognizing it through the “mind-
ceding the jhāna process. This comprises the past stream of
door” (manodvāra), i.e., as an object of internal perception.
consciousness (bh), its vibration (1), its cutting off (ch),
As the hindrances have been suppressed there arise next and the mind’s advertance to the counterpart sign through
four or five moments of javana, i.e., apperceptive con- the mind-door (m). Line B represents the lapsing of the
sciousness, that are associated with unusually intense vi- mind back into the passive stream of consciousness after
takka, vicāra, pīti, sukha, and ekaggatā. The first javana in the jhāna attainment is over. P represents the moment of
this series is called “the preliminary work” (parikamma), preliminary work (parikamma), u the moment of access
since it prepares the mind for the first jhāna. In the case of (upacāra), a the moment of conformity (anuloma) during
a quick-witted meditator, the parikamma moment is which the mind qualifies itself for jhāna, and g the moment
skipped over and the series begins with the next moment. of change-of-lineage where the ordinary stream of con-
The second is called “access” (upacāra) as it brings the sciousness belonging to the sensual sphere is replaced by
mind to the neighborhood of jhāna. The third, called “con- the lineage of consciousness of the fine material sphere.
formity” (anuloma), qualifies the mind further for the The following jh represents the first jhāna. After this the
jhāna. The fourth is called “change-of-lineage” (gotra- mind relapses into the passive stream of consciousness
bhū),1 since with this act the stream of consciousness be- (bhava*ga) which is represented by bh repeated seven
gins to cross over from the sense-sphere plane of con- times. The groups of three dots in each citta represent the
sciousness (kāmāvacara) to the fine material plane (rūpā- birth (uppāda), transformation or duration ( hiti), and dis-
vacara) of jhānic consciousness. Immediately after this the solution (bha*ga) of each thought moment.1
jhāna consciousness arises. On the occasion of initial at-
It is evident from this diagram that “absorption is only a
tainment it lasts for only one great thought-moment with its
single conscious moment” (ekacittakkha1ikā yeva).2 Unless
three phases of arising, duration, and dissolution. Then the
the meditator masters this attainment by the five ways of
jhāna thought passes away and the mind returns to the pas-
1. For an account of jhāna in relation to the cittavīthi see Nārada, Manual,
1. The DakkhināvibhaIga Sutta (MN. # 142) uses “gotrabhū” to mean a bhik- pp. 214-19; Vism. pp. 111-12; Compendium pp. 54-55.
khu only by name. Also see MN.A. 4:225. 2. PP., p. 144. Vism., p. 112.

152 153
mastery to be explained he cannot sustain it. Thus it init- ceding entrance upon the jhānas. Once the meditator gains
ially lasts for only one moment before yielding to the life- access and the counterpart sign appears to him, he still has
continuum. But when the yogi has mastered the jhāna, a to strive to attain absorption. To develop his practice the
succession of jhāna cittas will continue on for as long as he Visuddhimagga recommends several essential measures,
determined before entering the attainment. Therefore if we based on the testimony of the ancients. He has to live in a
were to represent this situation diagramatically we would suitable dwelling place, rely upon a suitable alms resort,
find a repetition of jh rather than bh after the first jh in our avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded
diagram. companions, make use only of suitable food, live in a con-
genial climate, and maintain his practice in a suitable pos-
Perfecting the First Jhāna ture.1
The first jhāna is the initial stage of absorption. We have Beyond these measures the earnest yogi should rely on the
mentioned already that the elevated forms of concentration ten kinds of skill in absorption.2 The first is “making the
are divided into two basic levels, access concentration basis clean,” which means that he should clean his lodging
(upacārasamādhi) and absorption concentration (appanā- and his physical body so that they conduce to clear medi-
samādhi). Access concentration is the concentration obtain- tation. The second is “balancing the spiritual faculties” (in-
ed when the hindrances have been suppressed and the mind driyasamattapa ipādana). Of the five spiritual faculties,
has become focussed on the counterpart sign. Absorption faith and wisdom must be balanced with each other, and
concentration is the subsequent concentration which devel- energy and concentration must also be kept in balance; the
ops when the jhāna factors become manifest in full force, fifth faculty, mindfulness, is always useful and has no op-
fixing the mind upon the sign to the degree of complete ab- posite counterpart. Third, he must be skillful in producing
sorption. The difference between access and absorption lies and developing the sign of concentration. Measures four
in the relative strength of the jhāna factors. In access the through seven involve exerting the mind (paggaha) on an
factors are still weak, so that concentration is intermittent. occasion when it is slack and needs to be exerted, restrain-
Just as a young child, lifted to its feet, stands for a while ing it (niggaha) on an occasion when it is agitated and
and then falls down, the mind in access remains focussed needs to be restrained, encouraging it (sampaha*sa) when
on the sign for a short while and then falls away. In absorp- it is restless or dejected and needs encouragement, and
tion the jhāna factors are strong and fully developed; thus looking on at the mind with equanimity (ajjhūpekkhanā)
the mind can remain continuously in concentration just as a when all is proceeding well and interference is not needed.
healthy man can remain standing on his feet for a whole As an eighth measure the yogi should avoid distracting per-
day and night.1 sons, as a ninth he should approach people experienced in
Absorption concentration is the concentration of the four
jhānas, and access the concentration immediately pre-
1. PP., pp. 132-34. Vism., pp. 103-104.
1. PP., p. 131. Vism., p. 102. 2. PP., pp. 134-40. Vism., pp. 104-110.

154 155
samādhi, and lastly he should be firm in his resolution to mastery in reviewing.1 Mastery in adverting is the ability to
achieve concentration. advert to the jhāna factors one by one after emerging from
After attaining the first jhāna a few times the meditator is the first jhāna; the meditator must be able to advert to these
not advised to set out immediately striving for the second factors wherever he wants, whenever he wants, and for as
jhāna. This would be a foolish and profitless spiritual am- long as he wants. Mastery in attaining is the ability to enter
bition. Before he is prepared to make the second jhāna the upon jhāna quickly. Mastery in resolving is the ability to
object of his endeavor he must first bring the first jhāna to remain in the jhāna for exactly the pre-determined length
perfection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhāna be- of time. Mastery in emerging is the ability to emerge from
fore he has perfected the first he is likely to fail to gain the the jhāna quickly, without difficulty. Mastery in reviewing
second jhāna and find himself unable to regain the first. is mastery in reviewing the jhāna and its factors by means
The Buddha compares such a meditator to a foolish cow of retrospective knowledge (paccavekkhanañā1a) immed-
who, while still unfamiliar with her own pasture, sets out iately after adverting to them. When the yogi has achieved
for new pastures. She gets lost in the mountains without this fivefold mastery, then he is ready to strive for the sec-
gaining food or drink and cannot find her way back home.1 ond jhāna.
The perfecting of the first jhāna involves two steps of pro-
cedure: the extension of the sign and the achievement of
the five masteries. The ‘extension of the sign’ (nimitta-
va66hana) means extending the size of the object of jhāna,
that is, the size of the counterpart sign (pa ibhāganimitta).
The meditator, before entering jhāna, should mentally de-
termine the boundaries to which he wishes to extend the
sign; then he should enter the jhāna and try to bring the
sign to reach those boundaries. Beginning with a small
area, the size of one or two fingers, he gradually learns to
broaden the sign until the mental image can be made to
cover the world-sphere or even beyond.2
Following this the meditator should try to acquire five
kinds of mastery with respect to the first jhāna. These five
masteries (pañca vasiyo) are: mastery in adverting, mastery
in attaining, mastery in resolving, mastery in emerging, and

1. The five are, respectively: Āvajjanavasi, samāpajjanavasi, adhitthānavasi,

1. AN. 4:418-19. vu hānavasi, and paccavekkhanavasi. For a discussion see Vism., pp. 124-25.
2. PP., pp. 158-59. Vism., p. 123. PP., pp. 160-61. The canonical source is the Pts., pp. 96-97.

156 157
 is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentra-
Chapter Five tion.1 (Wr. tr.).
As we saw, the first jhāna is to be attained by eliminating
THE HIGHER JHÀNAS the factors to be abandoned and by developing the factors
of possession. In the case of this first jhāna the factors to
Having dealt at length with the first jhāna, we can now turn be abandoned are the five hindrances – sensual desire, ill
to the remaining three members of the tetrad – the second, will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt.
third, and fourth jhānas. As before, taking the stock des- The factors of possession are the five jhāna factors – ap-
criptive formulas of the Pāli Canon as our starting point, plied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happiness, and
we will examine these jhānas in terms of their process of one-pointedness. The attainment of the second jhāna re-
attainment, factors, and additional concomitants. Our dis- peats this same basic pattern, only raising it to a different
cussion will emphasize in particular the dynamic nature of and higher level. At this level the factors to be abandoned
the course by which the jhānas are achieved. The attain- are the two initial factors of the first jhāna itself – applied
ment of the higher jhānas, we will see, is a process where- thought (vitakka) and sustained thought (vicāra), the fac-
by the grosser factors are successively eliminated and the tors of possession are the three remaining jhāna factors –
subtler ones brought to greater prominence. From our ex- rapture (pīti), happiness (sukha), and one-pointedness
amination it will become clear that the jhānas link together (ekaggatā). Hence the formula begins “with the subsiding
in a graded sequence of development, the lower serving as of applied thought and sustained thought,” and then goes
basis for the higher, the higher refining and purifying states into the jhāna’s positive endowments.
already present in the lower. Finally we will close by con-
Before he can enter upon the practice for reaching the sec-
sidering the relationship between the fourfold scheme of
ond jhāna, the meditator must first become thoroughly fa-
jhānas used in the suttas and the fivefold scheme intro-
miliar with the first jhāna and perfect it through the five
duced in the Abhidhamma.
kinds of mastery – mastery in adverting, in resolving, in
entering, in emerging, and in reviewing. Then, after achiev-
The Second Jhāna ing such mastery, he enters the first jhāna, emerges from it,
and begins contemplating its defective features. These de-
The Attainment of the Second Jhāna
fects, according to the Visuddhimagga, are two: first the at-
The formula for the attainment of the second jhāna runs as tainment is threatened by the nearness of the hindrances,
follows: and second, its factors are weakened by the grossness of
With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained applied and sustained thought.2 The former we might call
thought he enters and dwells in the second jhāna, the defect of proximate corruption, the latter the inherent
which has internal confidence and unification of mind, defect. Though the first jhāna is secluded from the hin-
is without applied thought and sustained thought, and
1. “Vitakka vicārānaH vūpasamā ajjhattaH sampasādanaH cetaso ekodi-
bhāvaH avitakkaH avicāraH samādhijaH pītisukhaH dutiyajjhānaH upasam-
pajja viharati.” DN. 1:74.
2. PP., p. 161. Vism., p. 125.

158 159
drances, it is only a step removed from the non-jhānic con- the first jhāna – the cherished object of his early striving –
sciousness and thus provides only a mild protection from itself turns out to be defective, corrupted by the proximity
the hindrances. If the yogin is not mindful his contacts with of the hindrances and by the grossness of its factors. He
sense objects can incite the defilements and thereby bring then calls to mind his theoretical knowledge of the second
the hindrances into activity once again. Pleasant objects jhāna. He reflects that the second jhāna is free from vi-
tend to stimulate the hindrance of desire, unpleasant ones takka and vicāra, that it is therefore more tranquil, subtle,
to stimulate ill will, all five hindrances tend to break out and sublime than the first jhāna. While vitakka and vicāra
from the deep flow of the subconscious held in check only appear gross, rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness ap-
by the rudimentary force of concentration found in the first
pear peaceful. By so reflecting the meditator ends his at-
jhāna. To ensure himself of further protection from the
hindrances the meditator realizes that a deeper level of ab- tachment to the first jhāna and engages in renewed striving
sorption would be helpful. Thus he aspires to reach the with the aim of reaching the second jhāna.
second jhāna which is at a further remove from the hin- The meditator applies his mind to his meditation subject –
drances. a kasi1a or the breath – repeatedly concentrating on it with
The inherent defect of the first jhāna is its inclusion of vi- the intention of overcoming applied thought and sustained
takka and vicāra. When striving for the first jhāna these thought. When his practice is sufficiently matured the sec-
appeared to the yogin to be helpers in the struggle against ond jhāna arises equipped with its three factors – rapture,
the hindrances, vitakka directing the mind onto the object, happiness, and one-pointedness.
vicāra anchoring it there preventing it from drifting away. The thought process (cittavīthi) by which the second jhāna
But after mastering the first jhāna the meditator comes to is attained is similar to that for the first jhāna. The process
see that vitakka and vicāra are relatively gross. They are
can be represented by the following diagram:
gross in themselves, and also by reason of their grossness,
they weaken the other factors. The rapture, happiness, and The Second Jhāna Thought Process
one-pointedness associated with applied and sustained A B
thought, he sees, are not as powerful and peaceful as they _________ ______________________
would be if they were freed from applied and sustained 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
thought. Hence he regards vitakka and vicāra as impedi- … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
bh l ch m p u a g jh bh bh bh bh bh bh bh bh
ments needing to be eliminated. As the Buddha explains in
the Po;;hapada Sutta1, what the meditator previously per- Here the top line A represents the past moments of
ceived as subtle and actual subsequently appears to him to consciousness preceding the jhānic process and B the mo-
be gross and harmful. Then he eliminates it by attaining a ments that follow the second jhāna, when the mind returns
higher jhāna. to its passive bhava*ga state. Here bh=bhava*ga;
The meditator thus comprehends that in spite of his mas- l=vibration (bhava*ga calana); ch=break off (bhava*ga
tery of the first jhāna, his progress is not fully satisfactory; upaccheda); m=mind-door adverting (manodvārāvajjana);
p=moment of preliminary work (parikamma); u=moment
1. DN. l:178-203.

160 161
of access (upacāra); a=moment of conformity (anuloma); about with the act of stilling applied and sustained thought,
g=moment of change-of-lineage (gotrabhū); and jh=second and thirdly, that this jhāna is without applied and sustained
jhāna. Again, in the case of a quick-witted meditator, the thought, not through their bare absence as in the higher
moment of preliminary work (parikamma) is not found for jhānas or in elementary sense consciousness, but through
the reason that he can bypass it and go directly to access.1 their actual stilling. But the first phrase does not state
From this diagram it is seen that the cognitive process issu- blankly that the second jhāna is devoid of applied and sus-
ing in the second jhāna centers on four preliminary mom- tained thought. To make this latter meaning explicit a sepa-
ents plus the moment of the jhāna. These four moments rate phrase is needed; hence the words “without applied
gain the general designation “access concentration” (upa- thought and sustained thought.”1
cāra samādhi), though technically speaking only one is Because the second jhāna is free from vitakka and vicāra it
singled out as the moment of access. An important differ- is called the “noble silence.” Once when the Venerable
ence obtains between these access moments leading into Moggallāna was meditating in seclusion he wondered
the second jhāna and the moment of jhāna itself. Whereas “What is it that we call ‘noble silence’ (ariyo tunhī-
the second jhāna moment is free from vitakka and vicāra, bhāvo)”? Then it occured to him:
the latter are still present in all four preliminary moments. When with the subsiding of applied thought and sus-
Only in the moment of absorption concentration of the sec- tained thought a bhikkhu enters and abides in the sec-
ond jhāna are vitakka and vicāra totally eliminated. ond jhāna, which has internal confidence and unifica-
tion of mind, is without applied thought and sustained
After stating that the yogin enters and abides in the second
thought, and is filled with rapture and happiness born
jhāna through the subsiding of applied and sustained of concentration, then this is what we call noble si-
thought (vitakka-vicārāna, vūpasamā), later in the de- lence.2 (Wr. tr.).
scriptive formula the Buddha says that the second jhāna is
Vitakka and vicāra are as we saw, conditions causing vocal
“without applied thought and sustained thought” (avitak-
activity (vacīsa*khāra). As the CūXavedalla Sutta says:
ka, avicāra,). This phrase appears at first sight to be an
“Having first had applied thought and sustained thought
unnecessary repetition of the first, but the Visuddhimagga
one subsequently breaks out into speech; therefore applied
defends this choice of wording, showing that the second
and sustained thought are activity of speech.”3 When vi-
phrase is not redundant but fulfills a different function. The
takka and vicāra, the springs of verbal activity, come to a
commentator points out that the opening phrase is stated,
firstly, in order to show directly that the second jhāna is at- 1. PP., pp. 163-64. Vism., p. 130.
tained through the surmounting of the gross factors of the 2. “Idha mayhaH āvuso rahogatassa patisallīnassa evaH cetaso parivitakko
first jhāna; secondly, that the internal confidence and uni- udapādi. Ariyo tuJhībhāvo ariyo tuJhībhāvoti vuccati, katamo nu kho ariyo
fication of mind, mentioned immediately afterwards, come tuJhībhāvo? Tassa mayhaH āvuso etadahosi: ‘Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu vitakka-
vicārānaH vūpasamā ajjhattaH sampasādanaH cetaso ekodibhāvaH avitakkaH
1. The diagrams for the third and fourth jhānas also are similar to this with the avicāraH samādhijaH pīti sukhaH dutiyaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati. AyaH
exception that the jh signifies the third and fourth jhāna as the case may be. vuccati ariyo tuJhībhāvo’ti.” SN. 2:273.
See Nārada, Manual., pp. 216-18. 3. MN. 1:301.

162 163
stop inner mental verbalization also comes to a stop, re- takka and vicāra, “internal confidence” is mentioned in the
placed by a profound inward silence of the mind. Since this description of the second jhāna but not in that of the first.
stilling of vitakka and vicāra occurs at the level of the sec- Faith (saddhā) or confidence (pasāda) is a necessary factor
ond jhāna, the jhāna acquires the name “noble silence.” in the development of the Buddhist spiritual path and a
Internal Confidence (ajjhatta+ sampasādana+) very important aid to the progress of meditation. In the sut-
tas confidence is seen to arise in three crucial stages – first
With the subsiding of applied and sustained thought the
at the time of listening to the Dhamma, second with the at-
mind of the meditator gains internal confidence (ajjhatta,
tainment of the second jhāna, and third with the attainment
sampasādana,). The term sampasādana, which we trans-
of stream-entry (sotāpatti). In each case confidence arises
late as “confidence”, signifies the factor of faith (saddhā).
only when the mind is settled and free from wavering.
As it is said in the VibhaIga: “‘Confidence’: faith, the
placing of faith, trust, conviction.”1 Since faith, according The first stage of faith is illustrated by the stock canonical
to the Abhidhamma, is present in every wholesome state of passage: “A householder or a householder’s son or one
consciousness, it must also be present in the first jhāna. born in another family hears that Dhamma. Having heard
However, in the first jhāna the meditator’s faith is not well that Dhamma he gains faith in the Tathāgata.”1 The faith
established due to the presence of vitakka and vicāra, gained by hearing the Dhamma of the Tathāgata functions
which produce thought waves obstructing the emergence of as the germ for all higher achievements. It leads to the go-
full clarity and serenity. Thus because this faith lacks full ing forth into the monastic life, the training in morality,
clarity and serenity it is not called “confidence”. The concentration, and wisdom, and the achievement of the
Visuddhimagga explains: jhānas and stages of deliverance. Thus the Buddha says
that “faith is the seed” (saddhā bīja,).2 The Dhamma-
The first jhāna is not fully confident owing to the dis-
turbance created by applied and sustained thought, like sa*ga1i A hakathā calls faith the “forerunner” (pubban-
water ruffled by ripples and wavelets. That is why, al- gamā) and “precursor” (purecārikā): “So faith is the fore-
though faith does exist in it, it is not called ‘confi- runner, the precursor to one who is giving gifts, observing
dence’.2 the precepts, performing sabbath duties and commencing
When vitakka and vicāra are made to subside the mind of culture.”3
the meditator becomes very clear and peaceful. Then his The faith that emerges in the second jhāna is indicated by
faith takes on the quality of “full internal confidence.” To the term “internal confidence” (ajjhatta, sampasādana,).
indicate this maturation of faith through the stilling of vi- The word sampasādana has two connotations: one is faith
in the sense of belief, trust, or conviction; the other is tran-

1. Vibh., p. 268. 1. MLS. 1:224. MN. 1:179.

2. PP., p. 163. “Pa;hamajjhānaH vitakkavicārakkhobhena, vicitarangasamāku- 2. SN. 5:77.
laH iva jalaH, na suppasannaH hoti, tasmā satiyā pi saddhāya sampasādanaH ti 3. Expositor, 1:l58. “EvaH eva dānaH dadato sīlaH rakkhato uposathakammaH
na vuttaH.” Vism., pp. 126-27. karoto bhāvanaH ārabhato saddhā pubbaHgamā purecārikā hoti.” Dhs.A., p. 163.

164 165
quility and serenity. We find the first indicated in the These two characteristics of trust and tranquility come to
AIguttara Nikāya, where it is said: “I myself, lord, from prominence with the elimination of vitakka and vicāra in
this day forth whatever faith I had in those fools the un- the second jhāna.
clothed – I winnow it away in a strong wind, or I let it be The third stage of faith is the confidence arisen with the
carried away by a swiftly flowing river.”1 The second is in- achievement of stream entry. This faith is qualified as “con-
tended in the following statement of the Dīgha Nikāya: fidence born of understanding” (aveccappasāda) or “ra-
“And seeing the tranquility of the gods of the community tional faith” (ākāravatī saddhā) because it develops
of the thirty-three he expressed his pleasure in these through direct insight into the Four Noble Truths: “He sees
verses.”2 Both these meanings are relevant to the second the Noble Truths with understanding.”1 (Wr. tr.). The Bud-
jhāna. On the one hand the meditator gains stronger confi- dha explains the third degree of faith as follows:
dence in the Triple Gem as the truth begins to dawn upon
Monks, in anyone in whom faith in the Tathāgata is es-
him through his practice; on the other, because of this con-
tablished, rooted, supported by these methods, by these
fidence, he gains serenity or tranquility. Hence the Dham- sentences, by these words, that faith is called reasoned,
masa*ga1i A hakathā points out: “Faith is said to be tran- based on vision strong; it is indestructible by a recluse
quility. Through connection with it, the jhāna is also said to or a brahman, or devas or Māras or Brahmā or anyone
be tranquilizing, as a cloth when steeped in indigo is called in the world.2
indigo.”3 The close relation between faith and mental clar-
ity is demonstrated by the Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā’s Unification of Mind (cetaso ekodibhāva+)
explanation of the faculty of faith (saddhindriya): To explicate the meaning of the phrase “unification of
It [faith] has purifying, or aspiring as its characteristic. mind” (cetaso ekodibhāva,), the VibhaIga merely offers
As the water-purifying gem of the universal monarch the standard Abhidhamma definition of one-pointedness as
thrown into water causes solids, alluvia, waterweeds found in the DhammasaIgaJi:
and mud to subside and makes the water clear, trans- The stability, solidity, absorbed steadfastness of
parent and undisturbed, so faith arising discards the thought which on that occasion is the absence of dis-
hindrances, causes the corruptions to subside, purifies traction, balance, imperturbed mental procedure, quiet,
the mind and makes it undisturbed.4 the faculty and the power of concentration, right con-
centration.3
1. GS. 2:211. “EsāhaH bhante ajjatagge yo me bālesu nigaJ;hesu sampasādo
taH mahāvāte vā opuJāmi, nadiyā vā sīghasotāya pavāhemi.” AN. 2:l99. 1. “Yo ariya saccāni avecca passati.” Dines Anderson and Helmer Smith,
2. Dial. 2:21l. eds., Sutta-Nipatta, New ed. (Pali Text Society [Publication Series] Vol. 72.
3. Expositor, 1:255. “SampasādanaH vuccati saddhā. Sampasādanayogato 1913; reprint, London: Luzac & Co., 1965), v. 229.
jhānaHpi sampasādanaH. NīlavaJJayogato nīlavatthaH viya.” Dhs.A., p. 213. 2. MLS. 1:382. “Yassakassaci bhikkhave imehi ākārehi imehi padehi imehi
4. Expositor, 1:157. “Sā panesā sampasādanalakkhaJā ca saddhā, sampakkhan- byañjanehi Tathāgate saddhā nivi;;hā hoti mūlajātā pati;;hitā, ayaH vuccati
dana lakkhaJā ca. Yathā hi rañño cakkavattissa udakapasādako maJi udake bhikkhave ākāravati saddhā dassana mūlikā, daXhā, asaHhāriyā samaJena vā,
pakkhitto paIkasevālapanakakaddamaH sannisidāpeti; udakaH acchaH karoti brāhmaJena vā, devena vā, mārena vā BrahmuJā vā kenaci vā lokasmiH.”
vippasannaH anāvilaH evameva saddhā uppajjamānā nīvaraJe vikkhambheti MN. 1:320.
kilese sannisīdāpeti cittaH pasādeti anāvilaH karoti.” Dhs.A., p. 162. 3. See Ch. IV, p. 144.
166 167
This makes unification of mind synonymous with one- leading up to the second jhāna or as the concentration im-
pointedness and concentration. Though one-pointedness is mediately associated with the second jhāna itself.1 To reach
present already as a factor of the first jhāna, it only gains the second jhāna the meditator had to pass through three
special mention in the formula for the second jhāna since it earlier degrees of concentration – the preliminary concen-
is in this jhāna that concentration first acquires eminence. tration of his initial endeavor, access concentration, and the
The concentration of the first jhāna, being subject to the absorption concentration of the first jhāna. All three of
disturbing influence of applied thought and sustained these stages can be seen as the concentration giving birth to
thought, is still imperfect. In the second jhāna, however, the second jhāna. Alternatively, the concentration giving
where these gross factors have been suppressed and the birth to the jhāna can be identified with the one-
mind is purified by inner confidence, one-pointedness be- pointedness contained in the second jhāna itself. As in the
comes stronger and more stable. The Visuddhimagga ex- case of the phrase “unification of mind,” special emphasis
plains the eminence of this mental unification in its etymo- is placed on this concentration to show its secure estab-
logical account of the term: lishment following upon the cessation of applied and sus-
Here is the construction or the meaning in that case. tained thought. Vitakka and vicāra hinder advanced con-
Unique (eka) it comes up (udeti), thus it is single centration because they activate discursive thinking, which
(ekodi); the meaning is, it comes up as the superlative, disrupts one-pointedness. The Visuddhimagga points out,
the best, because it is not overtopped by applied and in regard to the concentration of the second jhāna, that “it
sustained thought, for the best is called ‘unique’ in the is only this concentration that is quite worthy to be called
world. Or it is permissible to say that when deprived of ‘concentration’ because of its complete confidence and ex-
applied and sustained thought it is unique, without
treme immobility due to absence of disturbance by applied
companion. Or alternatively: it evokes (udayati) associ-
ated states, thus it is an evoker (udi); the meaning is, it and sustained thought.”2
arouses. And that is unique (eka) in the sense of best,
Rapture and Happiness (pītisukha<)
and it is an evoker (udi), thus it is a unique evoker
(ekodi= single). This is a term for concentration.1 Rapture and happiness in the first jhāna, as we saw, are de-
scribed as born of seclusion (vivekaja, pītisukha,). In
Concentration (samādhi) contrast, the rapture and happiness of the second jhāna are
This jhāna, or the rapture and happiness of this jhāna, are said to be born of concentration (samādhija, pītisukha,).
said to be “born of concentration” (samādhija,). The con- The pre-jhānic condition for the arising of rapture and hap-
centration that gives birth to this jhāna can be understood piness in the first jhāna is seclusion, which means the sup-
in two ways – either as the earlier stages of concentration pression of the five hindrances in access concentration. The
preliminary condition for the arising of rapture and happi-
1. PP., pp. 162-63. “TatrāyaH atthayojanā. Eko udetī ti ekodi; vitakkavicārehi
anajjhārūXhattā aggo se;;ho hutvā udetī ti attho. Se;;ho pi hi loke eko ti vuccati.
Vitakkavicāravirahito vā eko asahāyo hutvā iti pi vuttaH va;;ati. Atha vā, sam- 1. Ibid., p. 105.
payuttadhamme udayatī ti udi; u;;hapeti ti attho. Se;;ha;;hena eko ca so udi cā ti 2. PP., p. 164. “Atha kho ayaH eva samādhi samādhīti vattabbatam arahati, vit-
ekodi; samādhiss’etaH adhivacanaH.” Vism., p. 126. akkavicārakkhobhavirahena ativiya acalattā suppasannattā ca.” Vism., p. 127.

168 169
ness in the second jhāna is the concentration of the first General Remarks on the Second Jhāna
jhāna. Thus when rapture and happiness are said to be As the first jhāna has five factors, the second jhāna has
“born of concentration,” this can be taken to indicate that three – rapture (pīti), happiness (sukha), and one-pointed-
their source is the first jhāna concentration. However, the ness (ekaggatā). The two factors present in the first jhāna
phrase can also be understood to mean that they are born but absent in the second are the two gross elements which
from the concomitant concentration of the second jhāna, as have been made to subside – applied thought (vitakka) and
the Visuddhimagga allows. sustained thought (vicāra). Unlike the first jhāna formula,
Because they are not weakened by the gross factors of ap- which does not mention one-pointedness explicitly, the
plied and sustained thought, the rapture and happiness of formula for the second jhāna refers to it twice – one time
the second jhāna are more peaceful and profound than directly under the synonymous term “unification of mind”
those of the first. In the Dīgha-Nikāya the Buddha explains (ekodibhāva,), and once obliquely by calling the rapture
how the rapture and happiness experienced by the meditat- and happiness “born of concentration” (samādhija,). Even
or in the second jhāna pervade his being so thoroughly that though the three factors of the second jhāna are the same in
there is no single part of his body that is not affected by nature as those in the first, they are still different in quality.
them: The factors that remain after the gross elements have been
And his very body does he so pervade, drench, per- eliminated are of a subtler, more peaceful, and more exqui-
meate, and suffuse with rapture and happiness born of site qualitative tone.
concentration, that there is not a spot in his whole Whereas all the states mentioned in the first jhāna formula
frame not suffused therewith. Just, O king, as if there are jhāna factors, the present formula includes “internal
were a deep pool with water welling up into it from a
confidence”. This indicates that the constituency of the
spring beneath, and with no inlet from the east or west,
from the north or south, and it does not rain from time jhāna is wider than its basic factors. The Anupada Sutta,
to time, still the current of cool waters rising up from already referred to, gives the following expanded list of
that spring would pervade, fill, permeate, and suffuse states pertaining to the second jhāna: “Inward tranquility
the pool with cool waters, and there would be no part and rapture and joy and one-pointedness of mind, impinge-
or portion of the pool unsuffused therewith.1 ment, feeling, perception, will, thought, desire, determin-
ation, energy, mindfulness, equanimity and attention.”1 The
DhammasaIgaJi gives a list of close to sixty states, includ-
1. Dial. 1:85. “So imaH eva kāyaH samādhijena pītisukhena abhisandeti pari-
sandeti paripūreti parippharati nāssa kiñci sabbāvati kāyassa samādhijena ing all those present in the first jhāna except vitakka and
pīti-sukhena apphu;aH hoti. Seyyāthapi mahārāja udakarahado ubbhidodako vicāra and their equivalents.2 The Abhidhammattha Sa*ga-
tassa n’eva assa puratthimāya disāya udakassa āyamukhaH na pacchimāya
disāya udakassa āyamukhaH, na uttarāya disāya udakassa āyamukhaH na dak-
ha, too, gives thirty-three possible constituents of the sec-
khiJāya disāya udakassa āyamukhaH devo ca kālena kālaH sammā dhāraH an- abhisandeti parisandeti paripūreti parippharati nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa
upaveccheyya. Atha kho tamhā udakarahadā sitā vāri dhāra ubbhijjitvā taH-eva samādhijena pītisukhena apphu;aH hoti.” DN. 1:74-75.
udakarahadaH sītena vārinā abhisandeyya parisandeyya paripūreyya parippha-
1. MLS. 3:78 MN. 3:26.
reyya nāssa kiñci sabbāvato udaka rahadassa sītena vārinā apphu;aH assa.
EvaH eva kho mahārāja bhikkhu imaH eva kāyaH samādhijena pītisukhena 2. Dhs., p. 44.

170 171
ond jhāna. This list is identical with that of the first jhāna tal unification free from the disturbing influence of rapture.
except that vitakka and vicāra are here omitted.1 He again renews concentration on his meditation object
with the aim of abandoning rapture and ascending to the
The Third Jhāna higher jhāna. When his practice matures, he attains the
third jhāna with its factors of happiness and one-pointed-
The Attainment of the Third Jhāna ness. In the attainment the mind passes through the same
To attain the third jhāna the meditator must apply the same stages of the thought-process as in the earlier jhānas. But
method he used to ascend from the first to the second. He here vitakka, vicāra, and pīti are present in the moments of
must first master the second jhāna in the five ways already access, only disappearing on the actual occasion of full ab-
described. Then he must enter it, emerge from it and reflect sorption.
upon its defects. When he does so he sees that this attain- The standard formula for the third jhāna appears in the sut-
ment is threatened by the two flaws, the defect of prox- tas as follows:
imate corruption and the inherent defect. The defect of
With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equan-
proximate corruption is the nearness of applied and sus-
imity, mindful and discerning and he experiences in his
tained thought. If these should arise they will disrupt the own person that happiness of which the noble ones say:
serenity and powerful concentration of the second jhāna ‘Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful –
and bring the mind back down to the first jhāna or to lower thus he enters and dwells in the third jhāna.1 (Wr. tr.).
states of consciousness. The inherent defect is the presence We have seen that of the five jhāna factors pertaining to the
of rapture (pīti), a relatively gross factor which weakens the first jhāna, two are eliminated with the attainment of the
other jhāna factors remaining in the mind. As the Buddha second jhāna. The third jhāna carries this progressive re-
says: “Whatever there is in it pertaining to rapture, of men- finement of consciousness a step further, eliminating rapt-
tal excitation, that appears to be gross.”2 (Wr. tr.) ure. It retains happiness and one-pointedness, which are
Since the meditator finds that the second jhāna is insecure now purer and more powerful because free from admixture
and corrupted by rapture, he cultivates an attitude of in- with the gross rapture.
difference towards it. With mindfulness and awareness he The formula indicates that the third jhāna contains, besides
contemplates the defectiveness of rapture, and intensifies the jhāna factors, three additional cetasikas or mental con-
his attention to happiness (sukha) and one-pointedness comitants which are not included among the jhāna factors.
(ekaggatā), considering them as more peaceful and sub- These three are equanimity (upekkhā), mindfulness (sati),
lime. Putting away attachment to the second jhāna, he fo- and clear comprehension or discernment (sampajañña).
cusses his mind on gaining the third jhāna, which appears Therefore a peculiarity of this formula is that it mentions
superior for the reason that it possesses happiness and men-
1. Nārada, Manual, pp. 131-32. See above Ch. IV., p. 154. 1. “Pītiyā ca virāgā upekkhako ca viharati sato ca sampajāno, sukhaH ca kāye-
2. “Yad eva tattha pītigataH cetaso ubbillāvitattaH etena etaH olārikaH akkhā- na pa;isaHvedi yaH taH ariyā ācikkhanti ’upekkhako satimā sukhavihāri ti ta-
yati.” DN. 1:37. tiyaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati.” DN. 2:313; 1:75.

172 173
three mental properties which are not jhāna factors and ity (a-pakkhapatita), is the meaning. A possessor of the
does not mention one-pointedness, which along with happi- third jhāna is said to dwell in equanimity since he pos-
ness is a constituting factor of the third jhāna. sesses equanimity that is clear, abundant and sound.1

We will now take the three additional mental concomitants These explanations are suitable for understanding the kind
and the two jhāna factors mentioned in the formula and of upekkhā which is included in the third jhāna. However,
discuss them one by one. the moral upekkhā or “equanimity” occurring in the Pāli
texts has a wide range of meanings. The Visuddhimagga
Equanimity (upekkhā) isolates ten, partly overlapping, kinds of equanimity found
The Pāli word upekkhā (Skt. upekDā) is formed from the in the canon. These are as follows:
prefix upa and the root ikh (Skt. ikD) meaning “to see”. The six-factored equanimity,
Vimativinodanī, the subcommentary to the Vinaya, giving equanimity as a divine abiding,
upa the sense of impartiality, justly, or unprejudicedly, ex- equanimity as an enlightenment factor,
plains upekkhā: “The state of impartiality due to the habit equanimity of energy,
of associating with wisdom. Thus it sees justly.”1 (Wr. tr.) equanimity about formations,
Upekkhā therefore means, etymologically, even-minded- equanimity as a feeling,
ness or just-mindedness. The commentary to the A*guttara
equanimity about insight,
Nikāya defines equanimity as “looking on impartially” and
equanimity as specific neutrality,
explains it as having the characteristic of reflection or of
equanimity of jhāna, and
balance, the function of avoiding excess and deficiency or
of destroying bias, and the manifestation as neutrality.2 equanimity of purification.2

The Visuddhimagga and the Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā For the sake of clear understanding it will be helpful to
explicate the clause “he dwells in equanimity” (upekkhako consider each briefly in turn.
viharati) in identical terms: 1. Six-factored equanimity (cha3a*gupekkhā)
He dwells in equanimity: it watches [things] as they When an arahant comes in contact with objects through his
arise (upapattito ikkhati), thus it is equanimity (upek- senses he neither clings to them nor rejects them; rather, he
khā – or onlooking); it sees fairly, sees without partial- regards them with an attitude of emotional equilibrium.
This attitude is called six-factored equanimity, an unbiased
1. “Paññāya sahacaraJaparicayena yathā samavāhitabhāvo hoti. EvaH yuttito response towards the six sense objects – forms, sounds,
passati.” Coliya Kassapa Thera, [Samantapāsādikā Vinaya hakathā !īkā] Vi-
mativinodani īkā, [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. 2 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: smells, tastes, tangibles, and mental objects – experienced
Buddhasāsana Samiti, l960), 1.73 (hereafter cited as Vimv. T.).
2. “Ajjhupekkhanato upekkhā: sā pa;isaIkhāna lakkhaJā, samavāhita lakkhaJā 1. PP., p. 166. Vism., p. 129.
vā; ūnādhika nivārana rasā, pakkhapātupacchedana rasā vā; majjhattabhāva 2. PP., p. 166. “Upekkhā pana dasavidhā hoti: chaXaIgupekkhā, brahmavihāru-
paccupa;;hānā.” Buddhaghosa, [A*guttara Nikāya A hakathā] Manorathapur- pekkhā, bojjhaIgupekkhā, viriyupekkhā, saIkhārupekkhā, vedanupekkhā, vi-
anī Nāma A1guttara hakathā,[Pāli Text in Burmese script], 3 vols. (Rangoon, passanupekkhā, tatramajjhattupekkhā, jhānupekkhā, pārisuddhi upekkhā ti.”
Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1958-68), 1:390 (hereafter cited as AN.A.). Vism., p. 129.

174 175
through the six sense faculties. As the Buddha says: “Here and approval. Its proximate cause is seeing ownership
a bhikkhu whose cankers are destroyed is neither glad nor of deeds (kamma) thus: ‘Beings are owners of their
sad on seeing a visible object with the eye; he dwells in deeds.’1
equanimity, mindful, and fully aware.”1 3. Equanimity as an enlightenment factor (bojjha*g
2. Equanimity as a divine abiding (brahmavihāra upekkhā) ’upekkhā)
Whereas six-factored equanimity is directed towards sense Equanimity is also included among the seven factors of en-
objects, equanimity as a divine abiding is directed towards lightenment as the enlightenment factor of equanimity
living beings. This type of equanimity comes as the fourth (upekkhā sambojjha*ga). It comes last in the series, being
of the four sublime “social emotions” which a meditator is preceded by the enlightenment factors of mindfulness, in-
advised to cultivate towards all beings. The other three are vestigation, energy, rapture, tranquility, and concentration.
loving-kindness (mettā), the wish for the happiness of all These seven factors are called invincible states (apari-
beings; compassion (karu1ā), commiseration with the pain hāniyā dhammā) because their practice leads without fail to
and suffering of other; and sympathetic joy (muditā), re- nibbāna.2 The Buddha says:
joicing at the success and good fortune of others. While
loving kindness, compassion, and sympathetic joy tend to- Just as, monks, in a peaked house all rafters whatsoever
wards the side of approval in relation to beings, and their go together to the peak, slope to the peak, join in the
opposites – aversion, cruelty, and envy – towards the side peak, and of them all the peak is reckoned chief, even
so, monks, one who cultivates and makes much of the
of resentment, equanimity is marked by the transcending of
seven limbs of wisdom, slopes to nibbana, inclines to
both approval and resentment. nibbana, tends to nibbana.3
The Buddha declares that a bhikkhu practising the sublime
state of equanimity dwells pervading all directions with a 4. Specific neutrality (tatramajjhattatā upekkhā)
mind of equanimity.2 The VibhaIga explains that “just as The fourth kind of equanimity is tatramajjhattatā, a Pāli
he would feel equanimity on seeing a person who was nei- term that has been rendered into English by Bhikkhu Ñāna-
ther beloved nor unloved, so he pervades all beings with moli as “specific neutrality.” According to the comment-
equanimity.”3 (Wr. tr.) The commentaries explain the divine aries specific neutrality consists in the “equal efficiency of
abiding of equanimity thus: conascent states” (sahajātāna, samvāhitabhūtā).4 It is the
Equanimity is characterized as promoting the aspect of 1. PP., p. 244. “Sattesu majjhattākārappavattilakkhaJā upekkhā, sattesu samab-
hāvadassanarasā, pa;ighānunayavūpasampaccupa;;hānā. kammassakā sattā.”
neutrality towards beings. Its function is to see equality Vism., p. 264.
in beings. It is manifested as the quieting of resentment 2. KS. 5:85-86.
3. Ibid. 5:63. “Seyyathāpi bhikkhave kū;āgārassa yā kāci gopānā siyo sabbā tā
1. PP., p. 166. “Idha khīJāsavo bhikkhu cakkhunā rūpaH disvā neva sumano kū;aninnā, kū;aponā, kūtapabbhārā, evaH eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhu satta-
hoti na dummano, upekkhako ca viharati sato sampajāno.” AN. 3:279. bojjhange bhāvento sattabojjhange bahulīkaronto nibbānaninno hoti nibbāna-
2. DN. 1:251. pono nibbānapabbhāro.” SN. 5:75.
3. Vibh., p. 275. 4. PP., p. 167, 527. Vism., pp. 130, 395
176 177
mental factor responsible for maintaining balance among macariyupekkha” or religious equanimity, and saIkhā-
the constituent factors in a state of consciousness. The rupekkhā, or indifference to the world.1
Visuddhimagga explains it thus: 5. Equanimity of jhāna (jhāna upekkhā)
Specific neutrality (tatramajjhattatā-lit. ‘neutrality in
regard thereto’) is neutrality (majjhattatā) in regard to Equanimity of jhāna is, as the name implies, the equanim-
those states [of consciousness and consciousness- ity present in the experience of the jhānas. It is this type of
concomitants] arisen in association with it. Its function equanimity, a mode of specific neutrality, which is signi-
is to prevent deficiency and excess, or its function is to fied by the phrase describing the third jhāna meditator as
inhibit partiality. It is manifested as neutrality. It should abiding in equanimity, as we see below (pp. 93-94).
be regarded as like a conductor (driver) who looks with
equanimity on thoroughbreds progressing evenly.1 6. Purification equanimity (parisuddhi upekkhā)
The Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha classifies upekkhā of this “Purification equanimity” is the equanimity present in the
kind as a morally beautiful mental property (sobhana ceta- fourth jhāna, which gains this designation because it puri-
sika).2 It is said to be present in every beautiful state of fies all opposition. We will discuss this type of equanimity
consciousness, giving balance and harmony to the virtuous more fully in the section on the fourth jhāna.
mind. As a particular cetasika, tatramajjhattatā can assume
different forms in different contexts. In fact, as we will see 7. Equanimity of energy (viriya upekkhā)
below, it appears as six of the ten kinds of equanimity be-
The balanced application of energy by the avoidance of
ing outlined here. Shwe Zan Aung, who translates the Pāli
over-exertion and laxity is called “equanimity of energy”.
term as “balance of mind” or “mental equipoise,” shows
Striving too hard with the expectation of quick results tends
this multivalent character of the state:
to agitation and frustation; at such times the meditator must
It is intellectual and not hedonic, and appears as a nu- call this equanimity to mind and tone down his exertions.
ance in conscious experience, when the object is of a On the other hand, laxity and overconfidence cause a medi-
‘higher’ kind than those which evoke the hedonic
tator to drift away from the path; at such times he should
upekkhā. It is, e.g., a bojjhanga, or a factor of wisdom,
in the consciousness of Ariyans, and a factor of higher apply energy to bring himself back to the path. In this way
knowledge than the average, in the consciousness of he avoids the two extremes of excessive application and
average minds (Three !īkā’s, p. 195). It is this tatra- laxity.
majjhattatā which we meet with in the phrases “Brah-
8. Equanimity about formations (sankhāra upekkhā)
“Equanimity about formations” is a technical term used in
1. PP., p. 527. “Tesu dhammesu majjhattatā tatramajjhattatā, sā cittaceta-
sikānaH samavāhitalakkhaJā, ūnādhikatānivāranarasā, pakkhapāta upacche- the context of meditation, relevant to both serenity-meditat-
danarasā vā, majjhattabhāvapaccupa;;hānā; cittacetasikānaH ajjhupekkhana- ion and insight-meditation. It signifies the wisdom which
bhāvena samappavattānaH ājāniyānaH ajjhupekkhakasārathi viya da;;habba.”
Vism., p. 895. Dhs.A., p. 177.
2. Nārada. Manual, p. 78 1. Compendium, p. 230.

178 179
looks with detached indifference towards the various phen- 10. Equanimity as a feeling (vedanā upekkhā)
omena that come within its view. In the case of serenity- Equanimity as a feeling is a hedonic kind of upekkhā con-
meditation there are eight types of such equanimity. These sisting in neutral feeling, i.e., feeling which is neither pain-
consist in detached indifference towards the eight sets of ful nor pleasant. Experientially feeling is either pleasant
factors to be surmounted by each of the eight meditative at- (sukha), painful (dukkha), or neither-painful-nor-pleasant
tainments, i.e., the four jhānas and the four immaterial (adukkhamasukha). It is this last kind of feeling that is in-
states. In the case of insight-meditation there are ten types tended by “equanimity as a feeling.” The Dhammasa*ga1i
of equanimity about formations. These amount to the men- A hakathā says in definition of hedonic neutrality:
tal composure towards formations which evolves for the
‘Hedonic indifference’ means neutral feeling. It may be
purpose of obtaining the four paths, their fruits, the liberat-
verbally defined as that which views equally the occur-
ion of emptiness, and the liberation of signlessness.1 We ence of the aspects of pain and pleasure, and may be
will discuss this kind of equanimity at greater length in further amplified thus: ‘proceeds under a medium con-
connection with the attainment of supramundane jhāna. dition by occupying a neutral position’.1
9. Equanimity about insight (vipassanā upekkhā) Although this experience comes in between pain and pleas-
Equanimity about insight is in effect identical with the ure it is not a mode of tatramajjhattatā, “specific neutral-
equanimity about formations that emerges in the develop- ity”. The latter belongs to the aggregate of mental format-
ment of insight meditation. Buddhaghosa explains the ions (sankhārakkhandha) and is a more evolved mental
slight nuance of difference between them as following upon stance involving reflective impartiality towards sense ob-
the difference between neutrality about investigating forma- jects, beings, or formed phenomena. Equanimous feeling is
tions and neutrality about catching hold of them. pure hedonic neutrality, and belongs to the aggregate of
feelings (vedanākkhandha). Whereas tatramajjhattatā is a
…When a man has begun insight, and he sees with in-
sight knowledge the three characteristics, then there is morally beautiful mental factor (sobhanacetasika) which
neutrality in him about further investigating the im- can be present only in wholesome or indeterminate states
permanence etc. of formations, and that neutrality is of consciousness, equanimous feeling is a variable which
called equanimity about insight. But… when a man, can be present in any kind of consciousness – wholesome,
through seeking the three characteristics, sees the three unwholesome, or indeterminate.
kinds of becoming as if burning, then there is neutrality
in him about catching hold of formation: and that neu- These ten kinds of equanimity explained in the Visuddhi-
trality is called equanimity about formations.2 magga can be reduced to four basic factors. Equanimity
about formations and equanimity about insight belong to
wisdom (paññā), the wisdom that looks upon phenomena
1. Pts., pp. 60-65.
2. PP., p. 168. “…Yā āraddhavipassakassa vipassanāñāJena lakkhaJattaye
di;;he sankhārānaH aniccabhāvādivicinane majjhattatā uppajjati, ayaH vipassa- 1. Expositor, 1:56. “Upekkhāti cettha adukkhamasukhā vedanā vuttā. Sā hi
nupekkhā nāma… Yā lakkhaJattayassa di;;hattā āditte viya tayo bhave passato sukhadukkhākārappavattiH upekkhāti, majjhattākārasaJ;hitattā tenākārena pav-
sankhāragahaJe majjhattatā, ayaH sankhārupekkhā nāma.” Vism., p. 131. attatīti upekkhā.” Dhs.A., p. 85.

180 181
with detached indifference. Equanimity of energy and ors, namely, happiness and one-pointedness. Thus in the
equanimity of feeling are, respectively, the mental factors VibhaIga’s treatment of the third jhāna, though upekkhā is
of energy (viriya) and feeling (vedanā). The remaining six included among the prominent constituents of the jhāna,1
are modes of tatramajjhattatā, specific neutrality. The Vim- the jhāna itself is said to be a two-factored state comprising
ativinodanī points out how the same factor of neutrality has happiness and one-pointedness.2 The reason is that only
been given different names under different circumstances: those phenomena present in a meditative attainment which
There the same centredness (of mind) is called six- oppose the hindrances and aid mental unification are
factored equanimity of a khī1āsava (one whose cankers counted as jhāna factors. These are the five mentioned in
are destroyed) as it does not abandon the natural state the Mahāvedalla Sutta, plus neither painful-nor-pleasant
of purity when desirable or undesirable objects of the feeling, a factor of the fourth jhāna.
six kinds come into focus in the six doors; equanimity
Some confusion might arise over the statement that both
as a divine abiding, as it maintains the balanced state
of mind towards all beings; equanimity as an enlight- happiness and equanimity are present in the third jhāna.
enment factor, as it balances the associated mental One might think that two different feelings are present sim-
states; specific equanimity of jhāna, as it unbiasedly ultaneously. Such confusion is due to misinterpreting this
balances the great happiness in the third jhāna; and pu- equanimity as equanimous feeling or hedonic neutrality
rification equanimity, as it purifies all mental factors in (vedan’upekkhā). Since only one feeling can be present in a
the fourth jhāna. Thus it is said to be six-fold owing to single state of consciousness happiness, which is pleasant
circumstantial differences.1 (Wr. tr.). feeling, cannot co-exist with equanimous feeling. But when
The kind of upekkhā referred to in the third jhāna formula the upekkhā referred to here is understood as the intellect-
by the phrase “he abides in equanimity” is the equanimity ual, morally wholesome quality of jhānic equanimity or
of jhāna, a form of tatramajjhattatā.2 Since the latter is pre- specific neutrality – which can enter into association with
sent in all wholesome states of consciousness, it follows either pleasant or indifferent feeling – then there is no diffi-
that jhānic equanimity has been present in the meditator’s culty in admitting the simultaneous presence of equanimity
mind even while he was dwelling in access concentration and happiness.
and in the two lower jhānas. It is only mentioned first in
the third jhāna formula for the reason that it first comes to Mindfulness and Discernment
prominence here, the fading away of rapture allowing it to Mindfulness (sati) and discernment (sampajañña) are two
become evident. mental states which work hand in hand in the practice of
Nevertheless, though upekkhā is referred to twice in the meditation. They are frequently joined together in a com-
formula, it is not cited as a jhāna factor for the third jhāna.
Only two mental states are designated as third jhāna fact- 1. “Jhāna means equanimity, mindfulness, discernment, happiness [and] one-
pointedness of mind.” (Wr. tr.). “Jhānanti upekkhā sati sampajaññaH sukhaH
cittassekaggatā.” Vibh., p. 270.
1. Vimv.T. 1:73-74. 2. “Jhāna is two-factored: happiness [and] one-pointedness of mind.” (Wr. tr.).
2. PP., p. 168. Vism., P. 131. “DuvaJgikaH jhānaH hoti: sukhaH, cittass’ekaggatā.” Ibid., p. 275.

182 183
pound. Together they facilitate progress in the spheres both knows impermanence, etc., in right ways.”5 Again the
of serenity and insight. Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā states that “comprehension
Sati, or mindfulness, means the remembrance of an object. has the characteristic of opposition to delusion, the func-
It sometimes signifies simply memory, but in the context of tion of overcoming doubt, or of bringing a work to com-
meditation it means the constant bearing of the meditation pletion, and the manifestation of examination.”1
subject in the mind. Mindfulness is a very clear and steady Mindfulness and discernment are most conspicuous in in-
state; thus it is said to have the characteristic of “not float- sight meditation, but they contribute as well to the attain-
ing away” (apilāpanatā).1 The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā ment of jhāna. They are mentioned for the first time in the
compares mindfulness to the king’s treasurer who reminds formula for the third jhāna, though this should not be taken
the king of everything he has in his treasury; mindfulness to imply that they appear for the first time only here. So
reminds the meditator of both his good and bad qualities, fundamental are these two factors to meditative develop-
and also reminds him to avoid the bad and cultivate the ment that a meditator cannot attain even the access to the
good.2 Mindfulness figures as a controlling faculty (in- first jhāna without them, let alone absorption. In fact we
driya), a power (bala), an enlightenment factor (bojjha*ga), see the two already enjoined upon a meditator in his pre-
and a factor of the Noble Eightfold Path (magga*ga). liminary training before he actually undertakes intensive
Sampajañña can be translated as discernment, awareness, practice:
or clear comprehension. The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā He is mindful and acts with clear comprehension when
explains it thus: going and coming; when looking forward and back-
ward; when bending and stretching his body; when
‘Comprehension’ is that which comprehends. The wearing his robes and alms-bowl, when eating, drink-
meaning is to know a thing all round, in different ways. ing, chewing and tasting; when discharging excrement
Knowledge of a thing according to its usefulness, its and urine; when walking, standing, sitting, falling
expediency, its scope, and to know it without confu- asleep and awakening; when speaking and keeping si-
sion: these are its four divisions.3 lent.2
Discernment is in nature the same as wisdom (paññā), Because they are comparatively gross, the first and second
which has illuminating and understanding as character- jhānas do not reveal the functions of mindfulness and dis-
istics.4 In insight meditation, discernment is “that which cernment with sufficient clarity to merit attention. But
when the level of absorption reaches the subtlety of the
1. Expositor, 1:190. Dhs.A., p. 188. third jhāna the two become distinctly evident.3 Keen mind-
2. Expositor, 1:159-6l. Dhs.A., pp. 164-65.
3. Expositor, 1:173. “Sampajānāti ti sampajaññaH. Samantato pakārehi jānātī’ti
5. Expositor, 1:173. Dhs.A., p. 175.
attho. Sātthaka sampajaññaH sappāya sampajaññaH gocara sampajaññaH
asammoha sampajaññaH ti. ImesaH cattunnaH panassavasena bhedo vedit- 1. Expositor, 1:161. “AsammohalakkhaJaH sampajaññaH. TīraJarasaH; pavi-
abbo.” Dhs.A., p. 175. caya paccupa;;hānaH.” Dhs.A., p. 219.
4. Expositor, 1:161. “Obhāsana lakkhaJā paññā, pajānana lakkhaJā ca.” 2. Nyānatiloka, The Word of the Buddha, p. 85. MN. 1:274.
Dhs.A., p. 165. 3. Vism., p. 13l.

184 185
fulness and discernment are particularly needed to avoid a cool moisture thereof, that there is no spot in the whole
return of rapture. The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā points plant, whether of the red lotus, or of the white, or of
out that just as a suckling calf, removed from the cow and the blue, not suffused therewith. Similarly, O king, the
bhikkhu so pervades, drenches, permeates, and suf-
left unguarded, again approaches the cow, so the happiness
fuses his body with raptureless happiness, that there is
of the third jhāna tends to veer towards rapture if un- no spot in the whole body not suffused therewith.1
guarded by mindfulness and discernment.1 Once rapture
arises the third jhāna is lost. It is mindfulness and discern- The word “body” (kāya) could be misinterpreted if we are
ment which hold the jhānic mind on happiness rather than not careful about its usage in this particular context, lead-
rapture, to which the mind naturally tends to cling in their ing us to the wrong conclusion that the happiness belong-
absence. Therefore, in order to emphasize these functions ing to the jhāna is pleasant bodily feeling. The happiness is
of mindfulness and discernment, they are mentioned here still mental pleasure (cetasika sukha) or joy (somanassa),
rather than in the descriptions of the preceding jhānas. as in the first two jhānas. The word “body” here means the
mental body (nāmakāya), that is, the group of mental fac-
Happiness tors associated with consciousness. However, the happiness
After the meditator has eliminated applied and sustained of the mental body also overflows and produces physical
thought in attaining the second jhāna and rapture in attain- pleasure. For the meditator’s mind, saturated with happi-
ing the third, what remains from the original set of five fac- ness, originates certain types of subtle material phenomena
tors is happiness and one-pointedness. The feeling experi- which cause bodily pleasure even after the meditator has
enced by the meditator in the third jhāna is not equanimity emerged from jhāna. In explanation of this the Visuddhi-
but happiness (sukha), as made explicit in the phrase: “He magga says:
experiences happiness with his body” (sukha, ca kāyena Now as to the clause ‘he feels bliss [happiness] with his
pa isa,vedeti). In the Sāmaññaphala Sutta the Buddha il- body’, here although in one actually possessed of the
lustrates this with the following simile: third jhāna there is no concern about feeling bliss
[happiness], nevertheless he would feel the bliss [hap-
And his very body does he so pervade, drench, perme- piness] associated with his mental body, and after
ate, and suffuse with that ease [happiness] that has no emerging from the jhāna he would also feel bliss (hap-
joy [rapture] with it, that there is no spot in his whole
frame not suffused therewith. 1. Dial. 1:85-86. “So imaH eva kāyaH nippītikena sukhena abhisandeti pari-
Just, O king, as when in a lotus tank the several lotus sandeti paripūreti parippharati, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa nippītikena suk-
hena apphu;aH hoti.
flowers, red or white or blue, born in the water, grown
Seyyathā pi mahā-rāja uppaliniyaH, paduminiyaH puJYarīkiniyaH appekaccāni
up in the water, not rising up above the surface of the uppalāni vā padumāni vā puJYarikāni vā udake-jātāni udakesaHvaYYhāni uda-
water, drawing up nourishment from the depths of the kā’nuggatāni anto-nimugga-positāni, tāni yāva caggā yāva ca mūlā sītena
water, are so pervaded, drenched, permeated, and suf- vārinā abhisannāni parisannāni paripūrāni paripphu;;hāni, nāssa kiñci sabbā-
fused from their very tips down to their roots with the vataH uppalānaH vā padumānaH vā puJYarikānaH vā sītena varinā apphu;aH
assa. EvaH eva kho mahārāja bhikkhu imaH eva kāyam nippītikena sukhena
abhisandeti parisandeti paripūreti parippharati, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa
1. Expositor, 1:233. nippītikena sukhena apphu;aH hoti.” DN. 1:75.

186 187
 piness] since his material body would have been af- three general variables. Thus it contains a minimum of
fected by the exceedingly superior matter originated by thirty concomitants of consciousness, and can further in-
that bliss [happiness] associated with the mental body. clude compassion and sympathetic joy separately at times
It is in order to point to this meaning that the words,
when these qualities are developed to the jhānic level.1
‘he feels bliss [happiness] with his body’ are said.1
After attaining the third jhāna, the yogin proceeds to per-
One-pointedness fect it through the five types of mastery, and then prepares
The second constituting factor of the third jhāna is one- himself for the next step.
pointedness of mind (ekaggatā). Though one-pointedness
is not mentioned by name in the third jhāna formula, its The Fourth Jhāna
presence in the attainment can be implicitly understood.
We noticed earlier that the formula for the first jhāna also The Attainment of the Jhāna
does not refer directly to one-pointedness though it is more Having achieved the fivefold mastery over the third jhāna,
than obvious that it must be included there. Since one- the meditator enters it, emerges from it, and reviews its
pointedness is a factor common to all states of conscious- constituting factors. When he reviews the factors the medi-
ness, indispensable to sustained concentration, it must also tator sees that the attainment is threatened by the nearness
be present with abundant strength in the third jhāna. It is of rapture (pīti); this is the fault of proximate corruption.
explicitly mentioned in fact as a jhāna factor in the Vib- The inherent defect is the presence of happiness (sukha),
haIga.2 Moreover, the mind in the third jhāna is full of which he sees to be a relatively gross factor that weakens
sukha, and the mind suffused with sukha, as we saw earlier, the entire attainment. As he reflects equanimous feeling
gains samādhi, identical in meaning with one-pointedness. and one-pointedness appear more subtle, peaceful, and se-
Therefore one-pointedness must be present here. It is men- cure, and thus more desirable.
tioned only in the second jhāna formula for the reason that Because of their proximity, happiness in the third jhāna is
it there acquires novel intensity due to the subsiding of ap- threatened by the possibility of a re-arising of rapture. Rap-
plied and sustained thought. ture was suppressed with the attainment of the third jhāna,
In terms of the Abhidhamma analysis, the third jhāna con- but threatens to swell up again due to its natural association
sciousness includes all the factors originally present in the with happiness. Therefore if the meditator is not mindful
first jhāna consciousness except vitakka, vicāra, and pīti, his meditation can fall back to a lower level conjoined with
rapture. The attainment of the fourth jhāna appears valu-
1. PP., p. 169. “Idāni, ’sukhañ ca kāyena pa;isaHvedeti’ti ettha kiñcapi tati- able as a protection from such a fall. It is also desired be-
yajjhānasamaIgino sukhapa;isaHvedanābhogo n’atthi, evaH sante pi, yasmā cause of its more profound peacefulness and subtlety,
tassa nāmakāyena sampayuttaH sukhaH, yaH vā taH nāmakāyasampayuttaH stemming from its factors of equanimous feeling and one-
sukhaH, taHsamu;;hānen’assa yasmā atipaJītena rūpena rūpakāyo phu;o, yassa
phu;attā jhāna vu;;hito pi sukhaH pa;isaHvedeyya, tasmā etaH atthaH dassen- pointedness of mind.
to, sukhaH ca kāyena pa;isaHvedeti ti āha.” Vism., p. 132.
2. Vibh., p. 275. 1. Narada, Manual, pp. 131-32.

188 189
Then, taking as his object the same counterpart sign he There are four conditions, friend, for the attainment of
took for the earlier attainments, the meditator repeats his the neither-painful-nor-pleasant mind-deliverance.
concentration with the purpose of abandoning the gross Here, friend, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain
and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief a
factor of happiness and attaining the higher jhāna. When
bhikkhu enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna… These
his practice matures the mind enters upon the thought- are the four conditions for the attainment of the neither-
process culminating in absorption of the fourth jhāna. First painful-nor-pleasant mind-deliverance.1
the stream of consciousness (bhava*ga) vibrates and gets
The four conditions referred to by the sutta are
cut off, after which there arises the mind-door adverting
with the counterpart sign as object. This is followed by four the abandoning of pleasure;
or five impulsions (javana) on the same object, the last of the abandoning of pain;
which is an impulsion of the fourth jhāna. The three or four the disappearance of joy; and
impulsions of the preliminary stage (parikamma) retain vi- the disappearance of grief.
takka and vicāra, but because the jhāna to follow involves Before we can discuss these four conditions it is first nec-
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, the preliminary im- essary to determine the precise meaning of their terms.
pulsions, too, involve the same feeling. Thus they are de-
void of rapture and happiness, as these are incompatible 1. Pleasure (sukha)
with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.1 In our analysis of the word sukha in our discussion of the
first jhāna, we noted that sukha has both a general and a
The Four Conditions narrow application. In a general sense sukha signifies hap-
The standard suttanta description of the fourth jhāna is as piness or pleasant feeling, covering both bodily pleasant
follows: feeling (kāyika sukha) and mental pleasant feeling (ceta-
With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the sika sukha). In a narrow sense sukha is used to signify ex-
previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and clusively bodily pleasant feeling; it is then contrasted with
dwells in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-nor- mental pleasant feeling, which is denoted by another word,
pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equanim- somanassa, here translated “joy.”2
ity.2 (Wr. tr.).
Now the sukha spoken of as a factor of the first three
The first part of this formula, explaining the preliminaries jhānas is mental pleasant feeling, that is somanassa or joy.
to the attainment of the jhāna, is said in the Mahāvedalla As we saw, the VibhaIga defines the sukha of the first
Sutta to express the four conditions needed for the fourth
jhāna:
1. PP., p. 174. “Cattāro kho āvuso paccayā adukkhamasukhāya cetovimuttiyā
samāpattiyā. Idh’āvuso bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pub-
1. PP., pp. 170-71. beva somanassadomanassānaH atthaIgamā adukkhamasukhaH upekkhāsati-
2. “Sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassā- pārisuddhiH catutthaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati. Ime kho āvuso cattāro
naH atthaIgamā adukkhamasukhaH upekkhāsatipārisuddhiH catutthaH jhā- paccayā adukkhamasukhāya cetovimuttiyā samāpattiyā’ti.” MN. 1:296.
naH upasampajja viharati.” DN. 1:75. 2. See Chapter IV, p. 140.

190 191
jhāna as “mental pleasure, mental happiness, the felt pleas- rower meaning. As the VibhaIga explains, it is bodily pain-
ure and happiness born of mind-contact, pleasurable and ful feeling:
happy feeling born of mind-contact.”1 (Wr. tr.). The same Therein, what is pain? Bodily displeasure, bodily pain,
holds true of the sukha mentioned in the formulas for the the felt displeasure and pain born of body-contact, un-
second and third jhāna. But in the fourth jhāna description, pleasurable and painful feeling born of body-contact –
the sukha which is said to be abandoned as a pre-requisite this is called pain.1 (Wr. tr.).
for entering the jhāna undergoes a shift in meaning: it now 3. Joy (somanassa)
signifies bodily pleasure or physical happiness (kāyika-
The joy that is made to disappear prior to the attainment of
sukha). Thus the VibhaIga defines the sukha intended in
the fourth jhāna is mental happiness, the feeling present as
the phrase sukhassa ca pahānā, “with the abandoning of
sukha in the first three jhānas. The VibhaIga says:
pleasure,” as follows:
Therein, what is joy? Mental pleasure, mental happi-
Therein, what is happiness [pleasure]? Bodily pleasure; ness, the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-
bodily happiness, the felt pleasure and happiness born contact, pleasurable and happy feeling born of mind-
of body-contact, pleasurable and happy feeling born of contact – this is called joy.2 (Wr. tr.).
body-contact – this is called ‘happiness’ [pleasure].2
(Wr. tr.). 4. Grief (domanassa)
Mental pleasure, or happiness, will be indicated later in the Grief is the opposite of joy, that is, it is mental unpleasur-
formula by the word somanassa. able feeling. The VibhaIga defines the term occurring in
the fourth jhāna formula thus:
2. Pain (dukkha)
Therein, what is grief? Mental displeasure, mental
We see from the formula that the attainment of the fourth pain, the felt displeasure and pain born of mind-
jhāna presupposes the prior abandonment of dukkha or contact, the unpleasurable and painful feeling born of
pain. Like the word sukha the word dukkha has, besides its mind-contact – this is called grief.3 (Wr. tr.).
broader philosophical meaning dealt with in the Four No-
ble Truths, a twofold meaning in relation to feelings: on the The fourth jhāna is said to arise following the abandon-
one side it signifies all unpleasurable feeling, physical and ment of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of joy and
mental; on the other it signifies exclusively bodily pain. grief. This statement seems to suggest that all four feelings
When it is used to signify bodily pain it is contrasted with first disappear prior to the attainment of the fourth jhāna.
domanassa, “grief”, which then means mental unpleasur- Such an interpretation, however, is not correct. In the
able feeling. In the present context dukkha bears the nar-
1. “Tattha katamaH dukkhaH? YaH kāyikaH asātaH kāyikaH dukkhaH
kāyasamphassajaH asātaH dukkhaH vedayitaH kāyasamphassajā asātā dukkhā
1. “CetasikaH sātaH cetasikaH sukhaH cetosamphassajaH sātaH sukhaH ve- vedanā. IdaH vuccati dukkhaH.” Vibh., p. 271.
dayitaH cetosamphassajā sātā sukhā vedanā.” Vibh., p. 267. 2. “Tattha katamaH somanassaH? YaH cetasikaH sātaH cetasikaH sukhaH ce-
tosamphassajaH sātaH sukhaH vedayitaH cetosamphassajā sātā sukhā vedanā.
2. “Tattha katamaH sukhaH? YaH kāyikaH sataH kāyikaH sukhaH kāyasam-
phassajaH sātaH sukhaH vedayitaH kāyasamphassajā sātā sukhā vedanā. IdaH IdaH vuccati somanassaH.” Vibh., p. 271.
vuccati sukhaH.” Vibh., p. 270. 3. Ibid.

192 193
SaHyutta Nikāya the Buddha says that the faculty of pain grief does not reappear. The bodily pleasure-faculty, which
(dukkhindriya) ceases without remainder when the first ceases in the third jhāna access, can reappear when the
jhāna is attained, the faculty of grief (domanassindriya) meditator’s body is pervaded by the subtle materiality
when the second jhāna is attained, the faculty of pleasure originated by consciousness, but it does not arise in the
(sukhindriya) when the third jhāna is attained, and the fac- third jhāna absorption where the rapture producing such
ulty of joy (somanassindriya) when the fourth jhāna is at- materiality has ceased. Likewise, the faculty of joy which
tained.1 Thus three of the four conditions for the fourth has ceased in the fourth jhāna access could be reawakened
jhāna are fulfilled with the attainment of the first three due to the proximity of the third jhānic happiness, but not
jhānas, and only the fourth, the disappearance of joy, with in the fourth jhāna absorption where it is fully suppressed
the actual entrance upon the fourth jhāna. by equanimity.1
The Visuddhimagga qualifies the Buddha’s statement fur- When three other feelings have been abandoned earlier, the
ther and says that the four feelings – pain, grief, pleasure, question comes up why all four feelings are collected to-
and joy – actually cease at the moments of access to the gether and negated here, in the description of the fourth
first, second, third, and fourth jhānas, respectively. How- jhāna. The Visuddhimagga gives four reasons for grouping
ever, they only undergo “reinforced cessation” (atisaya- them. The first is to make it easier to grasp the nature of
nirodhattā) with the attainment of the jhāna itself, which is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. The latter, being subtle
why the Buddha says that in the jhāna they “cease without and difficult to recognize, has to be apprehended by negat-
remainder” (aparisesa, nirujjhati).2 Thus bodily pain, ing the alternatives, like a refractory cow that has to be
which ceases in the first jhāna access, can arise again prior caught by gathering all the cows in a pen and releasing the
to jhāna on account of insect bites, an uncomfortable seat, others one by one. The second reason is to show the condit-
cold, heat, etc. But in the jhāna the whole body is suffused ion for the neither-painful-nor-pleasurable mind-deliver-
with bliss due to pervasion by rapture, and the pain-faculty ance, which is the abandonment of the other four feelings.
then completely ceases, beaten out by opposition. There- A third reason is to recommend this jhāna by showing its
fore the reinforced cessation of the pain-faculty takes place freedom from the grosser types of feeling. And a fourth is
only with absorption in the first jhāna, not with access.3 to show that greed and hatred are very far away. Pleasure is
Similarly, the grief faculty initially ceases in the second a condition for joy, which causes greed to possess the ob-
jhāna access, but can arise again when the body is weary ject producing pleasure, so when there is no pleasure greed
and the mind vexed, due to the presence of applied and sus- is far away. Pain is a condition for grief, which causes ha-
tained thought. But at the level of second jhāna absorption, tred, so when there is no pain, hatred is far away.2
where applied and sustained thought are absent, mental

1. SN. 5:2l3-15.
2. Vism., p. 134. PP., p. 172. 1. PP., pp. l73-74. Vism., p. 135.
3. Vism., p. 134. PP., pp. 172-73. 2. Ibid.

194 195
New Elements in the Jhāna Consistent with this we now find in the move to the fourth
The fourth jhāna formula introduces several new terms and jhāna, besides the abandonment of the grosser feelings and
phrases which have not been used in the formulas for the the augmentation of a new feeling, a new phrase composed
preceding jhānas. First of all, it introduces a new feeling. of already familiar terms suggesting a new element – “pu-
This is the feeling of neither-pain-nor-pleasure (adukkha- rity of mindfulness due to equanimity.” The Pāli compound
masukha), which remains after the other four types of feel- upekkhāsatipārisuddhi is explained by the VibhaIga in a
ing have been eliminated. The VibhaIga explains adukkha- way that makes it plain that the relation between the two
masukha as follows: terms is causal, not merely copulative: “This mindfulness is
cleared, purified, clarified by equanimity; hence it is said to
Neither-pain-nor-pleasure: that mental concomitant
which is neither pleasant nor unpleasant, felt neither- have purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.”1 (Wr. tr.).
pain-nor-pleasure born of mind-contact, neither-pain- The Visuddhimagga also supports this interpretation: “For
ful-nor-pleasant feeling born of mind-contact – this is the mindfulness in this jhāna is quite purified, and its puri-
called neither-pain-nor-pleasure.1 (Wr. tr.). fication is effected by equanimity, not by anything else.”2
Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, also called equani- The equanimity which purifies the mindfulness, according
mous feeling (upekkhāvedanā), replaces sukha as the con- to the VibhaIga, is not neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling,
comitant feeling of the jhāna. It also figures as an actual but mental neutrality (majjhattatā cittassa), the same as
jhāna-factor. Thus this jhāna has two factors: neither-pain- “specific neutrality” (tatramajjhattatā) discussed above.3
ful-nor-pleasant feeling and one-pointedness of mind. Pre- Thus this jhāna has two kinds of eqanimity – [1] equani-
viously the ascent from one jhāna to the next was marked mous feeling, the affective tone which inclines neither to-
by the progressive elimination of the coarser jhāna-factors wards pleasure nor pain, and [2] specific neutrality, the
without any replacement. But in the move from the third to mental attitude of sublime impartiality free from attach-
fourth jhāna there takes place a substitution. While one- ment and aversion. Though the two are different factors, the
pointedness remains constant, equanimous feeling enters to one belonging to the aggregate of feelings (vedan-
replace happiness, which has been abandoned. ākkhandha) and the other to the aggregate of mental forma-
Simultaneously with the progressive elimination and re- tions (sankhārakkhandha), their concomitance is not fortui-
finement of jhāna factors, there has occurred in the de- tous; for as specific neutrality becomes more and more
scription of each succeeding jhāna the introduction of sev- refined it naturally tends to come into association with
eral new and complex elements. The second formula equanimous feeling, its hedonic counterpart.
introduced confidence and mental unification, the third Of the two, as we have seen, it is equanimity as specific
jhāna formula equanimity, mindfulness, and discernment. neutrality that purifies mindfulness. Though both equan-

1. Vibh., p. 271.
1. “Adukkhamasukhanti yaH cetasikaH neva sātaH nāsātaH cetosamphassajaH
adukkhamasukhaH vedayitaH ceto samphassajā adukkhamasukhā vedanā. Tena 2. PP., p. 174. Vism., p. 136.
vuccati adukkhamasukhanti.” Vibh., p. 271. 3. Vibh., p. 271.

196 197
imity as specific neutrality and mindfulness are present in age of one thing suffusing another, as he did for the happi-
the earlier three jhānas, none among these is said to have ness and rapture of the earlier jhānas. Instead he employs
purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. The reason is that the image of one thing covering another, that is, a white
the equanimity in the preceding jhānas is not purified, and cloth covering a man’s whole body from top to bottom:
thus cannot purify mindfulness and the other conascent Suppose a man were sitting wrapped in white cloth
states. In the other jhānas equanimity lacks clarity and dis- covering his whole body from head to toes, so that
tinctness because it is overshadowed by the opposing states there were not a single spot of his body that is not cov-
and because it lacks association with equanimous feeling. ered by the white cloth. Similarly the bhikkhu sits per-
The Visuddhimagga illustrates this with a vivid simile: vading his whole body with a pure and lucid mind so
that not a single spot of his entire body is left unper-
…just as, although a crescent moon exists by day but is vaded by that pure and lucid mind.1 (Wr. tr.).
not purified or clear since it is outshone by the sun’s
radiance in the daytime or since it is deprived of the The Abhidhammic system counts thirty factors in the
night, which is its ally owing to gentleness and owing fourth jhāna. From the original set of thirty-three, vitakka,
to helpfulness to it, so too, this crescent moon of equa- vicāra and pīti are excluded, and the feeling is changed to
nimity consisting in specific neutrality exists in the first adukkhamasukha. Compassion and sympathetic joy do not
jhāna, etc., but it is not purified since it is outshone by unite with this jhāna, as they require association with
the glare of the opposing states consisting in applied
pleasant feeling while this jhāna has neutral feeling.
thought, etc., and since it is deprived of the night of
equanimity as feeling for its ally; and because it is not
purified, the conascent mindfulness and other states are The Fivefold Scheme of the Jhānas
not purified either, like the unpurified crescent moon’s Whereas the suttas arrange the jhānas into a fourfold sys-
radiance by day. That is why no one among these [first tem, the texts of the Abhidhammapi;aka present the same
three jhānas] is said to have purity of mindfulness due
states in two ways – in terms of the familiar fourfold system
to equanimity.1
of the suttas and also in terms of a fivefold system. The
But in the fourth jhāna the “crescent moon of specific neu- fourfold presentation of jhāna becomes fivefold through
trality” is completely pure because it is not outshone by the the separate rather than simultaneous elimination of ap-
opposing states and because it appears against the back- plied thought (vitakka) and sustained thought (vicāra). The
ground of equanimous feeling. Since it is pure, it is able to Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha spells out the constitution of the
purify mindfulness and the other associated factors, just as five jhānas one by one in terms of their factors:
a purified crescent moon is able to send forth a purified ra-
diance.
So pervasive is the degree of purity reached in the fourth 1. “Seyyathāpi mahārāja puriso odātena vatthena sasīsaH pārupitvā nisinno
jhāna that to illustrate it the Buddha no longer uses the im- assa, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa odātena vatthena apphu;aH assa, evaH eva
kho mahārāja bhikkhu imaH eva kāyaH parisuddhena cetasā pariyodātena
pharitvā nisinno hoti, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa parisuddhena cetasā pari-
1. PP, p. 175. Vism., p. 136. Expositor, l:238. yodātena apphu;aH hoti.” DN. 1:76.

198 199
 First jhāna consciousness together with initial appli- fourfold scheme of jhānas into a fivefold scheme. In expla-
cation, sustained application, joy [rapture], happiness, nation of the second reason the commentary says:
and one-pointedness.
Hence, because of the vastness of his knowledge, the
Second jhāna consciousness together with sustained Teacher, who is skillful in arranging his teaching, and
application, joy [rapture], happiness, and one-pointed- who has attained the [art of] embellishing it, fixes that
ness. teaching by whatever factor that has come to hand, and
Third jhāna consciousness together with joy [rapture], in any way he chooses.1
happiness and one-pointedness.
In following the fivefold system of jhānas, a meditator who
Fourth jhāna consciousness together with happiness
and one-pointedness. has mastered the first jhāna and aspires to go higher re-
views its factors and finds only applied thought (vitakka) to
Fifth jhāna consciousness together with equanimity
and one-pointedness.1 be gross. Thus he endeavors to eliminate only applied
thought, and attains a second jhāna which is devoid of ap-
The question may arise why a fivefold system should be plied thought (avitakka,) but still associated with sus-
presented along with the fourfold system. The Dhamma- tained thought (vicāramatta,). This second jhāna of the
sa*ga1i A hakathā offers two reasons: one is out of con- fivefold scheme is the addition which is not present in the
sideration for the differing inclinations of individuals (pug- fourfold scheme. After mastering the second jhāna, the
galajjhāsaya), the other is for the sake of elegance of teach- meditator finds sustained thought to be gross, eliminates it,
ing (desanāvilāsa). It explains the first by reference to the and attains a third jhāna which is identical with the second
tradition that the Buddha first expounded the Abhi- jhāna of the fourfold system. The fourth and fifth jhānas of
dhammapi;aka to the devas of the heavenly worlds: the fivefold system are the same as the third and fourth
In the assembled gathering of the spirits (devas), to jhānas of the fourfold system, respectively.
some spirits only initial application of mind appeared The two different systems seem to answer to the differing
gross, and sustained application of mind, rapture, capacities of meditators for progressing along the scale of
pleasure, one-pointedness of mind appeared good.2 mental unification. This difference in capacity could stem
It was for the benefit of those devas, according to the either from their differing abilities to comprehend vitakka
Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā that the Buddha expanded the and vicāra simultaneously or from their differing abilities
to abandon them simultaneously. The progress of one fol-
lowing the fourfold method is more rapid, as he eliminates
1. “Vitakkavicārapītisukh’ekaggatāsahitaH pa;hamajjhāna kusalacittaH. two factors in moving from the first to second jhāna. Yet
Vicārapītisukh’ekaggatā sahitaH dutiyajjhānakusalacittaH.
Pītisukh’ekaggatā sahitaH tatiyajjhānakusalacittaH. both start from the same place, move through the same
Sukh’ekaggatāsahitaH catutthajjhānakusalacittaH. range of spiritual experience, and (providing they succeed
Upekkh’ekaggatā sahitaH pañcamajjhānakusalacittaH.” Nārada, Manual,
pp. 42-44. Note that “initial application” is vitakka, which we render as “appli-
ed thought” and “sustained application” is vicāra, our “sustained thought.” 1. Expositor, 1:240. “Tasmā ñāJamahattatāya desanāvidhānesu kusalo desanā
2. Expositor, 1:239. “Sannisinnadevaparisāya kira ekaccānaH devānaH vitakko vilāsappatto satthā yaH yaH aJgaH labbhati; tassa tassa vasena yathā yathā
eva oXārikato upa;;hāti, vicārapītisukh’ekaggatā santato.” Dhs.A., p. 223. labbhati tathā tathā desanaH niyameti.” Dhs.A., p. 224.

200 201
in reaching the highest jhāna in their respective systems) plied thought or sustained thought.1 Thus in the SaHyutta
arrive in the end at the same destination. Nikāya the Buddha calls this threefold concentration the
The two meditators can be compared to two mountain “path to the unconditioned”2 and in the AIguttara Nikāya
climbers. Both start out at the foot of a mountain at the he declares:
same time. Both may reach the same initial rest station at When, monk, this concentration is thus made-become
the same time. But then their rates of progress may show a and developed by you, then you should make this con-
difference. The stronger may continue on more quickly, by- centration become with initial and sustained applica-
pass the second rest station, and go right on to the third be- tion [of thought], make it become without initial appli-
cation [of thought], but with sustained application [of
fore stopping. The weaker will advance more slowly and
thought] only; make it become without either initial or
have to make separate stops at the second and third rest sta- sustained application [of thought].3
tions. Both will stop at the fourth and at the fifth station at
the top. Thus for both mountain climbers their position is The commentary to the AIguttara Nikāya glosses this as
the same when starting out at the bottom of the mountain, “attaining fourfold and fivefold jhāna.”4 (Wr. tr.). The
at the first station, and when reaching the top. They differ Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā explains that while the four-
only in their rates of progress and in the number of stops fold scheme of jhānas includes concentration with both ap-
they have to make to arrive at the top. Similarly for the two plied and sustained thought and without either of the two, it
meditators of the fourfold and fivefold systems. Their first does not deal with that concentration having only sustained
jhāna is the same, and their final achievement is the same. thought; thence an additional jhāna necessitating a fivefold
But the follower of the fivefold system has made an addit- system is required to deal with it.5
ional stop passed over by the follower of the fourfold sys- In the Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha the five jhānas are pre-
tem. This stop is the added second jhāna of the fivefold sented only in skeletal form, in terms of their defining fac-
system, free from applied thought but having sustained tors. In the DhammasaIgaJi and the VibhaIga they are pre-
thought. sented with full formulas. Their descriptions of the first,
The fivefold reckoning of jhāna first appears in the Abhi- third, fourth, and fifth jhānas are identical with each other,
dhammapi;aka and remains as a distinctive feature of the and with the standard descriptions of the first, second,
“Abhidhamma method,” yet this system has a definite basis third, and fourth jhānas respectively of the fourfold
in the suttas. Though the suttas always speak of four 1. The Pāli for the three is: savitakko savicāro samādhi, avitakkavicāramatto
jhānas, they divide concentration (samādhi) into three samādhi, and avitakko avicāro samādhi.
types: a concentration with applied thought and sustained 2. SN. 4:362-63. DN. 3:274.
thought, a concentration without applied thought but with 3. GS. 4:200. “Yato kho te bhikkhu ayaH samādhi evaH bhāvito hoti bahulī-
kato, tato tvaH bhikkhu imaH samādiH savitakkaHpi savicāraH bhāveyyāsi,
sustained thought, and a concentration without either ap- avitakkampi vicāramattaH bhāveyyāsi avitakkaH pi avicāraH bhāveyyāsi.”
AN. 4:301.
4. “CatukkapañcakajjhānaH pāpiyamāno.” AN.A. 3:242.
5. Dhs.A., P. 224. Expositor, 1:240.

202 203
scheme. However, in their formulas for the second jhāna, understood to mean that the rapture and happiness of the
the two canonical Abhidhamma treatises differ in some in- second jhāna are born of the first jhāna concentration, or
teresting respects. The DhammasaIgaJi formula runs as born of the associated second jhāna concentration. It then
follows: “He enters and abides in the second jhāna, which added:
is without applied thought, has only sustained thought, and It is only this concentration [of the second jhāna] that
is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentration.”1 is quite worthy to be called ‘concentration’ because of
(Wr. tr.). The VibhaIga formula states: its complete confidence and extreme immobility due to
Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from absence of disturbance by applied and sustained
unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in thought.1
the second jhāna which is accompanied only by sus- Now if we accept the idea that the concentration responsi-
tained thought with rapture and happiness born of se- ble for producing the pīti and sukha of the second tetradic
clusion.2 (Wr. tr.). jhāna is the first jhāna concentration, then it follows logic-
Thus the VibhaIga version includes a phrase about seclu- ally that the pīti and sukha of the second jhāna in the five-
sion from sense pleasures and unwholesome states, while fold scheme can also be born of the same concentration.
the DhammasaIgaJi version omits this and instead simply Thus the reading of the DhammasaIgaJi would be correct.
describes the jhāna. Again, the two differ in the way they However, we also have to take account of the Visuddhi-
qualify the rapture and happiness existing in the jhāna. The magga’s remark that the word “concentration” is only fully
DhammasaIgaJi says they are “born of concentration” appropriate in the absence of disturbance by applied and
(samādhija, pītisukha,), the VibhaIga that they are born sustained thought. Then, because sustained thought is pre-
of seclusion (vivekaja, pītisukha,). sent in the pentadic second jhāna, it is questionable wheth-
The preliminary phrase in the VibhaIga version appears to er the phrase “born of concentration” can belong to the
be an inappropriate repetition of the beginning of the first formula. In this case the preference would go to the Vib-
jhāna formula, and thus can perhaps be dismissed as an haIga reading. Due to the ambiguity of interpretative
editorial error made by the ancient redactors of the text. method, the difference seems impossible to settle with
The second difference between the two works, that con- complete definiteness, and must just be left for the present
cerning the cause of rapture and happiness, may also be as unresolved.
due to an editorial oversight, but is more difficult to re-
solve. When explaining the phrase samādhija, in connect- Concluding Remarks
ion with the second jhāna of the tetradic scheme, the From our inquiry two important points emerge concerning
Visuddhimagga said that “born of concentration” could be the dynamics of jhāna attainment. First, the ascent from
jhāna to jhāna is signalled by a progressive elimination of
1. “AvitakkaH vicāramattaH samādhijaH pītisukhaH dutiyaH jhānaH upasam-
pajja viharati.” Dhs., p. 47.
2. “Vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi avitakkaH vicāramattaH 1. PP., p. 164. “… ayaH eva samādhi samādhī ti vattabbataH arahati, vitakka-
vivekajaH pītisukhaH dutiyaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati.” Vibh., p. 275. vicārakkhobhavirahena ativiya acalattā suppasannattā ca.” Vism., p. 127.

204 205
jhāna factors. The first jhāna, as we saw, has five factors.
In moving to the second jhāna two factors, vitakka and Chapter Six
vicāra, are abandoned, in moving to the third pīti is aban-
doned, and in moving to the fourth sukha is abandoned, BEYOND THE FOUR JHÀNAS
with “neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling” coming in to re-
place sukha. This process of elimination, we can assume, Following the attainment of the fourth jhāna there are sev-
involves concurrently an intensification of concentration, eral options open to a meditator. These can be grouped to-
whereby the energy that was diffused among the coarser, gether into three basic categories. One is the attainment of
more numerous jhāna factors comes to be invested in the the four āruppas, immaterial jhānas involving further con-
subtler and fewer factors, enabling the concentration to gain centration and refinement of mental serenity. A second –
in depth and intensity. which as we will see generally presupposes the immaterial
jhānas as prerequisites – is the development of the ab-
The second point to be noticed is that in the formulas for
hiññās, higher faculties of knowledge, in some cases issu-
each of the ascending jhānas new elements were mention-
ing in supernormal powers. A third alternative is the culti-
ed, most of which did not correspond to any jhāna factors.
vation of wisdom through insight into the nature of
The second jhāna formula added “internal confidence,” the
phenomena, which brings the destruction of the defile-
equivalent of faith, a non-factor. The third jhāna formula
ments and results in emancipation from sa,sāra. In the
added equanimity, mindfulness, and discernment, and the
fourth added “purification of mindfulness due to equanim- present chapter we will explore the first and second of
ity.” These elements, though not themselves jhāna factors, these three alternatives, closing with some remarks con-
are still deserving of mention. The jhāna factors are the cerning the relationship between jhānas and rebirth. Then
states which directly exercise the jhānic functions of count- in the next two chapters we will examine the place of jhāna
ering the hindrances and unifying the mind on the object. in the development of wisdom leading to final deliverance.
But beyond these can be found, in each jhāna, a number of Throughout the following discussion it should be borne in
other factors which contribute to the distinctive character of mind that the attainment of the immaterial jhānas and the
the attainment, and these have been selected for inclusion exercise of supernormal powers are not essential to achiev-
in the formulas descriptive of the jhānas. This procedure ing the ultimate Buddhist goal, the realization of nibbāna.
helps make it clear that the jhānas are not abstract states What is essential is the practice of the Noble Eightfold
completely susceptible to schematic analysis, but living ex- Path, which does not necessarily include the āruppas and
periences with a vitality and directness that elude mere in- abhiññās. However, because these latter two sets of prac-
tellectual treatment. tices can contribute to the growth of calm and insight and
embellish the spiritual perfection of a yogin, the Buddha
included them in his discipline. There they have remained
as options open for meditators inclined to develop them.

206 207
 The Four Immaterial Jhānas immaterial” (Wr. tr.) or simply “peaceful abodes”.1 Most
often they are merely enumerated in their order of attain-
Beyond the four jhānas lie four higher attainments in the
ment without being brought together under any group label.
scale of mental unification. These attainments are collect-
ively known as the four formless or immaterial jhānas Before turning to consider the immaterial jhānas individ-
(arūpajjhānas); the lower four attainments come to be ually, some important remarks are called for concerning
called, in contrast, the four fine material jhānas (rūpaj- their “internal constitution.” We saw in the previous chap-
jhānas) or simply the four jhānas. The immaterial jhānas ter that the movement from any lower jhāna to its successor
are individually designated, not by numerical names like involves the elimination of the coarser jhāna factors. The
their predecessors, but by the names of their objective refinement of consciousness that occurs through this move-
spheres: the base of boundless space, the base of boundless ment thus hinges upon actual changes being effected in the
consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of nei- composition of the states of consciousness corresponding
ther perception nor non-perception.1 They receive the des- to the jhānas. However, in ascending from the fourth fine
ignation “formless” or “immaterial” for two reasons: material jhāna to the first immaterial jhāna, and then from
[1] because they are achieved by surmounting all percep- one immaterial jhāna to another, no changes in the compo-
tions of material form (rūpa), even of the subtle material sitional factors of consciousness are required. In other
form of the counterpart sign which serves as the object for words, the fourth fine material jhāna and all four formless
the fine material jhānas; and [2] because they are the sub- attainments have precisely the same kinds of factors enter-
jective counterparts of the immaterial planes of existence. ing into their internal constitution. The factors in each
higher attainment are subtler than those in its predecessors,
The terms rūpajjhāna and arūpajjhāna, fine material jhāna
more peaceful and more sublime, but they do not differ in
and immaterial jhāna, do not appear in the main nikāyas of
number or in their essential nature. The climb from one
the Suttapi;aka. The terms rūpāvacara, jhāna, and arū-
formless attainment to another is brought about by chang-
pāvacara, jhāna,, “fine material sphere jhāna” and “im-
ing the object of concentration, not by eliminating or re-
material sphere jhāna,” appear occasionally in the Abhi-
placing component factors. For this reason the treatises of
dhammapi;aka,2 but it is not until the period of the com-
the Abhidhammapi;aka, such as the DhammasaIgaJi and
mentaries that such names became common. In the suttas
the VibhaIga, treat the four āruppas as modes of the fourth
the formless attainments are referred to sometimes by the
jhāna, combining the formula for each with the general
collective name āruppa “immaterial states,” or as the cattā-
formula for the fourth jhāna.2 All five states – the fourth
ro āruppā, “the four immaterial states.”3 They are also call-
fine material jhāna and the four immaterial jhānas – con-
ed “peaceful emancipations, transcending material form,
tain the same basic constellation of mental concomitants
(cetasikas) and the same two jhāna factors, namely one-
1. In Pāli: ākāsānañcāyatana, viññāJañcāyatana, ākiñcaññāyatana, and neve-
saññānāsaññāyatana. 1. “Santā vimokkhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā,” MN. 1:33. “Santā vihārā.”
2. Dhs., p. 145. MN. 1:41.
3. DN. 3:275. 2. Dhs., pp. 68-69. Vibh., p. 276.

208 209
pointedness and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. suitable because it does not allow for a separation between
Thence from the standpoint of the Abhidhamma, which de- the kasi1a itself and the space it covers, a separation, we
fines a class of consciousness (citta) by its components, the will see, necessary for reaching the first formless jhāna.
four types of consciousness belonging to the four formless By achieving the fourth fine material jhāna the meditator
attainments are modes of the fourth jhāna consciousness has risen above gross matter but still has not completely
according to the fourfold scheme, and of the fifth jhāna transcended all material form. The reason is that the self-
consciousness according to the fivefold scheme. luminous counterpart sign, the object of his jhāna, is a sub-
The First Āruppa: The Base of Boundless Space tle type of material form. To reach the formless attainments
he must desire to surmount as well the materiality of the
The four formless attainments must be achieved in the or-
kasi1a. Such a desire can be induced by contemplating the
der in which they are presented in the texts – that is, begin-
kasi1a materiality as the counterpart of gross matter shar-
ning with the base of boundless space and culminating in
ing to some extent its defects. Buddhaghosa illustrates how
the base of neither perception nor non-perception. The mo-
this is done by means of a simile. If a timid man is pursued
tivation which initially leads a yogin to seek the immaterial
by a snake in the forest he will flee from it as fast as he can.
states is a clear perception of the dangers posed by gross
If he should later see something resembling the snake, such
physical matter. As it is said in the Majjhima Nikāya:
as a palm leaf with a streak painted on it, a creeper, a rope,
It is in virtue of matter that wielding of sticks, wielding or a crack in the ground, he would become fearful and anx-
of knives, quarrels, brawls and disputes take place; but ious and would not want to look at it. The time the medit-
that does not exist at all in the immaterial state, and in
ator was frightened by seeing the danger in gross matter is
this expectation he enters upon the way of dispassion
for only material things, for the fading and cessation of like the time the man saw the snake. When the meditator
only those.1 escapes gross matter by reaching the fourth jhāna, this is
like the time the man flees from the snake. The time the
He might also become repelled by matter as a result of con-
meditator observes the subtle matter of the kasi1a to be the
sidering the multitude of afflictions to which the physical
counterpart of gross matter and wants to surmount it is like
body is vulnerable, such as eye diseases, ear diseases, and
the time the man sees the object resembling a snake and is
so forth. Aspiring to escape from these dangers connected
afraid to look at it.1
with material form, the meditator must first attain the four
jhānas of the fine material sphere. He then enters the Once he has generated a strong desire to reach the im-
fourth jhāna, taking as his object any of the kasi1as except material jhānas the meditator must achieve the fivefold
the limited space kasi1a.2 The limited space kasi1a is un- mastery over the fourth jhāna. Then, after emerging from
the fourth jhāna, he perceives the dangers in the jhāna and
the benefits in the higher attainment. The dangers are: [1]
1. PP., p. 354. “Dissante kho pana rūpādhikaranaH daJYādāna satthādāna kaXa-
ha viggaha vivāda, n’atthi kho pan’etaH sabbaso ārūpeti: so iti patisañcikkhāya that the fourth jhāna has an object consisting in material
rūpānaH yeva nibbidāya, virāgāya, nirodhāya pa;ipanno hoti.” MN. 1:410.
2. See above, Chapter II, p. 42. 1. PP., pp. 354-55. Vism., p. 272.

210 211
form and hence is still connected with gross physical mat- exclusively to the space it has been made to cover without
ter; [2] that it is close to happiness, a factor of the third attending to the kasi1a:
jhāna: and [3] that it is grosser than the immaterial attain- When he is removing it, he neither folds it up like a
ments. On the other hand, the meditator sees the base of mat nor withdraws it like a cake from a tin. It is simply
boundless space as more peaceful and sublime than the that he does not advert to it or give attention to it or re-
fourth jhāna and as more safely removed from materiality. view it; it is when he neither adverts to it nor gives at-
However, there is no effort to eliminate jhāna factors, as tention to it nor reviews it but gives his attention exclu-
both the fourth fine material jhāna and the four immaterial sively to the space touched by it [regarding that] as
‘Space, space’, that he is said to ‘remove the kasina’.1
jhānas have the same two factors, as we mentioned.1
Taking as his object the space left after the removal of the
By reflecting on its dangers the meditator ends his attach-
kasi1a, the yogin adverts to it as “boundless space, bound-
ment to the fourth jhāna; he then sets out to reach the base
less space,” or simply as “space, space,” striking at it with
of boundless space. The method for attaining this first
applied and sustained thought. He cultivates this practice
formless jhāna is to mentally extend the kasi1a “to the
again and again, repeatedly developing it until the concept
limit of the world-sphere, or as far as he likes,” and then to
reaches maturity. When his development is fully matured,
remove the kasi1a by attending exclusively to the space it
then the consciousness pertaining to the base of boundless
covered without adverting to the kasi1a.2
space arises with boundless space as its object. It is the first
The original kasi1a which provided the preliminary sign wholesome consciousness of the immaterial sphere, and
(parikammanimitta) for concentration was, as we saw, a appears in the cognitive series in the same place that the
disc-like object, in the case of the earth kasi1a a disc filled first jhāna appeared in its own thought-process. In the prior
with reddish-brown clay. When practising preliminary con- moments of the series, the three or four moments of access
centration the meditator kept focussing his mind upon this concentration are always associated with equanimous feel-
disc until there appeared the learning sign (uggahanimitta), ing and pertain to the sense sphere; the fourth or fifth mo-
i.e. a mental image apprehended as clearly as the physical ment, the moment of absorption, pertains to the immaterial
object. Concentration on the learning sign gave rise to the sphere.2
counterpart sign (pa ibhāganimitta), the conceptualized im-
The standard formula for the base of boundless space, as
age used as the object for access concentration and the fine
presented in the suttas, is as follows:
material jhānas. After entering each jhāna, the meditator
learned to extend the sign outwards by degrees, making the With the complete surmounting of perceptions of mat-
visualized kasi1a cover increasingly larger areas up to a ter, with the disappearance of perceptions of resistance,
with non-attention to perceptions of variety [aware of]
world-system or more. Now, to reach the base of boundless
space, the meditator must remove the kasi1a by attending

1. PP., p. 355. Vism., p. 272. 1. PP., p. 355. Vism., p. 272.

2. Ibid. 2. PP., p. 356. Vism., p. 272.

212 213
 ‘unbounded space’, he enters upon and dwells in the fine-material jhānas the meditator began with a coarse
base consisting of boundless space.1 physical object, shifted his focus to the subtle form of the
There are four phrases in this formula worth discussing counter-part sign, and ascended from the first to the fourth
separately: jhāna by abandoning various mental factors while retaining
with the complete surmounting of perceptions of matter the same object. But now he must give up, not only the per-
(sabbaso rūpasaññāna, samatikkamā); ceptions of material form belonging to the four jhānas, but
also the object of these perceptions – the fine material form
with the disappearance of perceptions of resistance (pa i-
of the counterpart sign – since it is impossible to attain the
gha saññāna, atthagamā);
base of boundless space without overcoming all percep-
with non-attention to perceptions of variety (nānattasaññā- tions of material form.
na, amanasikārā); and
unbounded space (ananto ākāso). 2. “With the disappearance of perceptions of resistance”
(pa ighasaññāna, atthagamā)
Now we will treat each of these phrases in turn.
The word pa igha, which we translate here as “resistance,”
1. “With the complete surmounting of perceptions of mat- generally signifies aversion, repugnance, or anger. Here,
ter” (sabbaso rupasaññāna, samatikkamā) however, it is used to mean sensory impact, the striking
The phrase “perceptions of matter”, according to the com- (gha = han) against one another (pa i) of the sense organs
mentaries, means both the fine-material jhānas and their and their respective sense objects. Perceptions of resistance
objects, the kasi1as. The VibhaIga explains “perceptions are thus sensory perceptions. As it is said in the VibhaIga:
of matter” as Here, what are perceptions of resistance? Perceptions
… the perception, perceiving, perceivedness, in one of visible objects, perceptions of sounds, perceptions of
who has attained a fine-material-sphere attainment or odours, perceptions of flavours, perceptions of tangible
in one who has been reborn there or in one who is objects – these are called ‘perceptions of resistance’.1
abiding in bliss there in this present life.2 The commentaries elucidate this as the non-occurrence of
Thus the VibhaIga identifies the term with the jhānas. But any of the ten types of sense consciousness, five the result
the commentary holds that the object should also be un- of wholesome kamma and five the result of unwholesome
derstood to be included, since the attainment of the first kamma:
immaterial jhāna requires that the subtle material form of … with the complete disappearance, the abandoning,
the kasi1as be relinquished.3 We saw that in developing the the non-arising, of these ten kinds of perceptions of re-
sistance, that is to say, of the five profitable-resultant
1. PP., p. 356. “Sabbaso rūpasaññānaH samatikkamā pa;ighasaññānaH attha-
gamā nānatta saññānaH amanasikārā ananto ākāsoti àkāsānañcāyatanaH upa-
sampajja viharati.” DN. 1:183.
2. PP., p. 357. “RūpāvacarasamāpattiH samāpannassa vā upapannassa vā
di;;hadhammasukhavihārissa vā saññā sañjānanā sañjānitattaH.” Vibh., p. 272. 1. PP., p. 358. “Tattha katamā pa;ighasaññā? Rūpasaññā, saddasaññā, gandha-
3. PP., pp. 357-58. Vism., p. 273. saññā, rasasaññā, pho;;abbasaññā. Imā vuccanti pa;ighasaññāyo.” Vibh., p. 272.

214 215
 and five unprofitable-resultant; causing their non- fied objects, since to attend to them or review them is ob-
occurrence, is what is meant.1 structive to attaining the immaterial jhānas.1
It should be noted that only perception through the five According to the Visuddhimagga, the phrase “with the sur-
physical senses is excluded from the base of boundless mounting of perceptions of matter” signifies the abandon-
space. No mention is made of the disappearance of dham- ment of all fine material-sphere states, and the other two
masaññā, perception of mental objects, for the reason that phrases the abandonment of and non-attention to all sense-
this type of perception remains. Although sensory percept- sphere consciousness and its concomitants.2
ions are also absent in the four jhānas, their disappearance
4. “Unbounded space’ (ananto ākāso)
is accentuated here to emphasize the fading away of attach-
ment to material form and to arouse a greater interest in the The “unbounded space” which the meditator becomes aw-
formless jhānas.2 are of is the space left by the removal of the kasi1a after
the latter has been extended boundlessly. The space is
3. “With non-attention to perceptions of variety” (nānatta-
called “unbounded” or “endless” (ananta) because neither
saññāna, amanasikārā)
a beginning boundary nor a terminal boundary can be per-
According to the VibhaIga, perceptions of variety are “the ceived for it. The meditator “enters upon and dwells in the
perception, perceiving, perceivedness, in one who has not base of boundless space” in the sense that after reaching
attained and possesses either mind-element or mind-con- that attainment he abides in the jhāna which has the base of
sciousness element.”3 (Wr. tr.). Perceptions of variety are boundless space as its object.
thus the non-sensory perceptions in the states of conscious-
ness of those who are not absorbed in a meditative attain- The Second Āruppa: The Base of Boundless Conscious-
ment. The phrase “possesses either mind-element or mind- ness (viññā3añcāyatana)
consciousness element” excludes the bare sense percept- To attain the second immaterial jhāna the yogin must gain
ions, the elimination of which is already covered by “per- mastery over the base consisting of boundless space; then
ceptions of resistance.” When the text lays down non- he must discern its defects. The first immaterial state is de-
attention to perceptions of variety as a condition for reach- fective, firstly, because it is still close to the fine material
ing the base of boundless space, this means that the yogin jhānas, and secondly, because it is not as peaceful as the
must not advert to these perceptions having various diversi- base consisting of boundless consciousness. By reflecting
on these defects he develops indifference to the attainment
and turns his attention to the base of boundless conscious-
ness.
1. PP., p. 358. “TāsaH kusalavipākānaH pañcannaH, akusalavipākānaH pañ-
cannaH ti sabbaso dasannaH pi pa;ighasaññānaH atthangamā pahānā asamup-
pādā; appavattiH katvāti vuttaH hoti.” Vism., p. 274.
2. PP., p. 358. Vism., p. 274.
3. “Asamāpannassa manodhātu samaIgissa vā mano viññāJadhātu samaIgissa 1. PP., p. 359. Vism., p. 274.
vā saññā, sañjānanā, sanjānitattaH.” Vibh., p. 272. 2. PP., p. 359. Vism., p. 275.

216 217
To develop the second āruppa the meditator focuses upon To be aware of “unbounded consciousness” is to give at-
the consciousness that occurred pervading the boundless tention to the consciousness that occurred pervading the
space of the first āruppa.1 In other words, the second ārup- space left by the removal of the kasi1a. Thus the object of
pa has as its object the consciousness pertaining to the first this jhāna is the consciousness that had pervaded bound-
āruppa. Since the object of the first āruppa, space, was less space in the previous jhāna. As it is said in the Vib-
boundless, the consciousness of this object also contained haIga: “He gives attention to that same space pervaded by
an aspect of boundlessness, and it is to this boundless con- consciousness, he pervades boundlessly, hence ‘Unbounded
sciousness that the aspirant for the second āruppa should consciousness’ is said.”1 And the commentator adds:
advert. He is not to attend to it merely as boundless, but as “What is meant by ‘He pervades boundlessly’ is that ‘he
“boundless consciousness” or simply as “consciousness.” gives attention to that same consciousness which had per-
As he does so the hindrances are suppressed and the mind vaded that space’.”2 The boundless consciousness which
enters access concentration. He continues to cultivate this pervaded boundless space is itself the base consisting in
sign again and again, until the consciousness belonging to boundless consciousness, and the jhāna as well, because it
the base of boundless consciousness arises in absorption. is founded upon this base, derivatively comes to be called
The cognitive series should be understood as in the previ- by the same name.
ous attainment, with the appropriate changes made to fit
the case. The Third Āruppa: The Base of Nothingness (ākiñcaññā-
yatana)
The formula for the attainment of the base consisting of
boundless consciousness reads thus: “By completely sur- To attain the next āruppa, the base of nothingness, the
mounting the base consisting of boundless space, [aware meditator who has mastered the base of boundless con-
of] ‘unbounded consciousness’, he enters upon and dwells sciousness in the five ways must perceive this attainment as
in the base consisting of boundless conciousness”.2 Accord- defective due to its proximity to the base of boundless
ing to the word-commentary on this passage, the phrase space and its grossness compared to the next higher jhāna.
“base consisting of boundless space” signifies both the first By recognizing these dangers the meditator removes his at-
immaterial jhāna and the object of that jhāna. The sur- tachment to the base of boundless consciousness; then he
mounting of the base means the overcoming of both the should advert to the base of nothingness as more peaceful.
jhāna and its object together, since the base of boundless The way to concentrate on the base consisting of nothing-
consciousness is to be entered and dwelt in by passing be- ness is to
yond both aspects of the base of boundless space. give attention to the [present] non-existence, voidness,
secluded aspect of that same [past] consciousness be-

1. PP., p. 361. “AnantaH viññāJanti taHyeva ākāsaH viññāJena phutaH mana-

1. PP., p. 360. Vism., p. 275. sikaroti anantaH pharati. Tena vuccati anantaH viññāJanti.” Vibh., p. 273.
2. PP., p. 361. “Sabbaso ākāsānañcāyatanaH samatikkamā, anantaH viññāJaH 2. PP., p. 362. “AnantaH pharati, taH yeva ākāsaH phu;aH viññāJaH manasi-
ti viññāJañcāyatanaH upasampajja viharati.” Vism., p. 254. karotī ti vuttaH hoti.” Vism., p. 276.

218 219
 longing to the base consisting of boundless space tence thus, ‘this is void, secluded’ – so too, having
which became the object of [the consciousness belong- formerly dwelt seeing with the jhāna eye belonging to
ing to] the base consisting of boundless consciousness.1 the base consisting of boundless consciousness the
[earlier] consciousness that had occurred making the
In other words, to attain the base of nothingness the yogin
space its object, [now] when that consciousness has
has to focus upon the present absence or non-existence of disappeared owing to his giving attention to the pre-
the consciousness belonging to the base consisting of liminary work in the way beginning ‘there is not, there
boundless space. He is advised to advert to it over and over, is not’, he dwells seeing only its non-existence, in other
thinking to himself “There is not, there is not” or “void, words its departedness when this consciousness has
void,” etc. When his practice matures there arises in ab- arisen in absorption.1
sorption consciousness belonging to the base of nothing- The texts describe the attainment of the third āruppa with a
ness, making the non-existence of the consciousness of standard formula: “By completely surmounting the base
boundless space its object. consisting of boundless consciousness, [aware that] ‘There
Though both the base of boundless consciousness and base is nothing’, he enters upon and dwells in the base consist-
of nothingness are concerned objectively with the con- ing of nothingness.”2 According to the commentary on this
sciousness of the base of boundless space, they relate to it formula, the “base of boundless consciousness” which
in opposite ways. The second āruppa objectifies it positive- must be surmounted is both the second immaterial jhāna
ly: it focusses upon the consciousness of boundless space and its object together, since the third immaterial jhāna
as present and seeks to appropriate its boundlessness for it- must be reached by passing beyond the second and by re-
self. The third āruppa, in contrast, relates to the conscious- linquishing attachment to its object.3 The phrase “there is
ness of the base of boundless space negatively. It excludes nothing” is explained in the VibhaIga thus: “‘There is
this consciousness from awareness, making the absence or nothing’: he makes that same consciousness non-existent,
non-existence of this consciousness its object. As the makes it absent, makes it disappear, sees that ‘there is noth-
Visuddhimagga explains: ing’, hence ‘There is nothing’ is said.”4 To make “that same
Suppose a man sees a community of bhikkhus gathered
together in a meeting hall or some such place and then 1. PP., p. 363. ‘’Yathā nāma puriso maJYalamālādīsu kenacid eva karaJīyena
sannipatitaH bhikkhusanghaH disvā katthaci gantvā sannipātakiccāvasāne
goes elsewhere; then after the bhikkhus have risen at u;;hāya pakkantesu bhikkhūsu āgantvā dvāre ;hatvā puna taH ;hānaH olokento
the conclusion of the business for which they had met suññaH eva passati, vivittaH eva passati, nāssa evaH hoti, ettakā nāma bhikkhū
and have departed, the man comes back, and as he kālaHkatā vā, disāpakkantā vā ti, atha kho, suññaH idaH vivittaI ti natthibhā-
stands in the doorway looking at that place again, he vaH eva passati, evaH eva pubbe ākāse pavattitaviññāJaH viññāJañcāyatanaj-
sees it only as void, he sees it only as secluded, he does jānacakkhunā passanto viharitvā, n’atthi n’atthī ti ādinā parikammamanasikā-
rena antarahite tasmiH viññāJe tassa apagamanasankhātaH abhāvaH eva pas-
not think ‘so many bhikkhus have died, so many have santo viharati.” Vism., p. 277.
left the district’, but rather he sees only the nonexis- 2. PP., p. 363. “Sabbaso viññānañcāyatanaH samatikkamma, n’atthi kiñci ti
ākiñcaññāyatanaH upasampajja viharati ti.” Vibh., p. 254.
1. PP., p. 362. “Tass’eva viññāJañcāyatanārammaJabhūtassa ākāsānañcāyata- 3. PP., pp. 363-64. Vism., p. 278.
naviññāJassa abhāvo, suññatā, vivittākāro manasikātabbo.” Vism., p. 277. 4. PP., p. 364. Vism., p. 272.

220 221
consciousness,” i.e., the consciousness belonging to the belonging to the third āruppa. Focussing on the four mental
base of boundless space, nonexistent means not to advert to aggregates of the base of nothingness, the meditator ad-
it or attend to it, but to attend only to its non-existence or verts to the base as “peaceful, peaceful,” reviewing it and
absence. By so doing, the yogin “enters and dwells in the striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he
base consisting of nothingness.” The base consisting of does so the hindrances are suppressed, the mind enters ac-
nothingness, which is the foundation for the third formless cess concentration, and then passes into absorption pertain-
jhāna, is “a term for the disappearance of the conscious- ing to the base of neither perception nor non-perception.
ness belonging to the base consisting of boundless space.”1 The process of attainment is described in the canon thus:
“By completely surmounting the base consisting of noth-
The Fourth Āruppa: The Base of Neither Perception nor ingness he enters and dwells in the base consisting of nei-
Non-perception (nevasaññā nāsaññāyatana) ther perception nor non-perception.”1
If the yogin wants to go further and reach the fourth and Though the yogin, as the formula points out, attains the
highest āruppa attainment, he must first achieve fivefold base of neither perception nor non-perception by passing
mastery over the base of nothingness. Then he should con- beyond the base of nothingness, it still should be borne in
template the danger in that attainment, consisting in its mind that this fourth attainment has the third as its object.
proximity to the lower attainments. He should reflect upon The yogin reached the fourth āruppa by focussing upon the
the base of neither perception nor non-perception as super- base of nothingness as “peaceful, peaceful.” In the VibhaI-
ior and more peaceful. He can also reflect upon the unsatis- ga it is said that the meditator who reaches the level that is
factoriness of perception, thinking: “Perception is a dis- neither percipient nor non-percipient “gives attention to
ease, perception is a boil, perception is a dart… this is that same base consisting of nothingness as peaceful.”2
peaceful, this is sublime, that is to say, neither perception
nor non-perception.”2 In this way he ends his attachment to At this point the question may arise as to how the meditator
the base of nothingness and arouses a desire to attain the can overcome the base of nothingness if he attends to it as
base of neither perception nor non-perception. peaceful. The Visuddhimagga answers that although the
meditator gives attention to the third āruppa as peaceful, he
The base of neither perception nor non-perception has as its has no desire to attain it, since he has reflected upon the
object the four mental aggregates that constitute the attain- base of neither perception nor non-perception as more
ment of the base of nothingness – that is, the aggregates of peaceful and superior. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with the
feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. example of a king who might see craftsmen at work while
Just as the second āruppa took as its object the conscious- he is proceeding along a city street with the pomp of royal-
ness belonging to the first āruppa, so the fourth āruppa ty. Though he might admire their skill and accomplishment
takes as its object the consciousness and associated states
1. PP., p. 364. Vism., p. 278. 1. PP., p. 365. “Sabbaso ākiñcaññāyatanaH samatikkamma nevasaññānāsaññā-
2. PP., p. 265. “Saññā rogo, saññā gaJYo, saññā sallaH… etaH santaH, etaH yatanaH upasampajja viharatī ti.” Vibh., p. 254.
panītaH yadidaH nevasaññānāsaññā ti.” MN. 2:231. 2. PP., p. 366. “TaH yeva ākiñcaññāyatanaH santato manasikaroti. Vibh., p. 274.

222 223
in their crafts, the king would not want to become a crafts- smeared a bowl with oil and an elder monk asked him to
man himself, since he is aware of the superior benefits of bring the bowl to serve gruel. The novice replied, “Vener-
kingship. Similarly, able sir, there is oil in the bowl.” Then the monk told him,
Though this [meditator] gives attention to that attain- “Bring the oil, novice, I shall fill the oil tube.” Thereupon
ment as ‘peaceful’, yet there is no concern in him or the novice said: “There is no oil, Venerable sir.”1 In this
reaction or attention such as ‘I shall advert to this at- tale what the novice said is true in both cases: there is no
tainment’ or ‘I shall attain this’ or ‘I shall resolve upon oil since there is not enough to fill the tube yet there is no
[the duration of] it’, or ‘I shall emerge from it’ or ‘I utter absence of oil since some remains at the base of the
shall review it’.”1 bowl. Similarly, in this attainment perception cannot be
The commentaries such as the Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā said to be fully present since it is so subtle that it cannot
and the Visuddhimagga go to great length to explain the perform the decisive function of perceiving an object; yet it
meaning of the term “neither perception nor non-percept- cannot be said to be absent since it remains in residual
ion,” which suggests the abstruse nature of this jhāna. The form.
jhāna receives this name because on the one hand it lacks With this fourth formless jhāna the mind has reached the
gross perception and on the other retains a subtle percept- highest possible level of development in the direction of se-
ion. Lacking gross perception, it cannot perform the decis- renity (samathabhāvanā). Consciousness has attained to
ive function of perception, i.e., the clear discernment of ob- the most intense degree of concentration, becoming so sub-
jects, and thus cannot be called “having perception” (neva tle and so refined that it can no longer be described in
saññā). But yet this attainment retains an extremely subtle terms of existence or non-existence. Yet even this attain-
perception as a residual formation, and thus cannot be ment, as we will see, is still a mundane state which, from
called “without perception” (nāsaññā). To make plain this the Buddhist perspective, must finally give way to insight
ambivalent character of the jhāna it is named “the base of that alone leads to true liberation.
neither perception nor non-perception.” Perception is not
the only mental factor that persists in this attainment in re- General Remarks on the Āruppas
sidual form; all the other mental factors such as feeling, Although the immaterial jhānas, unlike the fine material
consciousness, contact, and the rest also continue reduced jhānas, are not given numerical names, they do follow a
to the finest subtlety. Thus this jhāna is also named “the at- fixed sequence and must be attained in the order in which
tainment with residual formations” (sa*khārāvasesā samā- they are presented. That is, the yogin who wishes to
patti). 2 achieve the immaterial jhānas must begin with the base of
The commentaries illustrate the method of naming this at- boundless space and then proceed step by step up to the
tainment by means of the following anecdote. A novice base of neither perception nor non-perception. In this re-
spect the accomplishment of the formless attainments cor-
1. PP., p. 366. Vism., p. 280.
2. PP., p. 367. Vism., p. 280. 1. PP., pp. 367-68. Vism., p. 281.

224 225
responds to that of the lower four jhānas. However, an im- Similarly, the formulas for each of the other three im-
portant difference separates the modes of progress in the material attainments are conjoined with the formula for the
two cases. In the case of the fine material jhānas, the as- fourth. All these āruppas are two-factored jhānas, consti-
cent from one jhāna to another involves a surmounting of tuted by mental one-pointedness and equanimous feeling.
jhāna factors. To rise from the first jhāna to the second the Rather than being determined by a surmounting of factors,
yogin must eliminate applied thought and sustained the order of the āruppas is determined by a surmounting of
thought, to rise from the second to the third he must over- objects. Whereas for the lower jhānas the object can re-
come rapture, and to rise from the third to the fourth he main constant but the factors must be changed, for the im-
must replace pleasant with neutral feeling. Thus progress material jhānas the factors remain constant while the ob-
involves a reduction and refinement of the jhāna factors, jects change. As we saw, the base of boundless space elim-
from the initial five to the culmination in mental one- inates the kasi1a object of the fourth jhāna, the base of
pointedness and neutral feeling. boundless consciousness surmounts the object of the base
Once the fourth jhāna is reached the jhāna factors remain of boundless space, the base of nothingness surmounts the
constant. In the higher ascent to the immaterial attainments object of the base of boundless consciousness, and the base
there is no further elimination of jhāna factors. For this of neither perception nor non-perception surmounts the ob-
reason the formless jhānas, when classified from the per- ject of the base of nothingness.
spective of their factorial constitution as is done in the Ab- Because the objects become progressively more subtle at
hidhamma, are considered as modalities of the fourth each level the jhāna factors of equanimous feeling and one-
jhāna. Thus the DhammasaIgaJi presents the formula for pointedness, while remaining constant in nature through-
the first immaterial attainment as follows: out, become correspondingly more refined in quality. Bud-
When the path to rebirth in the immaterial realm is cul- dhaghosa illustrates this with two similes. The first com-
tivated, then with the entire surpassing of perceptions pares the four formless jhānas to the floors of a four-storied
of material form, with the disappearance of perceptions palace with progressively finer objects of sense pleasure on
of resistance, by paying no attention to perceptions of
each floor. There is no difference between the floors in re-
variety, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and
with the previous disappearance of joy and grief, he en- gard to their nature as palace-floors, but only in regard to
ters upon and dwells in the fourth jhāna which has nei- the objects of enjoyment found on them. The second simile
ther-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness compares the four formless jhānas to four pieces of cloth of
due to equanimity and is associated with equanimity, the same measurements, yet made of thick, thin, thinner,
associated with the perception of boundless space.1 and very thin thread respectively, all spun by the same per-
(Wr. tr.). son. Though there is no difference in their nature as pieces

1. “YasmiH samaye arūpūpapattiyā maggaH bhāveti sabbaso rūpasaññānaH

samatikkamā pa;ighasaññānaH atthaJgamānānattasaññānaH amanasikārā ākās- va somanassa domanassānaH atthaIgamā upekkhā satipārisuddhiH catutthaH
ānañcāyatanasaññāsahagataH sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbe- jhānaH upasampajja viharati upekkhāsahagataH.” Dhs., p. 68.

226 227
of cloth or in their measurements, yet they differ in their occurrence of which is contingent upon [the con-
softness to the touch, fineness, and costliness. Similarly, sciousness of] the base consisting of boundless space
whose object is space, is like the man who leans upon
although there are only the two factors in all four [im- the man who hangs on to the tent. The [consciousness
material states], that is to say, equanimity and uni- of the] base consisting of nothingness, which instead of
fication of mind, still each one should be understood as making the [consciousness of the] base consisting of
finer than the one before with the progressive refine- boundless space its object has the non-existence of that
ment of the factors due to successful development.1 as its object, is like the man who, after considering the
Whereas the four lower jhānas can each take a variety of insecurity of those two does not lean upon the one
objects – the ten kasi1as, the in-and-out breath, etc. – and hanging on to the tent, but stands outside. The (con-
do not stand in any integral relation to these objects, the sciousness of the] base consisting of neither perception
four immaterial jhānas each take a single object which is so nor non-perception, the occurrence of which is contin-
gent upon [the consciousness of] the base consisting of
intimately related to the attainments that they interconnect
nothingness, which stands in a place outside, in other
in a closely knit manner. As we pointed out, the second words, in the non-existence of [the past] consciousness,
āruppa takes as its object the consciousness pertaining to is like the man who stands leaning upon the last-
the first āruppa, the third the non-existence or disappear- named, having considered the insecurity of the one
ance of this same consciousness, and the fourth the four hanging on to the tent and the one leaning upon him,
mental aggregates making up the third āruppa. Buddha- and fancying that the one standing outside is well
ghosa illustrates this relation of successive dependence placed.1
with another one of his picturesque analogies. A man ar- Although the yogin who aspires to reach the base of neither
rived at a dirty place where a tent was set up, and being perception nor-non-perception has seen the flaws in the
disgusted with the dirt, he hung on to the tent. Another man base of nothingness, it is necessary for him to take this base
came along and leant upon the man hanging on to the tent. as his object since there is no other object sufficiently sub-
A third arrived, and thinking both were insecure, stood out- tle to serve as a foundation for reaching the highest form-
side the tent. A fourth came, found the third man more se- less attainment. This is similar to the case of men who re-
curely placed, and leant upon him. The commentator con- main loyal to a despotic king because they depend on him
nects the similes with the four āruppas thus: for their livelihood.2 Thus it is evident that all eight attain-
The space from which the kasi1a has been removed is ments represent a gradual development, each succeeding
like the tent in the dirty place. The [consciousness of one depending on its predecessor.
the] base consisting of boundless space, which makes Although these four immaterial jhānas are separately de-
space its object owing to disgust with the sign of the
fine-material, is like the man who hangs on to the tent
scribed in the suttas they are not mentioned as often as the
owing to disgust with the dirt. The [consciousness of four fine material jhānas. The reason for this omission can
the] base consisting of boundless consciousness, the
1. PP., pp. 370-71. Vism., p. 283.
1. PP., pp. 369-70. Vism., p. 282. 2. PP., p. 371. Vism., p. 283.

228 229
be understood to be their implicit inclusion in the fourth pand this list to six (cha3abhiññā) by adding the knowledge
jhāna. This inclusion is made because of their similarity of of the destruction of the cankers.1 In this case the first five
factors. Therefore, in places where the practices beyond the are called mundane modes of direct knowledge (lokiya ab-
jhānas are discussed, the fourth jhāna alone is mentioned hiññā), the sixth the supramundane direct knowledge (lo-
as their prerequisite since the āruppas are understood to be kuttara abhiññā). Still other suttas present a set of eight
incorporated within it. modes of higher knowledge. This set, which does not have
a special name, consists of the above six abhiññās aug-
The Modes of Direct Knowledge mented by knowledge and vision (ñā1adassana) and the
In the suttas the meditator who has attained and mastered knowledge of the mind-created body (manomayiddhi-
the fourth jhāna is sometimes shown as proceeding to at- ñā1a).2 We will discuss these modes of higher knowledge
tain certain kinds of supernormal knowledge. In a stock in turn, taking the six abhiññās as the basis for our account
passage it is said that when, after emerging from the fourth and then adding explanations of the others. But first a few
jhāna, the meditator’s concentrated mind is “thus purified, remarks are called for on the preliminaries for the modes of
bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, and has become direct knowledge.
malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbabil- The Prerequisites for Direct Knowledge
ity,”1 he directs it to the achievement of various powers of
In order to develop the five mundane abhiññās, as well as
higher knowledge. These modes of higher knowledge are
the knowledge of the mind-created body, it is necessary to
presented in different sets of varying number in the texts.
have gained proficiency in the eight meditative attainments
Some suttas mention three, called the “threefold know-
(a hasamāpattiyo) comprising the four fine material
ledge” (tevijjā). These are: [1] the knowledge of recollect-
jhānas and the four immaterial jhānas. Although the suttas
ing previous lives (pubbenivāsānussatiñā1a); [2] the know-
often show the exercise of the abhiññās taking place im-
ledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings (cutū-
mediately after the fourth jhāna, without mentioning the
papātañā1a); and [3] the knowledge of the destruction of
formless attainments, the commentaries state that the latter
the cankers (āsavakkhayañā1a).2 Some suttas mention five
also have to be understood as their prerequisites. The rea-
kinds of direct knowledge (pañcābhiññā): [1] the knowl-
son they are not mentioned is that they are implicitly in-
edge of the modes of supernormal power (iddhividhañā1a);
cluded by the fourth jhāna, which alone serves as the im-
[2] the divine ear-element (dibbasotadhātuñā1a); [3] the
mediate basis for the exercise of the abhiññās.
knowledge of others’ minds (cetopariyañā1a); [4] the
knowledge of recollecting previous lives; [5] the knowledge Thus the commentary to the Dīgha Nikāya states:
of the passing away and rebirth of beings.3 Other suttas ex- There is no achievement of the higher kinds of direct
knowledge without accomplishing mastery over the
1. PP., p. 409. “So evaH samāhite citte parisuddhe pariyodāte anangane vi- eight meditative attainments in the fourteen ways [to be
gatūpakkilese, mudubhūte kammaniye ;hite āneñjappatte…” DN. 1:76.
2. AN. 1:163-65. 1. DN. 3:281.
3. SN. 2:2l6. 2. Ibid. 1:76-77.

230 231
 explained]. In the texts only the fine material jhānas achieving the mundane abhiññās. To attain the mundane
are given; however the immaterial jhānas should be in- kinds of direct knowledge the formless jhānas also must be
cluded and explained.1 (Wr. tr.). mastered, and therefore when the fourth jhāna is shown as
The subcommentary to this passage elaborates the point preceding the abhiññās the prior acquisition of the āruppas
further: should be understood. It should be mentioned, however,
When it is said that this method (of attaining direct that the mundane jhānas and the exercises based on them
knowledge) does not succeed without the immaterial are not requirements for the sixth, supramundane abhiññā.
attainments, their indispensability should be under- This latter is the outcome of wisdom rather than of absorp-
stood. If so, then why aren’t the immaterial jhānas tion, as we will see below.
mentioned in the text? Specifically, since the fourth
fine-material jhāna is the basis for all the abhiññās, For the meditator to achieve the abhiññās he should accom-
they are taught by being included within that (jhāna). It plish the eight attainments in each of the eight kasi1as, the
is not that the immaterial jhānas are not instrumental four elemental kasi1as (earth, water, fire, and air) and the
here. Hence (the commentary) says: ‘the immaterial four color kasi1as (blue, yellow, red, and white). Then he
jhānas should be included and explained’.2 (Wr. tr.). should acquire complete control of his mind in the follow-
The Sāratthadīpanī, a Vinaya subcommentary, states the ing fourteen ways:1
same point more succinctly: “‘Four jhānas’ is said because [1] The meditator must attain jhāna in the eight kasi1as in
the four immaterial jhānas attained by the elimination of the direct order given in the texts (kasi1ānuloma), i.e., from
desire for the fine material jhānas are included in the fourth the earth kasi1a through to the white kasi1a, doing so even
jhāna.”3 (Wr. tr.). up to a thousand times in each one until he is fully adept at
All this means that mastery of the four fine material it. [2] Having mastered the direct order, the yogin should
jhānas, without mastering the āruppas, is not sufficient for attain jhāna in the kasi1as in reverse order (kasi1apa i-
loma), moving from the white kasi1a back to the earth
1. “Ettāvatā cesa rūpajjhānalābhiyo na arūpajjhānalābhiti na veditabbo. Na hi kasi1a. [3] He should next attain jhāna again and again in
a;;hasu samāpattīsu cuddasahākārehi ciJJavasibhāvaH vinā upari abhiññādhi- forward and reverse order (kasi1ānulomapa iloma) from
gamo hoti. PāliyaH pana rūpajjhānāniyeva āgatāni. Arūpajjhānāni āharitvā the earth kasi1a to the white kasi1a and then back again.
kathetabbāni.” DN.A. 1:196.
2. “SvāyaH nayo arūpasamāpattīhi vinā na ijjhatīti tāyapettha avinābhāvo vedit- [4] The yogin should attain each of the attainments in di-
abbo. Yadi evaH kasmā pāliyaH na arūpajjhānāni āgatāni? Visesato ca rūpāva- rect order from the first jhāna up to the base of neither per-
caracatutthajjhānapādakattā sabbābhiññānaH tadantogadhā katvā tayā desitā;
na arūpāvacarajjhānaH idha anupayogato; tenāha: ‘ArūpajjhānaH āharitvā ception nor non-perception (jhānānuloma). [5] Then he
kathetabbāni ÑāJābhivaHsa, [Dīgha Nikāya Abhinava !īkā] Sādhuvilāsinī should master the jhānas in reverse order (jhànapañiloma),
Nāma Sīlakkhandhavagga Abhinava īkā, [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. 2 vols. from the eight down to the first. And next [6] he moves
(Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961), 2:142.
3. “Rūpa virāga bhāvanā vasena pavattaH catubbhidhampi arūpajjhānaH catut-
through the jhānas in both direct and reverse order (jhānā-
thajjhānasaIgahamevāti āha ‘cattāri jhānāniti”’ Sāriputta Thera, [Samantapā- nulomapa iloma).
sādikā Vinaya hakathā !īkā] Sāratthadīpanī īkā, [Pāli Text in Burmese script].
3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960), 1:380. 1. PP., pp. 410-11. Vism., pp. 314-15.

232 233
[7] The meditator should skip alternate jhānas (jhānukkan- as “This is the earth kasina”, etc., up to “This is the white
tika) while retaining the same kasi1a. That is, with the kasi1a.”
earth kasi1a as object, he should attain the first jhāna, third After mastering these fourteen modes the meditator should
jhāna, the base of boundless space, and the base of noth- develop the four bases of accomplishment, that is zeal
ingness, then repeat the same for the water kasi1a, etc. (chanda), consciousness (citta), energy (viriya), and in-
[8] Then he should skip alternate kasi1as (kasi1ukkantika) quiry (vīma,sā).1 He should cultivate these intensively in
without skipping jhānas; he attains the first jhāna in the order to attain the desired type of direct knowledge. Having
earth, fire, blue, and red kasi1as, then repeats the same for fulfilled all the preliminary conditions, the meditator must
each of the other jhānas. [9] The meditator next proceeds direct his mind to the kind of supernormal knowledge he
to skipping jhānas and kasi1as together (jhānakasi1ukkan- wishes to attain. The abhiññās do not come as automatic
tika). He should attain the first jhāna in the earth kasi1a, by-products of jhāna but require a prior resolution and de-
the third in the fire kasi1a, the base of boundless space by terminate effort on the part of the yogin. As the Buddha
removing the blue kasi1a, and the base of nothingness ar- says, when the meditator’s mind is concentrated and puri-
rived at through the red kasi1a. fied “he directs, he inclines his mind to the kinds of super-
[l0] The next stage, called “transposition of factors”, (a*ga- normal power.”2
sa*kantika) involves attaining the first jhāna up to the
fourth āruppa all in the same kasi1a. [11] He then attains The Six Abhiññās
the first jhāna in each of the kasi1as from the earth kasi1a
1. Knowledge of the modes of supernormal power (iddhi-
through the white kasi1a. This is called “transposition of vidhañā3a)
objects” (āramma1asankantika). [12] The combined
“transposition of factors and objects” (aïgāramma1asan- The Pāli word iddhi, which we translate as “supernormal
kantika) involves changing the jhānas and objects in power”, comes from the Sanskrit root çddh, which means to
matched correspondence to each other, that is, attaining the prosper or to succeed. Iddhi thus means, literally, prosper-
first jhāna in the earth kasi1a, the second in the water ity, success, or accomplishment, but the main sense sug-
kasi1a, the third in the fire kasi1a, and so forth up to the gested by the word is an ability to perform feats which go
base of neither perception nor non-perception arrived at against the normal course of natural events. For this reason
from the white kasi1a. the iddhis have sometimes been interpreted as supernatural
or miraculous powers. However, from the Buddhist stand-
[13] The “definition of factors” (aïgavavatthāpana) means point these powers do not derive from any divine or super-
defining each of the jhānas from the first to the eighth by natural source but from a psychic potency based upon a su-
way of its constituent factors, the first as five-factored, the perior understanding of the inner dynamics of nature. Thus
second as three-factored, etc. [14] The definition of object they operate completely within the framework of the law of
(āramma1avavatthāpana) means defining only the object,
1. PP., pp. 421-22. Vism., p. 324.
2. PP., p. 414. “Iddhividhāya cittaH abhinīharati abhinnāmeti.” DN. 1:77-78.

234 235
cause and effect and the “miracles” for which they are re- cases the ability to create an increasing number of forms
sponsible remain entirely natural. must be gradually acquired). Unless a specific determina-
The kinds of supernormal power exercised by a meditator tion is made otherwise, the many created forms will appear
are described in the texts in the following stock passage; just like the original and perform the same actions he per-
forms. But if the yogin makes a prior resolution, he can
When his concentrated mind is thus purified… and at-
display his many forms with different appearances and
tained to imperturbability, he directs, he inclines his
mind to the kinds of supernormal power. He wields the cause them to perform different actions. To become one
various kinds of supernormal power. Having been one, again he should repeat the original procedure, resolving to
he becomes many; having been many, he becomes one. become one. But if he originally resolved to appear as
He appears and vanishes. He goes unhindered through many for a limited time, the many forms will disappear
walls, through enclosures, through mountains, as automatically when the time lapses.1
though in open space. He dives in and out of the earth
as though in water. He goes on unbroken water as [2] The second power is causing appearance and dis-
though on earth. Seated cross-legged he travels in appearance (āvībhāvatirobhāva,). “Causing appearance”
space like a winged bird. With his hand he touches and means making a dark area appear light, making what is
strokes the moon and sun so mighty and powerful. He hidden become visible, or making oneself or others become
wields bodily mastery even as far as the Brahma visible even when at a distance. “Causing disappearance”
world.1 means making a bright area appear dark, making what is
In this passage eight supernormal powers are expounded. manifest become invisible, or making oneself or others be-
We will examine them briefly one by one. come invisible even when within range of sight. The pro-
cedure is the same as in the case of the previous power ex-
[1] The first supernormal power is becoming many after
cept that the resolution is changed.
having been one or becoming one after having been many
(eko pi hutvā bahudhā hoti, bahudhā pi hutvā eko hoti). [3] To exercise the power of going through walls, enclos-
This means the ability to create many appearances or forms ures, and mountains as though through space (tiro-ku66a,
of oneself and then to dissolve those many forms and return tiro-pākāra, tiro-pabbata,) the yogin should attain the
to the condition of having a single body. To exercise this fourth jhāna in the space kasi1a. Then he does the prelim-
power the meditator should enter the fourth jhāna as a basis inary work by adverting to the wall, enclosure or mountain,
for direct knowledge and emerge from it. Then he must re- etc. and resolving upon it as space. As a result of his resol-
solve on the number of forms of himself he wishes to cre- ution it becomes space and he passes through it unhin-
ate. He again attains the fourth jhāna, emerges, and resol- dered.
ves. Simultaneously with the resolving consciousness he [4] In order to acquire the ability to dive in and out of the
becomes the number of forms he decided upon – a hun- ground as if it were water (pa haviyā pi ummujja nimmu-
dred, a thousand, etc., as he wishes, (presumably in most jja, karoti seyyathā pi udake) the yogin must have ob-
1. PP., pp. 409, 420. Vism., pp. 315, 323. DN. 1:77. 1. PP., pp. 420-27. Vism., pp. 323-28.

236 237
tained the water kasi1a attainment. He enters into the down he handles, feels, touches, the sun and moon with
fourth jhāna on the water kasi1a and emerges. Then he ad- his hand.1
verts to a portion of ground and resolves upon it thus “Let The meditator, according to the Visuddhimagga, can either
there be water.” The earth becomes water and he can dive go to the sun and moon and touch them, or make them
in it, bathe in it, drink it, etc. If he resolves only this much come into hand’s reach by a mental resolution, doing so by
the earth becomes water for him alone, but if he makes a enlarging his hand.2 But though he does all this, for others
determination it can become water for others as well. the sun and moon remain the same, their radiance and
[5] The yogin who wishes to walk on water without sinking movement being unaffected.
as though it were earth (udake pi abhijjamāno gacchati [8] The last of the powers is exercising bodily mastery as
seyyathā pi pa ha-viya,) should be skilled in the earth far as the Brahma-world (yāva Brahma-lokā pi kāyena vā
kasi1a. He enters the fourth jhāna on the earth kasi1a, sa,vatteti). Having attained the basic jhāna, the meditator
emerges, and resolves “Let the water become earth.” He who wants to go to the Brahma-world can resolve upon it
repeats the procedure, and with the resolution the water in as near and it becomes as he wishes. He can make the near
the determined area becomes earth. Then he can walk on it become distant, the many become few, and the few become
without falling in. many. The Pa;isambhidāmagga describes some of the mas-
[6] To travel through space like a bird (ākāse pi palla*kena teries the yogin can exercise thus:
kamati seyyathā pi pakkhī saku1o), the yogin obtains the If he, who is possessed of psychic power, and has con-
earth kasi1a and emerges. He determines upon space as be- trolled his will wishes to go to the Brahma-world, he
ing earth, thinking “Let there be earth.” For him space be- resolves that the distant be near, and it becomes near;
comes solid like the earth, and he can walk, stand, sit, or lie he resolves that the near be distant, and it becomes dis-
tant; he resolves that the many be few, and they become
down there just as men normally can do on the ground.
few; he resolves that the few be many, and they become
[7] The next power, touching and stroking the sun and many. With the divine-sight he sees the Brahma’s
moon with one’s hand (ime pi candima-suriyā eva, ma- form; with the divine-hearing element he hears the
hiddhike eva, mahānubhāve pā1inā parimasati pari- Brahma’s voice; with the knowledge of others’ minds
majjati), does not require a special kasiJa, but is accomp- he knows the Brahma’s mind. If he wishes to go to the
lished simply through the fourth jhāna that is made a basis Brahma-world in this visible body, he applies his
jhāna-mind to the physical body, he resolves concern-
for direct knowledge. The Pa;isambhidāmagga describes ing the mind as the body; having applied the mind to
this power thus: the body, he enters into the thought of ease and light-
Here he who has controlled his mind and has attained ness, and in his visible body he goes to the Brahma-
psychic powers, contemplates on the sun and moon…
resolves through super knowledge: ‘Let them come to 1. BMTP., p. 436. “Idha so iddhimā ceto vasippatto… candimasuriye āvajjati
the side of my hand’ and they appear. Seated or lying āvajjitvā ñāJena adhi;;hāti ‘hatthapāse hotūti’. So nisinnako vā nipannako vā
candimasuriye pāJinā āmasati parāmasati parimajjati.” Pts., p. 387.
2. PP., p. 435. Vism., p. 335.

238 239
 world. If he… wishes to go to the Brahma-world in an spiritual perfection.1 However, exhibiting supernormal pow-
invisible body, he applies his body to the mind, he re- ers to gain adherents, win offerings, or obtain popularity
solves the body as the mind… he enters into the has been prohibited by the Buddha. In the Vinaya the dis-
thought of ease and lightness and in an invisible body
play of supernormal feats or psychic powers is classified as
goes to the Brahma-world. In the presence of Brahma
he creates a mind-formed body… He walks to and fro, an offense of wrong doing (āpatti-dukka a).2 Nevertheless,
the created body walks also to and fro. If he stands… while the Buddha rebuked PiJYola Bhāradvāja for exhibit-
sits… lies down, the created body also… lies down. If ing his powers to obtain a sandalwood bowl, he expressed
he emits vapour… flames… speaks… whatever he approval of Moggallāna’s exercise of iddhis.3 The reason
does, so does the created body.1 for this difference is that the former made an indiscreet
According to the Visuddhimagga, “applying the jhāna- public exhibition of his power while the latter used his
mind to the physical body” and “resolving upon the mind powers judiciously. The Buddha approved of the exhibition
as the body” means making the mind accord with the mate- of psychic power only when it helps eliminate the defile-
rial body. When the yogin enters into the “thought of ease ments in peoples’ minds and makes them free from ob-
and lightness” his physical body becomes as light as a tuft sessions.
of cotton, and he can go to the Brahma-world with a visible Sometimes the word iddhi appears in combination with an-
body as light as a tuft of cotton wafted by the wind. On the other word pā ihāriya, which means literally “prevention”
other hand “applying the body to the mind” and “resolving or “warding off” but assumes the sense of “wonder” or
the body as the mind” mean taking the body and mounting “marvel”; the compound iddhipā ihāriya thus signifies the
it on the mind, so as to make its mode of going swift like “wonder of supernormal powers.” The term appears in the
that of the mind. All these practices form the preliminary suttas in a triad of pā ihāriyas comprising the following
exercise for reaching the Brahma-world, but do not yet con- items: [1] the wonder of supernormal powers (iddhipā ihā-
stitute the “wielding of bodily mastery as far as the Brah- riya); [2] the wonder of manifestation or thought-reading
ma-world.” The wielding of bodily power begins, in the (ādesanapā ihāriya); and [3) the wonder of education (an-
above passage, with the creation of a mind-formed body in usāsanīpā ihāriya).4 The first is explained simply by the
the presence of Brahma, continuing through the feats that stock passage on the supernormal powers. The wonder of
follow this down to “whatever he does, so does the created manifestation involves telling people what their mental
body.”2 states are on the basis of thought-reading, interpretation, or
messages received from other beings, human or non-
Iddhi and Pā9ihāriya human.5 The wonder of education is the ability to guide
The possession of iddhi is regarded as a desirable quality in
a bhikkhu which contributes to the completeness of his 1. AN. 3:280-81.
2. Vinp. 2:112.
3. SN. 4:269.
1. BMTP., pp. 437-38. Pts. pp. 387-88. 4. DN. 1:212-15. Pts., pp. 401-404.
2. PP., pp. 441-43. Vism., pp. 331-32. 5. Pts., p. 402.

240 241
others in their spiritual development, telling them: “You 2. The second abhiññā: the divine ear-element (dibbaso-
should think these thoughts, you should not think those tadhatu)
thoughts; you should attend in this way, not in that way; The divine ear-element is the ability to hear the sounds of
you should abandon this; you should enter and abide thus.”1 deities as well as of human beings, and to hear sounds that
Those who impart this education know exactly what to urge are far off, even in another world system, as well as sounds
their pupils to avoid and what to urge them to develop. that are extremely near, such as the sounds of the creatures
Of the three types of pā ihāriya, the Buddha disapproved of living in one’s own body.1 The texts describe the divine
the use of the first two as means of converting people to his ear-element as follows:
teaching. He said that there are certain magical sciences He directs, he inclines, his mind to the divine ear-
(vijjā) which can enable a person to perform supernormal element. With the divine ear-element, which is purified
feats or practice thought reading and thus these wonders and surpasses the human, he hears both kinds of
cannot be taken as indicators of real spiritual accomplish- sounds, the divine and the human, those that are far as
ment.2 The wonder to which he gave unqualified approval well as near.2
was the wonder of education, which alone leads to liberat- Technically, the divine ear-element refers to a particular
ion from suffering. capacity for knowledge, called an “ear-element” for the rea-
The Pa;isambhidāmagga, elaborating this idea, states that son that it exercises the function of the normal ear, namely,
the wonderful methods which promote renunciation, non- acting as a basis for the hearing of sounds. This element is
hatred, mental luminosity, composure of mind, determinat- said to be “divine” because it is similar to the ear-element
ion of righteousness, wisdom, bliss, the attainment of the of the deities, which is liberated from imperfections and
jhānas, etc., up to the path of arahatship are called the true capable of receiving far-off sounds.3
iddhi as they bring real accomplishment and success. The To obtain the divine ear-element the meditator should at-
methods that destroy sensual desire, ill will, sloth and tor- tain the basic jhāna for direct-knowledge and then emerge
por, restlessness and remorse, doubt, ignorance, clinging, from it. Keeping his mind at the level of preliminary-work
the hindrances and defilements are called the real pā i- concentration, he should advert first to gross sounds within
hāriya for the reason that they prevent one from falling the normal range of hearing, then gradually to more and
back into sa,sāra.3 Thus for early Buddhism the practice more subtle sounds until he can hear the faintest sounds
of the noble path rather than performance of miracles con- that can only be heard with the most careful attention. He
stitutes the truly wonderful accomplishment. should concentrate on each of the ten directions, attending

1. PP., pp. 446-47. Vism., p. 343.

2. PP., p. 446. “… dibbāya sota-dhātuyā cittaH abhinīharati abhininnāmeti. So
1. DN. 1:214-15. dibbāya sotadhātuyā visuddhāya atikkanta-mānusikāya ubho sadde suJāti, dib-
2. Ibid. 1:2l3-14. be ca mānuse ca, ye dūre santike ca.” DN. 1:79.
3. Pts., pp. 401-404. 3. PP., p. 446. Vism., p. 343.

242 243
to the precise “signs” or qualities of the sounds being jhānas)… not grown great… mean… lofty… concen-
heard. trated… not concentrated… emancipated… not eman-
cipated. Thus he knows the state of others’ minds.1
When he concentrates his mind on these sounds with an
earnest desire to gain the divine ear-element, in time a According to the explanation in the Visuddhimagga, a
mind-door adverting consciousness will arise taking one of meditator who aspires to this knowledge must first have at-
these sounds for its object. This will be followed by three or tained the divine eye, the faculty of supernormal vision (to
four javanas of the preliminary or access stage, and a be explained below). He should use the light-kasi1a to ex-
fourth or fifth of the absorption level belonging to the tend light, radiating it into the physical hearts of the people
fourth jhāna. The faculty of knowledge arisen in associa- whose minds he wishes to understand. With his divine eye
tion with this absorption consciousness is called the divine he should then examine the color of the heart, on the basis
ear-element. of which he can interpret the state of mind. The procedure
is based on the belief that there is an immediate correspon-
If the yogin wishes to hear distant sounds he should begin dence between the color of the blood and the state of con-
by delimiting a small area, master the ability to hear the sciousness. According to Buddhaghosa, when a joyous state
sounds in that area, and then extend the range of his hear- of mind is present the blood is red like banyan fruit, when a
ing outward by degrees. As his ability improves he can hear state accompanied by grief is present the blood is black like
distinctly all the sounds on earth and in the other planes of rose-apple fruit, and when a state accompanied by serenity
existence within a world system and even further. More- is present the blood is clear like sesamum oil.2 Thus by per-
over, if he wants to, he can define each sound separately, ceiving with the divine eye the color of the blood the yogin
even when it is merged with other sounds. can know the quality of a person’s consciousness. How-
3. The third abhiññā: the knowledge of others’ minds (ce- ever, Buddhaghosa does not mention the correspondence
between blood-color and states of mind accompanied by
topariya ñā3a paracittavijānana)
greed, hatred, delusion, and their opposites, as given in the
The third abhiññā is the knowledge of others’ minds, the sutta.
ability to penetrate with one’s own mind the mental states
of others. The Buddha describes this abhiññā as follows:
1. BMTP., pp. 445-46. “So evaH samāhite citte parisuddhe pariyodāte anaI-
With his mind thus concentrated… he applies and di- gane vigatūpakkilese mudubhūte kammaniye ;hite ānejjappatte ceto pariyañā-
rects his mind to the knowledge of the state of others’ Jāya cittaH abhinīharati abhininnāmeti. So parasattānaH parapuggalānaH cet-
asā ceto paricca pajānāti – sarāgaH vā cittaH sarāgaH cittaH ti pajānāti, vītarā-
minds. Discriminating with his mind he understands
gaH vā cittaH vīta rāgaH cittaH ti pajānāti, sadosaH… sadosaH…, vīta do-
the state of others’ minds: that of a mind with passion saH… vītadosaH…, samohaH… samohaH…, saHkhittaH vā… saHkhit-
he understands that it is with passion, of one free from taH…, vikkhittaH vā… vikkhittaH…, mahaggataH vā… mahaggataH…, ama-
passion that it is free from passion… with hatred… haggataH vā… amahaggataH…, sa-uttaraH vā… sa-uttaraH…, anuttaraH
free from hatred… with delusion… free from delu- vā… anuttaraH…, samāhitaH… samāhitaH…, asamāhitaH vā… asamāhi-
taH…, vimuttaH vā cittaH vimuttaH cittaH ti pajānāti, avimuttaH vā cittaH
sion… that which is composed… distracted… grown avimuttaH cittaH ti pajānāti.” DN. 1:79-80
great (having attained to the rūpa and the arūpa 2. PP., p. 449. Vism., pp. 344-45.

244 245
Once the meditator gains familiarity with reading minds on was reborn here’. Thus he remembers various kinds of
the basis of the blood color, he can learn to penetrate the his former lives with their modes and details.1
minds of others directly, without having to rely on a phys- According to the word explanation of the name for this ab-
ical basis for making inferences. It should be pointed out, hiññā, “previous lives” means the mental and physical ag-
however, that a meditator possessing this faculty of know- gregates experienced in one’s own personal continuum in
ledge still cannot penetrate the minds of those on a higher former births. “Recollection” (anussati), is the memory by
level of attainment than his own. Thus a worldling with which one recollects past existences, and the abhiññā itself
mundane direct knowledge cannot penetrate the mind of an is the knowledge (ñā1a) arising out of that memory.2 The
ariyan and know how the latter is free from certain defile- Visuddhimagga teaches that there are six classes of men
ments. Similarly, a stream-enterer cannot penetrate the who possess this knowledge – other sectarians, ordinary
mind of a once-returner, a once-returner the mind of a non- disciples of the Buddha, the great disciples, the chief dis-
returner, a non-returner the mind of an arahant, or an ara- ciples, paccekabuddhas, and fully enlightened Buddhas.
hant the mind of a paccekabuddha or fully enlightened The range of recollection belonging to these persons is pro-
Buddha. The converse, however, is possible: one on a high- portional to their spiritual stature: sectarians can recollect
er plane, if he has the faculty of penetrating others’ minds, only as far back as forty aeons (kappa), ordinary disciples
can know the minds of those on a lower plane.1 as far as a thousand aeons, the eighty great disciples as far
as a hundred thousand aeons, the two chief disciples as far
4. The fourth abhiññā: the knowledge of recollecting pre- as an incalculable (asa*kheyya) and a hundred thousand
vious lives (pubbenivāsānussatiñā3a) aeons, and paccekabuddhas as far as two incalculables and
The knowledge of recollecting previous lives is explained a hundred thousand aeons. For the fully enlightened Budd-
in the suttas as follows: has there is no limit to their capacity for recollection, which
With his mind thus concentrated… he applies and di- excels in speed and clarity as well.3
rects his mind to the knowledge of recollecting pre- A meditator who wishes to cultivate this knowledge should
vious existences. He recollects various kinds of former attain the fourth jhāna as a basis for direct knowledge and
lives, such as one birth, two, three, four, five, ten, then emerge from it. Having emerged he should start re-
twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hun-
dred thousand births, many cycles of evolution of the calling his most recent activities in as precise detail as pos-
universe, of dissolution, and of evolution and dissolu- sible. Then he should go back in time by periods of the day,
tion. ‘In that one I had such a name, clan, caste, such watches of the night, days and nights, etc. If he cannot re-
sustenance, experiencing such pleasure and pain, and collect something he should attain the basic jhāna, emerge,
having such an end of life. Passing away thence I was and advert. The experience of the jhāna clears away the ob-
reborn in such a place. There too I had such a name,
clan… and such an end of life. Passing away thence I
1. BMTP., pp. 447-48. DN. 1:81.
2. PP., p. 451. Vism., p. 346.
1. PP., p. 473. Vism., p. 364. 3. PP., p. 452. Vism. p. 346.

246 247
structions to memory so that the apparently lost events be- With his mind thus concentrated… he applies and di-
come as evident as when a lamp is lit. Beginning with mo- rects his mind to the knowledge of the passing away
ments, he should go back in increasingly larger units – and rebirth of beings. With his divine vision, purified
and surpassing human sight, he sees beings passing
days, months, years, and so on – until he arrives at the mo-
away and being reborn again, low or high, of good or
ment of rebirth in the present existence. At this point he bad appearance, in happy or miserable existences, ac-
should advert to the mind and body at the moment of death cording to their karma. He fully realizes that those be-
in his preceding existence. If he cannot recall his past life at ings who are revilers of the noble ones, who are of
once due to the separation between lives he should not give false views, who acquire the karma of their false views,
up the task, but should attain the basic jhāna, emerge, and at the dissolution of the body after death have been re-
advert again and again if necessary. born in a miserable existence, in hell. But those beings
who are given to good conduct in deed, word and
When his ability has matured there will arise in him a thought, who are not revilers of the noble ones, who
mind-door adverting consciousness making its object the are of right views, who acquire the karma of their right
mind-body compound existing at the death-moment of his views, at the dissolution of the body after death have
previous life. This will be followed by four or five impuls- been reborn in a happy existence, in the world of
ions (javanas) with the same object, the last of which is an heaven.1
absorption consciousness of the fourth jhāna. The know- The knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings is
ledge associated with that consciousness is the knowledge acquired by means of the divine eye, a supernormal faculty
of recollecting previous lives. Then beginning with the re- of vision called “divine” because it is similar to the vision
collection of a single past life, the meditator should repeat of the deities in its ability to perceive objects at remote dis-
the procedure with more and more past lives, until he can tances and to see objects hidden behind walls, etc. This vi-
recall in detail his past experiences in entire aeons on end.1 sion is also said to be “purified” because by bringing both
The Buddha compares this knowledge to the memory of a death and rebirth into range, it contributes to the purificat-
man who travels from village to village: while staying in ion of understanding. One who sees only passing away but
one village he can recall the number of villages he has al- not rebirth generally inclines to the annihilationist view that
ready visited, what he did in each village, and all the details a being is extinguished at death; one who sees only birth
of his experience in each village.2 but not the previous passing away generally inclines to the
view that a new being arises. But one who sees both can
5. The fifth abhiññā: the divine eye (dibbacakkhu) – the
acquire the purified view of rebirth according to kamma,
knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings thus abandoning these defiled views. The Visuddhimagga
(cutūpapātañā3a) points out that one with the divine eye cannot see death and
The text describing this abhiññā reads: rebirth at the precise moments of their occurrence, due to
the brevity and extreme subtlety of these events. What he
1. PP., pp. 453-55. Vism., pp. 347-49.
2. DN. 1:81-82. 1. BMTP., p. 451. DN. 1:82.

248 249
sees are beings on the verge of death who will now die, and (yathākammūpagañā1a).1 The former is the ability to fore-
then those who have taken rebirth and have just re- see where a being will be reborn in the future and to fore-
appeared.1 see the course of future events. The latter is the ability to
The commentaries recommend three kasi1as as the object discern the kamma of the past that brought a being to a par-
for developing this knowledge – namely, the fire kasi1a, ticular destiny in the present. Though these two types of
white kasi1a, or light kasi1a; of the three, the light kasi1a knowledge are made possible by the divine eye, they differ
is said to be the most effective. After emerging from the from the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of be-
basic jhāna, the meditator should focus on one of these ings in that this last abhiññā has the present as its objective
kasi1as, stopping at the level of access concentration. He range while the other two have as their objective range the
should not enter absorption since if he does he will not be future and the past respectively. By counting these modes
able to perform the preliminary work for the direct-know- of direct knowledge separately, the number of mundane ab-
ledge. At the level of access the meditator should extend hiññās possible for a meditator is totaled at seven. But
the kasi1a image over a predetermined area, so that its light when they are included within the divine eye, the number is
illuminates the area and visible forms within its space given as five.
come into range of his vision. If the light disappears he 6. The sixth abhiññā: the knowledge of the destruction of
should again enter the basic jhāna, emerge, and pervade the
the cankers (āsavakkhayañā3a)
area with light. As time goes on he develops the ability to
pervade any area with light and remain watching the visible The sixth direct-knowledge available to a meditator is the
forms there for a whole day. When visible forms that are knowledge of the destruction of the cankers. The “cankers”
not perceptible to the ordinary fleshly eye such as objects are called in Pāli āsavas, meaning literally that which flows
inside the body, objects hidden behind walls, objects in out; thus the word is sometimes translated “outflows.” The
other planes of existence or in other world systems – come term signifies certain fundamental defilements which
into the focus of the meditator’s eye of knowledge and are “flow out” from the mind, causing spiritual corruption and
seen directly, then the divine eye has arisen. To make this sustaining the process of sa,sāra. In the earliest texts the
divine eye the instrument for perceiving the passing away āsavas are usually given as three in number: the canker of
and rebirth of beings, the meditator should apply his divine sensual desire (kāmāsava), the canker of (craving for) ex-
vision to this object until it comes into view. istence (bhavāsava), and the canker of ignorance (avijjā-
sava). Other texts, particularly those of the Abhidhamma-
The Visuddhimagga says that the divine eye, or knowledge
pi;aka, add a fourth, the canker of wrong views (di hā-
of passing away and rearising, has two accessory kinds of
sava).2
knowledge, namely, knowledge of the future (anāgata,sa
ñā1a), and knowledge of faring according to kamma

1. PP., pp. 471, 477-78. Vism., pp. 363, 367-68.

1. PP., pp. 465-66. Vism., p. 358. 2. Dhs., p. 221.

250 251
The meditator’s attainment of the destruction of the can- consciousness belonging to the path of arahatship. As the
kers is described in the suttas in the following passage: stock description makes clear, the content of this knowl-
With his mind thus concentrated… he applies, he di- edge is the Four Noble Truths. By knowing and seeing for
rects his mind to the knowledge of the destruction of himself with direct perception the Four Noble Truths in
the cankers. He knows suffering as it is; he knows the their full depth and range, the meditator eradicates the
origin of suffering as it is; he knows the cessation of mental corruptions and attains complete emancipation. As
suffering as it is; he knows the path leading to the ces- this realization results from insight, we will discuss it more
sation of suffering as it is. He knows the cankers as fully in the next chapter, in connection with the supramun-
they are; he knows the origin of the cankers as it is; he
dane paths.
knows the cessation of the cankers as it is; he knows
the path leading to the cessation of cankers as it is. The For the present two observations should be made concern-
mind of him who knows thus is liberated from the can- ing the sixth abhiññā. First, we should note that though the
ker of sensual desire, from the canker of existence, and texts often show the knowledge of the destruction of the
from the canker of ignorance. In him who is liberated cankers as following the fourth jhāna, the latter is not in-
the knowledge arises that he is liberated. He under- dispensable for its attainment. The realization of the Four
stands: ‘Rebirth is destroyed; the noble life has been
lived; what was to be done has been done; nothing else
Noble Truths can arise with any jhāna as its basis, and it is
remains to be done henceforth’.1 (Wr. tr.). even recognized that some meditators can achieve the lib-
erating knowledge without any previous experience in the
According to the commentary, in this passage the destruct- mundane jhānas, solely by the power of their faculty of
ion of the cankers can signify either nibbāna or the fourth wisdom. What is required in all cases for the attainment of
supramundane path, the path of arahatship.2 Nibbāna is the noble paths is the development of insight (vipassanā-
called the destruction of the cankers because it is the state bhāvanā), which can be either based upon some prior at-
wherein the cankers are utterly destroyed; the path of ara- tainment in jhānic concentration or proceed in a “dry”
hatship is called thus because it brings about the destruct- manner based solely upon the momentary concentration
ion of the cankers. The “knowledge of the destruction of connected with mindful observation of phenomena. In this
the cankers” is the faculty of knowledge contained in the respect the sixth abhiññā differs from the other five, which
all presuppose proficiency in the eight attainments belong-
1. “So evaH samāhite citte… āsavānaH khaya-ñāJāya cittaH abbhinīharati ab-
hininnāmeti. So ’idaH dukkhan’ti yatthābhūtaH pajānāti, ’ayaH dukkha-
ing to absorption-concentration.
samudayo’ti yatthābhūtaH pajānāti, ’ayaH dukkhanirodho’ti yathā-bhūtaH pa- For this reason the sixth abhiññā differs from the other five
jānāti, ’ayaH dukkhanirodhagāminī pa;ipadā’ti yathā bhūtaH pajānāti, ’ime
āsavā’ ti yathābhūtaH pajānāti, ’ayaH āsavasamudayo’ti yathābhūtaH pajānāti, in a second respect, namely, that it is regarded as an acquis-
’ayaH āsavanirodho’ti yathābhūtaH pajānāti, ’ayaH āsavanirodhagāminīpa;ipa- ition exclusive to the Buddha’s dispensation. The other five
dā’ti yathābhūtaH pajānāti. Tassa evaH jānato evaH passato kāmāsavā pi abhiññās are all mundane, being based solely upon the de-
cittaH vimuccati bhavāsavā pi cittaH vimuccati avijjāsavā pi cittaH vimuccati,
’vimuttasmim vimuttaH’ ti ñāJaH hoti, ’khīnā jāti vusitaH brahmacariyaH ka- velopment of concentration, since the methods of develop-
taH karaJīyaH nāparaH itthattāyā’ti pajānāti.” DN. 1:83-84. ing concentration are available in non-Buddhist disciplines,
2. DN.A. 1:200-201.

252 253
those who follow these disciplines and achieve sufficient The textual description of “knowledge and vision” is as fol-
power of concentration can also acquire the five mundane lows:
abhiññās. However, the knowledge of the destruction of the With his heart thus serene…, he applies and bends
cankers is a supramundane attainment which arises out of down his mind to that insight that comes from knowl-
insight into the nature of phenomena. Hence it can only be edge [knowledge and vision]. He grasps the fact: ‘This
body of mine has form, it is built up of the four ele-
gained by Buddhas, paccekabuddhas, and arahant disci-
ments, it springs from father and mother, it is continu-
ples. In the case of the Buddhas and paccekabuddhas it ally renewed by so much boiled rice and juicy foods, its
arises out of their own self-evolved wisdom (saya,bhū- very nature is impermanence, it is subject to erosion,
ñā1a); in the case of disciples it arises by practising insight abrasion, dissolution, and disintegration; and therein is
meditation in accordance with the instructions received this consciousness of mine, too, bound up, on that does
from a Buddha or from teachers who transmit his dispensa- it depend.1
tion. According to the commentary, “knowledge and vision” in
Because of these differences between the sixth abhiññā and this passage signifies the knowledge arising through insight
the others, the abhiññās are collected together into two (vipassanāñā1a).2 After emerging from the fourth jhāna,
groups, overlapping, but distinct. On the one hand there is the yogin directs his attention to his body and mind. He
the five abhiññās, comprising the five kinds of mundane first discerns the body, and sees it as material, compound-
direct-knowledge; on the other there is the six abhiññās, ed, dependently arisen, impermanent, subject to destruct-
comprising the five mundane forms of direct-knowledge ion. He then directs his attention to the mind, and sees the
together with the knowledge of the destruction of the can- mind occuring in dependence on the body, sharing its con-
kers. While the mundane abhiññās are regarded as orna- ditioned, impermanent, and insubstantial nature. This
ments of a yogin within the Buddha’s dispensation, the knowledge of insight, brought to its apex, issues in the
sixth abhiññā is regarded as its vital essence, the supreme knowledge of the destruction of the cankers. A fuller ac-
goal of the entire practice of meditation. count of insight-knowledge will be given in the next chap-
ter.
Other Kinds of Supernormal Knowledge The second auxiliary type of higher knowledge is the
In addition to the six abhiññās, certain suttas mention two knowledge of the mind-created body. This knowledge
other kinds of superior knowledge following the fourth seems similar to the iddhis, and is in fact called manoma-
jhāna. These are called “knowledge and vision” (ñā1adas- yiddhi, but it is not included in the iddhividhañā1a. The
sana) and “the knowledge of the mind-created body” (ma- textual description reads:
nomaya iddhi ñā1a). In the texts they immediately precede
the six abhiññās, though the eight are not collected togeth- 1. Dial. 1:86-87. “So evaH samāhite citte… ñāJadassanāya cittaH abhinīharati
abhininnāmeti. So evaH pajānāti: ‘AyaH kho me kāyo rūpī cātummahābhūtiko
er into a single group with a collective name.1 mātāpettikasambhavo odānakummāsupacayo aniccucchādanaparimaddanabhe-
danaviddhaHsanadhammo, idaH ca pana me viññāJaH ettha sitaH ettha pa;i-
baddhaH’ ti.” DN. 1:76.
1. DN. 1:76-77. MN. 2:l7-18. 2. DN.A. 1:197.

254 255
 With his mind thus concentrated…, he creates from pearance of a rock or the appearance of a lion, or the
this body another body which has material form, is appearance of a tiger, or the appearance of a leopard, or
mind-made, having all its major and minor parts, not he shows an elephant, or he shows a horse, or he shows
deficient in any sense organ.1 (Wr. tr.). a chariot, or he shows a foot soldier, or he shows a
manifold military array.1
The Buddha compares the process by which a bhikkhu
mentally creates another body resembling his own and To attain this power, according to the Visuddhimagga, the
draws it out from the original to the act by which a man meditator should first resolve to appear in a particular form,
draws a reed from its sheath, a sword from its scabbard, or such as the form of a boy. Then he should enter and emerge
a snake from its slough. In each case the extracted article from the basic fourth jhāna and advert to his appearance in
resembles its container but can be seen as clearly distinct the form chosen. Again he should enter the jhāna, emerge,
from it.2 The Visuddhimagga explains that if a meditator and resolve, “Let me be a boy, etc. of such and such a
wishes to create the mind-made body he should emerge type.” Simultaneously with his resolution he appears as a
from the basic fourth jhāna, advert to his own body, and re- boy or as anything else he chooses. However, it is not nec-
solve that his body be hollow. When it presents itself to him essary for the meditator to effect the transformation on his
as hollow, he should do the preliminary work and then re- own body. He can simply resolve upon showing some form,
solve: “Let there be another body inside it.” Another body such as an elephant, a horse, etc., and that form will be-
then appears within his original body which he can draw come manifest before himself and others.2
out “like a reed from its sheath, like a sword from its scab-
bard, like a snake from its slough.”3 The Jhānas and Rebirth
The Pa;isambhidāmagga describes one other supernormal According to Buddhist doctrine the influence of the jhānas
power of the iddhi type not explicitly mentioned in the sut- is not confined merely to this present existence but extends
tas, though implied by certain incidents. This is the super- beyond to future lives, determining an individual’s destiny
normal power of transformation (vikubba1a iddhi). The in the course of his movement through sa,sāra. The Bud-
Pa;isambhidāmagga exposition of this power reads: dha teaches that all sentient beings in whom ignorance
He abandons his normal appearance and shows the ap- (avijjā) and craving (ta1hā) remain present, even if only
pearance of a boy or the appearance of a Naga (ser- dormantly, are subject to rebirth. As long as there is a de-
pent), or the appearance of a Supanna (winged demon), sire to go on existing in some form the process of existence
or the appearance of an Asura (demon), or the appear- will continue. The craving for existence lies at the hub of
ance of the Ruler [of Gods] (Indra), or the appearance the wheel of becoming, sustaining its constant revolution.
of some [other sensual sphere] deity, or the appearance
of a Brahma, or the appearance of the sea, or the ap- The specific factor which determines the place and con-
ditions of rebirth is kamma. Kamma is volitional action –
1. “So evaH samāhite citte… So imamhā kāyā aññaH kāyaH abhinimmināti
rūpiH manomayaH sabbaJgapaccangiH ahīnindriyaH.” DN. 1:77.
2. Ibid. 1. PP., p. 444. Vism., p. 342. Pts., p. 388.
3. PP., p. 444. Vism., p. 342. 2. PP., p. 444. Vism., p. 342.

256 257
deeds, words, and thoughts expressive of deliberate intent- kamma. These planes are grouped into three general
ion. Kammas are of two general kinds: unwholesome kam- spheres: the sense sphere (kāmāvacarabhūmi), which is the
mas (akusalakamma), which are actions rooted in greed, field of rebirth for evil kammas and for non-jhānic merit-
hatred, and delusion, and wholesome kammas (kusala- orious kammas; the fine material sphere (rūpāvacara-
kamma), which are actions rooted in non-greed, non- bhūmi), which is the field of rebirth for the fine material
hatred, and non-delusion. Each kamma or intentional action jhānas; and the immaterial sphere (arūpāvacarabhūmi),
that a person performs becomes accumulated in his mental which is the field of rebirth for the immaterial attainments.1
continuum, where it remains as a force capable of produc- If an unwholesome kamma becomes determinative of re-
ing results (vipāka) in the future. These results correspond birth, it will produce rebirth in one of four planes: [1] the
to the ethical quality of the action: wholesome kammas woeful state (niraya), which itself has many subdivisions;
bring happiness and success, unwholesome kammas bring [2] the animal kingdom (tiracchānayoni): [3] the sphere of
suffering and failure. In relation to the rebirth process, tormented spirits or “hungry ghosts” (pettivisaya); and
wholesome kammas issue in a good rebirth, unwholesome [4] the host of titans (asurakāya). These four states are col-
kammas in a bad one. lectively called the plane of misery (apāyabhūmi), the bad
Of the many kammas a person performs and accumulates destinations (duggati), and the downfall (vinipāta). If a
in the course of his lifetime, one kamma will come to the wholesome kamma of a type below the level of mundane
surface at the time of death to determine his state of re- jhānas determines rebirth, it will produce rebirth in either
birth. The kammas that take on this decisive role are ranked the human world (manussaloka) or in one of the six sense
into grades of precedence. Priority is given to morally sphere heavenly worlds, namely: (1] the realm of the four
weighty kamma (garuka kamma), extremely powerful vir- great kings (cātummahārājikadevaloka), [2] the realm of
tuous or evil deeds. Weighty virtuous deeds are the attain- the thirty-three gods (tāvati,sa); [3] the realm of Yama
ment of the jhānas; weighty evil deeds include patricide, gods (yāma); [4] the realm of delight (tusita); [5] the realm
matricide, killing an arahat, wounding a Buddha, and caus- of gods who rejoice in their own creations (nimmānarati);
ing schism in the Sangha. Next in order come morally sig- and, [6] the realm of gods who lord over the creations of
nificant deeds performed near the time of death, then ha- others (paranimmitavasavatti). These seven realms, the
bitual actions, and lastly, miscellaneous stored up kammas.1 human world and the six heavenly worlds, together make
Those kammas which do not actually generate rebirth can up the sense sphere plane of happiness (kāmāvacara suga-
still produce their results in the course of a person’s life, ei- tibhūmi).2
ther supporting, countering, or annihilating the effects of Above the sense sphere realms are the fine material realms
the rebirth-generative kamma. (rūpāvacarabhūmi). Rebirth into these realms is gained
According to Buddhist cosmology, there are many planes
of existence where beings can take rebirth through their 1. For a good synopsis of Buddhist cosmology and its connection with rebirth,
see Ibid., pp. 233-55.
1. Narada, Manual., pp. 259-62. 2. Ibid., pp. 233, 236-39.

258 259
through the attainment of the four fine material jhānas, There is no differentiation by way of inferior, moderate, or
providing the jhāna is still retained at the time of death. superior grades of development. The realm of non-percip-
There are altogether sixteen realms in the fine material ient beings is reached by those who attain the fourth jhāna
plane. These are correlated with the four jhānas in a sys- and then use the power of their attainment to take rebirth
tematic way. For each of the three lower jhānas there are with only material bodies; they do not acquire conscious-
three realms of rebirth, graded according to whether the ness again until they pass away from this realm. The five
jhāna was mastered to an inferior, middling, or superior pure abodes are called the durable realm (aviha), the serene
degree; for the fourth jhāna the division is different, as we realm (atappa), the beautiful realm (sudassi), the clear-
will see. sighted realm (sudassa), and the highest realm (akani ha).
Those who have practiced the first jhāna to a minor degree These five realms are open only to non-returners (anāgā-
are reborn in the realm of the retinue of Brahmā (brahma- mis), noble disciples who have eradicated the fetters bind-
pārisajja), those who have practiced it to a moderate de- ing them to the sense sphere and thence automatically take
gree are reborn in the realm of the ministers of Brahmā rebirth in higher realms. From here they attain arahatship
(brahmapurohita), and those who have practiced it to a su- and reach final deliverance.
perior degree are reborn in the realm of the great Brahmā Beyond the fine material sphere lie the immaterial realms
(mahābrahmā). Similarly, practicing the second jhāna to a (arūpāvacarabhūmi). These are four in number – the base
minor degree brings rebirth in the realm of minor luster of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness,
(parittābha), to a moderate degree rebirth in the realm of the base of nothingness, and the base of neither perception
infinite luster (appamānābha), and to a superior degree in nor non-perception. As should be evident, these are the
the realm of radiant luster (ābhassara). Again, practicing realms of rebirth for those who, without having broken the
the third jhāna to a minor degree brings rebirth in the fetters that bind them to sa,sāra, achieve and master the
realm of minor aura (parittasubha), to a moderate degree in four immaterial jhānas. Those yogins who have mastery
the realm of infinite aura (appamānasubha), and to a supe- over these attainments at the time of death take rebirth in
rior degree in the realm of steady aura (subhaki1hā). the appropriate plane, where they abide until the kammic
Corresponding to the fourth jhāna there are seven realms: force of the jhāna is exhausted. Then they pass away, to
the realm of great reward (vehapphala), the realm of non- take rebirth in some other realm as determined by their ac-
percipient beings (asaññasatta), and the five pure abodes cumulated kamma.1
(suddhāvāsa). With this jhāna the previous pattern is not
observed. It seems that all beings who practice the fourth
jhāna of the mundane level without reaching any supra-
mundane attainment are reborn in the realm of great re-
ward.
1. For a schematic diagram of the planes of Buddhist cosmology and their con-
nection with kamma, see Appendix 5.

260 261
 In the present chapter we will examine the nature of wis-
Chapter Seven dom and the methods by which it is cultivated. Beginning
with a general explanation of wisdom and its function in
THE WAY OF WISDOM the framework of the Buddhist path, we then move on to
The goal of the Buddhist path is not a temporary appease- discuss the course laid down for its development. The basis
ment of mental affliction but complete and permanent lib- for our discussion will be the seven purifications (sattavis-
eration from suffering. To facilitate the achievement of this uddhi), the principal categorical system used by the Thera-
goal the Buddha has divided his path into three stages of vāda tradition to treat the stages in the unfolding of wis-
training – moral discipline (sīla) concentration (samādhi), dom. Since wisdom presupposes a certain proficiency in
and wisdom (paññā). Each stage in this triad serves as the concentration it is inevitable that jhāna comes to claim a
foundation for the next and the entire set as the foundation place in its development. This place, however, is not fixed
for deliverance: and invariable, but as we will see allows for wide differ-
ences depending on the individual meditator’s disposition.
Such is moral discipline, such is concentration, such is
wisdom. Concentration supported by moral discipline Fundamental to the discussion in this chapter and the next
brings great benefit and fruit, wisdom supported by is a distinction between two terms crucial to Theravāda phi-
concentration brings great benefit and fruit. The mind losophical exposition. These two terms are “mundane” (lo-
supported by wisdom is completely liberated from the kiya) and “supramundane” (lokuttara). The term “mun-
cankers – from the canker of sensual desire, the canker dane” applies to all phenomena comprised in the world
of existence, the canker of views, and the canker of ig- (loka) of the five aggregates of clinging (pañcupādānak-
norance.1 (Wr. tr.).
khandhā) – material form, feeling, perception, mental for-
The mundane jhānas, comprising the four fine material mations, and consciousness. It covers subtle states of con-
jhānas and four immaterial jhānas, pertain to the stage of sciousness as well as material and emotional states, virtue
concentration. As such they form an important part of the as well as evil, meditative attainments as well as sensual
training. However, taken by themselves, the jhānas do not engrossments. The term “supramundane”, in contrast, ap-
suffice to ensure complete deliverance from suffering. plies exclusively to that which transcends the world of the
They lead a long part of the way to the goal, but to attain clinging-aggregates. It covers nine terms, the nine lokuttarā
the final cessation of suffering they must ultimately be dhammā: nibbāna, the four noble paths (magga) leading to
supplemented and fulfilled by the final stage of practice, nibbāna, and their corresponding four fruits (phala) which
the training in wisdom. experience the bliss of nibbāna. It is hoped that the discus-
sion to follow will make the meanings of these terms clear.

1. “Iti sīlaH iti samādhi iti paññā, sīla-paribhāvito samādhi mahapphalo hoti
mahānisaHso, samādhi-paribhāvitā paññā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaHsā, pañ-
ñāparibhāvitaH cittaH sammad eva āsavehi vimuccati, seyyathīdaH kāmāsavā
bhavāsavā di;;hāsavā avijjāsavā ti.” DN. 2:123.

262 263
 The Nature of Wisdom and with his heart corrupted by passion, he disavows
the training and returns to the lower life.1
The reason the mundane jhānas cannot by themselves bring
final liberation from suffering is because they are incapable The second defect which besets the jhānas is that bare
of cutting off the causes of suffering. The Buddha teaches mundane jhāna, even when sustained, does not by itself
that the fundamental source of suffering, the driving power terminate the cycle of rebirths. To the the contrary, it even
behind the cycle of rebirths, is the defilements (kilesa), perpetuates the round in its own way. For each fine material
principally the three unwholesome roots of greed, hatred, and immaterial jhāna attained, if held to with delight and
and delusion. Concentration of the absorptive level, no clinging, brings about a rebirth in that particular plane of
matter how deeply it might be developed, only leads to a existence corresponding to its own kammic potency, which
suspension of the defilements, not to their radical eliminat- can then be followed by a rebirth in some lower realm
ion. As we saw earlier, concentration whether access or when the generative kamma of the jhāna is exhausted. As
jhāna, abandons the hindrances solely by way of suppress- the Buddha says:
ion (vikkhambanappahāna).1 Even at its deepest it cannot Now, monks, a certain person here, aloof from sense-
effect the more fundamental abandonment required for lib- desires, aloof from evil conditions, enters upon the first
eration, namely, the abandonment by eradication (samuc- musing [jhāna], which is accompanied by thought di-
rected and sustained, born of seclusion, zestful and
cnedappahāna).2
easeful, and abides therein. He enjoys its sweetness,
Because it cannot dismantle the latent seeds of the defile- longs for it and finds happiness therein. Established
ments, bare mundane jhāna does not figure as a sufficient therein, given thereto, generally spending his time
attainment in the Buddhist map of the liberating path. therein and not falling away therefrom, when he makes
Mundane jhāna suffers from two conspicuous defects. an end he is reborn in the company of devas of the
Brahma-group. A kalpa, monks, is the life-span of the
Firstly, if not persisted in, it can be lost. Through careless-
devas of the Brahma-group. Therein the ordinary man
ness or complacency a yogin can again be overpowered by stays and spends his time according to the life-span of
the force of the defilements, thereby falling away from those devas; then he goes to purgatory or the womb of
jhāna and the rest of his spiritual training. Thus the Vener- an animal, he goes to the peta-realm.2
able Mahāko;;hita describes the case of a monk who attains
the four jhānas, and thinking to himself complacently “I
have won the four jhānas” 1. GS. 3: p. 280. “So saHsa;;ho viharati bhikkhūhi bhikkhunīhi upāsakehi upā-
sikāhi raññā rājamahāmattehi titthiyehi titthitiyasāvakehi, tassa saHsa;;hassa
… keeps company with monks, nuns, lay-disciples, vissa;;hassa pakatassa bhassaH anuyuttassa viharato rāgo cittaH anuddhaHseti,
men and women, rajahs, their ministers, course-setters so rāgānuddhaHsena cittena sikkhaH paccakkhāya hīnāyāvattati.” AN. 3.393.
or their disciples. Living in company, untrammelled, 2. GS. 2:130. “Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo vivicceva kāmehi vivicca aku-
rude, given over to gossip, passion corrupts his heart; salehi dhammehi savitakkaH savicāraH vivekajam pītisukhaH pa;hamajjhānaH
upasampajja viharati. So tad assādeti taH nikāmeti tena ca vittiH āpajjati, tat-
tha ;hito tad-adhimutto tabbahulavihārī aparihīno kālaH kurumāno Brahmakà-
1. See above Ch. III, pp. 76-80.
yikānaH devānaH sahavyataH uppajjati. BrahmakāyikānaH bhikkhave devā-
2. Ibid. naH kappo āyuppamānaH, tattha puthujjano yāvatāyukaH ;hatvā yāvatakaH
264 265
The same pattern is repeated for each of the higher attain- An analytical exposition of wisdom found in the Visuddhi-
ments. i.e., the remaining jhānas and the āruppas.1 magga1 discusses wisdom under six headings: [1] the defin-
What is required to achieve complete deliverance from the ition of wisdom; [2] the sense in which it is called wisdom;
cycle of rebirths is the eradication of the unwholesome [3] its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate
roots of greed, hatred, and delusion. Since the most basic cause; [4] its classification; [5] method of development;
of these roots is delusion (moha), also called ignorance and [6] its benefits. A brief consideration of these princi-
(avijjā), the key to liberation lies in the eradication of igno- ples should help bring the nature of wisdom to light.
rance by developing its direct opposite, namely wisdom [1] Wisdom, according to Buddhaghosa, is defined as in-
(paññā). For this reason the Buddha places wisdom at the sight knowledge associated with wholesome states of con-
head of all the spiritual faculties. It appears among the sciousness.2
groups of training factors as the basis for success consisting [2] Wisdom (paññā) is so called in the sense that it is an
in inquiry (vīma,sā-iddhipāda), the faculty of wisdom act of understanding (pajānana). It is a mode of knowing
(paññindriya), the power of wisdom (paññābala), the in- (jānana) distinct from and superior to the modes of per-
vestigation of phenomena enlightenment factor (dhamma- ceiving (sañjānana) and cognizing (vijānana). What distin-
vicaya sambojjha*ga), and right view (sammādi hi) of the guishes wisdom from these other forms of cognition is its
Noble Eightfold Path. The DhammasaIgaJi in its definition ability to comprehend the characteristics of impermanence,
of the faculty of wisdom spells out a whole list of equiva- suffering, and selflessness and thereby to bring about the
lent terms, which testifies to its importance and the unri- manifestation of the supramundane path.3
valled esteem in which it is held:
[3] Wisdom has the specific characteristic of penetrating
The wisdom which there is on that occasion is under-
the true nature of phenomena.4 Each phenomenon possess-
standing, search, research, searching the truth, discern-
ment, discrimination, differentiation, erudition, profic- es its own particular characteristic as well as the general
iency, subtlety, criticism, reflection, analysis, breadth, characteristics common to all phenomena. The particular
sagacity, leading, insight, intelligence, incitement, wis- and general characteristics together make up the “true
dom as faculty, wisdom as power, wisdom as a sword, nature” (sabhāva) of phenomena. Wisdom is the pene-
wisdom as a height, wisdom as light, wisdom as glory, tration of this nature through direct, unmediated cognition.
wisdom as splendour, wisdom as a precious stone, the Its function is “to abolish the darkness of delusion which
absence of dullness, searching the Truth, right views, –
this is the wisdom that there then is.2 parināyikā vipassanā sampajaññaH patodo pañña paññindriyaH paññābalaH
paññāsattaH paññāpasādo paññā āloko paññāobhāso paññāpajjoto paññārata-
naH amoho dhammavicayo sammādi;;hi – idaH tasmiH samaye paññindriyaH
tesaH devānaH āyuppamānaH taH sabbaH khepetvā nirayaH pi gacchati tirac- hoti.” Dhs., pp. 19-20.
chānayoniH pi gacchati pittivisayaH pi gacchati.” AN. 2:126.
1. PP., pp. 479-89. Vism., pp. 369-75.
1. GS. 1:245-46. AN. 1:267-68.
2. PP., p. 479. “KusalacittasampayuttaH vipassanāññānaH paññā.” Vism., p. 369.
2. Psy. Ethics, p. 18. “KatamaH tasmiH samaye paññidriyaH hoti? Yā tasmiH
3. PP., p. 480. Vism., p. 369.
samaye paññā pajānanā vicayo pavicayo sallakkhaJā upalakkhaJā paccūpalakk-
haJā pandiccaH kosallaH nepuJJaH vebhabyā cintā upaparikkhā bhūri medhā 4. PP., p. 481. “Dhammasabhāvapa;ivedhalakkhaJā paññā.” Vism., p. 370.

266 267
conceals the individual essences of states” and its mani- [5] The Buddhist yogin, striving for deliverance, begins the
festation is “non-delusion.” Since the Buddha says that one development of wisdom by first securely establishing its
whose mind is concentrated knows and sees things as they roots – purified moral discipline and concentration. He
are, the proximate cause of wisdom is concentration.1 then learns and masters the basic material upon which wis-
[4] The wisdom instrumental in attaining liberation is div- dom is to work – the aggregates, elements, sense bases, de-
ided into two principal types: insight-knowledge (vipassa- pendent arising, the Four Noble Truths, etc. He commences
nā-ñā1a) and the knowledge pertaining to the supramun- the actual practice of wisdom by cultivating insight into the
dane paths (magga-ñā1a). The first is the direct penetration impermanence, suffering, and selflessness of the five ag-
of the three characteristics of conditioned phenomena – im- gregates. When this insight reaches its apex it issues in su-
permanence (aniccatā), suffering (dukkhatā), and selfless- pramundane wisdom, the right view factor of the Noble
ness (anattatā). It takes as its objective sphere the groups Eightfold Path. The wisdom of the path turns from condi-
of mental phenomena constituting individual existence, i.e. tioned formations to the unconditioned nibbāna, destroying
the five aggregates (pañcakkhandhā) of material form, feel- thereby the latent defilements at their root.
ing, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.2 [6] The removal of the defilements, the experiencing of
Because insight-knowledge takes the world (loka) of condi- nibbāna, and the achievement of the states of holiness cul-
tioned formations (sa*khāra) as its object it is regarded as a minating in arahatship – these, according to Buddhaghosa,
mundane (lokiya) form of wisdom. Insight-knowledge does are the benefits in developing wisdom.1
not itself directly eradicate the defilements. It serves to
prepare the way for the second type of wisdom, the wisdom The Two Vehicles
of the supramundane paths, which emerges when insight The Theravāda tradition recognizes two alternative ap-
has been brought to its climax. The wisdom of the path, proaches to the development of wisdom, between which
occurring in the four distinct stages of the supramundane yogins are free to choose according to their aptitude and
Noble Eightfold Path (to be discussed below), simultane- propensity. These two approaches are the vehicle of seren-
ously realizes nibbāna, fathoms the Four Noble Truths, and ity (samathayāna) and the vehicle of insight (vipassana-
cuts off the defilements. This wisdom is called “supramun- yāna). The meditators who follow them are called, respec-
dane” (lokuttara) because it rises up (uttarati) from the tively, the samathayānika, “one who makes serenity his
world (loka) of the five aggregates to realize the state tran- vehicle,” and the vipassanāyānika, “one who makes insight
scendent to the world, nibbāna. his vehicle.” Since both vehicles, despite their names, are
approaches to developing insight, to prevent misunder-
standing the latter type of meditator is sometimes called a
1. PP., p. 481. “DhammānaH sabhāvapa;icchādaka-mohāndhakāra-viddhaH-
sanarasā; asammohapaccupa;;hānā; samāhito yathābhūtaH jānāti passatī ti
suddhavipassanāyānika, “one who makes bare insight his
[AN. 5:3] vacanato pana samādhi tassa pada;;hānaH.” Vism., p. 370. vehicle,” or a sukkhavipassaka, “a dry insight worker.”
2. In Pāli: Rūpakkhandha, vedanākkhandha, saññākkhandha, saIkhārakkhan-
dha, viññāJakkhandha. 1. See Vism., Chapter XXIII.

268 269
Though all three terms appear initially in the commentaries contemplation, has to practice the four foundations of
rather than in the sutras, the recognition of the two vehicles mindfulness, as these have been called by the Buddha “the
seems implicit in a number of canonical passages. only way that leads to the attainment of purity, to the over-
The samathayānika is a meditator who first attains access coming of sorrow and lamentation, to the end of pain and
concentration or one of the eight mundane jhānas, then em- grief, to the entering upon the right path and the realization
erges and uses his attainment as a basis for cultivating in- of Nibbāna.”1
sight until he arrives at the supramundane path. The experi- The classical source for the distinction between the two ve-
ence of the path in any of its four stages always occurs at a hicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga, where
level of jhānic intensity and thus necessarily includes su- it is explained that when a meditator begins the devel-
pramundane jhāna under the heading of right concentration opment of wisdom
(sammāsamādhi), the eighth factor of the Noble Eightfold … if, firstly, his vehicle is serenity, [he] should emerge
Path. In contrast to the samathayānika, the vipassanā- from any fine material or immaterial jhāna except the
yānika does not attain mundane jhāna prior to practicing base consisting of neither perception nor non-per-
insight-contemplation, or if he does, does not use it as an ception, and he should discern, according to character-
instrument for cultivating insight. Instead, without entering istic, function, etc. the jhāna factors consisting of ap-
and emerging from jhāna, he proceeds directly to insight- plied thought, etc. and the states associated with them.2
contemplation on the mental and material phenomena that The meditator whose vehicle is pure insight, on the other
appear in the six spheres of sense experience – the five hand, is advised to begin by discerning material and mental
outer senses and thought. By means of this bare insight he phenomena directly, without utilizing a jhāna for this pur-
reaches the noble path, which as in the former case again pose.3
includes supramundane jhāna as a matter of necessity. A contemporary meditation master, the Venerable Mahāsī
Sayadaw, draws the distinction between the two types of
The kingpost of the vipassanāyānika’s approach is the
meditators in more general terms:
practice of mindfulness (sati), the bare non-discursive ob-
servation of the changing phenomena of mind and body. A person who, of these two, has first developed tran-
The Buddha expounds the practice of mindfulness in terms quility, and after having established himself in either
access concentration or full concentration, subsequent-
of four contemplations – the contemplation of body (kāya),
ly contemplates the five groups of grasping, is called a
feelings (vedanā), states of mind (citta), and mind-objects
(dhamma). These four contemplations, the four “foundat- 1. Nyanatiloka, The Word of the Buddha, p. 61.
ions of mindfulness” (satipa hāna), bring to the focus of 2. PP., pp. 679-80. “TaH sampādetukāmena samathayānikena tāva, ;hapetvā
the observational field the diverse classes of mental and nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaH avasesarūpārūpavacarajjhānānaH aññatarato vu;;hā-
ya vitakkādīni jhānaIgāni taHsampayuttā ca dhammā lakkhaJarasādivasena
material phenomena with their universal marks of imper- pariggahetabbā.” Vism., p. 503. NB: Other commentarial passages allow ac-
manence, suffering, and selflessness. The samathayānika, cess concentration (upacārasamādhi) to suffice for the vehicle of serenity. The
last āruppa is excluded because its factors are too subtle to be discerned by a
too, at the time he emerges from jhāna and begins insight- beginning meditator.
3. PP., p. 680. Vism., p. 503.
270 271
 samathayānika, i.e. one who has tranquility as his ve- higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but does not
hicle… He, however, who has neither produced access gain internal serenity of mind;… one person who gains
concentration nor full concentration, but from the very neither;… and one person who gains both…1 (Wr. tr.).
start applies insight to the five groups of grasping, is
He urges the first, established on his serenity of mind, to
called a suddhavipassanāyānika, i.e. one who has pure
insight as his vehicle.1 strive to gain the wisdom of insight into phenomena, and
the second, established on his wisdom or insight into phen-
This second type of meditator is sometimes referred to by omena, to strive to gain serenity of mind. The commentary
another name, sukkhavipassaka or “dry insight worker,” explains “serenity of mind” as mental concentration of ab-
which the commentary to the Visuddhimagga explains in a sorption (appanācittasamādhi) and the “higher wisdom of
way that accentuates his lack of jhāna: insight into phenomena” as the insight-knowledge discern-
The dry insight worker is one who does not obtain ing formations (sa*khārapariggahavipassanāñā1a), i.e. in-
[mundane] jhāna, but makes pure insight his vehicle. sight into the five aggregates.2 The fact that individuals are
He is called a “dry insight worker” because his insight capable of one attainment in the absence of the other pro-
is dry and rough, as this insight has not been moistened
vides a starting point for a differentiation of vehicles ad-
with the moisture of jhāna.2 (Wr. tr.).
apted to their differing capacities. In the end, however, all
Although, as we mentioned earlier, the three terms – sama- meditators have to enter upon the development of insight in
thayānika, vipassanāyānika, and sukkhavipassaka – are order to reach the liberating path.
terms of commentarial coinage, the distinction of vehicles
An even clearer enunciation of alternative vehicles to the
and practitioners seems to draw directly from the Pāli
goal is presented in a sutta spoken by the Venerable Ānan-
Canon. The Buddha generally includes the four jhānas in
da. On one occasion Ānanda declared to a group of monks
complete expositions of his system of training, placing
that there are some monks who develop insight preceded by
them before the development of insight and the attainment
serenity (samathapubba*gama, vipassana,) and some
of the path, but a number of suttas give evidence for alter-
who develop serenity preceded by insight (vipassanāpub-
native approaches to the practice. In the AIguttara Nikāya
ba*gama, samatha,). Both approaches, in his account, is-
the Buddha states:
sue in the supramundane path:
There is, monks, one person who gains internal seren-
ity of mind but does not gain the higher wisdom of in- Herein, your reverences, a monk develops insight pre-
sight into phenomena;… one person who gains the ceded by calm. In him thus developing insight pre-
ceded by calm is born the Way. He follows along that
1. Mahāsi Sayadaw (U Sobhana Mahāthera of Burma), The Progress of Insight Way, makes it grow, makes much of it. In him follow-
Through the Stages of Purification, A Modern Pali Treatise on Buddhist Sa-
tipa hāna Meditation, translated by Nyanaponika Thera with notes and the 1. “Tatra bhikkhave yāyaH puggalo lābhī ajjhattaH cetosamathassa na lābhī ad-
original Pāli text. (Kandy, Ceylon: The Forest Hermitage, 1965; reprint, Kandy, hipaññādhammavipassanāya;… lābhī adhipaññādhammavipassanāya na lābhī
Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1973), p. 2 (hereafter cited as PI.). ajjhattaH cetosamathassa;… na c’eva lābhī ajjhattaH cetosamathassa na lābhī
2. “Ajhānalābhī suddhavipassanāyānikova sukkhavipassako. So hi jhānasine- adhipaññādhammavipassanāya;… yāyaH puggalo lābhī c’eva ajjhattaH ceto-
hena vipassanāya asiniddhabhāvato sukkhā lūkhā vipassanā etassāti sukkhavi- samathassa lābhī adhipaññādhammavipassanāya.” AN. 2:92-93.
passakoti vuccati.” Vism.T. 2:474. 2. AN.A. 2:325.

272 273
 ing, developing, making much of that Way, the fetters In case it should be suspected that the second type of medi-
are abandoned, the lurking tendencies come to an end. tator still attains mundane jhāna after developing insight,
Or again, your reverences, a monk develops calm pre- the subcommentary to the passage points out: “The mental
ceded by insight. In him developing calm preceded by
one-pointedness he gains is right concentration of the su-
insight is born the Way. He follows along that Way,
makes it grow,… come to an end.1 pramundane path (maggasammāsamādhi) and its object,
The commentarial exegesis of this passage (found in the called ‘renunciation’ (vavassagga), is nibbāna.”1 (Wr. tr.).
Majjhima Nikāya commentary) explains the procedure for The AIguttara subcommentary explicitly identifies the
developing insight preceded by serenity thus: second meditator with the vipassanāyānika: “‘He develops
serenity preceded by insight’: this is said with reference to
Here, someone first produces access concentration or
absorption concentration; this is serenity. He contem- the vipassanāyānika.”2 (Wr. tr.).
plates with insight that serenity and its concomitant Thus the samathayānika attains in order first access con-
phenomena as impermanent, etc.; this is insight. Thus centration or mundane jhāna and then insight-knowledge,
first comes serenity, afterwards insight.2 (Wr. tr.). by means of which he reaches the supramundane path con-
The procedure for developing serenity preceded by insight taining wisdom under the heading of right view (sammā-
is described as follows: di hi) and supramundane jhāna under the heading of right
Here, someone contemplates with insight the five ag- concentration (sammāsamādhi). The vipassanāyānika, in
gregates of clinging as impermanent, etc. without hav- contrast, skips over mundane jhāna and goes directly into
ing produced the aforesaid kinds of serenity (access insight-contemplation. When he reaches the end of the pro-
and absorption); this is insight. With the completion of gression of insight-knowledge he arrives at the supramun-
insight there arises in him mental one-pointedness hav- dane path which, as in the previous case, brings together
ing as object the renunciation of the phenomena pro- wisdom with supramundane jhāna. This jhāna counts as
duced therein; this is serenity. Thus first comes insight,
his accomplishment of serenity.
afterwards serenity.3 (Wr. tr.).

The Functions of Jhāna

1. GS. 2:162. “Idha āvuso bhikkhu samathapubbaIgamaH vipassanaH bhāveti, For a meditator following the vehicle of serenity the at-
tassa samathapubbaIgamaH vipassanaH bhāvayato maggo sañjāyati. So taH tainment of jhāna fulfills two functions: first, it produces a
maggaH āsevati bhāveti bahulīkaroti. Tassa taH maggaH āsevato bhāvayato
bahulīkaroto saññojanāni pahīyanti anusayā vyanti honti. Puna ca paraH āvuso basis of mental purity and inner collectedness needed for
bhikkhu vipassanāpubbaIgamaH samathaH bhāveti, tassa vipassanāpubbaI- undertaking the work of insight-contemplation; and second,
gamaH samathaH bhāvayato maggo sañjāyati… vyanti honti.” AN. 2:157.
2. “Idhekacco pa;hamaH upacārasamādhiH vā appanāsamādhiH vā uppādeti.
it serves as an object for the yogin to examine with insight
AyaH samatho. So taH ca taH sampayutte ca dhamme aniccādihi vipassati.
AyaH vipassanā. Iti pa;hamaH samatho pacchā vipassanā.” MN.A. 1:112. 1. MN.T. 1:204.
3. “Idha panekacco vuttappakāraH samathaH anuppādetvā’va pañcupā- 2. “VipassanāpubbaIgamaH samathaH bhāveti ti idaH pana vipassanā-
dānakkhandhe aniccādihi vipassati. AyaH vipassanā. Tassa vipassnāpāripūriyā yānikassa vasena vuttaH.” Sāriputta, [A*guttara Nikāya !īkā] Sāratthamañjūsā
tattha jātānaH dhammānaH vossaggārammaJato uppajjati cittassa ekaggatā. Nāma A*guttara !īkā. [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. (Rangoon, Burma:
AyaH samatho. Iti pa;hamaH vipassanā; pacchā samatho.” MN.A. 1:113. Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960-61), 2:344 (hereafter cited as AN.T.).

274 275
in order to discern the three characteristics of imperman- cleared of the hindrances, and the stillness and clarity that
ence, suffering, and selflessness. Jhāna accomplishes the then result conduce to precise, penetrating insight.
first function by providing a powerful instrument for over- The jhānas also enter into the samathayānika’s practice in
coming the five hindrances, the defilements of sensual de- a second capacity; that is, as objects for scrutinization by
sire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and insight. The practice of insight consists essentially in the
doubt. As we saw, the Buddha declares these five hindran- examination of mental and physical phenomena to discover
ces to be corruptions of the mind and weakeners of wisdom their marks of impermanence (aniccatā), suffering (dukk-
which prevent a man from seeing things as they are, cause hatā), and selflessness (anattatā). The jhānas a yogin has
blindness and ignorance, destroy wisdom, lead to vexation, attained and emerged from provide him with a readily
and distract from nibbāna.1 For wisdom to arise the mind available and strikingly clear object in which to seek out
must first be concentrated well, and to be concentrated it the three characteristics. After emerging from a jhāna the
must be freed from the obscuring influence of the hindran- meditator will proceed to examine the jhānic conscious-
ces. This task is accomplished by the attainment of jhāna: ness, analyzing it into its components, defining them in
access concentration causes the hindrances to subside, the their precise particularity, and discerning the way they ex-
first and following jhānas drive them further and further emplify the three universal marks. This process is called
away. Cleared of the hindrances the mind becomes “pliant sammasanañā1a, “comprehension-knowledge,” and the
and supple, having radiant lucidity and firmness, and will jhāna subjected to such a treatment is termed the samma-
concentrate well upon the eradication of the taints.”2 There- sitajjhāna, “the comprehended jhāna.”1 Though the basic
fore the jhānas are recommended as a means to provide the jhāna and the comprehended jhāna will often be the same,
concentration and mental purification needed to cultivate the two do not necessarily coincide. A yogin cannot prac-
wisdom. tice comprehension on a jhāna higher than he is capable of
In their capacity for producing concentration the jhānas are attaining, but a yogin who uses a higher jhāna as his pāda-
called the basis (pāda) for insight, and that particular jhāna kajjhāna can still practice insight-comprehension on lower
a yogin enters and emerges from before commencing his jhānas he has previously attained and mastered. This ad-
practice of insight is designated the pādakajjhāna, the ba- mitted difference in nature between the pādaka and sam-
sic or foundational jhāna. Insight cannot be practiced while masitajjhānas leads to discrepant theories about the supra-
absorbed in jhāna, since insight-meditation requires analy- mundane concentration of the noble path, as we will see
sis, investigation, and observation, all of which are impos- below.2
sible when the thought faculty is immersed in one-pointed In the AIguttara Nikāya the Buddha shows how arahatship,
absorption. But after emerging from the jhāna the mind is “the destruction of the cankers,” is attained by a samatha-
yānika yogin who attains a basic jhāna and after emerging

1. See above, Ch. III, pp. 104-108. 1. PP., pp. 706-709. Vism., pp. 521-22.
2. Ibid., p. 108. 2. See below pp. 347-51.

276 277
from it makes that same jhāna the object of insight- approach. This difficulty lies in accounting for the concen-
comprehension: tration he uses to provide a basis for insight. Concentration
I say, monks, that the destruction of the cankers occurs is needed in order to see and know things as they are. The
in dependence on the first jhāna. With reference to standard order of practice repeated countless times
what is this said? Here, monks, a monk enters and throughout the canon is moral discipline, concentration,
abides in the first jhāna… Whatever is contained there and wisdom, with concentration declared to be the founda-
belonging to material form, feeling, perception, mental tion for wisdom. The Buddha calls concentration the sup-
formations, and consciousness – he contemplates these porting condition (upanisā) for “the knowledge and vision
phenomena as impermanent, suffering, a disease, a
of things as they really are,” while “one who lacks right
boil, a dart, as misery, affliction, alien, disintegrating,
empty, and selfless. He turns his mind away from those concentration is deprived of the supporting condition for
phenomena and focusses it on the deathless element… knowledge and vision of things as they are.”1 (Wr. tr.). Fi-
Standing upon that he reaches the destruction of the nally, in the sequence of the seven purifications through
cankers.1 (Wr. tr.). which all yogins must pass, the second purification – puri-
In entering the first jhāna before commencing insight, the fication of mind (cittavisuddhi) – is shown to precede and
meditator makes it his basic or foundational jhāna; in con- support the five subsequent purifications that begin with
templating its factors as impermanent, suffering, and self- purification of view (di hivisuddhi).2 Purification of mind
less (which comprise all the other terms of contemplation) is generally defined as access and absorption concentration,
he makes the first jhāna his object of insight-comprehen- and the last five purifications as the wisdom of insight and
sion. The Buddha repeats the same procedure, with appro- the path. Since each purification has to be fulfilled in due
priate modifications, for the remaining fine material jhānas order before undertaking the next, the same problem sur-
and the lower three immaterial jhānas; for the last imma- faces of accounting for the concentration the vipas-
terial jhāna and the attainment of cessation a variant meth- sanāyānika uses to arrive at insight.
od is used, as these two states due to their subtlety do not The solution to this problem is found in a type of concen-
come directly into the range of insight-contemplation. tration distinct from the access and absorption concentrat-
Whereas the sequence of training undertaken by the sama- ions pertaining to the vehicle of serenity. This type of men-
thayānika meditator is evident and unproblematic, a diffi- tal unification is called “momentary concentration” (kha1i-
culty seems to crop up in the case of the vipassanāyānika’s ka samādhi). Despite its name, momentary concentration
does not signify a single moment of concentration amidst a
1. “Pa;hamaH p’āhaH bhikkhave jhānaH nissāya āsavānaH khāyaH vadāmī ti current of distracted thoughts. Rather, it denotes a dynamic
iti kho pan’etaH vuttaH, kin c’etaH pa;icca vuttaH? Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu
vivicc’eva kāmehi… pa;hamaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati… So yad eva tat-
tha hoti rūpagataH vedanāgataH saññāgataH saIkhāragataH viññāJagataH, te 1. “Sammāsamādhisampannassa upanisā sampannaH hoti yathābhūtañāJadass-
dhamme aniccato dukkhato rogato gaJYato sallato aghato ābadhato parato pa- anaH… sammāsamādhi-vipannassa hatūpanisaH hoti yathābhūtañāJadassa-
lokato suññato anattato samanupassati. So tehi dhammehi cittaH pa;ivapeti, so naH.” AN. 5:4-5.
tehi dhammehi cittaH pa;ivapetvā amatāya dhātuyā cittaH upasaHharati… So 2. The seven purifications (sattavisuddhi) are discussed in detail in the follow-
tattha ;hito āsavānaH khayaH pāpuJāti.” AN. 4:422-23. ing section.

278 279
concentration which flows from object to object in the mode and is not overcome by opposition, fixes the mind
everchanging flux of phenomena, retaining a constant de- immovably, as if in absorption.”1
gree of intensity and collectedness sufficient to purify the The same work contains several other references to mo-
mind of the hindrances. Momentary concentration arises in mentary concentration. Commenting on Buddhaghosa’s re-
the samathayānika yogin simultaneously with his marks that sometimes the path to purification is taught by
post-jhānic attainment of insight, but for the vipassanā- insight alone, the Mahā !īkā points out that this remark is
yānika it develops naturally and spontaneously in the meant to exclude, not all concentration, but only “that con-
course of his insight practice without his having to fix the centration with distinction,” i.e. access and absorption. It
mind upon a single exclusive object. Thus the follower of then says: “Taking this stanza [Dhp. v. 277] as the teaching
the vehicle of insight does not omit concentration alto- for one whose vehicle is insight does not imply that there is
gether from his training, but develops it in a different man- no concentration; for no insight comes about without mom-
ner from the practitioner of serenity. Skipping over the entary concentration.”2 A short while later the Mahā !īkā
jhānas, he goes directly into contemplation on the five ag- again identifies momentary concentration with the type of
gregates, and by observing them constantly from moment concentration appropriate to one whose vehicle is insight:
to moment acquires momentary concentration as an ac-
… supramundane… concentration and insight are im-
companiment of his investigations. This momentary con-
possible without mundane concentration and insight to
centration fulfills the same function as the basic jhāna of precede them; for without the access and absorption
the serenity-vehicle, providing the foundation of mental concentration in one whose vehicle is serenity, or with-
clarity needed for insight to emerge. out the momentary concentration in one whose vehicle
The importance of momentary concentration in the vehicle is insight, and without the Gateways to Liberation…,
the supramundane can never in either case be reached.3
of insight is testified to both by the classical Theravāda ex-
egetical literature and by modern exponents of the “dry vip- The commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya, in a passage
assanā” approach. The Visuddhimagga, in its discussion of quoted fully above, states that “someone contemplates with
mindfulness of breathing, states that “at the actual time of insight the five aggregates of clinging as impermanent, etc.
insight momentary unification of the mind arises through
the penetration of the characteristics (of impermanence,
1. PP., pp. 311-12 Fn. 63. “KhaJikacittekaggatā’ti khaJamatta;;hitiko samādhi.
and so on).”1 Its commentary, the Paramatthamañjūsā, de- So’pi hi ārammaJe nirantaraH ekākārena pavattamāno pa;ipakkhena anabhib-
fines the phrase “momentary unification of the mind” as hūto appito viya cittaH niccalaH ;hapeti.” Vism.T. 1:342.
concentration lasting only for a moment, stating: “For that 2. PP., p. 2 Fn. 3. “Matta saddena ca visesanivattiatthena savisesaH samādhiH
nivatteti. So upacārappanābhedo vipassanāyānikassa desanāti katvā na samādhi
too, when it occurs uninterruptedly on its object in a single mattaH. Na hi khaJikasamādhiH vinā vipassanā sambhavati.” Vism.T. 1:11.
3. PP., p. 3 Fn. 4. “Nānantariyabhāvena panettha lokiyāpi gahitāva honti loki-
yasamatha vipassanāya vinā tadabhāvato. Samathayānikassahi upacārappanā-
bhedaH samādhiH, itarassa khaJikasamādhiH. Ubhayesampi vimokkhamu-
1. PP., pp. 311-12. “VipassanākkhaJe lakkhaJapa;ivedhena uppajjati khaJika- khattayaH vinā na kadācipi lokuttarādhigamo sambhavati.” Vism.T. 1:15. For
cittekaggatā;…” Vism., p. 239. the three gateways to liberation, see below pp. 318-19.

280 281
without having produced the aforesaid kinds of serenity.”1 “has only momentary duration, its power of resistance to
Its subcommentary, clarifying this statement, explains: being overwhelmed by opposition corresponds to that of
“The qualification ‘without having serenity’ is meant to ex- access concentration.”1
clude access concentration, not momentary concentration, Momentary concentration is thus, in contrast to jhānic con-
for no insight is possible without momentary concentra- centration, a fluid type of mental collectedness consisting
tion.”2 (Wr. tr.). in the uninterrupted continuity of thoughts engaged in no-
A concise description of the way momentary concentration ticing the passing succession of objects. Its objects are var-
arises is presented by the Venerable Mahāsī Sayadaw.3 The ied and changing but its force of concentration remains
Sayadaw explains that a meditator begins the development constant. This force fixes the mind on the object as though
of insight by attending to the diverse mental and bodily fixing it in absorption, holding the hindrances at bay and
processes that become manifest to him, making the tactile building up the power of mental purification. For this rea-
process of the rising and falling of the abdomen his basic son momentary concentration can be understood as implic-
object of mindfulness. At first, during the early part of his itly included in access concentration in the standard defini-
practice, his mind tends to be distracted by wandering tions of purification of mind as consisting in access and
thoughts, but with time his thought-process of noticing be- absorption.
comes well concentrated. When he can notice the objects
that appear continuously, undisturbed by hindrances, his The Seven Purifications
practice has arrived at momentary concentration: The path to deliverance, usually expounded in terms of the
While thus practising the exercise of noticing with ‘un- three trainings in morality, concentration and wisdom, is
hindered mind’, the noticing mind will get more close sometimes divided further into seven stages called the
to and fixed at whichever object is noticed, and the act
seven purification (sattavisuddhi). The canonical basis for
of noticing will proceed without break. At that time
there arises in him, in uninterrupted succession, ‘the this system is the Rathavinīta Sutta (MN. No.24) and the
concentration of mind lasting for a moment’, directed Pa;isambhidāmagga. The scheme claims special promin-
to each object noticed.4 ence in the Theravāda commentarial tradition since it forms
the framework for the Visuddhimagga. As such it comes to
The Sayadaw holds that this momentary concentration
the forefront in every discussion of the progressive stages
claims the place of purification of mind in the dry insight-
of Buddhist meditation.
worker’s course of development. He states that though it
According to this scheme in order to attain full liberation
1. See above, p. 294. the meditator has to pass through seven kinds of purificat-
2. “SamathaH anuppādetvāvāti avadhāraJena upacāra samādhiH nivatteti, na ion. The seven are: [1] purification of morality (sīla visud-
khaJika samādhiH; na hi khaJikasamādhiH vinā vipassanā sambhavati.” dhi); [2] purification of mind (citta visuddhi); [3] purific-
MN.T. 1:204.
ation of view (di hi visuddhi); [4] purification by the over-
3. PI., pp. 4-5.
4. Ibid. p. 4. 1. Ibid.

282 283
coming of doubt (ka*khàvitara1a visuddhi); [5] purification mentary concentration, which as it overcomes the hin-
by knowledge and vision of the right and wrong paths drances can be subsumed under access concentration.
(maggāmaggañā1adassana visuddhi); [6] purification by
knowledge and vision of the way (pa ipadāñā1adassana vi- 3. Purification of view (di99hi visuddhi)
suddhi); and [7] purification by knowledge and vision (ñā- The remaining five purifications pertain to the training in
1adassana visuddhi). The Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha rec- wisdom. The first four belong to the mundane portion of
ognizes several other sets of terms essential to the develop- the path or insight-wisdom (vipassanā-paññā), the last to
ment of wisdom – the three characteristics of phenomena, the supramundane portion or the wisdom of the noble path
the three contemplations, the ten kinds of insight know- (magga-ñā1a).
ledge, the three liberations, and the three doors to liber- Purification of view aims at obtaining a correct perspective
ation;1 but since these all come in the scope of the seven on the nature of individual existence. Buddhism teaches
purification we can take the latter as the basis for our dis- that it is the wrong grasp of existence, crystallized in the
cussion, mentioning the others when they become relevant. view of a substantial self, that keeps the unenlightened
chained to sa,sāra. To reach liberation this delusive view
1. Purification of Morality (sīlavisuddhi)
has to be dissolved by purified view, which from the Budd-
The purification of morality is identical with the training in hist standpoint means comprehending the so-called individ-
the higher moral discipline (adhisīlasikkhā). It consists in ual as a compound of evanescent material and mental phen-
the fourfold purification of morality already discussed, i.e. omena without any inner core of substance or selfhood.
restraint according to the rules of the Pātimokkha, restraint Purification of view is achieved by bringing these phen-
of the senses, purity of livelihood, and purity in the use of omena into focus, defining them in terms of their salient
requisites.2 This is the foundation for the growth of insight characteristics and functions, and using this knowledge to
just as much as for the development of serenity. remove the erroneous view of a self-subsistent ego.
2. Purification of Mind (citta visuddhi) The samathayānika and vipassanāyānika approach this pu-
Purification of mind coincides with the training in concen- rification from different angles, though the end result is the
tration (samādhi) or higher consciousness (adhicittasik- same for both. The former, after emerging from any fine
khā). It is defined as the eight attainments of absorption to- material or immaterial jhāna except the last (which is too
gether with access concentration. The samathayānika yogin subtle for analysis), discerns its jhāna factors and their
accomplishes purification of mind by achieving access or concomitants in the light of their specific characteristics,
full absorption in one or several jhānas, thereby suppress- functions, manifestations, and proximate causes. He then
ing the five hindrances. The vipassanāyānika disciple, as defines all these states as “mentality” (nāma). He next dis-
we noted, achieves purification of mind by means of mo- cerns the physical basis for these mental phenomena, the
matter of the heart (hadayarūpa),1 as well as the remaining
1. Nārada. Manual., pp. 408-409, 411-12.
1. The ancient Indian physiology, accepted by the Buddhist commentarial tradi-
2. See above, Ch. II, pp. 28-36. tion, identified the heart with the seat of consciousness. In the canonical texts
284 285
primary and secondary kinds of material phenomena. conditions for mentality-materiality. He understands that
These he groups together under the heading of “material- the mind-body combination is neither causeless nor created
ity” (rūpa). He thus perceives the living being as a compos- by any single cause but arises due to a multiplicity of
ite of mentality and materiality, nāmarūpa, without an causes and conditions. He first seeks out the causes and
over-ruling self hidden within or behind it. conditions for the body and discovers that the body is
The vipassanāyānika begins to purify his view by analyz- brought into being by four causes operating from the past –
ing the body into the four primary elements – solidity, flu- ignorance, craving, clinging, and kamma – and sustained in
idity, heat, and oscillation. After defining these in terms of the present by nutriment as its primary present condition.
their characteristics, he repeats the procedure for the other He then turns his attention to mentality, and finds that all
material phenomena, defining them all as materiality. He mental phenomena come into being in dependence on con-
then turns to the states of consciousness and their principal ditions, such as sense organs, sense objects, and conascent
concomitants, defining them and grouping them under the mental factors, as well as through the defilements and
heading of “mentality.” Thus, like the first kind of yogin, kamma accumulated in the past. When he sees that the pre-
he eventually arrives at the realization that the living being sent occurrence of mentality-materiality is due to causes
is merely a compound of mutually supporting mental and and conditions, he infers that the same principle applied to
physical phenomena apart from which there is no separate its occurrence in the past and will apply to its occurrence in
entity to be identified as a “self,” “being,” or “person.” the future. In this way he overcomes all doubt and uncer-
tainty regarding the conditioned origination of mind and
The process of analysis can be undertaken using as basis matter in the three periods of time.
the five aggregates, the twelve sense bases (the six sense
faculties including mind and their six respective objects), By discerning the conditional basis for the mental-material
the eighteen elements (six objects, six faculties, and six con- compound, the yogin arrives at the realization that the
sciousnesses), or any other mode of classification. In the course of existence is merely a succession of active kammic
end all are defined in terms of mentality and materiality, processes and passive resultant processes. The aggregates
resulting in the removal of the view of a self-identical ego. occurring in the past ceased immediately after arising but
gave rise to aggregates occurring in the present. The ag-
4. Purification by Overcoming Doubt (kaDkhāvitara3a- gregates occurring now will cease in the present and give
visuddhi) rise to aggregates occurring in the future. There is nothing
Once the disciple has overcome the false view of a self by permanent passing through this succession. It is merely a
discerning the living being as a compound of material and sequence of phenomena acting and experiencing without an
mental phenomena, he next sets out to overcome doubts agent over and above the actions or a subject over and
concerning this compound by investigating the causes and above the experiences.

no such identification is made. Reference is only made to “that matter in de-

pendence on which mind and mind-consciousness occur.” See Narada, Man-
ual., pp. 292-93.

286 287
5. Purification by Knowledge and Vision into the Right sense doors, the six objects, the six kinds of consciousness,
and Wrong Paths (maggāmaggañā3adassanavisuddhi) six contacts, six feelings, six perceptions, six volitions, the
Before the next purification can arise several intermediate twelve sense bases, the eighteen elements, etc. The four
steps are necessary. Firstly, after dispelling his doubts by jhānas, four divine abidings (brahmavihāras), and four im-
the knowledge of conditionality, the disciple undertakes the material attainments are also included. Since the text ad-
form of insight called “comprehension by groups” (kalāpa- vises a beginner to develop comprehension by contemplat-
sammasana). Comprehension by groups involves collecting ing those states that are readily discernible by him, a sama-
all phenomena into distinct categories and defining them in thayānika yogin will generally choose as his object of com-
terms of the three characteristics. Thus the disciple con- prehension a jhāna he has achieved and mastered; this be-
templates all material form, feeling, perception, mental comes his sammasitajjhāna, as we explained above.
formations, and consciousness as impermanent, all as suf- Whatever objects he selects as material for comprehension,
fering, and all as not self, each being a separate compre- the disciple must understand the precise way they embody
hension. the three characteristics. Firstly, they are all impermanent
As the Pa;isambhidāmagga states: in the sense that they are subject to destruction (khay-
a hena). Nothing that comes into being is able to last for-
Any materiality whatever, whether past, future or pre-
ever, but whatever arises is bound to eventually pass away.
sent, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or
superior, far or near – he defines all materiality as im- Secondly, they are all suffering in the sense of being fearful
permanent: this is one kind of comprehension. He de- (bhaya hena). Since all composite phenomena are imper-
fines it as painful: this is one kind of comprehension. manent they cannot provide any lasting contentment or se-
He defines it as not self: this is one kind of com- curity, but when held to with clinging are a potential source
prehension. Any feeling whatever,… Any perception of suffering to be regarded as harmful and fearful. And
whatever,… Any formations whatever,… Any con- thirdly, they are all selfless in the sense of being coreless
sciousness whatever,… – he defines all consciousness (asāra hena). Composite phenomena, being compounded
as impermanent:… He defines it as not self.1 by conditions, lack any inner essence that can be conceived
This same method of comprehension can be applied not as a self, inner agent or subject, and thus are empty of a
only to the five aggregates but to any categorical scheme core.1
for classifying the constituents of experience – the six When the meditator succeeds in comprehending the vari-
1. PP., 706. “YaH kiñci rūpaH atītānāgata paccuppannaH ajjhattaH vā bahiddā ous groups in terms of the three characteristics, he acquires
vā oXārikaH vā sukhumaH vā paJītaH vā yaH dūre santike vā, sabbaH rūpaH comprehension-knowledge, sammasañā1ana. This marks
aniccato vavattheti ekaH sammasanaH, dukkhato vavattheti ekaH sammasa-
naH, anattato vavattheti ekaH sammsanaH. Yā kañci vedanā… yā kañci sañ- the actual beginning of insight. According to the Abhid-
ña… ye keci saIkhārā… yaH kiñci viññāJaH atītānāgatapaccuppannaH aj- hammattha Sa*gaha comprehension knowledge is the first
jhattaH vā bahiddhā vā oXārikaH vā sukhumaH vā hīnaH vā paJītaH vā yaH
dūre santike vā, sabbaH viññāJaH aniccato vavattheti ekaH sammasanaH,
dukkhato vavattheti, ekaH sammasanaH, anattato vavattheti, ekaH sammasa-
naH.” Pts., p. 51. 1. PP., pp. 709-710. Vism., p. 523.

288 289
of the ten kinds of insight-knowledge through which a vi- stages of enlightenment. Therefore novice yogins are ad-
passanā-practitioner has to pass.1 vised not to allow themselves to be deterred by such occur-
From comprehension-knowledge the disciple passes on to rences but to recognize them for what they are: by-products
knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayā- of insight which can become impediments if wrongly ad-
nupassanāñā1a). This knowledge, defined simply as “un- hered to. The skilled meditator contemplates them as bare
derstanding of contemplating present states, change,”2 is phenomena – impermanent, suffering, and selfless. He dis-
gained by contemplating the presently existent five aggre- tinguishes the right path from the wrong, realizing that
gates as characterized by rise and fall. In brief, it arises by these ten states are not the path but distractions; insight-
seeing the rise of the aggregates in their characteristic of knowledge free from imperfections is the path. The know-
generation, birth, or arising, and their fall in their char- ledge that is established in him by making this distinction is
acteristic of change, destruction, or dissolution. In greater the purification by knowledge and vision into the right and
detail, it involves perceiving the arising of each aggregate wrong paths.
through its specific conditions and its cessation through the 6. Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Way
cessation of these conditions. Focussing in more closely on (pa9ipadāñā3adassana visuddhi)
the present process, the meditator realizes that present phe-
nomena, not having been, are brought into being, and that Having relinquished attachment to the ten imperfections of
having been they immediately vanish. Formations appear to insight and correctly distinguished the true path from the
him as instantaneous, coming into being and passing away false, the disciple now enters upon a steady progression of
with inconceivable rapidity, perpetually renewed.3 insights which will lead him through increasingly deeper
levels of understanding right up to the threshold of the su-
When he gains this initial understanding of rise and fall the pramundane path. These insights, nine in number, begin
meditator has arrived at tender insight (taru1avipassanā). with mature knowledge of rise and fall and culminate in
At this point, as a result of his successful practice, ten un- conformity knowledge (anulomañā1a), the pinnacle of
precedented experiences are likely to arise in him. Because mundane insight. Together with the previously accomp-
they can impede his progress, these are called the ten im- lished comprehension-knowledge (sammasanañā1a), these
perfections of insight (vipasanūpakkilesā). The ten are: ill- nine insights complete the ten kinds of insight-knowledge
umination, knowledge, rapture, tranquility, happiness, reso- mentioned in the Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha.
lution, exertion, mindfulness, equanimity, and attachment.4
If he is not cautious the unwary meditator can misinterpret Knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayā-
these occurrences and think that he has reached one of the nupassanā-ñāJa)
After distinguishing the right path from the wrong the
1. Narada, Manual., pp. 409, 411.
2. PP., p. 734. Pts., pp. 53-54.
meditator resumes the contemplation of rise and fall.
3. PP., pp. 736-38. Vism., pp. 542-43. Though he had previously cultivated this knowledge in
4. PP., pp. 739ff. “Obhāsa, ñāJa, pīti, passaddhi, sukha, adhimokkha, paggaha, part, his contemplation was disabled by the imperfections
upa;;hāna, upekkhā, nikanti.” Vism., pp. 544-45.

290 291
of insight and could not clearly observe the three character- draws the inference that all past formations dissolved and
istics. But now that the imperfections have been removed all future ones will dissolve. Since dissolution is the culmi-
contemplation becomes extremely sharp, causing the three nating point of impermanence, the most salient aspect of
characteristics to stand out in bold relief. By attending to suffering, and the strongest negation of selfhood, the three
the rise and fall of formations the yogin sees the mark of marks stand forth more distinctly than ever before. The
impermanence – formations changing constantly at every whole field of formations thus becomes evident to contem-
moment, produced and stopped with inconceivable rapidity. plation as impermanent, suffering, and selfless. With the
As impermanence becomes more conspicuous suffering insight that formations break up constantly without a pause,
begins to stand out in its fundamental form, as continuous and that this ceaseless process of momentary dissolution
oppression by rise and fall. The yogin then realizes that holds sway over the three periods of time, the meditator ar-
whatever changes and causes suffering is insusceptible to rives at knowledge of contemplation of dissolution.
the exercise of mastery, hence incapable of being identified Knowledge of appearance as terror (bhayatūpa;;hāna-ñāJa)
as a self or the belongings of a self; this brings the under-
standing of the mark of selflessness into view. Having un- As he repeats and cultivates his insight into the destruction,
covered the three characteristics, the meditator sees that the fall, and breakup of formations,
so-called being is nothing but a becoming, a flux of evan- formations classed according to all kinds of becoming,
escent, painful, impersonal happenings which does not re- generation, destiny, station, or abode of beings, appear
main the same for two consecutive moments. to him in the form of a great terror, as lions, tigers,
leopards,… appear to a timid man who wants to live in
Knowledge of contemplation of dissolution (bhangānu- peace.1
passanā-ñāJa) When he sees how past formations have ceased, present
As the meditator persists in his contemplation of rise and ones are ceasing, and future ones will cease, there arises in
fall, it becomes increasingly apparent that conditioned for- him knowledge of appearance as terror, born of the under-
mations undergo three phases of becoming: a phase of aris- standing that whatever is bound for destruction cannot be
ing (uppāda), a phase of presence ( hiti), and a phase of relied upon and is therefore fearful.
dissolution (bha*ga). When he can discern these phases Knowledge of contemplation of danger (ādīnavānupassanā-
clearly, the yogin no longer extends his mindfulness to their ñāJa)
arising or presence, but focusses exclusively upon the final
phase – their momentary cessation, dissolution, or breaking The next stage of insight-knowledge arises naturally out of
up. He then sees how formations break up all the time “like the previous one. As the meditator cultivates the knowledge
fragile pottery being smashed, like fine dust being dispers- of appearance as terror he finds that there is no shelter, pro-
ed, like sesamum seeds being roasted.”1 Applying his direct tection, or refuge in any kind of becoming. He sees that
knowledge of present dissolution to the past and future, he since there is no shelter in any state of existence there is not

1. PP., p. 752. Vism., p. 553. 1. PP., p. 753. Vism., pp. 554-55.

292 293
a single formation he can pin his hopes on: all hold nothing all. Even before he came to this knowledge the meditator
but danger. Then “the three kinds of becoming appear like had reduced his gross attachments but now, having seen the
charcoal pits full of glowing coals,… and all formations fear and danger in formations, he gains dispassion towards
appear as a huge mass of dangers destitute of satisfaction or the five aggregates on account of their impermanent, fear-
substance.”1 The meditator discerns the potential danger in ful, and insecure nature. It should be noted that according
all existence just as a timid man sees the danger in a de- to the Pa;isambhidāmagga these last three insights – know-
lightful forest thicket infested with wild beasts.2 ledge of terror, of danger, and of dispassion – represent
The Pa;isambhidāmagga explains how the knowledge of phases of one kind of insight-knowledge apprehending its
appearance as terror (or the knowledge of the presence of object in three different ways.1
fear) becomes the knowledge of danger thus: Knowledge of desire for deliverance (muñcitukamyatā-
Birth is fear – thus understanding in the presence of ñāJa)
fear becomes knowledge of danger. Existence is fear… When the meditator becomes dispassionate towards the
decay is fear… sickness is fear… death is fear… sor- formations in all the kinds of becoming, his mind no longer
row is fear… lamentation is fear… despair is fear, thus
cleaves to them. The desire then arises in him to get rid of
understanding in the presence of fear is knowledge of
danger.3 formations, to be released and liberated from them all. The
knowledge that arises in association with this desire is
Danger arises out of fearful conditions and fearful condit- knowledge of desire for deliverance.
ions give rise to danger. Birth, existence, decay, etc., being
fearful states threaten danger to those exposed to them. For Knowledge of contemplation of reflection (pa;isaIkhānu-
a meditator who perceives the dangers in all these fearful passanā-ñāJa)
conditions, the knowledge of appearance as terror becomes In order to be released from the whole field of conditioned
transformed into the knowledge of contemplation of dan- phenomena the meditator returns to the contemplation of
ger. formations, examining them again and again in terms of
Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion (nibbidānu- impermanence, suffering and selflessness. Looking at them
passanā-ñāJa) from a variety of angles in the light of the three character-
istics, he sees formations as impermanent because they are
Seeing the danger in all compounded things the meditator non-continuous, temporary, limited by rise and fall, disinte-
becomes dispassionate towards them. He finds no delight grating, perishable, subject to change, etc.; as suffering be-
in any state of worldly existence but turns away from them cause they are continuously oppressed, hard to bear, the ba-
sis of pain, a disease, a tumor, a dart, a calamity, an afflict-
1. PP., p. 755. Vism., p. 556.
2. Ibid.
ion, etc.; as not self because they are alien, empty, vain,
3. BMTP., p. 377. “Uppādo bhayanti bhayatūpa;;hāne paññā ādīnave ñāJaH. void, ownerless, without an overlord, with none to wield
PavattiH bhayanti… jarā bhayanti… byādhi bhayanti… maraJaH bhayanti…
soko bhayanti… paridevo bhayanti… upāyāso bhayanti, bhayatūpa;;hāne paññā
ādīnave ñāJaH.” Pts., p. 377. SN. 4:173-75. 1. Pts., p. 259.
294 295
power over them, etc.1 This extended understanding of the When the meditator’s knowledge ripens and the move to
three characteristics is the knowledge of contemplation of the supramundane path becomes imminent, insight tends to
reflection. settle down in one of the three contemplations – on imper-
Knowledge of equanimity about formations (saIkhārupek- manence, suffering, or selflessness – as determined by the
khā-ñāJa) meditator’s disposition. Because they lead directly to the
liberating experience of the noble path, these contemplat-
To deepen his understanding of selflessness the meditator ions, at the pinnacle of insight, are called the three gate-
contemplates voidness (suññatā) in various ways. He sees ways to liberation (tī1i vimokkhamukhāni). The contempla-
that all compounds are empty of self or of anything be- tion of impermanence becomes the gateway to the signless
longing to a self, that nothing can be identified as “I” or as liberation (animitta vimokkha) for it directs the mind to
the property of an “I”, as an “other” or as the property of nibbāna as the signless element; the contemplation of suf-
an “other”.2 Perceiving the voidness of selfhood in form- fering becomes the gateway to the desireless liberation (ap-
ations, the meditator abandons both terror and attachment. pa1ihitavimokkha) for it directs the mind to nibbāna as the
He develops instead a sense of detached equanimity: desireless element; and the contemplation of non-self be-
This [meditator], wanting to get free from all form- comes the gateway to the void liberation (suññatavimok-
ations, discerns formations by the contemplation of re- kha) for it directs the mind to nibbāna as the void element.
flection; then, seeing nothing to be taken as ‘I’ or
‘mine’, he abandons both terror and delight and be- The liberation to which these contemplations are gateways
comes indifferent and neutral towards all formations.3 is the supramundane path. Though one in essence the path
With the arising of this knowledge the disciple’s mind re- gains three names according to the aspect of nibbāna it fo-
treats, retracts, and recoils from all the planes of becoming cusses upon. As Buddhaghosa explains:
and no longer goes out to them “just as a fowl’s feather or a And here the signless liberation should be understood
shred of sinew thrown on a fire retreats, retracts, and re- as the noble path that has occurred by making nibbana
its object through the signless aspect. For that path is
coils, and does not spread out.”4 At this stage, if contem-
signless owing to the signless element having arisen,
plation should perceive nibbāna, the meditator’s goal, then and it is a liberation owing to deliverance from defile-
it will reject formations and focus on nibbāna. But if it ments. In the same way the path that has occurred by
does not see nibbāna the meditator will continue in the making nibbana its object through the desireless aspect
knowledge of equanimity about formations until his con- is desireless. And the path that has occurred by making
templation acquires further maturity. nibbana its object through the void aspect is void.1

1. PP., p. 760. Vism., p. 559. 1. PP., p. 768. “Ettha ca, animittavimokkho ti animittākārena nibbānaH āram-
maJaH katvā pavatto ariyamaggo. So hi animittāya dhātuyā uppannattā ani-
2. PP., pp. 762-63. Vism., p. 561. SN. 3:167.
mitto, kilesehi ca vimuttattā vimokkho. Eten’eva nayena appaJihitākārena nib-
3. PP., p. 765. Vism., p. 563. bānaH ārammaJaH katvā pavatto appaJihito, suññatākārena nibbānaH āram-
4. PP., p. 766. Vism., p. 564. maJaH katvā pavatto suññato ti veditabbo.” Vism., p. 565.

296 297
The factor that determines which particular “gateway” will mundane knowledge lead immediately to the path they are
be entered and which liberation attained is the spiritual collectively named insight leading to emergence.
faculty predominant in the meditator’s mental makeup. Conformity knowledge (anuloma-ñāJa)
One with strong faith (saddhā) tends to settle down in con-
templation of impermanence, one with strong concen- As the meditator cultivates equanimity about formations
tration (samādhi) in the contemplation of suffering, and his faculties grow stronger and sharper. Then, at a certain
one with strong wisdom (paññā) in the contemplation of point, the realization dawns that the path is about to arise.
selflessness; thereby they each attain the path of liberation A thought-process of equanimity-knowledge occurs com-
corresponding to their specific contemplation. As it is said prehending formations through one of the three character-
in the Pa;isambhidāmagga: istics – as either impermanent, or suffering, or selfless; the
mind then sinks into the life-continuum (bhava*ga). Fol-
When one who has great resolution brings [formations]
lowing the life continuum there arises in the stream of con-
to mind as impermanent, he acquires the signless lib-
eration. When one who has great tranquility brings sciousness a mind-door adverting (manodvārāvajjana) ap-
[them] to mind as painful, he acquires the desireless prehending formations as impermanent, or suffering, or
liberation. When one who has great wisdom brings selfless, in accordance with the previous process of equa-
[them] to mind as not-self, he acquires the void libera- nimity-knowledge. Immediately after the adverting two or
tion.1 three impulsions occur making formations their object in
Insight-knowledge that has reached its climax and is about terms of the same characteristic. The three are individually
to issue in the supramundane path is also known by another called “preliminary work” (parikamma), “access” (upa-
name, “insight leading to emergence” (vu hānagāminī- cāra), and “conformity” (anuloma), but they are most
vipassanā).2 This name covers three kinds of knowledge: commonly collected under the group name “conformity.”
fully matured equanimity about formations and the two that In very quick-witted meditators the moment of preliminary
follow it – conformity knowledge (anuloma ñā1a) and work is passed over and only the two moments of access
change-of-lineage knowledge (gotrabhū ñā1a). The word and conformity occur. Conformity knowledge receives its
“emergence” (vu hāna) signifies the supramundane path, name because it conforms to the functions of truth in the
which is called thus because externally it rises up from eight kinds of insight-knowledge preceding it and in the
formations to apprehend nibbāna and internally it rises up thirty-seven states partaking of enlightenment to follow.1 It
from defilements and the aggregates consequent upon them is the last moment of insight-knowledge before the change
to a state of complete purity. Since these last three kinds of over to the supramundane path supervenes.

1. PP., p. 768. “Aniccato manasikaronto adhimokkhabahulo animittavimok-

khaH pa;ilabhati. Dukkhato manasikaronto passaddhibahulo appaJihitavimok-
khaH pa;ilabhati. Anattato manasikaronto vedabahulo suññatavimokkhaH pa;i-
labhati.” Pts., p. 254.
2. PP., pp. 772-75. Vism., pp. 567-69. 1. PP., pp. 782-83. Vism., pp. 575-76.

298 299
7. Purification by Knowledge and Vision (ñā3adassanav- pleted whatever he had to do. At this point his mind no
isuddhi) longer holds to any formation, but turns away from the en-
Change-of lineage (gotrabhū) tire field of formations as all conditioned phenomena ap-
pear to him to be impediments. However, though conform-
The last purification, purification by knowledge and vision, ity-knowledge dispels the delusion that conceals the truths,
consists of the knowledge of the four supramundane paths it cannot penetrate the truths. For the truths to be pene-
– the path of stream-entry, the path of the once-returner, trated nibbāna must be realized as object. Change-of-
the path of the non-returner, and the path of arahatship. lineage knowledge, which arises right after conformity, is
However, immediately after conformity knowledge and be- the first state of consciousness to make nibbāna its object.
fore the moment of the first path, there occurs one thought- It is the initial advertance to nibbāna, functioning as the
moment called change-of-lineage knowledge (gotrabhū- proximate, immediate and decisive-support condition for
ñā1a). This knowledge has the function of adverting to the the arising of the first path.
path. Because it occupies an intermediate position it be-
longs neither to purification by knowledge and vision of the The first path and fruit
way nor to purification by knowledge and vision, but is re- Change-of-lineage knowledge perceives nibbāna but cannot
garded as unassignable. It receives the name “change-of- destroy the defilements. The eradication of defilements is
lineage” because by reaching this stage of knowledge the the work of the four supramundane paths (lokuttaramagga).
meditator “passes out of the lineage, the category, the Each path attainment is a momentary experience apprehen-
plane, of the ordinary man (puthujjana) and enters the line- ding nibbāna, understanding the Four Noble Truths, and
age, the category, the plane, of the Noble Ones.”1 In bring- cutting off certain defilements. The first path, as Buddha-
ing about such a radical transformation change-of-lineage ghosa explains, arises in immediate succession to change-
is clearly a most important and crucial moment of spiritual of-lineage:
development.
…After, as it were, giving a sign to the path to come
The three kinds of conformity knowledge – preliminary into being it [change-of-lineage] ceases. And without
work, access, and conformity proper – dispel the “murk of pausing after the sign given by that change-of-lineage
defilements” that conceal the Four Noble Truths. Each of knowledge the path follows upon it in uninterrupted
the three clears away a degree of delusion, permitting the continuity, and as it comes into being it pierces and ex-
truths to become more and more manifest. When the medit- plodes the mass of greed, the mass of hatred, and the
mass of delusion, never pierced and exploded before.1
ator reaches conformity knowledge nothing more needs to
be done as preparation for the attainment of the first path.
By arousing the insights ending in conformity he has com-
1. PP., pp. 787-88. “…EvaH nibbattahi ti maggassa saññaH datvā viya niru-
jjhati. Maggo pi tena dinnasaññaH amuñcitvā va avīcisantativasena taH ñāJaH
1. PP., p. 785. “PuthujjanagottaH puthujjanasaIkhaH puthujjanabhūmiH atik- anubandhamāno anibbiddhapubbaH apadālitapubbaH lobhakkhandhaH dosak-
kamamānaH, ariyagottaH ariyasaIkhaH ariyabhūmiH okkamamānaH.” khandhaH mohakkhandhaH nibbijjhamāno vā padālayamāno vā nibbattati.”
Vism., p. 577. Vism., p. 579.

300 301
The first path is called the path of stream entry (sotāpatti- lower worlds (orambhāgiyāni samyojanāni) because they
magga) since the disciple who has reached this path has en- keep beings tied to the sensuous realms; the last five are
tered the stream of the Dhamma (dhammasota), the Noble called the fetters pertaining to the higher worlds (uddham-
Eightfold Path, which will take him to nibbāna as surely as bhāgiyāni samyojanāni) because they remain operative
the waters in a stream will be carried to the ocean.1 On en- even in the fine material and immaterial realms.1 Some of
tering this path he has passed beyond the level of a world- these fetters – doubt, sensual desire, ill will, and restless-
ling (puthujjana) and become a noble one, an ariyan, who ness – are identical in nature with the five hindrances ab-
has seen and understood the Dhamma for himself. The path andoned by jhāna. But whereas mundane jhāna only sup-
gives him real experience of the seven noble treasures: presses the manifest eruptions of these defilements, leaving
faith, virtue, conscience, shame, learning, generosity, and the latent tendencies untouched, the supramundane paths
wisdom.2 With the attainment of the path he acquires the cut them off at the root. With attainment of the fourth path
eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, abandons the the last and subtlest of the fetters are eradicated. Thus the
eightfold wrong path, and is on the way to becoming a arahat, the fully liberated one, is described as “one who has
breast-born son of the Buddha.3 eliminated the fetters of existence” (parikkhī1abhavasa,-
As the passage cited above makes clear, when the path- yojana).2
knowledge arises it breaks through the mass of greed, hatr- The path of stream-entry eradicates the first three fetters –
ed, and delusion, the root-defilements which drive living the fetters of false views of personality, doubt, and clinging
beings from birth to birth in beginningless sa,sāra. Each to rites and rituals. The first is the view that the five aggre-
supramundane path has the special function of eradicating gates can be identified with a self or can be seen as con-
defilements. The defilements cut off by the successive taining, contained in, or belonging to a self.3 The more
paths are classified into a set of ten “fetters” (sa,yojana), theoretical forms of this view are attenuated by insight-
so called because they keep beings chained to the round of knowledge into impermanence, suffering, and selflessness,
existence. The ten fetters, which all arise out of the three but the subtle latent holding to such views can only be de-
unwholesome roots, are: [1] wrong views of personality stroyed by path-knowledge. “Doubt” is uncertainty with re-
(sakkāyadi hi), [2] doubt (vicikicchā), [3] clinging to rites gard to the Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, and the training; it
and rituals (sīlabbata parāmāsa), [4] sensual desire (kām- is eliminated when the disciple sees for himself the truth of
acchanda), [5] ill will (vyāpāda), [6] lust for fine material the Dhamma.4 “Clinging to rites and rituals” is the belief
existence (rūparāga), [7] lust for immaterial existence (arū- that liberation from suffering can be obtained merely by
parāga), [8] conceit (māna), [9] restlessness (uddhacca), observing rites and rituals. Having followed the path to its
and [10] ignorance (avijjā). The ten are divided into two climax, the disciple understands that the Noble Eightfold
groups: the first five are called the fetters pertaining to the
1. AN. 5:17.
1. SN. 5:347. 2. MN. 1:4.
2. “Saddhā, sīla, hiri, ottappa, suta, cāga, paññā.” DN. 3:251. 3. MN. 1:300.
3. SN. 2:221. 4. MN. 1:101.
302 303
Path is the one way to the end of suffering, and so can no follows it are supramundane states of consciousness (lo-
more fall back on rites and rituals. The path of stream entry kuttara citta), the former wholesome (kusala) and the latter
not only cuts off these fetters but also eliminates greed for resultant (vipāka). The path and fruit necessarily occur at
sense pleasures and resentment that would be strong the level of one of the jhānas – from the first to the fourth
enough to lead to states of loss, i.e. to rebirth in the four jhāna in the fourfold scheme, from the first to the fifth in
lower realms of the hells, tormented spirits, animals, and ti- the fivefold scheme. They partake of the character of jhāna
tans.1 For this reason the stream-enterer is released from because they contain the jhāna-factors endowed with an in-
the possibility of an unfortunate rebirth.2 tensity of absorption corresponding to that of the fine ma-
The path of stream-entry is followed by another occasion of terial sphere jhānas. But unlike the mundane jhānas these
supramundane experience called the fruit of stream entry jhānas of the path and fruit are supramundane, having an
(sotāpatti-phala). Fruition follows immediately upon the altogether different object and function than their counter-
path, succeeding it without a gap. It occurs as the result of parts, as we will see in the next chapter.
the path, sharing its object, nibbāna, and its world-trans- The following diagram illustrates the thought-process of
cending character. But whereas the path performs the ac- the path and fruit of stream-entry in the case of a normal
tive and demanding function of cutting off defilements, the meditator with three moments of conformity preceding the
fruit simply enjoys the bliss and peace that result from the path and two moments of fruition succeeding it:
path’s completion of its function. Also, whereas the path is A B
limited to only a single moment of consciousness, fruition _________ ________________
covers either two or three moments. In the case of a quick- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
witted meditator who passes over the moment of prelimi- bh l ch d p u a g m ph ph bh bh bh bh bh bh
nary work the cognitive process of the path contains only
two moments of conformity knowledge. Thus in his Here line A represents the four thought-moments preceding
thought-process, immediately after the path has arisen and the path process. This comprises the past bhava*ga or life-
ceased, three moments of fruition occur. In the case of an continuum (bh), its vibration (l), its cutting off (ch), and the
ordinary meditator there will be three moments of confor- mind’s advertance to formations as impermanent, suffer-
mity knowledge and thus, after the path, only two moments ing, or selfless through the mind-door (d). Line B repre-
of fruition. sents the lapsing of the mind back into the passive life-
The three moments of conformity knowledge and the mom- continuum after the fruition phase is over. P represents the
ent of change-of-lineage are wholesome states of con- moment of preliminary work (parikamma), u the moment
sciousness pertaining to the sense sphere (kāmāvacaraku- of access (upacāra), a the moment of conformity (anu-
salacitta). The path consciousness and the fruition that loma), and g the moment of change-of-lineage (gotrabhū)
where the ordinary stream of consciousness belonging to
1. Dhs., p. 208.
the sensual plane changes over to the lineage of the noble
2. PP., p. 801. Vism., p. 588. path. The following m represents the noble path conscious-
304 305
ness (magga citta). After this there are two ph’s represent- The disciple at the moment of the path of stream-entry is
ing the fruit of stream-entry, then the mind relapses into the called “one standing on the path of stream-entry” or the
life-continuum (bhava*ga) which is represented by bh re- first noble person; from the moment of fruition up to the at-
peated six times. The groups of three dots in each citta rep- tainment of the next path he is called a stream-enterer
resent the birth (uppāda), transformation or duration ( hiti), (sotāpanna), reckoned as the second noble person. Though
and dissolution (bha*ga) of each thought moment.1 conventionally the person standing on the path and the one
It is evident from this diagram that the noble path con- abiding in the fruit can be described as one and the same
sciousness is limited to only a single conscious moment. individual at two different moments, the philosophical per-
Immediately after this moment ceases it yields to its fruit- spective requires another kind of descriptive device. From
ion moment. The diagram also shows the two distinct the standpoint of ultimate truth, according to Buddhism, an
thought-moments of path and fruit linked directly together individual endures as such for only one thought-moment.
for the reason that it is impossible to have the thought- Therefore, in classifying the types of noble persons, the
moment of the stream-entry path without the fruit follow- Buddha drew upon the distinction between the thought-
ing in immediate succession. After two thought-moments moments of path and fruition as the basis for a distinction
of fruition the mental process returns to the life continuum. between two types of noble persons. This bifurcation ap-
plies to each of the four stages of deliverance: for each, the
After the attainment of fruition the stream-enterer reviews individual at the path-moment is reckoned as one type of
the path, fruition, and nibbāna. He will generally also re- noble person, the same individual from the moment of frui-
view the defilements he has destroyed by the path and the tion on as another type of noble person.
defilements remaining to be destroyed by the higher paths;
this, however, is not invariably fixed and is sometimes The texts extoll the stream-enterer as acquiring incalculable
omitted by some meditators. The ariyan disciples who have benefits as a result of his attainment. He has closed off the
passed through the next two fruitions will likewise review doors to rebirth in the woeful states of existence and can
their attainments in the same way. Thus for each there will declare of himself:
be at a minimum three and at a maximum five items to be Destroyed for me is rebirth in the hells, in the animal
reviewed.2 For the arahat, however, there will be a maxi- kingdom, in the spirit realm, in the planes of misery,
mum of four since he has no more defilements to be elimi- the bad destinations, the downfall. I am a stream-enter-
nated. In this way there are a maximum of nineteen kinds
of reviewing (paccavekkha1a) following the supramundane
attainments.3
moli Tissa Thera. 2d ed. (Randombe, Ceylon: W. E. De Silva, Hetumuni Se-
1. Adopted from Nārada, Manual., pp. 214-19. Vism., pp. 111-12. Compen- maneris De Silva and R. C. P. Weerasuriya Waidyaratna, 1916), p. 249. Suman-
dium. pp. 54-55. gala, [Vibhāvani !īkā] Anuruddhācariya’s Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha with Ab-
2. Nārada, Manual, p. 410. Vism., p. 581. hidhammattha Vibhāvani īkā, revised and edited by Bhadanta Revatadhammat-
3. Anuruddha, Abhidharmartha Sa*grahaya, Translated [into Sinhalese] by thera. [Pāli Text in Devanagari script]. (Vārānasi, India: Bauddha Svādhyāya
Sariputra Sangharāja Mahāthera. Revised and edited by the Very Rev. Panna- Sātrā, 1965), pp. 157-58 (hereafter cited as Vibhāvani !īkā).

306 307
 er, no longer subject to decline, assured of and destined has sufficient supporting conditions and puts forth the nec-
for full enlightenment.1 (Wr. tr.). essary effort. Therefore the yogin abiding at the stage of
He can be certain that he is released from five kinds of fear stream-entry is advised to strive for the next higher path,
and hostility: the fear and hostility that come from taking the path of the once-returner (sakadāgāmimagga), either in
life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false the same session or at a later time. He should stir up the
speech, and from taking intoxicants.2 He is endowed with spiritual faculties, the powers, and the factors of enlight-
the four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiya*gāni); un- enment, and with this equipment contemplate the whole
wavering confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the range of formations included in the five aggregates in the
Sangha, and unblemished moral discipline.3 He has pene- light of impermanence, suffering, and selflessness. As be-
trated and seen the truth with correct understanding.4 By so fore he again passes through the progressive series of in-
penetrating the truth he has limited his future births to a sights beginning with knowledge of rise and fall and cul-
maximum of seven in the happy realms of the human and minating in knowledge of equanimity about formations. If
heaven worlds, drying up the great ocean of suffering that his faculties have not yet reached sufficient maturity his
laid beyond this.5 Thus the Buddha says that for the stream- contemplation will remain in equanimity about formations.
enterer who has seen the Dhamma the amount of suffering But if and when his faculties mature, he passes through the
that remains is like a pinch of dust on the finger nail, while moments of conformity-knowledge and change-of-lineage
the suffering that has been exhausted is like the dust on the knowledge and attains to the second noble path, the path of
mighty earth.6 the once-returner.1
Unlike the other noble paths, the second path does not era-
The second path and fruit
dicate any fetters completely. However, when it arises it at-
A disciple who has attained to stream-entry is not debarred tenuates sensual desire and ill will to such a degree that
from progressing to higher stages of deliverance in that they no longer occur strongly or frequently but remain only
same life, but can advance all the way to arahatship if he as weak residues. The three unwholesome roots are weak-
ened along with the other fetters derived from them. Fol-
1. “KhīJanirayomhi khīJatiracchānayoniyo khīJapettivisayo khīJāpāyaduggati-
vinipāto; sotāpanno’haH asmi avinipātadhammo niyato sambodhiparāyano.” lowing the path-consciousness in immediate succession
SN. 2:68. come two or three moments of the fruit of the
2. Ibid. 69.
3. Ibid. 70
1. The thought-moment immediately preceding the three higher paths only re-
4. Ibid. ceives the name “change-of-lineage” figuratively, due to its similarity to the
5. Stream-enterers are divided into three kinds: assuming that they will not go moment preceding the path of stream-entry. The yogi actually crossed over to
further in that same lifetime, one with sluggish faculties will be reborn seven the noble one’s lineage (ariyagotta) earlier, with the moment before the first
times in the happy destinations; one with medium faculties will be reborn an path. Hence the moment immediately preceding the three higher paths is tech-
intermediary number of times; and one with keen faculties will be reborn once nically known by another name, vodāna, meaning “cleansing”, so called “be-
more in the human world and there make an end of suffering. (See PP., pp. 833-34. cause it purifies from certain defilements and because it makes absolute purifi-
Vism., pp. 61l-12). cation (i.e. nibbāna) its object.” (Wr. tr.). “Ekaccasamkilesavisuddhiyā, pana
6. SN. 2:133-34. accantavisuddhiyā ārammaJakaraJato ca vodānanti vuccati.” Vism.T. 2:487-88.

308 309
once-returner (sakadāgāmi-phala), the inevitable conse- non-returner because he no longer returns to the sensuous
quence of the path. After fruition reviewing knowledge oc- realm. If he does not penetrate further he is reborn sponta-
curs, as described. The meditator at the moment of the path neously in some higher realm, generally in the pure abodes
is known as the third noble person, from the moment of the (suddhāvāsa) of the fine material sphere, and there reaches
fruit on as a once-returner (sakadāgāmi), the fourth noble final nibbāna: “After the vanishing of the five lower fetters,
person. He is called a “once-returner” because, if he does however, the monk appears in a higher world, and there he
not go further in this life, he is bound to make an end of reaches nibbāna, ‘no more returning’ from that world.1
suffering after returning to this world one more time. The
standard sutta description reads: The fourth path and fruit
“After the vanishing of the (first) three fetters and the Again, either in the same session or at some future time,
attenuation of greed, hate, and delusion, the monk ‘re- the meditator sharpens his faculties, powers, and enlight-
turns only once more’ to this world. And only once enment factors, contemplating the three characteristics of
more returning to this world, he puts an end to suffer- formations. He ascends through the series of insights up to
ing.”1 equanimity about formations. When his faculties mature
there arise in him conformity and change-of-lineage, fol-
The third path and fruit lowed by the fourth and final path, the path of arahatship
As before, the ardent meditator resumes contemplation on (arahattamagga). This path eradicates the remaining five
the impermanence, suffering, and selflessness of the aggre- fetters – desire for existence in the fine material realm
gates, striving to attain the third stage of deliverance, the (rūparāga), desire for existence in the immaterial realm
stage of a non-returner (anāgāmi). When his faculties mat- (arūparāga), conceit (māna), restlessness (uddhacca), and
ure he passes through the preliminary insights and reaches ignorance (avijjā). The fourth path is followed immediately
the third path, the path of the non-returner (anāgāmimag- by its fruition, the fruit of arahatship (arahatta-phala), after
ga). This path destroys sensual desire and ill will, the two which reviewing knowledge occurs. The text reads:
fetters weakened by the second path. Immediately after the
But after the vanishing of all biases [ten fetters] he
third path its fruition occurs, after which he reviews his po- reaches already in this world, the liberation of mind
sition as before. At the moment of the path the yogin is and the liberation through wisdom, after realizing and
known as one standing on the path of a non-returner, the understanding it in his own person.2
fifth noble person, from the moment of fruition on as a
At the moment of the path the yogin is reckoned as one
non-returner, the sixth noble person. He is called a
standing on the path of arahatship, the seventh noble per-
1. Nyanatiloka, Comp., trans. and ed., The Buddha’s Path to Deliverance in its
Threefold Division and Seven Stages of Purity Being a Systematic Exposition 1. Path to Deliverance. p. 189. “… Bhikkhu pañcannaH orambhāgiyānaH saH-
in the Work of the Sutta Pi;aka, (Colombo, Ceylon: The Bauddha Sahitya yojanānaH parikkhayā opapātiko hoti tatthaparinibbāyī anāvattidhammo tasmā
Sabha, 1952; rev. 3d ed. Colombo, Ceylon: The Bauddha Sahitya Sabha, 1969), lokā.” AN. 2:238.
p. 189 (hereafter cited as Path to Deliverance). “… Bhikkhu tiJJaH saHyo- 2. Path to Deliverance. p. 189. “… Bhikkhu āsavānaH khayā anāsavaH cetovi-
janānaH parikkhayā rāgadosamohānaH tanuttā sakadāgāmi hoti sakid eva muttiH paññāvimuttiH di;;h’eva dhamme sayaH abhiññā sacchikatvā upasam-
imaH lokaH āgantvā dukkhass’antaH karoti.” AN. 2:238. pajja viharati.” AN. 2:238.

310 311
son; at the moment of fruition he becomes an arahat, the
eighth noble person. At this point he has completed the de-
Chapter Eight
velopment of the path and reached the goal of full liber-
ation. JHÀNA AND THE NOBLE ATTAINMENTS
He is one of the Great Ones with cankers destroyed, he In the last chapter we followed the progressive unfolding of
bears his last body, he has laid down the burden, the path of wisdom culminating in full liberation. This path
reached his goal and destroyed the fetter of becoming,
took us through the supramundane attainments of the four
he is rightly liberated with [final] knowledge and worthy
of the highest offerings of the world with its deities.1 paths and fruits by which the defilements are destroyed and
deliverance from suffering is achieved. In the course of our
The eight individuals, from the person standing on the path discussion we mentioned that the path and fruits always
of stream-entry to the arahat, make up the ariyan Sangha, occur as occasions of jhāna. In the present chapter we will
the community of noble persons forming the third refuge explore more fully these supramundane jhānas, examining
and third jewel of Buddhist veneration. As the Buddha them in their own nature, in relation to their mundane
says: counterparts, and in the context of the cognitive processes
Bhikkhus, there are these eight persons worthy of to which they belong. Then we will consider two special
offerings and hospitality, of gifts and homage, an achievements in the meditative field accessible only to par-
incomparable field of merit to the world. ticular types of noble persons – the attainment of fruition
The stream-enterer, he who has entered the path to the (phalasamāpatti) and the attainment of cessation (nirodha-
realization of the fruit of stream-entry, the once- samāpatti). This will be followed by an overview of the
returner, he who has entered the path to the realization Theravāda Buddhist typology of noble persons, presented
of the fruit of once-returner, the non-returner, he who
from the standpoint of determining their relation to the
has entered the path to the realization of the fruit of
non-returner, the arahat, and he who has entered the mundane accomplishment of jhāna. This overview will en-
path to arahatship.2 (Wr. tr.). able us to assess, in the last section of this chapter, the
place of jhāna in the life of the arahat, the spiritually per-
fected man in Theravāda Buddhism.

Supramundane Jhāna
1. PP., p. 792. “mahākhīJasavo antimadehadāri ohitabhāro anuppattasadattho The supramundane paths and fruits, as we saw, always arise
parīkkhiJabhavasaHyojano sammaññāvimutto sadevakassa lokassa aggadak- as states of jhānic consciousness. They occur as states of
khiJeyyoti.” Vism., p. 582.
jhāna because they contain within themselves the factors of
2. “A;;h’ime bhikkhave puggalā āhuneyyā, pāhuneyyā, dakkhineyyā, añjalika-
ranīyā anuttaraH puññakkhettaH lokassa. jhāna (jhāna*ga) elevated to a level of intensity corres-
Sotāpanno sotāpattiphalasacchikiriyāya pa;ipanno, sakadāgāmi sakadāgāmi- ponding to that of the factors in the mundane jhānas. Since
phalasacchikiriyāya pa;ipanno, anāgāmi anāgāmiphalasacchikiriyāya pa;ipan- they possess the jhāna-factors endowed with such intensity
no, arahā arahattāya pa;ipanno.” AN. 4:292-93.

312 313
these states are able to fix upon their object with the force nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equa-
of full absorption. Thence, taking the absorptive force of nimity.
the jhāna factors as the criterion, the paths and fruits may This, bhikkhus, is right concentration.1 (Wr. tr.).
be reckoned as belonging to either the first, second, third or Right concentration, however, can be either mundane or
fourth jhāna of the fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, supramundane. That the right concentration here defined as
third, fourth or fifth jhāna of the fivefold scheme. the four jhānas is supramundane becomes clear from the
Though a fully explicit recognition of the supramundane Mahācattārīsaka Sutta (MN. No. 117), a discourse explor-
jhānic character of the paths and fruits first comes out in ing the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path. In this dis-
the Abhidhammapi;aka, the basis for this recognition goes course, rather than presenting the path in its own name, the
back to the suttas. In the section of the Mahāsatipa;;hāna Buddha discusses it under the name of “noble right concen-
Sutta, “the Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindful- tration with its supports and accompaniments.” He begins
ness” (DN. No. 22), where the Buddha defines each factor by asking the monks: “What, monks, is noble right concen-
of the Noble Eightfold Path, right concentration (sammāsa- tration with its supports and accompaniments?” The an-
mādhi), the eighth factor, is defined by the standard form- swer he gives himself:
ula for the four jhānas: There are right view, right intention, right speech, right
And what, bhikkhus, is right concentration? Here, action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindful-
bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, quite secluded from sense pleas- ness. The one-pointedness of mind accompanied by
ures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, en- these seven factors – this is noble right concentration
ters and dwells in the first jhāna, which is accompanied with its supports and accompaniments.2 (Wr. tr.).
by applied thought and sustained thought with rapture Each of the path factors in turn is said to have two forms, a
and happiness born of seclusion.
mundane form which is “subject to the cankers, pertaining
With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained
to the side of merit, maturing in the foundations of exist-
thought he enters and dwells in the second jhāna,
which has internal confidence and unification of mind, ence,”3 (Wr. tr.), and another form which is “noble, free
is without applied thought and sustained thought, and from cankers, supramundane, a factor of the path.”4
is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentra- (Wr. tr.). The latter is found in “the noble state of con-
tion. sciousness, the cankerless state of consciousness, in one
With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equan- equipped with the noble path, in one developing the noble
imity, mindful and discerning; and he experiences in
1. DN. 2:313.
his own person that happiness of which the noble ones
2. “Katamo ca, bhikkhave, ariyo sammāsamādhi sa-upaniso saparikkhāro? Sey-
say: ‘Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful’ yathīdaH: sammādi;;hi sammāsaHkappo sammāvācā sammākamanto sammā-
– thus he enters and dwells in the third jhāna. ājīvo sammāvāyāmo sammāsati. Yā kho, bhikkhave, imehi sattaIgehi cittassa
With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the ekaggatā parikkhātā; ayaH vuccati, bhikkhave, ariyo sammā samādhi sa-upan-
iso iti pi, saparikkhāro iti pi.” MN. 3:71.
previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and
3. “Sāsavā puññabhāgiyā upadhivepakkā.” MN. 3:72.
dwells in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-
4. “Ariyā anāsavā lokuttara maggaIgā.” Ibid.

314 315
path.”1 (Wr. tr.). Since these factors accompanying right The Fourth Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness to-
concentration of the noble path are defined as supra- gether with happiness and one-pointedness,
mundane, it follows that the four jhānas making up right The Fifth Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together
concentration in the Noble Eightfold Path are also supra- with equanimity and one-pointedness.
mundane. So are the Sakadāgāmi Path-consciousness, Anāgāmi
In the Abhidhamma system of explanation this connection Path-consciousness, and Arahatta Path-consciousness,
making exactly twenty classes of consciousness. Simi-
between the jhānas, paths, and fruits comes to be worked
larly there are twenty classes of Fruit-consciousness.
out with great intricacy of detail. The DhammasaIgaJi, in Thus there are forty types of supramundane conscious-
its section on states of consciousness, expounds each of the ness.1
path and fruition states of consciousness as occasions, first,
The medieval Ceylonese commentator Sāriputta glosses
of one or another of the four jhānas in the tetradic scheme,
this passage thus: “Stream-entry path-consciousness ac-
and then again as occasions of one or another of the five
companied by the five-factored first jhāna with initial
jhānas in the pentadic scheme.2 Standard Abhidhammic ex-
thought, etc. is called ‘the first jhāna sotāpatti path-con-
position, as formalized in the synoptical manuals of Abhi-
sciousness’.”2 (Wr. tr.). And so for the rest.
dhamma, employs the fivefold scheme and brings each of
the paths and fruits into connection with each of the five It should be noted that there are no paths and fruits con-
jhānas. In this way the eight types of supramundane con- joined with the immaterial attainments (āruppas). The rea-
sciousness – the path and fruition consciousness of stream- son for this omission is that supramundane jhāna is pre-
entry, the once-returner, the non-returner, and arahatship – sented solely from the standpoint of its factorial con-
proliferate to forty types of supramundane consciousness, stitution, and the formless attainments have the same
since any path or fruit can occur at the level of any of the factors as the fifth jhāna – equanimity and one-pointed-
five jhānas. This procedure is elaborated in the Abhidham- ness. They differ only in regard to the object, a considera-
mattha Sa*gaha:
The First Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together
with initial application, sustained application, joy, hap- 1. Nārada, Manual., pp. 63-64. “Vitakka-vicāra-pīti-sukh’ekaggatā-sahitaH
piness, and one-pointedness, Pa;hamajjhāna-SotāpattimaggacittaH,
Vicāra-pīti-sukh’ekaggatā-sahitaH Dutiyajjhāna-SotāpattimaggacittaH,
The Second Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness togeth-
Pīti-sukh’ekaggatā-sahitaH Tatiyajjhāna SotāpattimaggacittaH,
er with sustained application, joy, happiness, and one-
Sukh’ekaggatā-sahitaH Catutthajjhāna SotāpattimaggacittaH.
pointedness,
Upekkh’ekaggatā-sahitaH Pañcamajjhāna SotāpattimaggacittaH c’ati.
The Third Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together …Tathā Sakadāgāmimagga, Anāgāmimagga, Arahattamaggacittañ c’āti, sama-
with joy, happiness, and one-pointedness, vīsati maggacittāni. Tathā phalacittāni c’ati samacattāXīsa lokuttaracittāni bha-
vantī’ti.” Ibid, pp. 62-63.
1. “Ariya cittassa anāsavacittassa ariyamaggasamaIgino ariyamaggaH bhāva- 2. Pa;hamajjhānena vitakkādipañcaIgikajjhānena sampayuttaH sotāpattimag-
yato.” Ibid. gacittaH pa;hamajjhānasotāpattimaggacittaH.” AS., p. 37. Vibhāvanī !īkā,
2. Dhs., pp. 74-86. pp. 36f. Dhs.A., pp. 272-73.

316 317
tion here irrelevant since the paths and fruits all take nib- ing for a single thought-moment.”1 (Wr. tr.). This gloss
bāna as their object. shows us two things about the consciousness of the path:
The fullest treatment of the supramundane jhānas in the first that it occurs as a jhāna at the level of full absorption,
authoritative Pāli literature can be found in the Dhamma- and second that this absorption of the path lasts for only a
saIgaJi’s exposition of the supramundane states of con- single thought-moment. The word “emancipating” (niyyā-
sciousness, read in conjunction with the commentary on nika) is explained to mean that this jhāna goes out (niyyāti)
these passages in the Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā. The from the world, from the round of existence, the phrase
DhammasaIgaJi opens its analysis of the first wholesome “leading to demolition” (apacayagāmi) that it demolishes
supramundane consciousness with the words: and dismantles the process of rebirth.2
On the occasion when one develops supramundane This last phrase points to a striking difference between
jhāna which is emancipating, leading to the demolition mundane and supramundane jhāna. The DhammasaIgaJi’s
(of existence), for the abandonment of views, for reach- exposition of the former begins: “On the occasion when
ing the first plane, secluded from sense pleasures... one one develops the path for rebirth in the fine material
enters and dwells in the first jhāna.1 (Wr. tr.). sphere... one enters and dwells in the first jhāna.”3 (Wr. tr.).
It then goes on to enumerate the various wholesome mental Thus, with this statement, mundane jhāna is shown as sus-
phenomena present on the occasion of that consciousness, taining the round of rebirths; it is a wholesome kamma
defining each of these by their standard synonyms. We will leading to renewed existence. But the supramundane jhāna
consider the most significant auxiliary constituents of the of the path does not promote the accumulation of the
supramundane jhānas shortly, but first it is instructive to round; to the contrary, it brings about the round’s disman-
look at the introductory phrase itself in the light of its com- tling and demolition. The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā un-
mentarial elucidation. derscores this difference with an illustrative simile:
The Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā explains the word lokut- The wholesome states of the three planes are said to
tara, which we have been translating “supramundane,” as lead to accumulation because they build up and in-
crease death and rebirth in the round. But not this. Just
meaning “it crosses over the world, it transcends the world,
as when one man has built up a wall eighteen feet high
it stands having surmounted and overcome the world.”2 another might take a club and go along demolishing it,
(Wr. tr.). It glosses the phrases “one develops jhāna” thus: so this goes along demolishing and dismantling the
“One develops, produces, cultivates absorption jhāna last- deaths and rebirths built up by the wholesome kammas

1. “YasmiH samaye lokuttaraH jhānaH bhāveti niyyānikaH apacayagāmiH 1. “Jhānam bhāvetīti ekacittakkhaJikaH appanājhānaH bhāveti janeti vaY-
di;;higatānaH pahānāya pa;hamāya bhūmiyā pattiyā vivicceva kāmehi… pa;- Yheti.” Ibid.
hamaH jhānaH upasampajja viharati.” Dhs., p. 72. 2. Ibid.
2. “LokaH taratīti lokuttaraH, lokaH uttaratīti lokuttaraH, lokaH samatikkam- 3. “YasmiH samaye rūpūpapattiyā maggaH bhāveti vivicceva kāmehi… pa;ha-
ma abhibhuyya ti;;hatīti lokuttaraH.” Dhs.A., p. 259. maH jhānaH upasampajja viharati.” Dhs., p. 44.

318 319
 of the three planes by bringing about a deficiency in sympathetic joy – are always excluded from the paths and
their conditions. Thus it leads to demolition.1 (Wr. tr.). fruits.1
The jhāna is said to be cultivated “for the abandoning of We saw earlier that the Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha attrib-
views.” This phrase signifies the function of the first path, utes thirty-five possible mental factors to the first mundane
which is to eradicate the fetters. The supramundane jhāna jhāna.2 This invites a comparison between the composition
of the first path cuts off the fetter of personality view (sak- of the two states. Firstly it will be noticed that compassion
kāyadi hi) and all speculative views derived from it. The and sympathetic joy can be present in mundane jhāna but
Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā points out that here we should not in the supramundane. The reason is that those mental
understand that it abandons not only wrong views but other factors have sentient beings for object, while the paths and
unwholesome states as well, namely doubt, clinging to rites fruits objectify nibbāna.3 Secondly we should note that the
and rituals, and greed, hatred, and delusion strong enough three abstinences are present in the supramundane jhānas
to lead to the plane of misery. The phrase “for reaching the but not in the mundane. This is because in mundane con-
first plane” the commentary explicates as meaning for at- sciousness an abstinence (virati) is only present on an occa-
taining the fruit of stream entry.2 sion when one is deliberately exercising restraint of speech,
Immediately after this passage the DhammasaIgaJi lists body, or livelihood. In mundane jhāna no such restraint is
the constituting phenomena comprised in the supramun- being applied; it is only applied in wholesome sense sphere
dane jhāna, followed by their definitions. The elaborate and consciousness when one is resisting the impulse towards
complex expository method of the canonical Abhidhamma moral transgression. Even then only one abstinence can oc-
word has been streamlined in the Abhidhammattha Sa*- cur at a time, and only with respect to one violation covered
gaha. By avoiding repetitions of the same factor under dif- by the abstinence – for right speech abstaining from lying,
ferent headings the manual assigns thirty-eight mental fac- slander, harsh speech, or idle chatter; for right action ab-
tors (cetasikas) to the first jhāna state of consciousness, staining from killing, stealing, or sexual misconduct; for
whether of any of the four paths and fruits. These are the right livelihood abstaining from one or another form of
seven factors common to all states of consciousness, the six wrong livelihood. But in the supramundane states the three
general variables, the nineteen universal beautiful factors, abstinences occur simultaneously, and they occur with res-
wisdom, and three abstinences – right speech, right action, pect to all the violations covered by the abstinence. In the
and right livelihood. Two immeasurables – compassion and
1. Nārada, Manual., pp. 127-29. NB: The higher jhānas have respectively
thirty-seven, thirty-six, and thirty-five components as applied thought, sus-
1. “Yathā ca pana tebhūmakakusalaH vattasmiH cutipa;isandhiyo ācināti vaY- tained thought, and rapture are abandoned at these levels.
Yhetīti ācayagāmi nāma hoti. Na tathā idaH. IdaH pana yathā ekasmiH purise 2. See above, Chapter IV, pp. 149-50.
a;;hārasahatthā pākārā cinante aparo mahamuggaraH gahetvā tena citacita;- 3. The other two immeasurables – loving kindness and equanimity – are par-
;hānaH apacinanto vidhaHsento eva gaccheyya. Evameva tebhūmakakusalena ticular modes of the mental factors “non-hatred” and “specific neutrality.”
cita cutipa;isandhiyo paccayavekallākārena apacinantaH vidhaHsentaH gac- Since their parent factors do not necessarily have sentient beings for object they
chatīti apacayagāmi.” Dhs.A., p. 259. can be present even with other objects and are, in fact, universal concomitants
2. Dhs.A., pp. 259-60. of wholesome states of consciousness.

320 321
supramundane jhānas of the path they have the function not ing phrases not given in the definitions of their mundane
merely of inhibiting immoral actions, but of destroying the counterparts. These are the phrases “path factor” (magga*-
tendencies for these transgressions to occur. For this reason ga) and “enlightenment factor” (bojjha*ga). The former at-
the DhammasaIgaJi describes each abstinence as setug- taches to all those states which, under one or another of
hāta, “breaking the bridge,” which the commentary ex- their different names, enter into the Noble Eightfold Path as
plains as meaning that the abstinence uproots the condition right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
for misconduct of speech, action or livelihood.1 livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concen-
In the DhammasaIgaJi’s enumeration of states, the factor tration.1 Though five of these states – right view, right in-
of wisdom enters into the supramundane jhānas as three tention, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concen-
new faculties spread out over the four paths and fruits. tration – are present in mundane jhāna, they are not present
These three are the faculty of “I shall know the unknown” as path factors (magga*ga) for on those occasions they do
(anaññātaññassāmitindriya), the faculty of final knowledge not pertain to the noble path leading directly to the cessat-
(aññindriya), and the faculty of the completion of final ion of suffering.
knowledge (aññātavindriya).2 The first is present in the first The phrase “enlightenment factor” attaches to the states be-
path, the second in the six intermediate states from the first longing to the seven factors of enlightenment: mindfulness,
fruition through the fourth path, and the third in the fourth investigation of phenomena, energy, rapture, tranquility,
fruition, the fruit of arahatship. The faculty of “I shall concentration, and equanimity. This collection of states is
know the unknown” is the wisdom-faculty of one standing called “enlightenment” or “awakening” (bodhi) because,
on the path of stream-entry, the “unknown” being, accord- when it arises at the moment of the supramundane paths, it
ing to the commentary, the deathless state of nibbāna or enables the noble disciple to awaken from the sleep of the
the Four Noble Truths, neither of which has been known defilements.2 Its components can be present in the mun-
before in beginningless sa,sāra.3 The faculty of final dane jhānas but they are not present there as enlightenment
knowledge is the same faculty of wisdom in those at the in- factors. They function as enlightenment factors only in the
termediate stages of progress, while the faculty of the com- supramundane jhānas of the noble paths and fruits, for only
pletion of final knowledge is the fully matured wisdom of then do they contribute immediately to the attainment of
the arahat. None of these faculties is present in mundane enlightenment.
jhāna.
A good number of constituent factors present in mundane
1. It should be noted that in the paths and fruits occurring at the level of the
jhāna are repeated again in the analysis of supramundane second through fifth jhānas, only seven path factors are present. This is be-
jhāna, but to these the DhammasaIgaJi adds two qualify- cause right intention (sammāsa,kappa) is a form of vitakka, which is made to
subside with the attainment of the second jhāna. Similarly, in the paths and
fruits of the fourth and fifth jhānic levels only six enlightenment factors are
1. Dhs.A., p. 264. present, rapture having been abandoned with the attainment of the fourth jhāna
2. Dhs., pp. 77, 91, 138. of the fivefold system.
3. Dhs.A., p. 261. 2. See Dhs.A., p. 262.

322 323
Besides these several other differences between mundane into the object, an absorption that can only suppress the de-
and supramundane jhāna may be briefly noted. Firstly, with filements temporarily. In the supramundane jhāna, particu-
regard to their objects, the mundane jhānas have a concept- larly of the four paths, the coupling of close attention with
ual entity (paññatti) as object; for the kasi1as, impurities, wisdom brings the exercise of four functions at a single
mindfulness of breathing, etc. the object is the counterpart moment. These four functions each apply to one of the
sign (pa ibhāganimitta), for the divine abodes (brahma- Four Noble Truths, representing the particular way that no-
vihāra) it is sentient beings. In contrast, for the supramun- ble truth is penetrated at the time the paths arise compre-
dane jhāna of the paths and fruits the object is exclusively hending the truths. The four functions are full understand-
nibbāna, a truly existent state (sabhāvadhamma). ing (pariññā), abandonment (pahāna), realization (sacchi-
With regard to their predominant tone, in mundane jhāna kiriya), and development (bhāvanā). The path penetrates
the element of serenity (samatha) prevails. Though the fac- the first noble truth by fully understanding suffering; it
tor of wisdom enters into the mundane jhānas it does not penetrates the second noble truth by abandoning craving,
do so with any special prominence. In contrast, the supra- the origin of suffering; it penetrates the third noble truth by
mundane jhāna of the paths and fruits brings serenity and realizing nibbāna, the cessation of suffering; and it pene-
insight into balance. Wisdom is present as right view (sam- trates the fourth noble truth by developing the Noble Eight-
mādi hi) and serenity as right concentration (sammāsamā- fold Path, the way to the end of suffering. The Visuddhi-
dhi). Both function together in perfect harmony. As the Vis- magga quotes a passage from the ancients to clear away
uddhimagga explains, paraphrasing a passage from the doubts that one experience can perform four functions sim-
Pa;isambhidāmagga: ultaneously:
At the time of developing the eight mundane attain- For this is said by the Ancients ‘just as a lamp performs
ments the serenity power is in excess, while at the time four functions simultaneously in a single moment – it
of developing the contemplations of impermanence, burns the wick, dispels darkness, makes light appear,
etc., the insight power is in excess. But at the noble and uses up the oil – so too, path knowledge penetrates
path moment they occur coupled together in the sense to the four truths simultaneously in a single moment –
that neither one exceeds the other.1 it penetrates to suffering by penetrating to it with full-
understanding, penetrates to origination by penetrating
This difference in prevailing tone leads into a difference in to it with abandoning, penetrates to the path by pene-
function or activity between the two kinds of jhāna. Both trating to it with developing and penetrates to cessation
the mundane and supramundane are jhānas in the sense of by penetrating to it with realizing. What is meant? By
closely attending (upanijjhāna) but in the case of mundane making cessation its object it reaches, sees and pierces
jhāna this close attention issues merely in an absorption the four truths.1

1. PP., p. 798. “Lokiyānañ ca a;;hannaH samāpattīnaH bhāvanākāle samatha- 1. PP., p. 808. “VuttaH h’etaH porāJehi: ‘Yathā padīpo apubbaH acarimaH
balaH adhikaH hoti; aniccānupassanādīnaH bhāvanākāle vipassanābalaH. Ari- ekakkhaJena cattāri kiccāni karoti, va;;iH jhāpeti, andhakāraH vidhamati, ālo-
yamaggakhaJe pana yuganaddhā te dhammā pavattanti aññamaññaH anativat- kaH pavidaHseti, sinehaH pariyādiyati, evaH eva maggañāJaH apubbaH
tana;;hena.” Vism., p. 586. acarimaH ekakkhaJena cattāri saccāni abhisameti, dukkhaH pariññābhisama-
324 325
Filling in the simile, Buddhaghosa explains that as the down in succession through their lineages of pupils. The
lamp burns the wick the path knowledge understands suf- first, ascribed to the Elder Tipi;aka Cūla Nāga, holds that it
fering; as the lamp dispels darkness the path abandons is the basic jhāna (pādakajjhāna), i.e. the jhāna used as a
craving; as the lamp makes light appear the path develops basis for the insight leading to emergence in immediate
the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path; and as the lamp proximity to the path, that governs the difference in the
consumes the oil, the path realizes nibbāna, which destroys jhānic level of the path. A second theory, ascribed to the
the defilements.1 Though this fourfold function is peculiar Elder Mahā Datta of Moravāpi, says that the difference is
to the path-consciousness and is not fully shared by frui- governed by the aggregates made the objects of insight (vi-
tion, the latter still exercises a decisively cognitive function passanāya āramma1abhūtā khandhā) on the occasion of
in that it is said to “closely attend to the real characteristic, insight leading to emergence. A third theory, ascribed to
the truth of cessation.”2 (Wr. tr.). the Elder Tipi;aka Cūla Abhaya, holds that it is the per-
sonal inclination (puggalajjhāsaya) of the meditator that
The Jhānic Level of the Path and Fruit governs the difference.
When the paths and fruits are assigned to the level of the According to the first theory, the path arisen in a dry in-
four or five jhānas, the question arises as to what factor de- sight meditator (sukkhavipassaka) who lacks jhāna, and the
termines their particular level of jhānic intensity. In other path arisen in one who possesses a jhāna attainment but
words, why do the path and fruit arise for one yogin at the does not use it as a basis for insight, and the path arisen by
level of the first jhāna, for another at the level of the sec- comprehending formations after emerging from the first
ond jhāna and so forth? The Visuddhimagga and the jhāna, are all paths of the first jhāna only. They all have
Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā deal with this issue in almost eight path factors, seven enlightenment factors, and five
identical ways, discussing it in terms of the question as to jhāna factors. When the path is produced after emerging
what governs the difference in the number of the noble from the second, third, fourth, and fifth jhānas, and using
path’s enlightenment factors (bojjha*ga), path factors, these as the basis for insight, then the path pertains to the
(magga*ga) and jhāna factors (jhāna*ga).3 level of the jhāna used as a basis – the second, third, fourth
Both texts present three theories concerning the determin- or fifth. The path will have respectively, four, three, two,
ant of the jhānic level of the path. These theories were ap- and again two jhāna factors. However, these paths will pos-
parently formulated by ancient commentators and handed sess only seven path factors, since “right intention” (sam-
māsa,kappa), as a mode of applied thought (vitakka), has
yena abhisameti, samudayaH pahānābhisamayena abhisameti, maggaH bhāva- been eliminated in the second and higher jhānas. Those
nābhisamayena abhisameti, nirodhaH sacchikiriyābhisamayena abhisameti. paths associated with the fourth and fifth jhāna will also
KiH vuttaH hoti? NirodhaH ārammaJaH karitvā cattāri pi saccāni pāpuJāti lack the enlightenment factor of rapture (pītisamboj-
passati pa;ivijjhatī ti.’ ” Vism., p. 593.
1. PP., p. 809. Vism., p. 593.
jhanga), and thus have only six enlightenment factors. For a
2. “PhalaH pana nirodhasaccaH tathalakkhaJaH upanijjhāyati.” Dhs.A., p. 211. meditator using an immaterial jhāna as basis the path will
3. PP., pp. 778-80. Vism., pp. 572-73. Dhs.A., pp. 271-74. Expositor, 2:307-308. be a fifth jhāna path.
326 327
Thus in this first theory, when formations are comprehend- supramundane path by contemplating with insight the first
ed by insight after emerging from a basic jhāna, then it is jhāna after emerging from the fifth jhāna, then according
the jhāna attainment emerged from at the point nearest to to the first theory his path will belong to the fifth jhāna,
the path, i.e. just before insight leading to emergence is while according to the second theory it will belong to the
reached, that makes the path similar in nature to itself.1 first jhāna. Thus these two theories are incompatible when
According to the second theory the path that arises is simi- a difference obtains between basic jhāna and comprehend-
lar in nature to the states which are being comprehended ed jhāna. But according to the third theory, the path be-
with insight at the time insight leading to emergence oc- comes of whichever jhāna the meditator wishes, either the
curs. Thus if the meditator, after emerging from a meditat- first or the fifth. Thus this doctrine does not necessarily
ive attainment, is comprehending with insight sense sphere clash with the other two.
phenomena or the constituents of the first jhāna, then the Buddhaghosa himself does not make a decision among
path produced will occur at the level of that jhāna.2 On this these three theories. He only points out that in all three
theory, then, it is the comprehended jhāna (sammasitaj- doctrines, beneath their disagreements, there is the recog-
jhāna) that determines the jhānic quality of the path. The nition that the insight leading to emergence determines the
one qualification that must be added is that a yogin cannot jhānic character of the path. For this insight is the proxi-
contemplate with insight a jhāna higher than he is capable mate and principal cause for the arising of the path, so
of attaining. whether it be the insight leading to emergence near the ba-
According to the third theory, the path occurs at the level of sic jhāna or that occurring through the contemplated jhāna
whichever jhāna the meditator wishes – either at the level or that fixed by the meditator’s wish, it is in all cases this
of the jhāna he has used as the basis for insight or at the final phase of insight that gives definition to the supramun-
level of that jhāna he has made the object of insight-com- dane path, fixing its path factors and jhāna factors.1 Since
prehension. In other words, the jhānic quality of the path fruition that occurs immediately after the path has an iden-
accords with his personal inclination. However, mere wish tical constitution to the path, its own supramundane jhāna
alone is not sufficient. For the path to occur at the jhānic is determined by the path. Thus a first jhāna path produces
level wished for, the mundane jhāna must have been either a first jhāna fruit, and so on for the remaining jhānas.
made the basis for insight or used as the object of in-
sight-comprehension.3 Two Attainments of the Noble Ones
The difference between the three theories can be under- The Theravāda tradition recognizes two special meditative
stood through a simple example.4 If a meditator reaches the attainments which are open only to particular types of no-
ble persons (ariyapuggala). These two are the attainment
1. PP., p. 779. Vism., p. 573. Dhs.A., p. 272. Expositor, 2:307-308. of fruition (phalasamāpatti) and the attainment of cessation
2. PP., p. 779. Vism., p. 573. Dhs.A., pp. 272-73. Expositor, 2:308. (nirodhasamāpatti). The former is a jhāna proper of the
3. PP., p. 780. Vism., p. 574. Dhs.A., p. 273.
4. Dhs.A., p. 274. Expositor, 2:3l0. 1. PP., pp. 778-79. Vism. p. 573.

328 329
supramundane class; the latter, though not a jhāna, still de- consciousnesses following one another in uninterrupted
mands complete mastery over the mundane jhānas as a pre- succession for hours or even days on end. Thus fruition at-
requisite for its achievement. We will now consider each of tainment provides the ariyans with a special resort to which
these attainments in turn. they can turn in order to experience for themselves the bliss
of nibbāna here and now.
The Attainment of Fruition
The Visuddhimagga discusses fruition attainment under a
The fruition consciousness (phalacitta) is a supramundane
number of headings. It first defines the attainment of fruit-
state of consciousness classed as a resultant (vipāka) be-
ion as consisting in the “absorption of the noble fruition in
cause it is produced by the corresponding path conscious-
cessation.”1 The Mahā !īkā glosses this as meaning that
ness. Like the path consciousness, which it resembles al-
fruition attainment is “the occurrence of the noble fruition-
most exactly in content, fruition is a jhāna operating at the
jhāna in the mode of absorption with nibbāna as its ob-
jhānic level of the path. Fruition consciousness occurs in
ject.”2 (Wr. tr.). Thus this definition discloses two important
two ways. Its initial occurrence, which we have already dis-
facts about the attainment of fruition: that it is a jhāna, and
cussed, takes place in the cognitive series of the path, when
that this jhāna has nibbāna as its object. Though fruition
it arises in immediate succession to the path consciousness.
consciousness, on occasions of fruition attainment, is not
On that occasion it persists for two or three thought-mom-
preceded by a path – each path being unique and unrepeat-
ents experiencing the bliss of liberation, and then subsides,
able – its jhānic level always continues to correspond to
followed by the life-continuum. But fruition consciousness
that of the path from which it originally issued. A yogin
can occur in another way too. This second mode of occur-
who attained a first jhāna path will subsequently enter only
rence takes the form of a special meditative attainment ac-
a first jhāna fruition attainment, one who had a second
cessible to the noble persons of the four stages of deliver-
jhāna path will always attain a second jhāna fruition, etc.3
ance. This meditative attainment is called the attainment of
fruition (phalasamāpatti), and comes in four grades corres- Fruition attainment, the Visuddhimagga explains, is beyond
ponding to the four stages of holiness: the fruition attain- the range of worldlings (puthujjana), but is available to all
ment of stream-entry, the fruition attainment of the once- noble ones. Each noble person attains that fruition corres-
returner, the fruition attainment of the non-returner, and the ponding to his own level of liberation: the stream-enterer
fruition attainment of arahatship. attains the fruition of stream-entry, the once-returner the
fruition of a once-returner, and so forth. Those who have
Like the fruition consciousness occurring in immediate
reached a higher path do not attain a lower fruition while
succession to the path, the attainment of fruition is a supra-
those on a lower level do not attain a higher fruition.4 The
mundane jhāna having nibbāna for its object. But whereas
fruition in the cognitive series of the path lasts only for two 1. PP., p. 820. “Yā ariyaphalassa nirodhe appanā.” Vism., p. 602.
or three thought-moments, the fruition attainment entered 2. “Ariyassa phalajhānassa nibbāne ārammaJabhūte appanākārena pavatti.”
Vism.T. 2:515.
subsequently by a noble person can last for as long as the 3. PP., p. 822. Vism., p. 603.
meditator determines; it can continue as a series of fruition 4. PP., p. 820. Vism., p. 602.

330 331
ariyans resort to this attainment for the purpose of experi- that time comes. Emergence comes when the mind turns
encing nibbānic bliss here and now: away from nibbāna and takes as its object some sign of
For just as a king experiences royal bliss and a deity ex- formations. Immediately after fruition attainment is emerg-
periences divine bliss, so too the noble ones think ‘We ed from the mind lapses into the life continuum (bha-
shall experience the noble supramundane bliss’, and af- va*ga). Fruition attainment also occurs momentarily in the
ter deciding on the duration, they attain the attainment process of emerging from the attainment of cessation.1
of fruition whenever they choose.1
Fruition attainment acquires three names according to the
Fruition attainment comes about by turning the mind away dominant mode of insight in the course of insight-contem-
from all objects other than nibbāna and focussing it ex- plation immediately preceding absorption. If the dominant
clusively upon nibbāna. To attain fruition the noble disciple insight is the contemplation of impermanence, the fruition
should go into solitary retreat, make a prior determination reached is called the signless liberation (animittavimok-
to enter fruition, and then develop insight on formations, kha); if the contemplation of suffering dominates fruition is
going through the series of insights beginning with know- called the desireless liberation (appa1ihitavimokkha); and
ledge of rise and fall. Insight progresses as far as conform- if the contemplation of selflessness dominates fruition is
ity, followed by change-of-lineage knowledge with format- called the void liberation (suññatavimokkha). But in a loos-
ions as its object, then “immediately next to it conscious- er sense all three names can be applied to any fruition. For
ness becomes absorbed in cessation with the attainment of any fruition has as object nibbāna – the signless, desireless,
fruition.”2 Since the prior determination was made for fruit- and void element; and again any fruition has a nature which
ion, not for a higher path, insight only issues in fruition at- is void of lust, hatred, and delusion, lacking the signs of
tainment and not in a higher path. The attainment of the lust, hatred, and delusion, and without desires rooted in
latter requires a separate and different guiding aspiration lust, hatred, and delusion.2
before developing insight.
Fruition attainment is made to last by a prior volition de- The Attainment of Cessation
termining the time of the attainment: for it is by determin- A second attainment in the meditative field restricted to
ing it thus ‘I shall emerge at such a time’ that it lasts until yogins of ariyan stature is the attainment of cessation, niro-
dhasamāpatti, also called the cessation of perception and
feeling (sannāvedayitanirodha).3 In this attainment it is not
1. PP., p. 821. “Yathā hi rājā rajjasukhaH devatā dibbasukhaH anubhavanti,
evaH ariyā, ariyaH lokuttarasukhaH anubhavissāmā ti addhānaparicchedaH perception and feeling alone that cease, but all mental act-
katvā icchiticehitakkhaJe phalasamāpattiH samāpajjanti.” Vism., p. 602. ivity in its entirety. Thus the Visuddhimagga defines the at-
2. PP., p. 822. Vism., p. 603. N.B.: Whereas change-of-lineage preceding the tainment of cessation as “the non-occurrence of conscious-
path has nibbāna for its object, change-of-lineage preceding fruition attainment
objectifies formations. The reason is given in the Visuddimagga Mahā !īkā:
“Why does change-of-lineage not have nibbana as its object here as it does
1. PP., pp. 822-23. Vism., p. 603.
when it precedes the path? Because states belonging to fruition are not associ-
ated with an outlet [as in the case of the path]. For this is said ‘What states are 2. Nārada, Manual., pp. 422-23. MN. 1:298.
an outlet? The four unincluded paths’.” Vism.T. 2:518. 3. MN. 1:175, 296, 301-302.

332 333
ness and its concomitants owing to their progressive cess- element without residue (anupādisesanibbānadhātu).1 It
ation.”1 should not be taken literally as establishing identity be-
This attainment has an even more restricted scope than tween the two.
fruition attainment. It can be obtained only by non-return- To enter cessation the qualified meditator must strive to
ers (anāgāmis) and arahats who possess the eight attain- bring about the cessation of consciousness belonging to the
ments, i.e. the four jhānas and the four āruppas. World- base of neither perception nor non-perception. This de-
lings, stream-enterers, and once-returners – even those pos- mands the balanced coupling of serenity and insight. One
sessing the eight attainments – cannot attain it, nor can it who utilizes serenity alone can reach the base of neither
be attained by non-returners and arahats who lack mastery perception nor non-perception but cannot reach cessation.
over all eight mundane jhānas. The reason stream-enterers One who utilizes insight alone can enter fruition attainment
and once-returners cannot attain it is that they lack the nec- but not cessation. The attainment of cessation requires the
essary qualifications. To attain cessation requires full pos- alternative application of both serenity and insight.2
session of the two powers of serenity (samatha) and insight A meditator wishing to attain cessation enters the first
(vipassanā). Because those below the level of a non-return- jhāna, emerges from it, and contemplates its formations
er have not fully abandoned sensual desire, their power of with insight as impermanent, suffering, and selfless. He re-
serenity is not perfected, and without the perfecting of the peats the same procedure with each meditative attainment
power of serenity there is no attainment of cessation.2 Cess- up to the base of nothingness, the next to last immaterial
ation can also only be reached in “five constituent becom- jhāna. After emerging from the base of nothingness he then
ing,” i.e. in realms where all five aggregates are found. It must perform four preparatory tasks. First he resolves that
cannot be reached in the immaterial realms since it must be any requisites he has with him that belong to others will not
preceded by the four fine material jhānas, which are lack- be damaged by fire, water, wind, thieves, rats, etc. while he
ing in those realms.3 is in cessation. This resolution gives effective protection
Non-returners and arahats with the required qualifications during the duration of his attainment; his own belongings
attain to cessation because, being wearied by the occur- are protected from damage by the power of the attainment
rence and dissolution of formations, they think: “Let us itself. Secondly he resolves that if he is needed by the com-
dwell in bliss by being without consciousness here and now munity of bhikkhus he will emerge from his attainment be-
and reaching the cessation that is nibbāna.”4 The Visuddhi- fore a bhikkhu comes to call him. Thirdly he resolves that if
magga Mahā !īkā points out that the phrase “cessation that the Buddha needs to summon him he should emerge before
is nibbāna” means that cessation is similar to the nibbāna a bhikkhu is sent to call him. And fourthly he determines
that his life span will last at least seven days from the mom-
1. PP., p. 824. “Yā anupubbanirodhavasena cittacetasikānaH dhammānaH ap-
pavatti.” Vism., p. 604. ent he attains cessation.
2. PP., p. 827. Vism., p. 607.
3. PP., p. 828. Vism., p. 607. 1. Vism.T. 2:902.
4. PP., p. 828. Vism., p. 607. 2. PP., p. 828. Vism., p. 607.

334 335
Having performed these four preparatory tasks, the medita- of perception and feeling,’ or ‘I am emerging...’ or ‘I
tor attains the base of neither perception nor non-percep- have emerged from the attainment of the stopping of
tion. Then after one or two turns of consciousness have perception and feeling.’ For his mind has been previ-
ously so developed in that way that it leads him on to
passed the process of consciousness ceases; he becomes
the state of being such.1
without consciousness, attaining to cessation. The stopping
of consciousness takes place automatically, as a result of Emergence from the attainment of cessation comes about
the meditator’s determination to reach cessation. As the by means of the fruition of non-returning in the case of a
nun Dhammadinnā explains: non-returner and the fruition of arahatship in the case of an
arahat. As soon as the yogin emerges from cessation, there
Friend Visākha, it does not occur to a monk who is at-
takes place a series of fruition consciousnesses appropriate
taining the stopping of perception and feeling: ‘I will
attain the stopping of perception and feeling,’ or ‘I am
to his spiritual level. But for all yogins who emerge from
attaining the stopping of perception and feeling,’ or ‘I cessation the mind inclines to nibbāna: “When a bhikkhu
have attained the stopping of perception and feeling.’ has emerged from the attainment of the cessation of per-
For his mind has been previously so developed in that ception and feeling, friend Visākha, his consciousness in-
way that it leads him on to the state of being such.1 clines to seclusion, leans to seclusion, tends to seclusion.”2
The meditator will then remain in cessation for as long as Since the mind of one emerging from cessation tends to
nibbāna, a non-returner who has come out from cessation
he has predetermined. But if he has not done the four pre-
can use his attainment as a basis for achieving arahatship.
liminary tasks, after reaching the base of neither perception
As the Buddha says: “A bhikkhu, completely passing be-
nor-non-perception he will return to the base of nothing-
yond the base of neither perception nor non-perception, en-
ness without attaining cessation.2
ters and dwells in the cessation of perception and feeling.
Like the attaining of cessation, emergence from cessation Having seen with wisdom his cankers are destroyed.” 3
comes about automatically, through the exhaustion of the (Wr. tr.).
pre-determined time, unless interrupted earlier by the wait- The attainment of cessation represents the acme of a grad-
ing of the bhikkhus, the summons of the Buddha, or the uated process of bringing to a stop the formations of body
end of the life-span. No verbalization takes place in the and mind. The bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā explains that there
course of emergence. As Dhammadinnā says: are three types of formations – the bodily formation (kāya-
Friend Visākha, it does not occur to a monk who is
1. MLS. 1:364. “Na kho, āvuso Visākha, saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā
emerging from the attainment of perception and feel- vu;;hahantassa bhikkhuno evaH hoti: ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā
ing: ‘I will emerge from the attainment of the stopping vu;;hahissanti vā, ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā vu;;hahāmīti vā,
ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā vu;;hito ti vā, atha khvāssapubbe va
1. MLS. 1:364. “Na kho āvuso Visākha saññāvedayitanirodhaH samāpajjan- tathā cittaH bhāvitaH hoti yaH taH tathattāya upanetīti.” MN. 1:302.
tassa bhikkhuno evaH hoti: ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhaH samāpajjissaH ti vā,
2. PP., p. 832. “Saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā vu;;hitassa kho āvuso Visā-
ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhaH samāpajjāmīti vā, ahaH saññāvedayitanirodhaH kha bhikkhuno vivekaninnaH cittaH hoti vivekapoJaH vivekapabbhāranti.”
samāpanno ti vā, atha khvāssa pubbe va tathā cittaH bhāvitaH hoti yaH taH MN. 1:302.
tathattāya upanetīti.” MN. 1:302. 3. “Sabbaso nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaH samatikkamma saññāvedayitanirodhaH
2. PP., pp. 831-32. Vism., p. 610. upasampajja viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā āsavā parikkhīJā honti.” MN. 1:175.
336 337
sa*khāra), the verbal formation (vacīsa*khāra), and the Another question which might arise concerns the differen-
mental formation (cittasa*khāra). The bodily formation is ces between the base of neither perception nor non-percept-
in-and-out breathing, which is a bodily process connected ion, the attainment of fruition, and the attainment of cess-
with the body; the verbal formation is applied and sus- ation. The attainment of cessation differs from the first two
tained thought (vitakkavicāra), the mental factors directing in that these two are states of consciousness made up of
verbalization; the mental formation is perception and feel- mind and mental factors (citta-cetasika) while cessation is
ing (saññā ca vedanā ca), which are mental processes con- not a state of consciousness but the stopping of the mental
nected with the mind. For one who is entering the attain- continuum together with its factors. The fourth aruppa is a
ment of cessation, Dhammadinnā states, the verbal format- purely mundane attainment in the sphere of serenity (sama-
ion ceases first [in the second jhāna], the bodily formation tha) accessible to all meditators with the necessary strength
ceases next [in the fourth jhāna], and the mental formation of concentration. Its object is purely mundane – the four
ceases last [with the entrance into cessation].1 The Buddha aggregates of the third aruppa. It does not presuppose any
confirms this in a discourse explaining “the gradual cessa- achievements in insight or any attainment of ariyan stature;
tion of formations” (anupubbasa*khāranirodha).2 it is thus held in common by both Buddhist and non-
The question might arise as to the difference between a Buddhist meditators. The attainment of fruition, in contrast,
corpse and a meditator in the attainment of cessation. The is a supramundane state bringing into balance both serenity
Venerable Sāriputta explains: and insight. Its object is supramundane, nibbāna. Each
When a bhikkhu is dead, friend, has completed his fruition is open only to those ariyans who have reached the
term, his bodily formations have ceased and are quite corresponding level of deliverance and it is entered by a
still, his verbal formations have ceased and are quite preliminary course of practice in insight contemplation on
still, his mental formations have ceased and are quite
still, his life is exhausted, his heat has subsided, and his
the three characteristics. The attainment of cessation, as
faculties are broken up. When a bhikkhu has entered distinct from both, is neither mundane nor supramundane,
upon the cessation of perception and feeling, his bodily neither conditioned nor unconditioned. As the cessation of
formations have ceased and are quite still, his verbal consciousness it takes no object. It is open solely to non-
formations have ceased and are quite still, his mental returners and arahats having the eight attainments and is
formations have ceased and are quite still, his life is un- reached through an alternating course of serenity and in-
exhausted, his heat has not subsided, his faculties are sight. Moreover, to enter the attainment of cessation re-
quite whole.3 quires the fulfilment of the four preliminary tasks, while
1. MN. 1:302. such preparations are not needed for the base of neither
2. SN. 4:217. perception nor non-perception or for the attainment of frui-
3. PP., pp. 832-33. “YvāyaH, āvuso, mato, kālakato, tassa kāyasaJkhārā nirud- tion.
dhā pa;ippassaddhā, vacī saIkhārā… cittasaIkhārā niruddhā pa;ippassaddhā,
āyu parikkhiJo, usmā vūpasantā, indriyāni paribhinnāni. YvāyaH bhikkhu sañ-
ñāvedayitanirodhaH samāpanno, tassapi kāyasaIkhārā niruddhā, pa;ippassad-
dhā, vacīsaIkhārā… citta saIkhārā niruddhā, pa;ippassaddhā, āyu aparikkhīJo,
usmā avupasantā, indriyāni aparibhinnāni ti.” MN. 1:296.
338 339
 The Seven Types of Noble Persons [l] The faith devotee (saddhānusāri) is explained in the sut-
tas thus:
All noble persons, as we saw, acquire supramundane jhāna
along with their attainment of the noble paths and fruits. Here someone has not yet, in his own person, reached
The noble disciples at each of the four stages of deliver- those peaceful uncorporeal deliverances transcending
all corporeality; nor have, after wisely understanding
ance, moreover, have access to the supramundane jhāna of
all things, the biases [āsava] reached extinction. But he
their respective fruition attainments to which they can re- has a certain degree of faith in the Perfect One, a cer-
sort to experience the peace of nibbāna. However, it re- tain degree of devotion to him, and he possesses such
mains problematic to what extent they share in the possess- faculties as faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration,
ion of mundane jhāna. To determine an answer to this and wisdom. Such a one, O monks, is called a Faith-
question it is helpful to consult an early typology of noble Devotee.1
disciples described most fully in the Kī;āgiri Sutta The Puggalapaññatti definition reads:
(MN. No. 70), reformulated in the Puggalapaññatti of the
What person is a faith-devotee? In a person practising
Abhidhammapi;aka, and clarified further in the comment- for the realization of the fruit of stream-entry the fac-
aries. This typology classifies the eight noble persons of ulty of faith is predominant; he develops the noble path
the four paths and fruits into seven types: [1] the faith- led by faith, with faith as the forerunner. This person is
devotee, [2] the one liberated by faith, [3] the body-witness, called a faith-devotee. A person practising for the reali-
[4] the one liberated in both ways, [5] the truth-devotee, zation of the fruit of stream-entry is a faith-devotee.
[6] the one attained to understanding, and [7] the one liber- When established in the fruit he is one liberated by
ated by wisdom.1 A look at the explanation of these seven faith.2 (Wr. tr.).
types will enable us to see the range of jhānic attainment Whereas the sutta explanation explicitly mentions the lack
reached by the noble disciples, and from there to assess the of the “incorporeal deliverances” (āruppā vimokkhā), i.e.
place of mundane jhāna in the early Buddhist picture of the the four immaterial jhānas, the Puggalapaññatti omits this,
perfected individual. but states more openly his status as a person on the path of
stream-entry. Both concur in recognizing the faith-devotee
The seven types divide into three general classes, each
class being defined by the predominance of a particular
1. Path to Deliverance, pp. 183-84. “Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā
spiritual faculty. The first two types are governed roughly vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te na kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya
by predominance of faith, the middle two by predominance c’assa disvā āsavā aparikkhīJā honti, Tathāgate c’assa saddhāmattaH hoti pe-
mamattaH, api c’assa ime dhammā honti seyyathīdaH saddhindriyaH viriyin-
of concentration, and the last three by predominance of driyaH satindriyaH samādhindriyaH paññindriyaH. AyaH vuccati bhikkhave
wisdom. To this division, however, certain qualifications puggalo saddhānusāri.” MN. 1:479.
will have to be made as we go along. 2. “Katamo ca puggalo saddhānusāri? Yassa puggalassa sotāpattiphalasacchi-
kiriyāya pa;ipannassa saddhindriyaH adhimattaH hoti. Saddhāvāhi saddhāpub-
baIgamaH ariyamaggaH bhāveti. AyaH vuccati puggalo saddhānusāri. Sotā-
pattiphalasacchikiriyāya pa;ipanno puggalo saddhānusāri. Phale ;hito saddhāvi-
1. In Pāli: [1] saddhānusāri, [2] saddhāvimutta, [3] kāyasakkhi, [4] ubhatobhā- muttoti.” Dhātukathā Puggalapaññattipā3i, [Pāli Text in Burmese script]. (Ran-
gavimutta, [5] dhammānusāri, [6] di;;hippatta, and [7] paññāvimutta. goon. Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961), p. 182 (hereafter cited as Pug.P.).

340 341
as a disciple with predominance of faith. When the immat- As in the case of the faith-devotee, the one liberated by
erial jhānas are excluded from the faith devotee’s spiritual faith, while lacking the immaterial jhānas, may still be
equipment, this implies nothing with regard to his achieve- an obtainer of the four mundane jhānas as well as a dry
ment of the four lower mundane jhānas. It would seem that insight worker.
the faith-devotee can have previously attained any of the The Puggalapaññatti states that the person liberated by faith
four fine material jhānas before reaching the path, and can is one who understands the Four Noble Truths, has seen
also be a dry-insight worker bereft of mundane jhāna. The and verified by means of wisdom the dhammas proclaimed
commentaries add a new element – a connection between by the Tathāgata, and having seen with wisdom has elimi-
the disciple’s subject of insight contemplation and his dom- nated some of his cankers. However, he has not done so as
inant faculty. Thus for the faith-devotee the subject of in- easily as the di hipatta, the person attained to understand-
sight is impermanence. The Visuddhimagga says: ing, whose progress is easier due to his superior wisdom.1
When a man brings [formations] to mind as imper- The fact that the one liberated by faith has destroyed only
manent and, having great resolution, acquires the faith some of his cankers implies that he has advanced beyond
faculty, he becomes a faith devotee at the moment of the first path but not yet reached the final fruit, the fruition
the stream-entry path.1 of arahatship.2
[2] The one liberated by faith (saddhāvimutta) is strictly [3] The “body witness” (kāyasakkhi) is a noble disciple at
and literally defined as a noble disciple at the six intermed- the six intermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry to
iate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry through to the the path of arahatship, who has a predominance of the fac-
path of arahatship, who lacks the immaterial jhānas and ulty of concentration and can obtain the immaterial jhānas.
has a predominance of the faith faculty. The Buddha ex- The sutta explanation reads:
plains the one liberated by faith as follows: But who, O monks, is a ‘Body-Witness’? Here some-
But who, O monks, is the one ‘Liberated by Faith’? one has, in his own person, reached those peaceful Un-
Here someone has not yet, in his own person, reached corporeal Deliverances transcending all corporeality.
those peaceful uncorporeal deliverances transcending But, after wisely understanding all things, only some
all corporeality; and, after wisely understanding all biases have reached extinction. Such a one, O monks, is
things, have only some biases reached extinction; but called a Body-Witness.3
his faith in the Perfect One is firmly established, deeply
rooted and steadfast. Such a one, O monks, is called
Liberated by Faith.2 1. Pug.P., pp. 184-85.
2. The Visuddhimagga, however, says that arahats in whom faith is predomi-
nant can also be called “liberated by faith.” (PP., p. 770. Vism. p. 566). Its !īkā
1. PP., p. 770. Vism., p. 566. points out that this remark is only intended figuratively, not literally, in the
2. Path to Deliverance, p. 183. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo saddhāvimutto? sense that for those arahats arahatship results from being saddhāvimutta at the
Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te moment of the fourth path. Literally such arahats would be paññāvimutta.
na kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā ekacce āsavā parikkhīJā Vism.T. 2:468.
honti, Tathāgate c’assa saddhā nivi;;hā hoti mūlajātā pati;;hitā. AyaH vuccati 3. Path to Deliverance, p. 182. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo kāyasakkhi:
bhikkhave puggalo saddhāvimutto.” MT. 1:478. Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te
342 343
The Puggalapaññatti offers a slight variation on this phras- stances,”1 i.e. from the path of stream-entry through arahat-
ing: “What person is a body-witness? Here some person ship. Its !īkā explains that this extension of the scope of
has, in his own person, reached the eight deliverances, and body-witness to persons on the first path and to arahats is
having seen with wisdom, some of his cankers are des- figurative in intention and should not be taken as literal.
troyed.”1 (Wr. tr.). For the sutta’s “immaterial deliverances” Literally, a body-witness is found only in the intermediate
(āruppā vimokkhā) the Puggalapaññatti substitutes “the six stages.
eight deliverances” (a havimokkhā). These eight deliveran- One with the eight attainments on the first path would
ces consist of three meditative attainments pertaining to the have to be either a faith-devotee or a truth-devotee; the
fine material sphere (inclusive of all four lower jhānas), the same person at the final fruition would be one liberated
four immaterial jhānas, and the attainment of cessation.2 in both ways.2 (Wr. tr.).
But though the Puggalapaññatti makes this reformulation, [4] One who is liberated in both ways (ubhatobhāgavimut-
it should not be thought either that the achievement of all ta) is an arahat who has completely destroyed the defile-
eight deliverances is necessary to become classified as a ments and possesses the immaterial attainments. The com-
body-witness or that the achievement of the three lower de- mentary to the Majjhima Nikāya explains the name “liber-
liverances is sufficient. What is both requisite and suffi- ated in both ways” as meaning “through the immaterial
cient to receive the designation “body-witness” is the par- attainment he is liberated from the material body and
tial destruction of defilements coupled with the attainment through the path [of arahatship] he is liberated from the
of at least the lowest immaterial jhāna. The Visuddhimagga mental body.”3 (Wr. tr.). The sutta defines this type of dis-
!īkā states that the body-witness need only obtain one of ciple thus:
the immaterial jhānas, and holds that this type becomes
Now, who, O monks, is the one Liberated in Both
fivefold by way of those who obtain any of the four imma- Ways? Here someone has in his own person reached
terial jhānas and the one who also obtains the attainment of those peaceful Uncorporeal Deliverances transcending
cessation.3 all corporeality. And, after wisely understanding all
The Visuddhimagga connects the body-witness with suffer-
ing as a subject of insight and concentration as a predomin-
ant faculty: “When a man brings (formations) to mind as
painful and, having great tranquility, acquires the faculty of 1. PP., p. 770. “Yo pana [sankhāre] dukkhato manasikaronto passaddhibahulo
concentration, he is called a body-witness in all eight in- samādhindriyaH pa;ilabhati, so sabbattha kāyasakkhi nāma hoti.” Vism., p. 566.
2. “A;;havimokkhalābhī pana pa;hamamaggakkhaJe saddhānusāri vā dham-
mānusāri vā siyā, majjhe chasu ;hānesu kāyasakkhi, pariyosāne ubhatobhāga-
kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā ekacce āsavā parikkhīJā honti. vimutto.” Vism.T. 2:466. The position that one with the eight attainments on
AyaH vuccati bhikkhave puggalo kāyasakkhi.” MN. 1:478. the first path can be a faith-devotee or a truth-devotee conflicts with the expla-
nation of these types in the Kī;āgiri Sutta. However the sevenfold typology of
1. Pug.P., p. 184. this sutta makes no provision for a disciple of the first path who gains the im-
2. DN. 3:159. MN. 2:12. Also see BMTP., pp. 484-86. material jhānas.
3. Vism.T. 2:466. 3. “Arūpasamāpattiyā rūpakāyato vimutto. Maggena nāmakāyato.” MN. 2:131.
344 345
 things, the biases have reached extinction. Such a one, but, after wisely understanding all things, have the bi-
O monks, is called ‘Liberated in Both Ways.’1 ases reached extinction. But the teachings made known
by the Perfect One, find a certain understanding in him,
The Puggalapaññatti gives basically the same formula, but
and he is endowed with such faculties as faith, energy,
replaces “immaterial deliverances” with “the eight deliver- mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. Such a one, O
ances.”2 (Wr. tr.). The same principle of interpretation that monks, is called a Truth-Devotee.1
applied to the body-witness applies here: the attainment of
The Puggalapaññatti defines the truth-devotee in the same
any immaterial jhāna, even the lowest, is sufficient to qual-
way as the faith devotee, except that it substitutes wisdom
ify a person as both-ways liberated. The Visuddhimagga
for faith as the predominant faculty and as the leader and
!īkā says: “One who has attained arahatship after gaining
forerunner in the development of the path. It adds that
even one [immaterial jhāna] is liberated in both ways.”3
when a truth devotee is established in the fruit of stream
(Wr. tr.).
entry he becomes one attained to understanding (di hip-
And the Majjhima Nikāya commentary states: patta).2 The sutta and Abhidhamma works again differ as to
The one liberated in both ways is fivefold by way of emphasis, the one stressing lack of the immaterial jhānas,
those four who attain arahatship by comprehending the other the ariyan stature. The Visuddhimagga connects
formations after emerging from one or another of the the truth-devotee with the contemplation of selflessness:
four immaterial attainments, and non-returners who at- “When a man brings [formations] to mind as not self and
tain arahatship after emerging from [the attainment of]
having great wisdom, acquires the faculty of understand-
cessation.4 (Wr. tr.).
ing, he becomes a Dhamma-devotee at the moment of the
[5] The “truth-devotee” (dhammānusāri) is a disciple on stream entry path.3 Presumably, though the four immaterial
the first path in whom the faculty of wisdom is predomi- jhānas are denied for the truth-devotee, he may have any of
nant. Here “dhamma” has the meaning of wisdom (pañ- the four fine material jhānas or be a bare insight practitio-
ñā).5 The Buddha explains the truth-devotee as follows:
ner without any mundane jhāna.
But who, O monks, is a ‘Truth Devotee’? Here some-
one has not yet, in his person, reached those peaceful [6] The one attained to understanding (di hippatta) is a
uncorporeal deliverances transcending all corporeality; noble disciple at the six intermediate levels who lacks the

1. Path to Deliverance, p. 182. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo ubhatobhāga-

vimutto? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe 1. Path to Deliverance, p. 183. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo dhammānusāri?
āruppā te kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā āsavā parikkhīJā Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te
honti. AyaH vuccati bhikkhave puggalo ubhatobhāgavimutto.” MN. 1:477. na kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā āsavā aparikkhīJā honti,
2. Pug.P., p. 184. Tathāgatappaveditā c’assa dhammā paññāya mattaso nijjhānaH khamanti, api
3. “Tattha pana ekampi [arūpajjhānaH] laddhā arahattaH patto ubhatobhāgavi- c’assa ime dhammā honti seyyathīdaH saddhindriyaH viriyindriyaH satindri-
mutto eva hoti.” Vism.T. 2:466. yaH samādhindriyaH paññindriyaH. AyaH vuccati bhikkhave puggalo dham-
4. "So catunnaH arūpasamāpattīnaH ekekato vu;;hāya saHkhāre sammasitvā mānusārī.” MN. 1:479.
arahattaH pattānaH catunnaH, nirodhā vu;;hāya arahattaH pattā anāgāmino ca 2. Pug.P., p. 185.
vasena pañcavidhā honti.” MN.A. 3:131. 3. PP., p. 770. “Yo pana anattato manasikaronto vedabahulo paññindriyaH pa;i-
5. PP., pp. 771. Vism., p. 566. labhati, so sotāpattimaggakkaJe dhammānusāri hoti.” Vism., p. 566.

346 347
immaterial jhānas and has a predominance of the wisdom things, have the biases reached extinction. Such a one,
faculty. The Buddha explains: O monks, is called ‘Liberated by Wisdom.’1
But who, O monks, is he who has ‘Attained to Under- The Puggalapaññatti’s definition merely replaces “immate-
standing’? Here someone has not yet, in his own per- rial deliverances” with “the eight deliverances.”2 Though
son, reached those peaceful uncorporeal deliverances such arahats do not reach the immaterial jhānas nothing is
transcending all corporeality; and, after wisely under- said to exclude their attainment of the lower jhānas. The
standing all things, only some biases have reached ex- commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya states: “The one lib-
tinction; but the teaching made known by the Perfect
erated by wisdom is fivefold by way of the dry insight-
One, he has fully comprehended and penetrated. Such a
one, O monks, is called one who has ‘Attained to Un- worker and those four who attain arahatship after emerging
derstanding’.1 from the four jhānas.”3 (Wr. tr.).
The Puggalapaññatti defines the one attained to under- It should be noted that the one liberated by wisdom is con-
standing as a person who understands the Four Noble trasted not with the one liberated by faith, but with the one
Truths, has seen and verified by means of wisdom the liberated in both ways. The issue that divides the two types
dhammas proclaimed by the Tathāgata, and having seen of arahat is the lack or possession of the four immaterial
with wisdom has eliminated some of his cankers.2 He is jhānas and the attainment of cessation. The person liber-
thus the “wisdom counterpart” of the one liberated by faith, ated by faith is found at the six intermediate levels of sanct-
but progresses more easily than the latter by virtue of his ity, not at the level of arahatship. When he obtains arahat-
sharper wisdom. ship, lacking the immaterial jhānas, he becomes one
liberated by wisdom even though faith rather than wisdom
[7] The one liberated by wisdom (paññāvimutta) is an ara-
is his predominant faculty. Similarly a meditator with pre-
hat who does not obtain the immaterial attainments. In the
dominance of concentration but lacking the immaterial at-
words of the sutta:
tainments also becomes one liberated by wisdom when he
But who, O monks, is the one Liberated by Wisdom? attains arahatship. But a yogin who reaches arahatship
Here someone has not yet, in his own person, reached while possessing the immaterial attainments will still be
those peaceful Uncorporeal Deliverance transcending
one “liberated in both ways” even if wisdom rather than
all corporeality. But after wisely understanding all
concentration claims first place among his spiritual endow-
ments. as was the case with the Venerable Sāriputta.

1. Path to Deliverance, p. 182. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo paññāvimutto?

1. Path to Deliverance, p. 183. “Katamo ca bhikkhave puggalo di;;hippatto? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te
Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ye te santā vimokhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te na kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā āsavā parikkhīJā honti. AyaH
na kāyena phassitvā viharati, paññāya c’assa disvā ekacce āsavā parikkhīJā vuccati bhikkhave puggalo paññāvimutto.” MN. 1:477-78.
honti, Tathāgatappaveditā c’assa dhammā paññāya vodi;;hā honti vocaritā. 2. Pug.P., p. 185.
AyaH vuccati bhikkhave puggalo di;;hippatto.” MN. 1:478. 3. “So sukkhavipassako, catūhi jhānehi vu;;hāya arahattaH pattā cattāro cāti
2. Pug.P., p. 185. imesaH vasena pañcavidhova hoti.” MN.A. 3:131.

348 349
 Jhāna and the Arahat sibility. We have already mentioned the suddhavipassanā-
yānika, the yogin with bare insight as his vehicle, also
From the standpoint of their spiritual stature the seven
called the sukkhavipassaka, the dry insight meditator. That
types of noble persons can be divided into three categories.
this kind of meditator does not already possess a jhāna at-
The first, which includes the faith-devotee (saddhānusāri)
tainment which he just neglects to use as a basis for insight
and the truth-devotee (dhammānusāri), consists of those on
seems implicit from the distinction the Visuddhimagga
the path of stream-entry, the first of the eight ariyan per-
makes in its discussion of the jhānic level of the path:
sons. The second category, comprising the one liberated by
faith (saddhāvimutta), the body-witness (kāyasakkhi), and ... the path arisen in a bare-insight [dry insight] worker,
the one attained to understanding (di hippatta), consists of and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhāna at-
tainment but who has not made the jhāna the basis for
those on the six intermediate levels, from the stream-
insight,... are paths of the first jhāna only.1
enterer to one on the path of arahatship. The third category,
comprising the one liberated in both ways (ubhatobhāga- Here, when the dry-insight worker is distinguished from the
vimutta) and the one liberated by wisdom (paññāvimutta), jhāna-attainer who does not use his jhāna to develop in-
consists only of arahats. sight, the clear implication is that the former does not have
a basic jhāna. If he did there would be no reason to speak
The ubhatobhāgavimutta, “one liberated in both ways,” and of the two as separate cases.
the paññāvimutta, “one liberated by wisdom,” thus repres-
ent the terms of a twofold typology of arahats into which Further evidence for the existence of arahats lacking mun-
every arahat can be fitted. The basis for distinguishing the dane jhāna is provided by the Susīma Sutta together with
two is the degree of their accomplishment in jhāna. The its commentaries.2 In this sutta the monk Susīma is per-
ubhatobhāgavimutta arahat experiences in his own person plexed about a group of monks who claim to have reached
the “peaceful deliverances” of the immaterial sphere, the aññā, the final knowledge of arahatship, yet deny possess-
paññāvimutta arahat lacks this full experience of the im- ing supernormal powers or the peaceful deliverances of the
material jhānas. Each of these two types, according to the immaterial sphere. To the question how they can be arahats
commentaries, again becomes fivefold. The ubhatobhāga- without these attainments they reply: “We are liberated by
vimutta is fivefold by way of those who possess the ascend- wisdom” (paññāvimuttā kho maya,). Confused by this an-
ing four immaterial jhānas and the attainment of cessation, swer, Susīma goes to the Buddha for clarification. The
the paññāvimutta by way of those who reach arahatship af- Buddha declares: “Susīma, first the knowledge of the struc-
ter emerging from the four fine material jhānas and the dry ture of phenomena arises, afterwards the knowledge of nib-
insight meditator whose insight lacks the support of jhāna. bāna.”3 (Wr. tr.). Then he explains the impermanence, suf-
The possibility of arahatship without possession of a mun- 1. PP., p. 779. “…sukkhavipassakassa uppannamaggo pi samāpattilābhino jhā-
dane jhāna has sometimes been questioned by Theravāda naH pādakaH akatvā uppannamaggo pi… pa;hamajjhānikā va honti.”
Buddhist scholars, but the weight of the Theravāda tradi- Vism., p. 573.
2. SN. 2:119-23.
tion appears to lean towards the recognition of such a pos-
3. “Pubbe kho Susīma dhamma;;hitiñāJaH pacchā nibbāne ñāJaH.” SN. 2:124.

350 351
fering, and selflessness of the five aggregates. He shows adding that “this is said in reference to the vipassanā-
how contemplation of the three characteristics leads to dis- yānika.”1 From all this it follows that these arahats, attain-
passion, detachment and emancipation, elucidates the law ing emancipation by wisdom without prior concentration of
of dependent arising, and convinces Susīma that knowledge the serenity level, lacked mundane jhāna. As arahats, how-
of the causal law can issue in liberation without requiring ever, they would necessarily have reached the supramun-
any possession of supernormal powers or the immaterial at- dane jhāna of the paths and fruits, with constant access to
tainments.1 the jhāna of the attainment of fruition.
It is true that in the sutta itself a lack of jhāna is not as- In contrast to the paññāvimutta arahats, those arahats who
cribed to the group of paññāvimutta arahats. The text only are ubhatobhāgavimutta enjoy a twofold liberation.
mentions the absence of the five abhiññās and the āruppas. Through their mastery over the formless attainments they
But the exegetical sources on the sutta fill in the gap, show- are liberated from the material body (rūpakāya), capable of
ing that these arahats reached their goal without mundane dwelling in this very life in the meditations corresponding
jhāna of absorption level. The commentary rephrases the to the immaterial planes of existence; through their attain-
monks’ reply “We are liberated by wisdom” to make ex- ment of arahatship they are liberated from the mental body
plicit the fact that they are dry insight meditators: “‘We are (nāmakāya), presently free from all defilements and sure of
liberated by wisdom, friend’: we are contemplatives, dry final emancipation from future becoming.2 Paññāvimutta
insight workers, liberated by wisdom alone.”2 (Wr. tr.). The arahats only possess the second of these two liberations.
commentary explains the knowledge of the structure of The double liberation of the ubhatobhāgavimutta arahat
phenomena (dhamma hitiñā1a) as insight knowledge and should not be confused with another double liberation fre-
the knowledge of nibbāna (nibbāne ñā1a) as path know- quently mentioned in the suttas in connection with arahat-
ledge. It states that the Buddha gave the long disquisition ship. This second pair of liberations, called cetovimutti
on insight “for the purpose of showing the arising of know- paññāvimutti, “liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom,”
ledge even without concentration.”3 (Wr. tr.). The subcom- is shared in common by all arahats. It appears in the stock
mentary makes the sutta’s purport still clearer by explain- passage descriptive of arahatship: “With the destruction of
ing the commentary’s phrase “even without concentration” the cankers he here and now enters and dwells in the cank-
as meaning even without concentration previously accom- erless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it
plished, reaching the characteristic of “serenity” (Wr. tr.), for himself with direct knowledge.”3 That this twofold lib-
1. Ibid. 2:124-27.
eration belongs to paññāvimutta arahats as well as to those
2. “Avuso mayaH nijjhānakā sukkhavipassaka paññāmatten’eva vimuttā ti das- who are ubhatobhāgavimutta is made clear by the Putta
seti.” SN.A. 2:117. N.B. The word nijjhānaka is ambiguous: the word nijjhāna
is used in the suttas to mean reflection or contemplation and we here follow
that usage by rendering its derivative as “contemplative”; but the purport might 1. “Samatha lakkhaJappattaH purimasiddhaH vinā pi samādhinti vipassanā
also be “lacking jhāna,” as the prefix nir sometimes has a privative as well as yānikaH sandhāya vuttaH.” SN.T. 2:125.
augmentative meaning. 2. Vism.T. 2:468.
3. “Vinā pi samādhiH evaH ñāJuppattidassanatthaH.” Ibid. 3. See Chapter VII, p. 335.

352 353
Sutta, where the stock passage is used for two types of ara- the Four Noble Truths. The term cetovimutti has a more
hats called the “white lotus recluse” and the “red lotus re- varied application. In some places it signifies the tempo-
cluse”: rary release of the mind from defilements given by attain-
How, monks, is a person a white lotus recluse? Here, ments in serenity meditation, as when the Mahāvedalla
monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here Sutta speaks of the fourth jhāna, the four Brahmavihāras,
and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation and the base of nothingness as forms of cetovimutti.1 But
of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for elsewhere cetovimutti is held up as the final goal of the
himself with direct knowledge. Yet he does not dwell Buddhist meditative discipline. In this context it is usually
experiencing the eight deliverances with his body. qualified by the adjective “unshakeable” (akuppā). Thus
Thus, monks, a person is a white lotus recluse.
the Mahāvedalla Sutta calls “unshakeable liberation of
And how, monks, is a person a red lotus recluse? Here, mind” the chief of all liberations of mind.2 After attaining
monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here enlightenment the Buddha declares: “Unshakeable is the
and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation
liberation of my mind.”3 And elsewhere he says: “This is
of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for
himself with direct knowledge. And he dwells experi- the goal of the holy life, monks, this is its essence, this is
encing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus, its consummation – the unshakeable liberation of the
monks, a person is a red lotus recluse.1 (Wr. tr.). mind.”4 (Wr. tr.).
Since the description of these two types coincides with that When cetovimutti and paññāvimutti are joined together and
of paññāvimutta and ubhatobhāgavimutta the two pairs described as “cankerless” (anāsava), they can be taken to
may be identified, the white lotus recluse with the paññāvi- indicate two aspects of the arahat’s deliverance. Cetovi-
mutta, the red lotus recluse with the ubhatobhāgavimutta. mutti signifies the release of his mind from craving and its
Yet the paññāvimutta arahat, while lacking the experience associated defilements, paññāvimutti the release from igno-
of the eight deliverances, still has both cetovimutti and rance: “With the fading away of lust there is liberation of
paññāvimutti. mind, with the fading away of ignorance there is liberation
by wisdom.”5 (Wr. tr.). “As he sees and understands thus
Other suttas help fill in the meaning of cetovimutti and
his mind is liberated from the canker of sensual desire,
paññāvimutti. The latter term is almost invariably used in
from the canker of existence, from the canker of igno-
reference to arahatship, signifying the arahat’s permanent
rance”6 (Wr. tr.) – here release from the first two cankers
deliverance from ignorance through his full penetration of
1. “Kathañca bhikkhave puggalo samaJapuJYarīko hoti? Idha bhikkhave bhik- 1. MN. l:296-98.
khu āsavānaH khayā anāsavaH cetovimuttiH paññāvimuttiH di;;h’eva dhamme 2. Ibid. 1:298.
sayaH abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharati, no ca kho a;;havimokhe kāye-
na phassitvā viharati. EvaH kho bhikkhave puggalo samaJapuJYarīko hoti. 3. “Akuppā me cetovimutti.” SN. 5:423.
Kathañca bhikkhave puggalo samaJapadumo hoti? Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu 4. “Yā ca kho ayaH bhikkhave akuppā cetovimutti etad atthaH idaH bhikkhave
āsavānaH khayā anāsavaH cetovimuttiH paññāvimuttiH di;;h’eva dhamme say- brahmacariyaH etad sāraH etaH pariyosānaH.” MN. 1:l97.
aH abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharati, a;;ha ca vimokhe kāyena phas- 5. “… Rāgavirāgā cetovimutti avijjāvirāgā paññāvimutti.” AN. l:61.
sitvā viharati. EvaH kho bhikkhave puggalo samaJapadumo hoti.” AN. 2:87. 6. MN. 1:183-84.

354 355
can be understood as cetovimutti, release from the canker his outer significance as a representative of the Buddha’s
of ignorance as paññāvimutti. In the commentaries ceto- dispensation.
vimutti is identified with the concentration factor in the On the side of inner experience the jhānas are valued as
fruit of arahatship, paññāvimutti with the wisdom factor: providing the arahat with a “blissful dwelling here and
By the word ‘mind’ the concentration concomitant now” (di hadhammasukhavihāra).1 The suttas often show
with the fruit of arahatship is meant, by the word ‘wis- arahats attaining to jhāna and the Buddha himself declares
dom’ the concomitant wisdom is meant. The con- the four jhānas to be figuratively a kind of nibbāna in this
centration there is called ‘liberation of mind’ because it
present life.2 With respect to levels and factors there is no
has liberated the mind from lust, the wisdom is called
‘liberation by wisdom’ because it has liberated the difference between the mundane jhānas of an arahat and
mind from ignorance.1 (Wr. tr.). those of a non-arahat. The difference concerns their funct-
ion. For non-arahats the mundane jhānas constitute whole-
Since every arahat reaches arahatship through the Noble
some kamma; they are deeds with a potential to produce re-
Eightfold Path, he must have attained supramundane jhāna
sults, to precipitate rebirth in a corresponding realm of ex-
in the form of right concentration, the eighth factor of the
istence. But in the case of an arahat mundane jhāna is no
path, defined as the four jhānas. This jhāna remains with
more kamma. Since he has eradicated ignorance and crav-
him as the concentration of the fruition attainment of ara-
ing, the roots of kamma, his actions leave no residue; they
hatship, which occurs at the level of supramundane jhāna
have no capacity to generate results. For him the jhānic
corresponding to that of his path. Thus he always stands in
consciousness is, in Abhidhamma terms, a kiriya con-
possession of at least the supramundane jhāna of fruition,
sciousness, a mere functional occurrence which comes and
called the anāsava, cetovimutti, “cankerless liberation of
goes and once gone disappears without a trace.3
mind.” However this consideration does not reflect back on
his mundane attainments, requiring that every arahat poss- The value of the jhānas extends beyond the confines of the
esses mundane jhāna. arahat’s personal experience and testifies to the spiritual ef-
ficacy of the Buddha’s dispensation itself. From the evi-
Nevertheless, though early Buddhism tends to acknowledge
dence of the texts the early Buddhists regarded the jhānas
the possibility of a dry-visioned arahatship, the attitude pre-
as ornamentations of the yogin, testimonies to the accomp-
vails that jhānas are still desirable attributes in an arahat.
lishment of the spiritually perfect man and the effectiveness
They are of value not only prior to final attainment, as a
of the teaching he follows. A stock passage used to com-
foundation for insight, but retain their value even after-
mend a worthy monk reads: “He gains at will, without
wards as well. The value of jhāna in the stage of arahat-
trouble or difficulty, the four jhānas pertaining to the high-
ship, when all spiritual training has been completed, is two-
fold. One concerns the arahat’s inner experience, the other
1. See MN. 1:33.
1. “Ettha cetovacanena arahattaphala sampayutto va samādhi, paññāvacanena
taHsampayuttā paññā vuttā. Tattha ca samādhi rāgato vimuttattā cetovimutti, 2. See AN. 4:453-54.
paññā avijjāya vimuttattā paññā vimuttīti veditabbo.” MN.A. l:169. 3. Nārada, Manual., pp. 43-45.

356 357
er consciousness, blissful dwellings here and now.”1 attainment of cessation without giving rise to the thoughts
(Wr. tr.). The Buddha calls this ability to gain the jhānas at “I am attaining,” “I have attained” or “I have emerged.” The
will a quality that makes a monk an elder. When accom- reason he can avoid such thoughts is that, as an arahat, he
panied by several other spiritual accomplishments the same has uprooted all “I”-making, “mine”-making, and tenden-
ability is said to be an essential quality of “a recluse who cies to conceit.1 Elsewhere the Buddha praises Sāriputta for
graces recluses” (sama1esu sama1asukhumālo) and of a his skill in entering each of the nine attainments, analyzing
monk who can move unobstructed in the four directions.2 them into their constituent formations, and contemplating
Having ready access to the four jhānas makes an elder dear them with a mind unconfined by attraction or repulsion.2
and agreeable, respected and esteemed by his fellow The higher the degree of his mastery over the meditative at-
monks.3 Facility in gaining the jhānas is one of the eight tainments, the higher the esteem in which an arahat monk
qualities of a completely inspiring monk (samantapāsādika is held and the more praiseworthy his accomplishment is
bhikkhu) perfect in all respects; it is also one of the eleven considered to be. On one occasion the Buddha met with
foundations of faith (saddhāpadānāni).4 It is significant three arahat bhikkhus – the Venerable Anuruddha, Nan-
that in all these lists of qualities the last item is always the diya, and Kimbila – and elicited from them the admission
attainment of arahatship, “the cankerless liberation of that they were all capable of attaining the four jhānas, the
mind, liberation by wisdom,” showing that all desirable four āruppas, cessation, and the fruit of arahatship. After
qualities in a bhikkhu culminate in arahatship. this discussion the Buddha declared that if all the people in
On one occasion, when a number of chief disciples met to- the world were to recollect these three young men with a
gether in a lovely Salwood at Gosinga on a beautiful moon- mind of confidence, it would lead to their welfare and hap-
lit night, the discussion arose among them as to what type piness for a long time to come. He concludes with the
of monk could illumine that Salwood. The Venerable Re- words: “See how these three young men are faring for the
vata answered that it would be a monk who delights in soli- welfare of the many folk, out of compassion for the world,
tary meditation, who is delighted by solitary meditation, for the good, welfare, and happiness of gods and men.”3
who is intent on mental tranquility. The Venerable Súriput- (Wr. tr.).
ta replied that it would be a monk who could abide in what- Though the paññā-vimutta and ubhatobhāgavimutta arahats
ever meditative attainment he wanted in the morning, mid- are equal with respect to release from suffering, special re-
day, and evening.5 Sāriputta himself is extolled for his abil- gard extends to the latter, and the greater his facility in
ity to enter the four jhānas, the four āruppas, and the meditation the higher the regard. Thus the Buddha says:
1. “CatunnaH jhānānaH abhicetasikānaH di;;hadhammasukhavihārānaH nikā-
malābhī hoti akicchalābhī akasiralābhī…” AN. 2:23.
2. AN. 3:l31, 135. 1. SN. 3:235-38.
3. Ibid. 114. 2. MN. Sutta No. lll.
4. AN. 4:314-15. AN. 5:337. 3. “Passa… ete tayo kulaputtā bahujanahitāya pa;ipannā bahujanasukhāya lokā-
5. MN. 1:213-15. nukampāya, atthāya hitāya sukhāya devamanussānanti.” MN. 1:21l.

358 359
 When a monk has mastered these eight deliverances in moral virtue, learning, contentment, mastery over the four
direct order, in reverse order, and in both orders, when jhānas, the five mundane abhiññās, and attainment of the
he can attain to and emerge from any one of them, cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom.1 Per-
whenever he chooses, wherever he chooses and for as
haps it was because he was extolled by the Buddha for his
long as he chooses – when too, with the destruction of
the cankers, he enters and abides in the cankerless lib- facility in the meditative attainments and the abhiññās that
eration of mind, liberation by wisdom, after realizing it the Venerable Mahākassapa assumed the presidency of the
for himself here and now through direct knowledge – first great Buddhist council held in Rājagaha after the
then such a monk is called one liberated in both ways. Buddha’s passing away.2
There is no other liberation in both ways higher and In the Amba;;ha Sutta the Buddha recites a verse praising
more excellent than this liberation in both ways.1
(Wr. tr.).
the man endowed with knowledge and conduct (vijjācara-
1asampanna): “The kshatriya is the best among men for
The highest respect goes to those monks who possess not those who look to lineage, but one endowed with know-
only liberation in both ways but the six abhiññās, the first ledge and conduct is best among gods and men.”3 (Wr. tr.).
five the outcome of the eight attainments of serenity, the Conduct (cara1a), he explains, includes moral discipline,
sixth, the supramundane abhiññā of arahatship, the out- sense restraint, mindfulness and discernment, contentment,
come of insight. The Buddha declares that a monk endow- solitary living, the abandonment of the five hindrances, and
ed with the six abhiññās is worthy of gifts and hospitality, finally, as the outcome of these practices, the attainment of
worthy of offerings and reverential salutations, a supreme the four jhānas. Knowledge (vijjā) consists in insight-
field of merit for the world.2 In the period after the Budd- knowledge, the knowledge of the mind-made body, the five
ha’s parinibbāna, the Venerable Ānanda was asked wheth- mundane abhiññās, and the knowledge of the destruction of
er the Buddha had designated a successor, to which he re- the cankers. The Buddha concludes his exposition by say-
plied in the negative. He also denied that the Sangha had ing of a bhikkhu who has fulfilled this training:
selected a single monk to be its leader. However, he said,
This bhikkhu is called ‘endowed with knowledge’, ‘en-
there were monks in the Order who were regarded with dowed with conduct’, ‘endowed with knowledge and
special reverence and esteem, and to whom other monks conduct’. There is no other endowment with know-
looked for guidance and support. What qualified a monk to ledge and conduct higher or more excellent than this
give guidance to others was endowment with ten qualities: endowment with knowledge and conduct.4 (Wr. tr.).

1. MN. 3:11-12.
1. “Yato kho Ānanda bhikkhu ime a;;ha vimokhe anulomaH pi samāpajjati,
pa;ilomaH pi samāpajjati, anuloma-pa;ilomaH pi samāpajjati, yath’icchakaH 2. SN. 3:209-214.
yad icchikaH yāvad icchakaH samāpajjati pi vu;;hāti pi, āsavānaH ca khayā 3. “Khattiyo se;;ho janetasmiH ye gotta pa;isārino/VijjācaraJa-sampanno so
anāsavaH cetovimuttiH paññā-vimuttiH di;;he va dhamme sayaH abhiññā sac- se;;ho deva-mānuse.” DN. 1:99.
chikatvā upasampajja viharati, ayaH vuccati Ānanda bhikkhu ubhatobhāga- 4. “AyaH vuccati Amba;;ha bhikkhu vijjā-sampanno iti pi caraJasampanno iti
vimutto, imāya ca Ānanda ubhato-bhāgavimuttiyā aññā ubhato-bhāga-vimutti pi vijjā-caraJa-sampanno iti pi. Imāya ca Amba;;ha vijjā-caraJa-sampadāya
uttaritarā vā paJītatarā vā n’atthī ti.” DN. 2:71. aññā vijjāsampadā caraJa-sampadā uttaritarā vā paJītatarā vā n’atthi.”
2. AN. 3:280-81. DN. 1:100.

360 361
 fruits (phala), the stages of enlightenment and liberation
Conclusion
Conclusion leading to nibbāna, the end of suffering.
The jhānas are an important aspect of training in the con- The mundane jhānas are not absolutely necessary for all
templative system of Theravāda Buddhism, representing practitioners, but on account of the powerful calm they in-
the most eminent form of concentration (samādhi). They duce the Buddha frequently commends them to his dis-
enter into the discipline as the training in the higher con- ciples. The Buddhist training progresses through three sta-
sciousness (adhicittasikkhā), into the Noble Eightfold Path ges – morality, concentration, and wisdom. Wisdom leads
as right concentration (sammāsamādhi), and directly or in- directly to liberation, but it can only arise in the mind that
directly relate to all the thirty-seven training principles has been collected and purified by concentration. Jhāna, as
leading to enlightenment. Of the two principal types of a superior form of concentration, helps to produce this pu-
Buddhist meditation, serenity meditation (samathabhāv- rification needed as a base for wisdom.
anā) and insight meditation (vipassanābhāvanā), they fall We clarified the way the jhānas work to purify the mind by
on the side of serenity, though the mental unification they drawing upon the analytical approach to mental processes
induce makes them also a helpful instrument for developing developed in the psychology of Theravāda Buddhism. From
insight. this perspective we saw the mind viewed as an ever-chang-
The purpose of this dissertation has been to investigate the ing continuum of evanescent mental events, each event in
function performed by the jhānas in the structure of the turn being composed of a multiplicity of factors. Certain
Buddhist path to liberation. We approached this topic in factors cause defilement and distraction, others bring about
terms of two specific problems: [l] to understand how the purification and inner unity. By developing the mind in de-
jhānas bring about a progressive purification of conscious- liberate ways according to the system of meditation it is
ness and a focussing of the power of awareness; and [2] to possible to pit the latter factors against the former and
determine the precise way and extent to which this mental eventually overcome them. The jhānas are the fruits of this
unification effected by the jhānas facilitates the attainment conquest.
of nibbāna, the ultimate goal of Buddhist meditation. The factors which obstruct mental clarity are classed as the
Our account of the function of the jhānas was based upon five hindrances – sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor,
the recognition that the jhānas can occur at two levels, one restlessness and worry, and doubt. A meditator aspiring to
mundane (lokiya) and the other supramundane (lokuttara). the jhānas, after purifying his moral discipline, cutting off
As mundane they pertain to the preliminary stages of the impediments, and receiving a suitable subject from a teach-
path leading up to insight where they can be developed to er, must first overcome the hindrances. The texts prescribe
any of eight degrees, the four fine material jhānas (rūpa- various methods for achieving this, some designed specific-
jjhāna) and the four immaterial jhānas (arūpajjhāna). As ally for the individual defilements, others such as general
supramundane they pertain to the four paths (magga) and mindfulness applicable to all the hindrances at once. As he
persists in his practice of meditation the meditator strength-

362 363
ens five positive mental factors – applied thought, sus- scheme of five jhānas covering the same range of medit-
tained thought, rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness. ative experience.
These five serve to counteract the hindrances and unify the After achieving mastery over the four fine material jhānas,
mind on its object. When the hindrances are suppressed, an ardent meditator can continue to refine his concentration
there appears a luminous mental replica of the meditation by attaining the four immaterial jhānas: the base of bound-
subject called the counterpart sign (pa ibhāganimitta), less space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of
marking the attainment of “access concentration” (upa- nothingness, and the base of neither perception nor non-
cārasamādhi) where the mind stands at the threshold of perception. Whereas the purification of consciousness ef-
jhāna. With further strengthening of the jhāna factors the fected by the lower jhānas takes place by means of the suc-
meditator passes to appanāsamādhi, full absorption. The cessive elimination of mental factors, the purification ef-
initial level of absorption is the first jhāna, which is en- fected by progress through the immaterial jhānas occurs
dowed with the five jhāna factors as its defining con- through a surmounting of objects. All four immaterial
stituents. states have the same factorial constitution, identical with
After mastering the first jhāna a meditator can go further in that of the fourth jhāna i.e. neutral feeling and one-
the direction of serenity by attaining the second, third, and pointedness. They differ essentially with respect to their
fourth jhānas. Progress from one jhāna to another, we saw, objective basis, taking in order successively more subtle
is handled by the Theravāda expositors with the same psy- objects. The first objectifies the infinity of space, the sec-
chological rigor they apply to the initial attainment. The ond the consciousness pertaining to the base of boundless
ascent through the four fine material jhānas involves the space, the third the non-existent aspect of the same con-
successive elimination of coarser mental factors. In each sciousness, and the fourth the mental aggregates belonging
case the meditator reflects that the jhāna he has mastered is to the base of nothingness. This last āruppa, the base of
endangered by its proximity to the stage immediately below neither perception nor non-perception, marks the utmost
and by its own inherent grossness, then he aspires to the limit in the unification of consciousness and the highest
higher stage as more serene, peaceful, and sublime. Thus degree to which serenity can be pursued.
he eliminates applied and sustained thought to reach the If he so desires, a meditator who has thoroughly mastered
second jhāna, rapture to reach the third, and happiness to the eight attainments can develop certain supernormal
reach the fourth. The factors that remain function as the modes of knowledge. These, known as the abhiññās, are
constituting factors of the jhāna – rapture, happiness, and five in number: the knowledge of the modes of supernor-
one-pointedness for the second, happiness and one- mal power, the knowledge of the divine ear-element, the
pointedness for the third, and neutral feeling and one-point- knowledge of penetrating others’ minds, the knowledge of
edness for the fourth. If the meditator’s faculties are not recollecting previous lives, and the knowledge of the pass-
sharp, he may have to overcome applied and sustained ing away and re-arising of beings. These abhiññās are all
thought separately. To account for this possibility the Abhi- mundane, the products of concentration. Though not essen-
dhamma, with its penchant for precise analysis, includes a
364 365
tial to the path, they are still embellishments of an accom- (satta visuddhi). The first two – purification of morality
plished meditator, useful if handled with understanding and and purification of mind – coincide with the training in
applied with compassion. Along with them other kinds of moral discipline and concentration. The remaining five –
higher knowledge are sometimes mentioned. Beyond these purification of view, purification by overcoming doubt, pu-
lies a sixth abhiññā, the “knowledge of the destruction of rification by knowledge of the right and wrong paths, puri-
the cankers,” the knowledge of liberation resulting from in- fication by knowledge and vision of the way, and purifica-
sight. tion by knowledge and vision – pertain to the development
The mundane jhānas do not destroy the defilements but on- of wisdom. The wisdom of insight develops especially
ly suppress them. The type of purification they produce is through the purification by knowledge and vision of the
thus only temporary, suitable as a basis for insight but in- way; it culminates in the wisdom of the supramundane
capable by itself of leading to liberation. A meditator who paths, which make up purification by knowledge and vi-
has reached the eight attainments will be reborn according sion.
to his level of jhānic accomplishment. If he reaches the The four paths are designated the path of stream-entry, the
four lower jhānas he will be reborn in the fine material path of the once-returner, the path of the non-returner, and
world, if he reaches the immaterial jhānas he will be reborn the path of arahatship. These paths are occasions of en-
in the immaterial world. In any case he remains in bondage lightenment experience which penetrate by direct knowl-
to sa,sāra and is not yet free from suffering. Therefore edge the Four Noble Truths. They exercise the function of
jhāna, we showed, is not sufficient for reaching the ulti- eradicating the defilements or “fetters” that cause bondage
mate goal. to sa,sāra, reducing thereby the duration of the round of
To obtain liberation from the recurring cycle of rebirths rebirths. Each successive path eliminates (or attenuates) a
what is required is wisdom (paññā), culminating in the su- subtler layer of defilements, until with the fourth path all
pramundane wisdom of the noble paths that eradicates de- the defilements are cut off and the production of future re-
filements. Since the root-cause of bondage and suffering is births stopped. The paths lead immediately to their fruits,
ignorance about the true nature of phenomena, wisdom, resultant states of consciousness that enjoy the happiness of
which uncovers the true nature of phenomena, is the means nibbāna made possible by the work of the paths.
to freedom. Wisdom comes in two stages: first the wisdom The consideration that mundane jhāna does not suffice for
of insight (vipassanāñā1a) which is the direct seeing of the attaining liberation but has to be supplemented by wisdom
three characteristics of impermanence, suffering, and self- brought us to our second area of investigation, the relation
lessness in material and mental formations, then the wis- of the jhānas to the attainment of the paths and the states of
dom of the noble paths (maggañā1a) which sees nibbāna deliverance that result from them. In particular we sought
and penetrates the Four Noble Truths. to resolve the disputed question whether or not the jhānas
The complete course of development culminating in deliv- are needed for reaching nibbāna. The key to resolving this
erance has been divided into seven stages of purification controversy we found to be the distinction, implicit in the

366 367
suttas and made explicit in the Abhidhamma and commen- means of approach, jhāna of the supramundane kind enters
taries, between mundane and supramundane jhāna. Mun- into the experience of every meditator who arrives at the
dane jhāna is the most eminent type of concentration, but path. It belongs as much to the path of the one following
its attainment is not indispensable for all meditators in or- the vehicle of pure insight as it does to the path of the one
der to reach the paths and fruits. The Theravāda tradition following the vehicle of serenity. Jhāna of this kind occurs
divides meditators into two types according to the way they as the right concentration (sammāsamādhi) of the Noble
arrive at the supramundane path. One is the samathayā- Eightfold Path, defined by the Buddha with the formula for
nika, the practitioner who makes serenity his vehicle, the the four jhānas.
other is the vipassanāyānika, the practitioner who makes Thus the answer to the question whether jhāna is needed to
bare insight his vehicle. The former first develops serenity reach nibbāna is clear, settled by the recognition of two
to the level of one of the eight attainments or their access, kinds of jhāna: mundane jhāna is helpful but not absolutely
then uses that serenity as his base of concentration in order necessary, supramundane jhāna is essential but does not
to develop insight. The latter, also known as the dry insight necessarily presuppose mundane jhāna. It results from in-
worker (sukkhavipassaka), proceeds directly to insight-con- sight either alone or in combination with mundane jhāna.
templation on conditioned phenomena, producing a mobile
momentary concentration as a concomitant of his contem- The supramundane jhānas occur in the same degrees as the
plation without initially developing serenity to the level of mundane, the four of the suttanta scheme and the five of
jhānic intensity. the Abhidhamma scheme. Each has the jhāna factors ap-
propriate to its particular level of absorption. Nevertheless,
For the dry insight meditator, we saw, mundane jhāna is we found that certain significant differences separate the
dispensable, but for the meditator of the serenity vehicle it two types of jhāna. The mundane jhānas merely suppress
plays two vitally important roles: first it provides him with defilements, the supramundane eradicate them. The mun-
a foundation of calm conducive to developing insight, sec- dane remain in the orbit of the round of rebirths, the su-
ond it serves as a readily available subject to be investi- pramundane dismantle the round. The mundane involve a
gated with insight in order to see the three characteristics of predominance of serenity, the supramundane a balance of
existence. In the first capacity the jhāna is called the basic serenity with wisdom. The mundane take an idea or image
jhāna (pādakajjhāna), in the second it is called the compre- for object, the supramundane the unconditioned reality,
hended jhāna (sammasitajjhāna). nibbāna.
For meditators of both vehicles, however, jhāna is attained One question that has arisen is what determines the jhānic
when they reach the supramundane paths and fruits. The level of the paths and fruits, but the Theravāda tradition has
paths and fruits, according to the Pāli texts, always occur at not settled this with unanimity. Some elders hold that it is
a level of jhānic absorption and thus are considered forms the basic jhāna (pādakajjhāna), some that it is the compre-
of jhāna. Since to reach deliverance all practitioners have hended jhāna (sammasitajjhāna), still others that it depends
to pass through the same paths and fruits regardless of their on the meditator’s choice. The jhānic level of the fruit,

368 369
however, always conforms to that of the path. Each noble possess the jhāna of their supramundane fruition, they are
person of the four levels retains access to supramundane not all regarded as having mundane jhāna. Theravāda tradi-
jhāna as the attainment of fruition (phalasamāpatti) appro- tion recognizes a class of dry-visioned arahats who reach
priate to his level. Thus the four noble persons are always their goal by pure insight without jhāna, remaining devoid
capable of entering supramundane jhāna as a way of ex- of mundane jhāna even afterwards. Nevertheless, though
perienceing bliss and peace here and now. In addition non- arahatship without mundane jhāna is possible, we saw that
returners and arahats who have mastered the eight attain- the Pāli tradition, beginning with the suttas ascribed to the
ments can enter a special meditative attainment called cess- Buddha himself, regards the ability to gain the four jhānas
ation (nirodhasamāpatti), reached by alternating the mun- without strain or difficulty as a valuable asset of an arahat.
dane jhānas with insight up the eight degrees to the point The acquisition of the jhānas is valued both as a personal
where the mental process stops. accomplishment and as a testimony to the spiritual efficacy
One final problem that remained concerned the relation of of the Buddha’s dispensation. A similar high regard ex-
the noble persons (ariyapuggala) to the mundane accom- tends to the achievement of the five mundane abhiññās,
plishment of jhāna. This problem we addressed through an while the highest praise goes to ubhatobhāgavimutta ara-
ancient classification of the noble persons into seven types hats who have mastered both the eight deliverances and the
on the basis of their dominant faculties. Those on the path five abhiññās.
of stream-entry divide into two – the faith-follower (saddh- The gradations in the veneration given to arahats on the ba-
ānusāri) and the truth-follower (dhammānusāri) – accord- sis of their mundane spiritual achievements implies some-
ing to whether they give prominence to faith or wisdom. thing about the value-system of Theravāda Buddhism. It
These become, respectively, the one liberated by faith (sad- suggests that while final liberation may be the ultimate and
dhāvimutta) and the one attained to understanding (di hi- most important value, it is not the sole value even in the
patta) in the six intermediate stages; one who gains the im- spiritual domain. Alongside it, as embellishments rather
material jhānas is classified separately as a body-witness than alternatives, stand mastery over the range of the mind
(kāyasakkhi). Arahats, at the last stage, again divide into and mastery over the sphere of the knowable. The first is
two: those who obtain the immaterial attainments are call- accomplished by the attainment of the eight mundane jhā-
ed liberated in both ways (ubhatobhāgavimutta), those who nas, the second by the attainment of the abhiññās. To-
do not obtain them are called those liberated by wisdom gether, final liberation adorned with this twofold mastery is
(paññāvimutta). For these latter any of the three faculties – esteemed as the highest and most desirable way of actualiz-
faith, concentration, or wisdom – can be dominant. All that ing the ultimate goal.
keeps them in this class is lack of the immaterial jhānas.
They may have any of the four jhānas or none at all.
Doubt has sometimes been cast on the possibility of arahat- ❍
ship without jhāna. But we found that although all arahats

370 371
 Appendices
III. The Four Bases of Success (cattāro iddhipādā)
APPENDIX 1 1. The base of success consisting in zeal (chandiddhipādā)
2. The base of success consisting in energy (viriyiddhi-
The Thirty-seven Constituents of Enlightenment (sattati,- pādā)
sa bodhipakkhiyadhammā)
3. The base of success consisting in consciousness (citti-
ddhipādā)
I. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness (cattaro satipa - 4. The base of success consisting in inquiry (vīma,siddhi-
hānā) pādā)
1. Contemplation of the body as a foundation of mindful-
ness (kayānupassanā satipa hāna)
IV. The Five Spiritual Faculties (pañcindriyāni)
2. Contemplation of feelings as a foundation of mindful-
ness (vedanānupassanā satipa hāna) 1. The faculty of faith (saddhindriya)
3. Contemplation of states of mind as a foundation of 2. The faculty of energy (viriyindriya)
mindfulness (cittānupassanā satipa hāna) 3. The faculty of mindfulness (satindriya)
4. Contemplation of mental objects as a foundation of 4. The faculty of concentration (samādhindriya)
mindfulness (dhammānupassanā satipa hāna) 5. The faculty of wisdom (paññindriya)

II. The Four Right Endeavors (cattāro sammappadhānā) V. The Five Spiritual Powers (pañca balāni)
1. The effort to prevent unarisen evil states (anuppannāna, 1. The power of faith (saddhābala)
pāpakāna, akusalāna, dhammāna, anuppādāya vāyāma)
2. The power of energy (viriyabala)
2. The effort to abandon arisen evil states (uppannāna,
pāpakāna, akusalāna, dhammāna, pahānāya vāyāma) 3. The power of mindfulness (satibala)

3. The effort to arouse unarisen wholesome states (anup- 4. The power of concentration (samādhibala)
pannāna, kusalāna, dhammāna, uppādāya vāyāma) 5. The power of wisdom (paññābala)
4. The effort to increase arisen wholesome states (uppan-
nāna, kusalāna, dhammāna, bhiyyobhāvāya vāyāma)

372 373
 2 Note. Key to abbreviations at end of this appendix.
1 Vism., pp. 89-90.

Cut-up (vicchiddaka)
Festering (vipubbaka)
The livid (vinīlaka)
The bloated (uddhumātaka)

(dasa asubha):
Ten Kinds of Foulness

(ākāsa-kasi1a)
Limited space kasina
Light kasina (āloka-kasi1a)
White kasina (odāta-kasi1a)
Red kasina (lohita-kasi1a)
Yellow kasina (pīta-kasi1a)
Blue kasina (nīla-kasi1a)
Air kasina (vāyo-kasi1a)
Fire kasina (tejo-kasi1a)
Water kasina (āpo-kasi1a)
Earth kasina (pa havi-kasi1a)

The Totalities (kasi1a)

Subjects (kamma hāna)

VI. The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (satta bojjha*gā)
1. The mindfulness factor of enlightenment (satisambojj-
ha*gā)
2. The investigation of phenomena factor of enlightenment
(dhammavicaya sambojjha*gā)
3. The energy factor of enlightenment (viriyasambojjha*gā)

6 Temperaments
(chacaritāni)
4. The rapture factor of enlightenment (pītisambojjha*gā)

Lustful

Hating

All
All
"
"
"

"

"
"
"

"
"
"
5. The tranquility factor of enlightenment (passaddhisam-
bojjha*gā)
6. The concentration factor of enlightenment (samādhisam-

Forty Subjects of Meditation

bojjha*gā

P.
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

3 Concentrations
(tayo bhāvanāyo)
7. The equanimity factor of enlightenment (upekkhāsam-

Ac.

Appendix 2
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
bojjha*gā)

Ab.
"
"

"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
VII. The Noble Eightfold Path (ariya a ha*gikamgga)
1. Right view (sammādi hi)

1
P.
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
2. Right intention (sammāsa,kappa)

(tīni nimittāni)
3 Signs
3. Right speech (sammāvācā)

Le.
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
4. Right action (sammākammanta)

Cp.
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
5. Right livelihood (sammā ājīva)
6. Right effort (sammāvāyāma)
7. Right mindfulness (sammāsati)

1st
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"
8. Right concentration (sammāsamādhi)1

4 Jhānas
to
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"

4th
"
"
"
"
"

"
"
"
"

2
1
DN. 2:l20. MN. 2:1l-12.

374
375
Subjects (kamma hāna) 6 Temperaments 3 Concentrations 3 Signs 4 Jhānas
377

(chacaritāni) (tayo bhāvanāyo) (tīni nimittāni)

One Perception (ekā saññā):
Perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment (āhāre pa ikkūla-saññā) Intelligent P. Ac. P. Le. No jhāna
One Definition (ekāvavatthānā)
" " " " " " "
Defining of the four elements
(catudhātuvavatthānā)
" " " " " " "
Four Immaterial States
(cattāro āruppā)
" " " " " " "
The base consisting of boundless
space (ākāsānañcāyatana) All P. Ac. Ab. Arūpajjhāna
" "
The base consisting of boundless
consciousness (viññā1añcāyatana)
" " " " " " "
The base consisting of nothingness
(ākiñcaññāyatana)
" " " " " " "
The base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception 1
(nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) " " " " " " "
1
Six temperaments: [1] lustful (rāgacarita); [2] hating (dosacarita), [3] deluded (mohacarita), [4] faithful (saddhācarita), [5] intelligent
(buddhicarita), and [6] speculative (vitakkacarita). Three concentrations: [1] preliminary (parikamma), [2] access (upacāra), and [3] absorption
(appa1ā). Three signs: [1] preliminary (parikamma), [2] learning (uggaha), and [3] counterpart (pa ibhāga). P = preliminary; Ac = access;
Ab = absorption; Le = learning; Cp = counterpart sign.
4th
" " " " " " " Equanimity (upekkhā)
" " " " " " " " " " Gladness (muditā)
" " " " " " " " " " Compassion (karunā)
3rd
" " " " " " " " Hating Lovingkindness (mettā)
(cattāro brahmavihārā):
Four Divine Abidings
4th to 1st " " " " " " Speculative (ānāpānasati)
Deluded & Mindfulness of breathing
(kāya-gatāsati)
" 1st
" " " " " " Lustful Mindfulness of body
" " " " " " " Recol. of death (mara1ānussati)
" " " " " " Intelligent Recol. of peace (upasamānussati)
" " " " " " " Recol. of deities (devatānussati)
" " " " " " " Recol. of generosity (cāgānussati)
" " " " " " " Recol. of virtue (sīlānussati)
" " " " " " " Recol. of Sangha (sanghānussati)
(dhammānussati)
" " " " " " " Recol. of Dhamma
jhāna No
" " " " Faithful Recol. of Buddha (buddhānussati)
(dasa anussatiyo):
Ten Kinds of Recollections
" " " " " " " " A skeleton (a hika)
" " " " " " " " The worm-infested (pulavaka)
" " " " " " " " The bleeding (lohitaka)
(hata-vikkhittaka)
" " " " " " " " The hacked and scattered
" " " " " " " " The scattered (vikkhittaka)
1st Cp. Le. P. Ab. Ac. P. Lustful The gnawed (vikkhāyitaka)

376
(tīni nimittāni) (tayo bhāvanāyo) (chacaritāni)
4 Jhānas 3 Signs 3 Concentrations 6 Temperaments Subjects (kamma hāna)
 379

Appendix 4
Kamma and Rebirth4
Kinds of kamma: Places of rebirth (bhūmi)
(arūpāvacarajjhāna)
Immaterial kammas

(arūpāvacara bhūmi)

Base of neither perception 31. Plane of neither perception

(arūpāvacarabhūmi)
Immaterial spheres

Immaterial spheres

nor non-perception nor non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññā-

(nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) yatana bhūmi)
Base of nothingness 30. Plane of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana
(ākiñcaññāyatana) bhūmi)
Base of infinite consciousness 29. Plane of inifite consciousness
(viññā1añcāyatana) (viññā1añcāyatana bhūmi)
Base of infinite space 28. Plane of infinite space
(ākāsānañcāyatana) (ākāsānañcāyatana bhūmi)
5 pure abodes

27. The highest realm (aka1i ha bhūmi)

suddhavasa)

4th jhāna spheres

26. The clear sighted realm (sudassa bhūmi)

(C. J. bhūmi)
(pañca

25. The beautiful realm (sudassi bhūmi)

Fourth jhāna 24. The serene realm (atappa bhūmi)
Fine material spheres

(rūpāvacara bhūmi)
Fine material kammas

(catutthajjhāna) 23. The durable realm (aviha bhūmi)

(rūpāvacarajjhāna)

22. The realm of non-percipient beings

(asaññasatta bhūmi)
21. The realm of great reward
(vehapphala-bhūmi)
3rd jhāna sphere
(t. jh. bhūmi)

20. The realm of steady aura

(subhaki1ha-bhūmi)
19. The realm of infinite aura
Third jhāna (appamāna-subha bhūmi)
(tatiyajjhāna) 18. The realm of minor aura
(parittasubha-bhūmi)
4 Read from the bottom.
reaches higher jhānas he eliminates lower jhāna factors. The factors of the fourth fine material jhāna are the same as those of the immaterial jhānas.
thīnamiddha, uddhacca-kukkucca and vicikicchā. Arrows indicate the hindrances suppressed by each factor of the first jhāna. Note that as the meditator
3 Read from the bottom. Jhāna factors in Pali: vitakha, vicāra, pīti, sukha, ekaggatā and adukkhamasukhā vedanā. Five hindrances: kāmacchanda, byāpāda,
[1] [4] [2] [5] [3] 5 hindrances
desire and worry torpor

sense restlessness ill will doubt sloth and
    
[5] [4] [3] [2] [1]
pointedness thought
one happiness rapture sustained initial thought 1st jhāna

4 fine material
jhānas
rapture, happiness and one-pointedness 2nd jhāna


happiness and one-pointedness 3rd jhāna
neutral feeling and one-pointedness 4th jhāna
" " " " " 1st āruppa
" " " " " 2nd āruppa

4 ārrupas


" " " " " 3rd āruppa
Neutral feeling and one-pointedness 4th āruppa
Jhāna Factors: The Eight Attainments:
3
Appendix 3

378
 l
Kinds of kamma: Places of rebirth (bhūmi)
17. The realm of radiant luster

380
(ābhassara bhūmi)
Second jhāna (dutiyajjhāna) 16. The realm of infinite luster
(appamānābha bhūmi)
15. The realm of minor luster
(parittābha bhūmi)

First jhāna (pa hamajjhāna) 14. The realm of the great Brahmā

(rūpāvacarajjhāna)
(Mahābrahma bhūmi)

Fine material kammas

(rūpāvacara bhūmi)
13. The realm of the ministers of Brahmā

Fine material spheres

(Brahmapurohita bhūmi)
12. The realm of the retinue of Brahmā
(Brahmapārisajja bhūmi)

11. The realm of gods who lord over the creation of others
(paranimmitavasavatti bhūmi)
10. The realm of gods who rejoice in their own creation
(nimmānarati bhūmi)
9. The realm of delight
Sense sphere wholesome kamma (tusita bhūmi)

kamma
(kāmāvacara kusala kamma) 8. The realm of Yama gods
(Yāma bhūmi)

kusala kamma)
7. The realm of thirty-three gods

(sattakāma sugati)
(tāvati,sa bhūmi)
6. The realm of the four great kings

Seven fortunate sense spheres

(cātummahārājika bhūmi)
5. Human realm (manussaloka)

(kāmāvacara kusala
(kāmāvacara
Sense sphere wholesome kamma
4. The host of titans (asuranikāya)
3. The hungry ghosts (petaloka)
Unwholesome kamma 2. The animal kingdom (tiracchānayoni)
(akusalakamma) 1. Woeful states of existence (nirayabhūmi) 2
(4 apāya bhūmi)
4 unfortunate planes

1 2
Read from the bottom. Nārada, Manual, pp. 233-55, 259-62
Āhāra

Ananta
Akusala
Ādīnava

Akallatā
Adhisīla
Ādesanā
Abhiññā

Anāgāmi
Adhicitta

Ākāravatī
AkaJi;;ha
Abyāpajja

Adhipaññā

Ānāpānasati
Abhijjamāna

Amanasikāra
Akammaññatā
Ajjhupekkhana

AnāgataHsañāJa
Ākāraparivitakka

Ākiñcaññāyatana
Adukkhamasukha

Ākāsānañcāyatana
rational
unbroken

nutriment

unknown’
unbounded
equanimity

non-returner
indisposition
unwieldiness

non-attention
manifestation

unwholesome
GLOSSARY

higher wisdom
higher morality
free from trouble

the highest realm

direct knowledge

reflection on reason
higher consciousness

the base of nothingness

knowledge of the future

mindfulness of breathing
neither-pain-nor-pleasure
danger, unsatisfactoriness

the base of boundless space

Anaññātaññassāmitindriya the faculty of ‘I shall know the

381
Anattā selfless, non-self ĀrammaJa object
AIga factor Ariya noble; a noble one
Anicca impermanent Āruppa immaterial state
Animitta signless Arūpāvacarabhūmi immaterial sphere
Aññātavindriya the faculty of the completion of final AsaIkhata unconditioned
knowledge AsaIkheyya incalculable
Aññindriya the faculty of final knowledge Asaññasatta the realm of non-percipient beings
Anubhavana experiencing Asāraka coreless
Anuloma conformity Āsava canker
Anupādisesanibbānadhātu the nibbāna element without residue ĀsavakkhayañāJa knowledge of the destruction of the
Anupassanā contemplation cankers
Anupāyamanasikāra inexpedient reflection, reflection on Assāda gratification
wrong track Asubha foulness
AnupubbasaIkhāranirodha the gradual cessation of formation Asurakāya the host of titans
Anusāsana education or instruction Atappa the serene realm
Anussati recollection AtītabhavaIga past moment of life continuum
Apacayagāmi leading to demolition Attanodhammatāya by one’s own nature
Aparihāniya invincible A;;hakathā commentaries
Aparisesa without remainder Āvajjana adverting
Apāyabhūmi the plane of misery Aveccappasāda confidence born of understanding
Apilāpanatā not floating away Āvībhāva appearance
Appamānābha the realm of infinite luster Aviha the durable realm
Appamānasubha the realm of infinite aura Avijjā ignorance
Appanā absorption Bala power
Appanihita desireless BhaIga dissolution
Arahat a perfectly enlightened individual Bhava existence, becoming
(untranslated)
Bhāvanā development
Ārambhadhātu element of effort
BhavaIga life continuum

382 383
BhavaIgupaccheda cutting off or arrest of the passive Dibbavihāra heavenly dwelling
consciousness Di;;hadhammanibbāna nibbāna here and now
Bhaya fear, fearful, terror Di;;hi. views, wrong views
Bhūmi plane, realm Di;;hippatta attained to understanding
BojjhaIga enlightenment factor Domanassa grief
Brahmapārisajja retinue of Brahma Dosa hatred
Brahmavihāra divine abiding Ekaggatā one-pointedness (of mind)
Byāpāda ill will Ekodibhāva unification (of mind)
Candimā moon Gantha bodily ties
CaraJa conduct Garuka weighty
Carita temperament Gotrabhū change-of-lineage
Cātummahārājika the realm of the four great kings Hadayarūpa the matter of the heart
Cetasika mental factor Iddhi wonder or marvel
CetopariyañāJa the knowledge of others’ mind IddhividhañāJa knowledge of the modes of supernormal
Cetovimutti liberation of mind powers
Chanda zeal Indriya faculty
Citta mind, consciousness Indriyasammattapa;ipādana balancing the spiritual faculties
Cittavīthi active process of consciousness IndriyasaHvara the restraint of the senses
CutūpapātañāJa the knowledge of passing away and Jhāna states of absorption in meditation
rebirth of beings [untranslated]
Dassana vision JhānaIga jhana factor
Dhamma [1] doctrine, truth; [2] mental object, Jhānakkantika skipping alternate jhanas
phenomena Jhāyati thinks
Dhammacchando desire for dhamma Kalāpasammasana comprehension by groups
Dhammānusāri truth-devotee KalyāJamitta good friend
Dhātumanasikāra reflection on the modes of materiality Kāma sense pleasure; sensual desire
Dibbacakkhu the divine eye Kāmacchanda sensual desire
Dibbasotadhātu the divine ear-element KāmapariXāha the fever of sensuality

384 385
Kāmapariyesanā the search for sensual gratification Māna conceit
Kamati travels Manodvāra mind door
Kāmāvacara sense sphere ManomayiddhiñāJa knowledge of the mind-created body
Kamma volitional action [untranslated] Manussaloka the human world
Kāmūpādāna clinging to sense pleasure Micchāsamādhi wrong concentration
KasiJa a device used as an object of Middha torpor
concentration [untranslated]
Moha delusion
KasiJukkantika skipping alternate kasina
Nāma mentality
Kattukamyatā desire to accomplish some aim
Nāmarūpa mentality-materiality
Kāya body
ÑāJa knowledge
Kāyasakkhi body-witness
Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana the base of neither perception nor non-
Kāyaviveka bodily seclusion perception
Khandha aggregates Nibbāna [untranslated]
KhaJika momentary Nibbidā dispassion
Khaya destruction Niggaha restraining
Khuddika minor Nikkamadhātu element of exertion
Kilesa defilement NimittavaYYhana extension of sign
Kukkucca worry NimmāJarati rejoicing in one’s own creation
Kusala wholesome Nirāmisasukha spiritual happiness
Kusalacittassekaggatā wholesome one-pointedness of mind Niraya woeful state
LakkhaJa characteristics Nirodha cessation
LakkhaJūpanijjhāna the contemplation of the characteristics Nirujjhati ceases
of phenomena
NīvaraJa hindrance
Lobha greed
Niyyānika emancipating
Lokiya mundane
Ogha floods
Lokuttara supramundane
Okkantika showering
Magga path
Orambhāgiva pertaining to the lower worlds
Mahāpurisavitakka thoughts of a great man
PaccattaH within oneself (within themselves)

386 387
PaccavekkhaJa reviewing Parikammanimitta preliminary sign
Paccaya;;hāna objective station Parikammasamādhi preliminary concentration
Paccekabuddha individual or silent Buddha Parikkhāra requisites
[untranslated] Parimajjati strokes
Paccupa;;hāna manifestation Parimasati touches
Pāda basis Parinibbāna final nibbāna
Pādakajjhāna basic jhana Pariññā full understanding
Paggaha exerting the mind
Parittābha the realm of minor luster
Pahāna abandonment
Parittasubha the realm of minor aura
PahānaIga factors of abandonment
Parivitakka reflection
Pajānana the act of understanding
Pariyāyena figuratively
Pakkhapātita partiality
Passaddhi tranquility
Pakkhi bird
Pa;ibhāganimitta counterpart sign
Palibodha impediment
Pa;igha aversion
PallaIka sitting cross-legged
Pi;ihāriya wonder
Pāmojja gladness
Pa;iloma reverse order
Pañca five
Pa;isaHvedeti experiences
PāJi hand Pavivekasukha happiness born of seclusion from sense
Paññā wisdom pleasures and the hindrances
Paññatti a conceptual entity Pettivisaya the sphere of tormented spirits or
“hungry ghosts”
Paññāvimutta liberated by wisdom
Phala fruit, fruition
Paññāvimutti liberation by wisdom
PharaJa pervading
Papañca impediments
Phassa contact
Parakkamadhātu element of striving Pīti rapture
Paranimmitavasavatti the realm of gods who lord over the PubbaIgama forerunner
creations of others
PubbenivāsānussatiñāJa knowledge of recollecting previous lives
Pariggaha discerning
Puggala individual

388 389
Puggalajjhāsaya inclination of individuals Sammasitajjhāna comprehended jhana
Purecārika precursor SampahaIsana encouraging
Puthujjana the ordinary man Sampajañña discernment
Rāga lust Sampasādana confidence
Rasa function SaHsāra the round of repeated becoming
Rūpa material form Samucchedappahāna abandonment by eradication
Rūpāvacara fine material sphere SaHvara restraint
SabbacittasādhāraJa universal concomitant of consciousness SaHvatteti exercises
Sabhāva the true nature SaHyojana fetter
Sacchikiriya realization Sandi;;hikanibbāna immediately visible nibbāna
Saddhā faith Sañjānana the mode of perceiving
Saddhānusārī faith-devotee SaIkantika transposition
Saddhāpadānāni foundations of faith SaIkappa intention
Saddhāvimutta liberated by faith SaHkhāra [1] formation, [2] mental formation,
Sakadāgāmi Once-returner [3] volitional formation
Sakkāyadi;;hi personality-view Saññā perception
SakuJa bird Santu;;hi contentment
Samādhi concentration Sati mindfulness
Samādhikkhandha group of concentration Satipa;;hāna foundation of mindfulness
SamannāgataIgāni factors of possession SayambhūñāJa self-evolved wisdom
Samantapāsādikā completely inspiring Setughāta breaking the bridge
Samāpatti attainment Sikkhā training
Samatha serenity Sīla morality
Samathayānika one who makes serenity his vehicle Sīlabbataparāmāsa clinging to rites and rituals
Samatikkama having surmounted Sobhana beautiful
SaHkappa intention Somanassa joy
Sammā right Sotāpanna stream-enterer
Sammasana comprehension

390 391
Sotāpatti stream-entry Uddhacca restlessness
SubhakiJha the realm of steady aura Uddhambhāgiya pertaining to the higher worlds
Suddhāvāsa the pure abode Uggahanimitta learning sign
Sugatibhūmi plane of happiness Ummujja-nimujjaH dive in and out
Sukha happiness, pleasure, pleasant Upacāra access
Sukkhavipassaka dry insight worker Upacārasamādhi access concentration
Suññātā voidness Upādāna clinging
Suriya sun Upadhiviveka seclusion from the substance
TadaIganibbāna factor of nibbāna Upakkilesa impediment, corruption
Takkavīthi reasoning Upanijjhāna contemplation
Tatramajjhattatā specific neutrality Upekkhā equanimity
TāvatiHsa the realm of the thirty-three gods Uppāda arising
Tevijja triple knowledge Uttarati rises up
Thīna sloth VacīsaIkhāra activity of speech
[hīti presence Vasitā mastery
[īkā subcommentary Vatthukāma objective sense pleasure
Tiracchānayoni animal kingdom Vavassagga renunciation
Tirobhāva disappearance Vavatthāpana definition
TirokuYYaH through walls Vedanā feeling
Tiro-pabbataH through mountains Vedayita being felt
Tiro-pākāraH through enclosures Veditabba to be realized
Tisso sikkhā three trainings Vicāra sustained thought
Tunhībhāva silence Vicaya investigation
Ubbega uplifting Vicikicchā doubt
Ubhatobhāgavimutta liberated in both ways VihiHsā vitakka thought of harming
Udaka water Vijānana mode of cognizing
Udayabbaya rise and fall Vijjā knowledge
VijjācaraJasampanna endowed with knowledge and conduct

392 393
Vikkhambhanaviveka seclusion by suppression List of Abbreviations used
Vikkhambanappahāna abandoning by way of suppression
Vikubbana transformation AN. The AIguttara Nikāya
VīmaHsa inquiry AN.A. The AIguttara Nikāya A;;hakatha (ManorathapūraJi)
Vimokkha (Vimokha) liberation AN.T. The AIguttara Nikāya [īkā (Sāratthamañjūsā)
Vimokkhamukha gateway to liberation BD. The Book of the Discipline
Vimutti emancipation BMTP. Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice
Vimuttirasa taste of freedom Dhp. The Dhammapada
Vinipāta the downfall Dhs. The DhammasaIgani
VinīvaraJacitta the mind devoid of the hindrances Dhs.A. The DhammasaIgani A;;hakathā (A;;hasālinī)
ViññāJa consciousness DN. The Dīgha Nikāya
ViññāJañcāyatana base of boundless consciousness DN.A. The Dīgha Nikāya A;;hakathā (SumaIgala Vilāsini)
Viññu the wise DN.T. The Dīgha Nikāya [īkā
Vipāka result Dial. Dialogues of the Buddha
Vipassanā insight GS. The Book of the Gradual Saying
Vipassanāyānika one who makes (bare) insight his vehicle KS. The Book of the Kindred Sayings
Viriya energy Milp. The Milindapañha
Visuddhi purification MLS. The Middle Length Sayings
Vitakka applied thought MN. The Majjhima Nikāya
Viveka seclusion MN.A. The Majjhima Nikāya A;;hakathā (Papañcasūdani)
Vu;;hāna emergence MN.T. The Majjhima Nikāya [īkā
Yāna vehicle PI. Progress of Insight
YathākammūpagañāJa knowledge of faring according to PP. Path of Purification
kamma Psy. Ethics. Buddhist Psychological Ethics
Yoga bonds Pts. The Pa;isambhidāmagga
Yogin meditator Pts.A. The Pa;isambhidāmagga A;;hakathā (Saddhammap-
Yonisomanasikāra wise consideration pakāsinī)

394 395
Pug.P. The Dhātukathā Puggalapaññattipāli
QKM. The Questions of King Milinda Selected Bibliography
SN. The SaHyutta Nikāya
Primary Sources
SN.A. The SaHyutta Nikāya A;;hakathā (Sāratthapakāsanī)
SN.T. The SaHyutta Nikāya [īkā Because the Burmese Buddhasāsana Samiti editions of the
Vibh. The VibhaIga commentaries and sub-commentaries sometimes use titles
different from those by which the works are generally
Vimv.T. The Vimativinodani [īkā (Samantapāsādikā;īkā) known, we enclose the standard titles in brackets before
Vinp. The Vinaya Pi;akaH giving the titles of the commentaries and subcommentaries
Vin.A. The Vinaya;;hakathā (Samantapāsādikā) used by the Buddhasāsana Samiti.
Vism. The Visuddhimagga
Vism.T. The Visuddhimagga Mahā [īkā (Paramatthamañjūsā). 1. Pali Texts of the TipiBaka

Vinaya Pi aka

Oldenberg, Hermann, ed. The Vinaya Pi akam: One of the

Principal Buddhist Holy Scriptures in the Pali Language.
Pali Text Society [Publication Series], vols. 147-48, 160-62.
5 vols., London: Luzac & Co., 1879-1964.

Sutta Pi aka

Anderson, Dines and Smith, Helmer, eds., Sutta-Nipāta,

New ed., Pali Text Society [Publication Series] Vol. 72.
1913; reprint. London: Luzac & Co., 1965.

Feer, M. Léon, ed., The Sa,yutta-Nikāya of the Sutta-

Pi aka. [Pts. 1-5: Sagātha-Vagga, Nidāna-Vagga, Khandha-
Vagga, Sa3āyatana-Vagga, and Mahā-Vagga, edited by M.
Léon Feer; pt. 6: Indexes, by Mrs. Rhys Davids]. Pali Text
Society [Publications], vols. 8, 19, 25, 31, 42, 56. 6 vols.
1884-1904; reprint. London: Luzac & Co., 1960-70.

396 397
 Abhidhamma Pi aka

Mahā Niddesapā3i. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. Rangoon, Dhammasa*ga1ipā3i. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. Ran-
Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960. goon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961.

Morris, Richard and Hardy, E. eds., The A*guttara-Nikāya Dhātukathā Puggalapaññattipā3i. [Pali Text in Burmese
[Pt. 1: Ekanipāta, Dukanipāta, and Tikanipāta, edited by script]. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961.
Richard Morris. 2d ed., revised by A. K. Warder; pt. 2: Ca-
tukka-Nipāta, edited by Richard Morris; pt. 3: Pancaka- Vibha*gapā3i. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. Rangoon,
Nipāta and Chakka-Nipāta, edited by E. Hardy; pt. 4: Sat- Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961.
taka-Nipāta, A haka-Nipāta, and Navaka-Nipāta, edited
by E. Hardy; pt. 5: Dasaka-Nipāta and Ekādasaka-Nipāta,
edited by E. Hardy; pt. 6: Indexes by Mable Hunt; revised 2. Commentaries on Pali Texts of the TipiBaka
and edited by C. A. F. Rhys Davids]. Pali Text Society
[Publications], vols. 10, 20, 35, 44, 46, 66. 6 vols. Vinaya Pi aka
1880-1910; reprint, London: Luzac & Co., 1956-67.
Buddhaghosa. [Vinaya A hakathā (Samanta Pāsādikā)].
Pa isambhidāmaggapā3i. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. [Vols. 1-2:] Pārājikāka16a A hakathā; [vol. 3:] Pācityādi
Rangoon. Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1962. A hakathā; [vol. 4:] Cū3avaggādi A hakathā. [Pali Text in
Burmese script]. 4 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana
Rhys Davids, T. W. and Carpenter, J. Estlin, eds. The Samiti, 1963-67.
Digha Nikāya. [Vols. 1-2: edited by T. W. Rhys Davids
and J. Estlin Carpenter; vol. 3: edited by J. Estlin Carpent- Sutta Pi aka
er]. Pali Text Society [Publications], vols. 22, 52, 67.
3 vols. 1880-1910; reprint, London: Luzac & Co., 1960-67. Buddhaghosa. [Dīgha Nikāya A hakathā (Sumangalavilā-
sinī)]. [Vol. 1:] Sīlakkhandhavagga hakathā; [vol. 2:] Ma-
Trenckner, V. and Chalmer, Robert, eds. The Majjhima- hāvagga hakathā; [vol. 3;] Pāthikavagga hakathā. [Pali
Nikāya. [Vol. 1: edited by V. Trenckner; vols. 2-3: edited Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddha-
by Robert Chalmers; vol. 4: Index of Words, edited by sāsana Samiti, 1961-68.
Mrs. Rhys Davids]. Pali Text Society [Publications], vols.
17, 39, 45, 47, 51, 99. 6 vols. in 4. (1888-1925); reprint [Majjhima Nikāya A hakathā. (Papañcasūdanī)]. [Vols. 1-2:]
(4 vols.), London: Luzac & Co., 1960-64. Mūlapa11āsa hakathā; [Vol. 3:] Majjhimapa11āsa ha-
kathā; [vol. 4:] Uparipa11āsa hakathā. [Pali Text in Bur-
mese script]. 4 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Sa-
miti, 1957.

398 399
[Sa,yutta Nikāya A hakathā] Sāratthappakāsinī Nāma Sutta Pi aka
Sa,yutta hakathā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols.
Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1957. Dhammapāla. [Dīgha Nikāya !īkā]. [Vol. 1:] Sīlakkhand-
havagga īkā; [vol. 2:] Mahāvagga īkā, [Vol. 3:] Pāthika-
[A*guttara Nikāya A hakathā] Manorathapūra1ī Nāma. vagga īkā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. Rangoon,
A*guttara hakathā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960-61.
Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1958-68.
[Majjhima Nikāya !īkā] [Vols. 1-2:] Mūlapa11āsa īkā;
Mahānāma. [Pa isambhidāmagga A hakathā] Saddham- [vol. 3:] Majjhimapa11āsa īkā… Uparipa11āsa īkā. [Pali
mappakāsinī Nāma Pa isambhidāmagga hakathā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddha-
Text in Burmese script]. 2 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddha- sāsana Samiti, 1960-61.
sāsana Samiti, 1958.
[Sa,yutta Nikāya !īkā] Sa,yutta īkā. [Pali Text in Burm-
ese script] 2 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti,
Abhidhamma Pi aka 1961.

Buddhaghosa. [Dhammasa*ga1i A hakathā (A hasālinī)]. Sāriputta. [A*guttara Nikāya !īkā] Sāratthamañjūsā Nāma
A hasālinī A hakathā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. Ran- A*guttara !īkā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols. Ran-
goon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1961. goon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960-61.

3. Subcommentaries on Pali Texts of the TipiBaka 4. New Subcommentaries on Pali Texts of the TipiBaka

Vinaya Pi aka Sutta Pi aka

Kassapa Thera, Coliya. [Samantapāsādikā Vinaya hakathā ÑāJābhivaHsa. [Dīgha Nikāya Abhinava !īkā] Sàdhuvilā-
!īkā] Vimativinodanī īkā. [Pali Text in Burmese script]. sinī Nāma Sīlakkhandhavagga Abhinava īkā. [Pali Text in
2 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960. Burmese script]. 2 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana
Samiti, 1961.
Sariputta Thera. [Samantapāsādikā Vinaya hakathā !īkā]
Sāratthadīpanī īkā, [Pali Text in Burmese script]. 3 vols.
Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana Samiti, 1960.

400 401
 7. Translations of Pali Texts of the TipiBaka

5. Treatises on Pali Texts of the TipiBaka Vinaya Pi aka

Anuruddha, Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha. Edited by Ariyarat- Horner, I. B. trans. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-
na Rerukana. [Pali Text in Sinhalese script]. Colombo, Pi aka). Vols. 1-3: (Suttavibha*ga), vol. 4: (Mahāvagga),
Ceylon: P. K. W. Siriwardhane, Granthadarsa Press, 1942. vol. 5: (Cullavagga), vol. 6: (Parivāra), [Sacred Books of
the Buddhists Series, vols. 10-11, 13-14, 20, 25], 6 vols.
Buddhaghosa. Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosācariya. Ed- London: Luzac & Co., 1951-72.
ited by Henry Clarke Warren. Revised by Dhammānanda
Kosambi. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Sutta Pi aka
Press, 1950.
Buddhadatta Mahāthera, Ambalangoda Polvatte, trans. and
Trenckner, V. Milindapañho, Being Dialogues Between ed., Dhammapada,: An Anthology of Sayings of the Bud-
King Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Nāgasena. [Pali Text dha. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Apothecaries Co., n.d.
Society Publication Series no. 69]. London: Luzac & Co.,
1880-1962. Hare, E. M., trans. Woven Cadences of Early Buddhists
(Sutta-Nipāta). The Sacred Books of the Buddhists,
Vol. 15. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University
Press, 1945-47.
6. Commentaries on Treatises on Pali Texts of the
TipiBaka Horner, I. B., trans. and ed., The Collection of the Middle
Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya). [Vol. 1: The First Fifty
Dhammapāla. [Visuddhlmagga Mahā !īkā] Paramattha- Discourses (mulapa11āsa); vol. 2: The Middle Fifty Dis-
mañjūsā Nāma Visuddhimagga Mahā īkā. [Pali Text in courses (majjhimapa11āsa); vol. 3: The Final Fifty Dis-
Burmese script]. 2 vols. Rangoon, Burma: Buddhasāsana courses (uparipa11āsa)]. Pali Text Society [Translation
Samiti, 1960. Series nos. 29-31]. 3 vols. 1954-59. Reprint. London:
Luzac & Co., 1970.

Sumangala. [Vibhāvanī !īkā] Anuruddhācariya’s Abhidha- Rhys Davids, T. W. and Rhys Davids, C. A. F., trans. Dia-
mmattha Sa*gaha with Abhidhammattha Vibhāvanī īkā. logues of the Buddha (Dīgha-Nikāya). [Vol. 1: translated
Revised and edited by Bhadanta Revatadhammatthera. by T. W. Rhys Davids; vols. 2-3: translated by T. W. Rhys
[Pali Text in Devanagari script]. VārāJasi, India: Bauddha Davids and C. A. F. Rhys Davids. Sacred Books of the
Svādhyāya, Sātra, 1965. Buddhists, vols. 2-4]. 3 vols. 1889-1921. Reprint. London:
Luzac & Co., 1956-77.

402 403
 Abhidhamma Pi aka

Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F., trans. A Buddhist Manual of

Rhys Davids, C. A. F., and Woodward, F. L., trans. The Psychological Ethics: A Buddhist Manual of the Fourth
Book of the Kindred Sayings (Sa,yutta-Nikāya) or Group- Century B. C., Being a Translation, Now Made for the
ed Suttas. (Pt. 1: Kindred Sayings with verses (Sagātha- First Time, from the Original Pali of the First Book in the
Vagga), translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids assisted by Suri- Abhidhamma Pi aka Entitled Dhamma-Sa*ga1i (Compen-
yagoda Sumangala Thera; pt. 2: The Nidana Book (Nidāna- dium of States of Phenomena) with Introductory Essay and
Vagga), translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids assisted by F. L. Notes, Oriental Translation Fund, New Series, vol. 12.
Woodward; pt. 3; translated by F. L. Woodward and edited London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1900.
by Mrs. Rhys Davids; pt. 4: translated by F. L. Woodward
with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; pt. 5: (Mahā-
Vagga), translated by F. L. Woodward with an Introduction
by Mrs. Rhys Davids. Pali Text Society Translation Series, 8. Translations of Pali Commentaries
vols. 7, 10, 13-15]. 5 vols. 1927-30. Reprint. London:
Luzac & Co., 1956-71. Abhidhamma Pi aka

Woodward, F. L. and Hare, E. M., trans. The Book of the Buddhaghosa. The Expositor (A hasālinī), Buddhaghosa’s
Gradual Sayings (A*guttara-Nikāya) or More-Numbered Commentary on the Dhammasa*ga1i, the First Book of the
Suttas. [Vol. 1: (Ones, Twos, Threes), translated by F. L. Abhidhamma Pi aka. Translated by Pe Maung Tin. Revised
Woodward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; and edited by C. A. F. Rhys Davids. Pali Text Society
vol. 2: (The Book of the Fours), translated by F. L. Wood- Translation Series, nos. 8, 9. 2 vols. London: Luzac & Co.,
ward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. 3: 1920-58.
(The Books of the Fives and Sixes), translated by E. M.
Hare with an introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; vol. 4:
(The Books of the Sevens, Eights and Nines), translated by
E. M. Hare with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys Davids; 9. Translations of Treatises on Pali Texts of the
vol. 5: (The Book of the Tens and Elevens), translated by TipiBaka
F. L. Woodward with an Introduction by Mrs. Rhys
Davids. Pali Text Society Translation Series nos. 22, 24, Anuruddha. Compendium of Philosophy, Being a Trans-
25-27]. 5 vols. 1932-36. Reprint. London: Luzac & Co., lation Now Made for the First Time from the Original Pali
1936-72. of the Abhidhammattha Sa*gaha. Translated with Intro-
ductory Notes and Essay by Shwe Zan Aung. Revised and
edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids. Pali Text Society Translation
Series, vol. 2. London: H. Frowde, 1960.

404 405
A Manual of Abhidhamma, Being Abhidhammattha Sa*- Comp., trans. and ed. The Buddha’s Path to Deliverance in
gaha of Bhadanta Anuruddhācariya, edited in the Original Its Threefold Division and Seven Stages of Purity, Being A
Pali Text with English Translation and Explanatory Notes. Systematic Exposition in the Words of the Sutta-Pi aka.
Translated by Nārada Mahāthera, Colombo, Ceylon: Va- Colombo, Ceylon: The Bauddha Sahitya Sabha, 1952.
jirārāma, 1956. Rev, 3d ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka (Ceylon): Rev. 3d ed. Colombo, Ceylon: The Bauddha Sahitya Sab-
Buddhist Publication Society, 1975. ha, 1969.

Abhidharmartha Sa*grahaya. Translated [into Sinhalese] Soma Thera. Comp., trans. and ed. The Removal of Dis-
by Sāriputra Sangharāja Mahāthera. Revised and edited by tracting Thoughts, Vitakka-Sa1 hāna Sutta, A Discourse of
the Very Rev. Paññāmoli Tissa Thera. 2d ed. Randombe, the Buddha (Majjhima-Nikāya No. 20). Kandy, Ceylon:
Ceylon: W. E. De Silva, Hetumuni Semaneris De Silva and Buddhist Publication Society, 1960.
R. C. P. Weerasuriya Waidyaratna, 1916.
The Way of Mindfulness, Being a Translation of the Sati-
Buddhaghosa. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). pa hāna Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya; Its Commentary,
Translated from the Pali by Bhikkhu ÑāJamoli. Colombo, the Satipa hāna Sutta Va11anā of the Papañcasūdanī of
Ceylon: R. Semage, 1956. Buddhaghosa Thera; and Excerpts from the Līnatthappa-
kāsana !īkā, Marginal Notes of Dhammapāla Thera on the
Rhys Davids, T. W., trans. and ed., The Questions of King Commentary. Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Soci-
Milinda. The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 25. Oxford: At ety, 1967.
the Clarendon Press. 1890.

Secondary Sources

10. Selections from Pali Texts of the TipiBaka Mahasi Sayadaw (U Sobhana Mahāthera of Burma), The
Progress of Insight Through the Stages of Purification, A
Nyanaponika Thera, trans. and ed. The Five Mental Hin- Modern Pali Treatise on Buddhist Satipa hāna Meditation.
drances and Their Conquest, Selected Texts from the Pali Translated by Nyanaponika Thera with notes and the
Canon and the Commentaries. Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Original Pali Text. Kandy, Ceylon: The Forest Hermitage,
Publication Society, 1961. 1965. Reprint. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication So-
ciety, 1973.
Nyanatiloka, Comp. and trans. The Word of the Buddha:
An Outline of the Teaching of the Buddha in the Words of VajirañāJa, Paravahera. Buddhist Meditation In Theory and
the Pali Canon. Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication So- Practice, A General Exposition According to the Pali
ciety, 1959. Canon of the Theravāda School. Colombo, Ceylon: M. D.
Gunasena & Co., 1962.

406 407