Published

by the Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc

of Rutland, Vermont & Tokyo, Japan
with editorial offices at
Osaki Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0032

© 1963 by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc.

All rights reserved

LCC Card No. 62-15064

ISBN: 978-1-4629-0365-8 (ebook)

First edition, 1963

Eighth printing, 1991

Printed in Japan
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD page 5
AUTHOR'S FOREWORD 7
I. FURTHER REMARKS ON ABACUS HISTORY 11
II. NEGATIVE ANSWERS FROM SUBTRACTION 24
III. OTHER METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION 34
IV. OTHER METHODS OF DIVISION 64
V. MORE ABOUT DECIMALS 80
VI. CALCULATIONS INVOLVING MORE THAN ONE UNIT OF MEASUREMENT 86
VII. EXTRACTING SQUARE ROOTS 108
VIII. MORE EXERCISES 120
FOREWORD

Mr. Kojima's second book on the abacus gives important information on the
further practical use of the abacus and on the principles of its use in business. I
believe that his complete explanation of operational methods and their
theoretical basis will be of especial help to those foreign students who have no
guide or instructor except books.
Aside from its immense utility in business and everyday calculation, the
abacus is a far more effective instrument for teaching arithmetic in blind schools
than is braille. Moreover, if introduced into ordinary schools, it will prove an
excellent time-saver in arithmetic instruction. Half of the problems in arithmetic
textbooks are calculation problems and the other half can be reduced to
calculation problems by some mathematical reasoning. Consequently, those
arithmetic hours allotted for the teaching of abacus operation, by improving the
mental arithmetic of students, will enable them to calculate much faster than
with pencil and paper, thus creating additional time for a more advanced study of
arithmetic.
As Chairman of the die Committee of the International Association of
Abacus Operators of the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, I have been
most pleased to assist Mr. Kojima by making available the findings of recent
technical and theoretical studies and by revising his manuscript in the light of all
the latest information.

Yoemon Yamazaki
Professor of Economics, Nihon University
Vice-President, All-Japan Federation of Abacus Operators
Chairman, Committee of the Int. Assn. of Abacus Operators
AUTHOR'S FOREWORD

This book has been written as a sequel to my earlier work The Japanese Abacus:
Its Use and Theory. In this volume I shall both expand the explanation of some
of the basic abacus operations given in the first volume and discuss new
operations and new ways of doing the basic operations.
In the first chapter I shall discuss the Oriental history of the abacus in greater
detail than was done in my first book. In the second chapter I shall deal with the
new problem of negative numbers or negative answers resulting from the
subtraction of a larger number from a smaller one. The third and fourth chapters
will respectively consider other methods of multiplication and division than the
ones explained in my first book. Chapter five is an expanded discussion of
decimals in multiplication and division. Chapter six is a practical discussion of
how to handle calculations involving more than one unit of measurement (such
as inches and feet or pounds and ounces). Chapter seven introduces a method of
extracting square roots on the abacus. Finally, chapter eight provides more
exercises for the reader to practice on. Through it he will be able to measure his
abacus ability by taking actual examinations given to Japanese applicants for
proficiency grades eight to one.
I would like to include here some noteworthy statistics concerning the recent
license examinations. Of the successful examinees for the third-grade license,
about 70% were between thirteen and eighteen years old, 5% were nineteen and
over, and 25% were twelve and under (including 0.3% who were nine and
under). Of the successful examinees for the second-grade license, about 91%
were between thirteen and eighteen, 2% were nineteen and over, and 7% were
between ten and twelve. Of the successful examinees for the first-grade license,
about 87% were between thirteen and eighteen, 12% were nineteen and over,
and 1% were under twelve. These figures do not completely tell the story
because among those who pass the first-grade examination every year are some
who have already passed it, but either want the practice or a higher score. This
explains why the percentage of persons nineteen and over who passed the first-
grade examination is larger than the percentage of the same group who passed
the second-grade examination.
An interesting conclusion can be drawn from these statistics—it is rather
difficult for persons over nineteen and under twelve to pass the first-and second-
grade examinations.
The ratio of boys to girls who passed these examinations is also worthy of
mention. Of the successful examinees for the third-and second-grade licenses,
about 60% were girls and 40% were boys, while the reverse was true of the first-
grade examination.
In Japan the abacus is definitely a practical skill. It has found its way into the
curriculum of all Japanese grade schools as a fundamental part of arithmetic.
Many senior commercial high schools require all students to pass at least the
third-grade examination. There have also been many abacus schools established
to meet the needs of those preparing to go into business. And, as I hope I am
demonstrating in these two books, there is a good reason why the abacus can be
found in practically every Japanese household.
I am greatly indebted to several authorities who kindly furnished me with
valuable information and suggestions. My most grateful acknowledgments are
due to Professor Yoemon Yamazaki of Nihon University. He is the Vice-
Chairman of the Abacus Research Institute, and Advisor to the Central
Committee of the Federation of Abacus Workers (hereafter referred to simply as
the Abacus Committee). These organizations, being under the sponsorship of the
Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, are far and away the largest and
most important of all abacus organizations in Japan.
I also extend my most sincere gratitude to Professor Miyokichi Ban, of the
above-mentioned Abacus Committee, who was kind enough not only to furnish
this book with a great many exercises especially prepared and arranged for the
sake of the foreign student but also to read the book in proof and give me many
valuable suggestions.
I also must express my sincere thanks to Mr. Shinji Ishikawa, President of
the Japan Association of Abacus Calculation, who spared himself no trouble in
reading the manuscript and the proof and furnishing much invaluable up-to-date
information.
Grateful acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Hisao Suzuki for his
information on the history of the abacus and to Mr. Zenji Arai for valuable
suggestions on the uses of the abacus.
I also wish to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Yataro Nagata, Chief of the
Abacus Operators' License Examinations Section in the Japan Chamber of
Commerce and Industry, for information on the national examinations for abacus
operators' licenses and for permission to reprint in this book the problems
presented in the 1959 National License examinations.
Last, but not least, I must thank Mr. William R. Whitney and the editorial
staff of the Charles E. Tuttle Company for their valuable suggestions and
improvements in both the manuscript and the proof stages.

TAKASHI KOJIMA
I. FURTHER REMARKS ON ABACUS HISTORY

The ancient Chinese books on mathematics which have been preserved furnish
hardly any information on the abacus. Accordingly, nothing definite is known
about its origin. The only reliable account of the origin of the Oriental abacus is
in a book entitled Mathematical Treatises by the Ancients compiled by Hsu Yo
toward the close of the Later Han dynasty (A.D. 25-220) at the beginning of the
third century and annotated by Chen Luan in the sixth century. This book gives
some information about various reckoning devices of those days and was one of
the Ten Books on Mathematics (Suan-hwei-shi-chu) which were included among
the textbooks to be read for government service examinations in China and
Japan for many centuries.
Chen Luan in his note gives the following description of the calculating
device: "The abacus is divided into three sections. In the uppermost and lowest
section, idle counters are kept. In the middle section designating the places of
numbers, calculation is performed. Each column in the middle section may have
five counters, one uppermost five-unit counter and four differently colored one-
unit counters."

The above figure represents the abacus as pictured in accordance with the
foregoing description. The board represents the number 37,295.
The extent to which the counting board was used may be told by Hsu Yo's
poetical description of the board. The verse, which is highly figurative and
difficult to decipher, may read: "It controls the four seasons, and coordinates the
three orders, heaven, earth, and man." This means that it was used in
astronomical or calendar calculations, in geodetic surveys, and in calculations
concerning human affairs.
 The reader will notice a close similarity between this original Oriental
abacus and the Roman grooved abacus, except for the difference that counters
were laid down in the former while they were moved along the grooves in the
latter. Because of this and other evidence, many leading Japanese historians of
mathematics and the abacus have advanced the theory that the above-mentioned
prototype of the abacus was the result of the introduction into the East of the
Roman grooved abacus.
The following corroborative pieces of evidence in favor of this theory are
cited in the latest works by Prof. Yoemon Yamazaki and Prof. Hisao Suzuki of
Nihon University.
(1) The original Chinese abacus has a striking resemblance in construction to
the Roman grooved abacus, as is evident in the foregoing quotation from Hsu
Yo's book, e.g., four one-unit counters and one five-unit counter in each column.
(2) The method of operation of the ancient Chinese abacus was remarkably
similar to the ancient Roman method.
In ancient China, multiplication and division were performed by the
repetition of addition and subtraction: MULTIPLICATION: Procedure A: 23x5=
(23x2)+(23x2)+23=115 (Ans.) Procedure B: 23x5=23+23+23+23+23=115
(Ans.) DIVISION: Procedure A: 115÷23=115-23-46-46=0 (Ans. 5) Procedure B:
115÷23=115-23-23-23-23-23=0 (Ans. 5) In the case of multiplication, each time
23 or 46 was added, 1 or 2 was added to the factor on the left of the board. In the
case of division, each time 23 or 46 was subtracted, 1 or 2 was added to the
quotient on the left of the board. It is obvious that anyone could easily learn and
perform these simple primitive operations.
(3) Traces of reckoning by 5's may be found in the Chinese pictorial
representation of reckoning-block calculation as in the Roman numerals, as:
six: VI (5+ 1) seven: VII (5+2)
eight: VIII (5+3) four: IV (5-1)
(4) Trade was carried on between China and Rome. Chinese historical
documents written in the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) furnish descriptions of
two land routes, called silk roads, connecting the two great empires.
Inasmuch as even in olden days valuable products or devices made in one
country were transmitted to others with astonishing rapidity, the above facts may
well substantiate this theory.
Among the dozen other reckoning devices mentioned in this book are the
reckoning boards pictured below. These boards are presumed to date back to the
days of the Chou dynasty, which ended in 249 B.C.

(The number on the board is 23,957.)

(When yellow counters were used, the squares in each column represented 1,
2, 3, and 4 respectively. When blue ones were used, they represented 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9 respectively. The black balls in the figure stand for blue counters. The
number on the board represents 3,581.) These and other reckoning devices are
believed to have gone out of use as the previously mentioned abacus developed
and gained popularity.
Now two questions present themselves. One is why this ancient abacus
developed in the East to become such an efficient calculating machine. The other
is why this development did not also take place in the West.
The reasons lay perhaps in the systems of calculation and the numerical
nomenclature which were used in the East and West. They differ significantly. In
ancient China and Japan numbers were named, written, and set on a calculating
board from left to right, from the highest denomination to the lowest. Thus the
introduction of the abacus to China provided the Chinese with an ideal tool in
terms of their method of naming and using numbers. This compatibility and
normal inventiveness caused the primitive abacus to be developed into its
modern form during the long development of the Chinese civilization.
The chief calculating devices which are known to have been used in China
from before 1,000 B.G. to the days when the abacus came into wide use are
reckoning blocks called ch'eou in China and sangi in Japan and slender bamboo
sticks called chancku in China and zeichiku in Japan. The former device
continued to be used in the East for calculation until not many years ago, and the
latter device, which was more awkward, was largely replaced by the former for
calculating purposes and is presently used only by fortunetellers for purposes of
divination.
Until the introduction of Western mathematics, mathematicians in China and
Japan utilized reckoning-block calculation, which had not only been developed
to the point of performing basic arithmetic operations but was also used to solve
quadratic, cubic, and even simultaneous equations. It is presumed that they did
not think it worth while to concern themselves with the other reckoning devices,
including the abacus, which was, in their eyes, an inferior calculator barely
capable of performing multiplication and division by means of the primitive
cumulative method of addition and subtraction. Probably another reason which
alienated mathematicians from these reckoning devices was that these
instruments gave only the result of calculation, and were incapable of showing
either the process of calculation or the original problem.
In ancient times China was primarily a nomadic and agricultural country, and
business in those days had little need of instruments of rapid calculation.
Anyway a millennium after the Han dynasty there was no record of the abacus.
During the dozen centuries beginning with its first mention in the Han dynasty
until its development, this primitive calculator remained in the background.
However, with the gradual rise of commerce and industry, the need for rapid
calculation grew. The modern, highly efficient abacus, which probably appeared
late in the Sung dynasty (906-1279), came into common use in the fourteenth
century. The great rise and prosperity of free commerce and industry during the
Ming dynasty (1368-1636) are presumed to have promoted the use and
development of the abacus. A number of books on mathematics brought out in
those days give descriptions of the modern Chinese abacus and give accounts of
the modern methods of abacus operation, including those of multiplication and
division.
Bamboo, indigenous in the East, has furnished an abundant source of ideal
material for an efficient and inexpensive abacus. Since the Ming period, on
account of its remarkable efficiency, low price, and handiness, the abacus has
been the favorite instrument of calculation in the East.
The Chinese abacus of the Ming period had two five-unit counters and five
one-unit ones on each rod. The primitive abacus was changed into the present
Chinese form to suit the convenience of figuring up the Chinese weights not
based on the decimal system. The weights were also important for conversion of
currency. Another cogent reason why the Chinese abacus has two five-unit
counters on each rod is that a rod with two five-unit counters is more convenient
to abacus operation by means of the Chinese method of multiplication and also
by means of the older method of division which uses a special division table.
In Europe, the line abacus or counting board appeared first in France about
the beginning of the thirteenth century and rapidly became popular. From the
fourteenth to the seventeenth century the practice of this manual arithmetic was
universal in business and in households, as well as in the departments of
government. Its immense popularity may well be illustrated by the following
pleasantly expressed stanza attributed to Brebeuf as it is quoted in Francis
Pierrepont Barnard's Casting Counter and the Counting-Board.

Les courtisans sont des jetons; Leur valeur depend de leur place; Dans la
faveur, des millions; Et des zeros dans la disgrace.

The same book also quotes the phrase, "Faux comme un jeton," which arose
from the practice of gilding or plating jettons and passing them as money, or
creating a deceptive impression.
The number 2,376 would be expressed by jettons on the line abacus or
counting board as in Fig. 4.

(Each line upwards is ten times the value of that below

it. Each space is five times as much as the line next below it.
In addition, the process began at the units, and in subtraction
at the higher digits.)

However, in Europe the line abacus failed to develop

into the efficient rod abacus, and gradually gave way to the
cipher system of greater efficiency, until it was given the
coup de grace by the French Revolution, which enforced the nation-wide
ciphering system. One of the major causes for this result is presumed to be found
in the fact that before the introduction of Arabic numerals European countries
used diverse systems of numerical notation—duodecimal, binary, sexagesimal,
etc. The division of daytime into twelve hours and that of one hour into sixty
minutes, etc. may be mentioned as vestiges of these numerical systems. The rod
abacus can never be worked with efficiency on these numerical scales. Another
remote cause may be traced back to the way in which the Arabs, who introduced
the cipher system into Europe, named their numbers. The Semites, including the
Arabs, named their numbers beginning at the units, although they wrote from
right to left. Thus for instance, in Arabic, one hundred and twenty-five was
called five and twenty and one hundred, the result appearing as 125, as Prof.
Cargill G. Knott says in his treatise on the abacus. This is believed to be the
primary reason why the Arabs, who achieved remarkable development in
mathematics in the medieval ages, made use of their Arabic numerals without
recourse to the less efficient line abacus or other calculating devices. Nor could
the rod abacus have been used with efficiency by a race which used such a
system of naming their numbers. The early Indians, who are credited with the
invention of the cipher, spoke like the Arabs although they wrote from left to
right. The Chinese named their numbers beginning with the largest
denomination, although they wrote from top to bottom, proceeding from right to
left.
Now the second question before us is: What causes prevented the adoption of
a cipher system in China and Japan? The Chinese and the Japanese write in
vertical columns from top to bottom, while the cipher system is worked from left
to right. However, this is not considered the primary cause, for in the remote past
coeval with the origination of Chinese characters, the Chinese carried out their
calculation by means of reckoning blocks working left to right. However, this
reckoning-block calculation was cumbersome and was no more fit for rapid
operation than the Western line abacus.
A couple of examples of the arrangement of reckoning blocks are given
below. The numbers 123 and 5,078 are represented:

In the units, hundreds, and other odd places, the numbers up to five are each
represented by the corresponding number of vertical strokes, and the numbers
from six to nine are each represented by the addition of the requisite number of
strokes below a five-unit horizontal line. In the tens, thousands, and other even
places, the numbers up to five are each represented by the corresponding number
of horizontal strokes, and the numbers from six to nine are each represented by
the addition of the requisite number of strokes above a five-unit horizontal line.
The Chinese numerical notation, which was probably the pictorial
representation of reckoning-block calculation, was of far less practical use in
calculation than reckoning blocks. Accordingly, mathematical calculation was
generally performed with reckoning blocks and later also with the abacus. In
remote antiquity, probably more than 2,000 years back, reckoning blocks were
arranged differently for calculation. In those days the numbers in units and
hundreds places were represented by horizontal blocks instead of vertical ones,
and numbers in tens and thousands places were represented by vertical blocks.
Thus the Chinese numerals, — (1), (2), (3), and (100), comprised of
horizontal strokes, are pictographs, representing horizontally arranged blocks
and the numerals, (10), (20), (30), and (1,000), comprised
of vertical strokes, are pictographic imitations of blocks arranged vertically.
What caused the change in the arrangement of reckoning blocks is a knotty
problem, to which no satisfactory solution has been offered. However, some
scholars conjecture that because of the great importance of divination in early
China the arrangement of reckoning blocks might probably have been influenced
by the method of arranging reckoning sticks for divining purposes.
Probably the major cause which prevented the replacement of the
cumbersome numerical notation by the cipher system was the development of
the abacus, which could meet everyday public needs in business and household
calculation. Reckoning-block calculation, which was applied to the primitive
abacus, made a remarkable development, and by the Ming dynasty the abacus
had become a far more efficient computer than the cipher system.
In the days of feudal government, learning was mostly of classics and was
the exclusive heritage of certain officials and limited circles of scholars.
Mathematics was studied only by the few who were initiated into this mystery of
learning, and many of them formed exclusive esoteric sects of hereditary
transmission to preserve their patrimonial positions or living. Under these social
conditions it was none of their concern to teach or popularize their secrets of
mathematics. The enlightened scholars who were favored with exceptional
opportunities to study Western science and mathematics may have been aware of
the superiority of Arabic numerals to the cumbersome Oriental numerical
notation. But these intellectuals must have been too few and far between and
their outcry to initiate the reform too feeble to arouse public attention.
Among the other important causes may be mentioned the want of free
international trade and communication, the virtual isolation of Eastern countries
from the West, and the consequent lack of understanding of international
situations and national prejudice against foreign culture, and among the rest, the
conservatism of human nature. The Chinese officialdom was so prominently
conservative that it would firmly have resisted any attempts at such reforms or
improvements in the hoary customs or time-honored classics of national
veneration, many of which had been included among textbooks for government
service examinations during the long Chinese historical period extending over
twenty centuries.
In Japan it was not until several years after the 1868 political revolution,
which overthrew the shogunate (government by the supreme feudal ruler), that
the progressive modern government, awakened to the progress of the world,
enacted the compulsory education law, including in the curriculum the cipher
system, without which the effective teaching of modern mathematics to the
public is impossible.
Now the Japanese word for abacus, soroban, is probably the Japanese
rendering of the Chinese suan-pan, (soo-pan in the southern dialect or sur-pan in
Manchuria). The soroban in Japan did not come into common use until the
seventeenth century. However, the historical fact that beginning with the seventh
century, there were at times as many as 2,000 Japanese students studying at the
then Chinese capital in Chang-an, now called Si-an, furnishes us with reliable
evidence that the abacus was introduced into Japan at a far earlier date, although
the oldest documentary evidence of the Japanese abacus does not date further
back than the sixteenth century.
In any case, once this convenient instrument of calculation gained popularity
in Japan, it was studied extensively and intensively by many mathematicians
including Seki Kowa (1640-1709), who discovered a native calculus
independent of the Newtonian theory. As a result, the form and methods of
operating the abacus have undergone one improvement after another. For a long
time in Japan two kinds of abacus were used concurrently until the 1868 political
revolution: the Chinese-style one with two five-unit counters and five one-unit
counters and the older Japanese-style one with one five-unit counter and five
one-unit counters. After the time of the revolution, the Chinese-style abacus
went completely out of use. Finally since around 1940, the older-style Japanese
abacus has largely been replaced by the present more advanced and efficient one
with one five-unit counter and four one-unit counters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barnard, Francis Pierrepont: The Casting-Counter and the Counting-Board, Oxford Press.
Comprehensive Dictionary of Abacus Calculation, A. Akatsuki Publishing Company, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Ishikawa, Shinji: Abacus Calculation: Its Theory and Technique, Abacus Research Society, Tokyo (in
Japanese).
Knott, Cargill G.: "The Abacus in Its Historic and Scientific Aspects," Transactions of The Asiatic Society
of Japan, Vol. XIV, 1886.
Mikami, Yoshio: "The Characteristics of Chinese Mathematics," Journal of Oriental Studies (Toyo
Gakuho), Vol. XV, No. 4, 1926 (in Japanese).
Yamazaki, Yoemon: A Collection of Eastern and Western Literature on the Abacus, two volumes, Morikita
Publishing Company, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Yamazaki, Yoemon: The Origin of the Chinese Abacus.
Yamazaki, Yoemon; Suzuki, Hisao; and Toyo, Sei-ichi: A History of Abacus Calculation, Morikita
Publishing Company, Tokyo (in Japanese).
II. NEGATIVE ANSWERS FROM SUBTRACTION

Subtraction of larger numbers from smaller ones is performed by means of

complementary numbers.
For this purpose it is necessary to be able to read
complementary numbers on the board at a glance.
For example, the complementary digit of 6 with
respect to 10 is 4. However, the board shows 3 in the
position of the complementary digits (Fig. 5).
The complementary numbers of 23 and 457 are 11 and 543 respectively.
However, on the board they appear as 76 and 542 (Figs. 6 and 7). Therefore, on
the board, the true complementary number can be obtained by adding one to the
complementary digit on the last rod.
The following problem involving complements can be solved without
making any mental or written calculations.

PROBLEM: A customer made a purchase of 7 dollars 68 cents and gave a clerk

a ten-dollar bill. How much change should the customer receive?
If the clerk simply sets 768 on the abacus, the answer, 2 dollars
32 cents, will naturally appear on the board of its own accord in the
form of the complementary number (Fig. 8).
Here are some examples of abacus calculation by means of
complementary digits.

EXAMPLE 1: 2-9=-7
 STEP 1: Set 2 on B (Fig. 9).
STEP 2: Since you cannot subtract 9 from 2, you must borrow 10 from the
tens rod A, and subtract 9 from 12. This gives you 3 on B. However, since you
borrowed 10 previously, you must return it. In other words, as 10 was added to
the 3 on rod B, you must subtract 10 from it. You can do this very simply by
setting minus 10 on rod B in your mind. Then the difference between the 3 and
the minus 10 on rod B, i.e. minus 7, will mechanically appear in the form of the
complementary number. This is the answer (Fig. 10). Note that the advantage of
the abacus operation is to work out and change the difference between 2 and
minus 9, i.e. minus 7, into that between 3 and minus 10 and to show the
difference in the clearer and more obvious form.
NOTES: (a) In subtracting 9 from 2, do not make the mental calculation of
subtracting 9 from 12 but add, to the 2 on B, the complementary number 1, with
respect to 10, with the idea that you are subtracting 9 from 10. Nor should you
take the trouble of setting 1 on rod A except for practice,
(b) In calculation by complementary numbers, it is
important for you to remember that the counters or beads
which have been moved next to the beam always indicate
positive numbers, while their complements represent
negative numbers.

EXAMPLE 2: 15-84=-69
STEP 1: Set 15on BC (Fig. II).
STEP 2: Borrow 100 from the hundreds rod A, and subtract 84 from 115.
This gives you 31 on BC, and the answer 69 mechanically appears on the
board in the form of the complementary number of 31 for 100 (Fig. 12).
NOTE: The above process can be analyzed as follows:

EXAMPLE 3: 29-76+94=47
 STEP 1: Set 29 on BC (Fig. 13).
STEP 2: Borrow 100 from A, and subtract 76 from 129. This gives you 53 on
BC (Fig. 14).
STEP 3: Add 94 to the 53 on BC. This gives you 147 on ABC (Fig. 15).
STEP 4: As you borrowed 100 previously, you must return it. So remove the 1
on A. The result is 47 on BC (Fig. 16).
NOTE: In step 3, the result 147 which you got is larger than the 100 which
you borrowed. This shows that the result is positive. Accordingly, the result is 47
on BC.

EXAMPLE 4: $628-$936+$864=$556

STEP 1: Set 628 on BCD (Fig. 17).

STEP 2: Borrow 1,000 from rod A, and subtract 936 from 1,628. This gives
you 692 on BCD (Fig. 18).
STEP 3: Add 864 to the 692 on BCD. This gives you 1,556 on ABCD (Fig.
19).
STEP 4: Remove the 1 on A which you borrowed in step 2. The answer is
$556 (Fig. 20).
EXAMPLE 5: 60-84-96=-120
In making successive subtractions, if it is not sufficient to borrow 100 from
the first rod to the left, borrow 1,000 from the second rod to the left at the start of
your calculations. We shall call this Method A.
The alternative is to borrow 100 from the first rod to the left in making the
first subtraction and later borrow 900 when you need another 100. We shall call
this Method B.
Although Method A is more efficient in that you only have to borrow once,
you may not be able to anticipate your later need for more. In case you haven't
borrowed enough at the beginning you have to resort to Method B.

METHOD A:

STEP 1: Set 60 on CD (Fig. 21).

STEP 2: As it will not be sufficient to borrow 100, borrow 1,000 from rod A,
and subtract 84 from 1,060. This gives you 976 on BCD. In borrowing 1,000, set
9 on B and, leaving the 9 intact there, shift 100 to B and C and then subtract 84
from 160. In this way you will automatically get the answer, minus 24, on CD in
the form of the complementary number of 976 with respect to 1,000 (Fig. 22).
STEP 3: Next subtract 96 from the 976 on BCD. This leaves 880 on BCD. The
answer is minus 120, which appears in the form of the complementary number
on the board (Fig. 23).
NOTE: This minus 120 is the difference between the 1,000 which you
borrowed and the 880 which you have on the board.
METHOD B:

STEP 1: Set 60 on CD (Fig. 24).

STEP 2: Borrow 100 from rod B, and subtract 84 from the 60 on CD, treating
the 60 as 160. This gives you 76 on CD. This number is really minus 24 (Fig.
25).
STEP 3: You cannot subtract 96 from minus 24. So set 9 on B (Fig. 26).
NOTE: Setting 9 on B now produces the same result as having borrowed 1,000
from rod A in the beginning since you borrowed 100 previously from rod B.
STEP 4: Now subtract 96 from the 976 on BCD. This leaves 880 on BCD. The
answer is minus 120, which appears in the form of the complementary number
(Fig. 27).

NOTE: When you have to borrow again, after borrowing 100, never borrow
100 but 900. If you borrow 100 twice, you cannot get the complementary
number for 200 on the board, which slows down your operation.
 You will find this in the following steps, in which the above Example 5 is
worked by this wrong method.
STEP 1: Set 60 on CD (Fig. 28).
STEP 2: Borrow 100 from rod B, and subtract 84 from the 60 on CD, treating
the 60 as 160. This gives you 76 on CD (Fig. 29).
STEP 3: Borrow 100 again from B and subtract 96 from 176, and you get 80
on CD (Fig. 30).
Since you borrowed 200, now you must return 200. But as the board does not
show the complementary number of 80 for 200, you must work out the answer
by subtracting 80 from 200. Thus this method is rather awkward.

EXAMPLE 6: 55-67-4,297=-4,309
STEP 1: Set 55 on DE (Fig. 31).
STEP 2: Borrow 100 from C, and subtract 67 from 55, treating the 55 as 155.
This gives you 88 on DE. The result is minus 12 (Fig. 32).
STEP 3: As you cannot subtract 4,297 from the 88
on DE, you must borrow 10,000 from rod A. So set 9
on both C and B. You must note that setting 9 on
both C and B produces the same result as borrowing
10,000 from A, for the reason that you have
previously borrowed 100 from C (Fig. 33).
STEP 4: Now subtract 4,297 from the 9,988 on
BCDE. This gives you 5,691 on BCDE. The answer
is the complementary number of 5,691 with respect
to minus 10,000, i.e. minus 4,309, which appears on
the board (Fig. 34).
 Exercises

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥167 ¥283 ¥309 ¥436 ¥512 ¥608 ¥274 ¥713 ¥82 ¥903
280 406 472 159 296 152 460 264 39 75
349 137 563 618 947 591 958 380 65 829
265 459 128 703 613 235 215 521 721 6,473
420 261 796 841 308 764 309 849 9,604 146
593 825 204 397 247 318 132 706 76 2,704
178 570 485 204 105 973 341 693 148 92
834 968 601 972 430 896 604 942 85 98,650
672 309 815 120 867 409 897 874 629 3,518
905 147 937 584 698 240 786 150 4,053 637
¥-159 ¥-361 ¥1,546 ¥ 0 ¥-1 ¥-80 ¥-1,944 ¥-2,036 ¥-14,682 ¥105,063
III. OTHER METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION

There are several methods of multiplication that can be used on the abacus. A
comparative study of these methods may be interesting. I hope that it will lead
the reader to the conclusion that the standard method of multiplication as
described in my first book is the best. In addition to discussing other basic
methods of multiplication I shall introduce some methods of simplified
multiplication.

1. The Variant of the Standard Multiplication

There is a variant method of the standard multiplication, which was popular in
Japan around 1930, but which was largely replaced in less than ten years by the
standard method of multiplication. The variant is still favored by quite a few
experts including entrants in abacus contests, because it is a little faster than the
standard method. Here is an example.

EXAMPLE 1: 56x49=2,744
STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 56 on EF and the multiplier 49 on AB (Fig. 35).

STEP 2: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 6 on F, set the product 24 on FG after

clearing F of the 6. This gives you 24 on FG (Fig. 36).
 STEP 3: Multiplying the 9 on B by the same 6 which you remember was on F,
set the product 54 on GH. Since you had 24 on FG, you get a total product of
294 on FGH (Fig. 37).
STEP 4: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 5 on E, set the product 20 on EF after
clearing E of the 5. This gives you a total of 2,294 on EFGH (Fig. 38).

STEP 5: Multiplying the 9 on B by the same 5 which you remember was on E,

set the product 45 on FG. Since you had 2,294 on EFGH, you get, on EFGH, a
total of 2,744, which is the answer (Fig. 39).

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGE:
This method is a little faster than the standard method, because the distance
between the multiplier and the product has been reduced by one rod.
DISADVANTAGES:
(1) The product of this multiplication does not form in the position of the
dividend of the standard division, as is the case with the standard multiplication
and division.
It should be noted that this method produces its product in the position of the
dividend of the older method of division. In other words, it forms the counterpart
of the older method of division, the performance of which requires the use of its
own special division table. With the decay of the older method of division, this
multiplication method has also given way to the standard method of
multiplication.
(2) The beginner may find this method a little less easy to follow than the
standard one, as he has to remember each digit in the multiplicand after it is
removed.
2. Multiplication Starting with the Final Digits of the
Multiplier and the Multiplicand
The order of multiplication in this method is identical with that of written
multiplication. Accordingly, the student of the abacus will find it interesting and
useful to compare this method with the standard method. This arithmetic method
is the oldest multiplication method here introduced. It was used extensively in
Japan until around 1930, when it was largely replaced by the variant of the
standard multiplication method later developed, and which, in turn, was replaced
by the standard method itself.
This method may be broken down into two variants. One of them, which
formed the counterpart of the older method of division, used to be popular in
Japan. We shall call this Variant B. But today, when the older method of
division has fallen out of favor, the variant of this method which I shall call
Variant A makes a counterpart of the standard method of division and is free
from the incidental details of operation that complicate Variant B.

Variant A

EXAMPLE 1: 78x89=6,942

STEP 1: Set 78 on EF and 89 on AB (Fig. 40).

STEP 2: Multiplying the 9 on B by the 8 on F, set the product 72 on HI (Fig.
41).

STEP 3: Multiplying the 8 on A by the same 8 on F, set the product 64 on GH,

and clear F of the 8. This gives you a total product of 712 on GHI (Fig. 42).
 STEP 4: Multiplying the 9 on B by the 7 on E, add the product 63 to the 71 on
GH. This makes a total product of 1,342 on FGHI (Fig. 43).

STEP 5: Multiplying the 8 on A by the same 7 on E, add the product 56 to the

13 on FG, and clear E of its 7. This gives you, on FGHI, a total product of 6,942,
which is the answer (Fig. 44).
NOTE: The procedure of this Variant A forms the unit rod of the product on
the rod to the right of the unit rod of the multiplicand by as many rods plus one
as there are digits in the multiplier.

Variant B

The disadvantages of Variant B may be illustrated best by the same example,

since this method can become complicated when both multiplier and
multiplicand have large digits. But the complications offer no serious obstacles
to experienced operators. Hence, until recently, Variant B has been preferred to
Variant A primarily because it is faster and also because it is the counterpart of
the older method of division.

EXAMPLE 2: 78x89=6,942

STEP 1: Set 78 on EF and 89 on AB (Fig. 45).

STEP 2: Multiplying the 9 on B by the 8 on F, set the product 72 on GH (Fig.
46).
 NOTE: The reader can see that Variant B sets the product one rod closer to the
multiplicand and thus is slightly speedier than Variant B.
STEP 3: Multiplying the 8 on A by the 8 on F, set the product 64 on FG after
clearing F of its 8. This gives you a total product of 712 on FGH (Fig. 47).
STEP 4: Multiplying the 9 on B by the 7 on E, set the product 63 on FG. This
makes a total of 7,342 on EFGH.
In this procedure do not add 1 to the 7 on E, but remember to add it in the
next step (Fig. 48).
STEP 5: Multiplying the 8 on A by the 7 on E, set the product 56 on EF after
removing the 7 on E.
In this step do not forget the 1 which must be added to E. This leaves you
with a total of 6,942 on EFGH, which is the answer (Fig. 49).

NOTE: The 1 to be added in step 4 must be remembered till step 5. This kind
of situation occurs especially when both the multiplier and the multiplicand are
large numbers.

EXAMPLE 3: 78x456=35,568

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 78 on FG and the multiplier 456 on ABC (Fig.
50).
STEP 2: Multiplying the 6 on C by the 8 on G set the product 48 on IJ (Fig.
51).
STEP 3: Multiplying the 5 on B by the same 8 on G, set the product 40 on HI.
This makes a total of 448 on HIJ (Fig. 52).

STEP 4: Multiplying the 4 on A by the same 8 on G, set the product 32 on

GH, and clear G of its 8. This makes a total of 3,648 on GHIJ (Fig. 53).

STEP 5: Multiplying the 6 on C by the 7 on F, set the product 42 on HI. This

makes a total of 4,068 on GHIJ (Fig. 54).
STEP 6: Multiplying the 5 on B by the same 7 on F, set the product 35 on GH.
This makes a total of 7,568 on GHIJ (Fig. 55).

STEP 7: Multiplying the 4 on A by the same 7 on F, set the product 28 on FG,

and clear F of the 7. This gives you, on FGHIJ, a total of 35,568, which is the
answer (Fig. 56).

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
(1) Variant A of this method forms the counterpart of the standard method of
division, that is, it forms its product in the position of the dividend of the latter
method.
(2) Since the order of multiplication is identical with that of written
multiplication, the beginner may find it easier to learn.
DISADVANTAGES:
This method is not commonly used for the following reasons.
(1) The operator has to take the trouble of counting the digits in the
multiplier. As was previously explained, Variant A requires that the unit rod of
the first product be separated from the unit rod of the multiplicand by as many
rods plus one as there are digits in the multiplier, while Variant B requires that
the unit rod of the first product be separated from the last rod of the multiplicand
by as many rods as there are digits in the multiplier. The greater the distance, the
greater the inconvenience.
(2) Right-to-left operation makes this method a little slower than the other
methods.
(3) Variant B of this method is often complicated by the kind of
inconvenience which arose in Example 2 of this section.

Why Is Right-to-Left Operation Slower

than Left-to-Right Operation?

The reasons for the slowness of right-to-left operation of this method may be
seen through the analytical comparison of this method with the standard one.
The procedure of multiplication illustrated in Example 2 sets the products as
given below.
 The above shows that in this operation the finger has to travel a total of 9
rods. In step 2, the finger travels 1 rod from G to H. In step 3, it travels 3 rods
from H back to F and forward to G. In step 4, it travels 2 rods from G back to F
and forward again to G. In step 5, it travels 3 rods from, G back to E and forward
to F.
If the same problem, 78x89, is performed by the standard method of
multiplication, the finger has to travel no more than 7 rods, as indicated in the
figure below.
The figure shows that, in step 2, the finger travels for 1 rod from G to H. In
step 3, it travels for 1 rod from H to I. In step 4, it travels for 4 rods from I back
to F and forward to G. And in step 5, it travels for 1 rod from G toH.
Furthermore, the right-to-left operation of this method may be said to run
counter to the efficient left-to-right operation of the standard method.

3. Multiplication Beginning with the Highest Digits of the

Multiplier and Multiplicand
It is also possible to do multiplication beginning with the highest digits of the
multiplier and the multiplicand. For this method it is necessary to separate the
multiplier and the multiplicand by as many rods plus two as there are digits in
the multiplier. Otherwise the product will extend into the multiplicand, and
operation will become impossible.

EXAMPLE 1: 43x72=3,096
 STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 43 on GH and the multiplier 72 on AB, with four
vacant rods between them (Fig. 57).
STEP 2: Multiplying the 7 on A by the 4 on G, set the product 28 on EF (Fig.
58).

STEP 3: Multiplying the 2 on B by the same 4 on G, set the product 8 on G

after clearing G of the 4, that is, the highest digit of the multiplier. This makes a
total product of 288 on EFG (Fig. 59).
STEP 4: Multiplying the 7 on A by the 3 on H, set the product 21 on FG. This
makes a total product of 309 on EFG (Fig. 60).

STEP 5: Multiplying the 2 on B by the same 3 on H, set the product 6 on H

after clearing H of the 3, that is, the second digit of the multiplier. This gives
you, on EFGH, a total product of 3,096, which is the answer (Fig. 61).

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
(1) When the multiplier is a whole number, the unit digit of the product
forms on the unit rod of the multiplicand, so the necessity of searching for the
unit rod of the product is eliminated. However, this rule does not hold when the
multiplier ends in one or more zeros. The product moves to the right of the
multiplicand by as many rods as there are zeros at the end of the multiplier.
(2) As the operation starts by multiplying the first digits of the multiplier and
multiplicand, it is convenient for approximations.
DISADVANTAGES:
This method is not used very much for the following reasons.
(1) It necessitates counting the digits of the multiplier. The multiplier must
be separated from the multiplicand by as many rods plus two as there are digits
in the multiplier. When the multiplier is long, this method becomes rather
awkward.
(2) It is inconvenient for the calculation of compound numbers not based on
the decimal system. Try using this method on a problem involving hours,
minutes, and seconds, for example.
(3) It has no corresponding method of division. In other words, there is no
method of division where the quotient has the position of the multiplicand in this
method of multiplication.

4. The Chinese Method of Multiplication

The following example introduces the method of multiplication widely
practiced in China.

EXAMPLE 1: 345x67=23,115

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 67 on FG and the multiplier 345 on ABC (Fig.
62).
STEP 2: Multiplying the 4 on B by the 7 on G, set the product 28 on HI (Fig.
63).
 STEP 3: Multiplying the 5 on C by the same 7 on G, set the product 35 on IJ.
This gives you a total of 315 on HIJ (Fig. 64).
STEP 4: Multiplying the 3 on A by the same 7 on G, set the product 21 on GH
after clearing G of its 7. This gives you a total product of 2,415 on GHIJ (Fig.
65).
STEP 5: Now multiplying the 4 on B by the 6 on F, set the product 24 on GH.
This gives you a total of 4,815 on GHIJ (Fig. 66).

STEP 6: Multiplying the 5 on C by the same 6 on F, set the product 30 on HI.

This gives you a total of 5,115 on GHIJ (Fig. 67).

STEP 7: Finally, multiplying the 3 on A by the same 6 on F, set the product 18

on FG, after clearing F of its 6. This gives you, on FGHIJ, a total product of
23,115, which is the answer (Fig. 68).
The reader will see that this method of multiplication forms its product in the
same position as does the variant of the standard method of multiplication
introduced at the beginning of this chapter.
NOTES: (a) When this method of multiplication is followed, it often facilitates
calculation for the rods to have two five-unit counters when both the multiplier
and multiplicand have large digits. This is one of the reasons why the Chinese
abacus has two five-unit counters on each rod. (b) Also notice that in China the
multiplicand is set on the left and the multiplier is set on the right.

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
In this example, suppose you had used the variant of the standard method of
multiplication. Then, in step 2, rod G would have been cleared of the 7 before
the product was set on GH. However, in this method, the 7 on G remains on the
board until step 4, when all of the operations involving that 7 have been
completed.
DISADVANTAGES:
In this example, the additions of the products proceed from left to right till
step 3. But in step 4, the hand must shift back to the left to add the product.
Since the operation proceeds in this way, it is somewhat slower than the standard
method and its variant.

5. The Elimination of the Final Digit of a Multiplier Ending

in One
Multiplication can be facilitated by leaving out of calculation the final digit one
of the multiplier. The Japanese technical term for this kind of multiplication may
be translated as the final-digit-one elimination multiplication.
This multiplication starts its calculation with the highest digits of the
multiplier and the multiplicand. The multiplier and the multiplicand must be
separated by as many rods plus one or two as there are digits in the multiplier;
otherwise the product will extend into the multiplier.

EXAMPLE: 74x31=2,294
 STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 74 on GH and the 3 of the multiplier 31 on B
(Fig. 69).
NOTES: (a) The trouble of setting the final digit one of the multiplier is spared,
because it is not used in this operation, (b) A beginner using this method is liable
to make errors.
STEP 2: Multiplying the 3 on B by the 7 on G, set the product 21 on EF, and
you get 2,174 on EFGH (Fig. 70).
NOTES: (a) In this method of multiplication, the multiplicand 74 is supposed
to have been multiplied by the 1 of the multiplier 31, and is left intact on the
board, and the products made by multiplying the 3 of 31, i.e. 30, by the two
digits of the multiplicand each are added to the multiplicand 74. (b) When the
multiplier is a whole number, the unit digit of the product forms on the unit rod
of the multiplicand, (c) In step 2, the 3 on B is really 30 and the 7 on G is really
70. Accordingly, their product 21 is set on EF, because it is really 2,100.

STEP 3: Multiplying the same 3 on B by the 4 on H, add the product 12 to the

17 on FG. This gives you, on EFGH, a total of 2,294, which is the answer (Fig.
71).
NOTE: In this step, the 3 on B is really 30, but the 4 on H is a real 4.
Accordingly, their product 12 is set on FG, because it is really 120.
This multiplication can be performed by subtracting 1 from a multiplier
whose last digit is 2 or a larger digit, although this procedure does not improve
calculations. An example will be given below.

EXAMPLE 2: 83x42=3,486

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 83 on GH and the multiplier 41 on AB (Fig. 72).

 NOTE: In this multiplication, the multiplicand is left intact on the board, and
the operation performed can be expressed as 83+[83x(42-1)].
STEP 2: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 8 on G, set the product 32 on EF. This
gives you 3,283 on EFGH (Fig. 73).

STEP 3: Next, multiplying the 1 on B by the same 8 on G, set the product 8 on

G. This gives you 3,363 on EFGH (Fig. 74).
STEP 4: Now, multiplying the 4 on B by the 3 on H, set the product 12 on FG.
This gives you a total of 3,483 on EFGH (Fig. 75).
STEP 5: Finally, multiplying the 1 on B by the same 3 on H, set the product 3
on H. And you get, on EFGH, a total of 3,486, which is the answer (Fig. 76).

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
This method simplifies calculation by reducing the number of the digits in
the multiplier by one.
DISADVANTAGES:
(1) This method necessitates counting the digits in the multiplier so as to
separate the multiplier from the multiplicand by as many rods plus one or two as
there are digits in the multiplier.
(2) The value of this method is limited to the case in which the final digit of
the multiplier is one.
6. The Elimination of the Initial Digit of a Multiplier
Beginning with One
Multiplication can also be simplified by leaving out the initial digit one of the
multiplier. The Japanese technical term for this multiplication may be translated
as the initial-digit-one elimination multiplication.

EXAMPLE 1: 23x12=276
STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 23 on EF and the 2 of the
multiplier 12 on B, the third rod to the left of rod E (Fig. 77).
NOTES: (a)There is no objection to setting the whole
multiplier 12 on AB. However, experts who use this method do
not customarily set the first digit 1 because it is not used in
calculation, and they can remember that the 2 here is the 12 of the multiplier.
However, this method of multiplication is apt to give the beginner trouble, (b) In
this multiplication, 23 is supposed to have been multiplied by the 10 of the
multiplier 12 and is regarded as 230, with G as its unit rod. The product is made
by multiplying the 2 of 12 by each digit of 23 and adding the result to the 230 on
EFG.

STEP 2: Multiplying the 2 on B by the 3 on F, set the product 6 on G. This

makes a total of 236 on EFG (Fig. 78).
NOTE: Since both the 2 on B and the 3 on F are in the unit place, the product 6
must be set on G, the unit rod of the product.
STEP 3: Next multiplying the same 2 on B by the 2 on E, add the product 4 to
the 3 on F. This gives you, on EFG, a total of 276, which is the answer (Fig. 79).
NOTES: (a) In this step, since the 2 on B is in the unit
place and the product 4 must be set on F, the tens rod of the
product (b)Operation must start with the last digit of the
multiplicand. Otherwise, the product will extend into the
multiplicand and render calculation impossible, (c) This
method simplifies calculation especially when the second
digit of the multiplier is small, i.e., when the multiplier is a number such as 11,
107, 1,008, etc.

EXAMPLE 2: 75x103=7,725

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 75 on DE and the 3 of the multiplier 103 on A

(Fig. 80).
NOTE: In this problem, the multiplicand 75 is supposed to have been
multiplied by the 100 of the multiplier 103. Accordingly, the 75 on DE is
regarded as the product 7,500 on DEFG, with G as the unit rod, F as the tens rod,
and E as the hundreds rod.
STEP 2: Multiplying the 3 on A by the 5 on E, set the product 15 on FG. This
makes a total of 7,515 on DEFG (Fig. 81).
STEP 3: Next multiplying the 3 on A by the 7 on D, add the product 21 to the
51 on EF. This gives you, on EFGH, a total of 7,725, which is the answer (Fig.
82).
NOTE: Since the 7 on D is in the tens place, and the 3 on
A in the unit place, the product 21 is really 210 and must be
set on EF.

EXAMPLE 3: 78x13=1,024
 This example is to show that when the second digit in the
multiplier is not a small one, this method becomes
complicated.
STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 78 on DE and the 3 of the
multiplier 13 on A (Fig. 83).
NOTE: AS the multiplier is a two-digit number, F becomes
the unit rod of the product.
STEP 2: Multiplying the 3 on A by the 8 on E, set the product 24 on EF. This
makes a total of 804 on DEF (Fig. 84).
NOTE: However, you must remember till the next step that the digit which
was originally on D was not 8 but 7.
STEP 3: Multiplying the 3 on A by the 7 which you remember was on D, set
the product 21 on DE. This gives you, on CDEF, a total of 1,014, which is the
answer (Fig. 85).

EXAMPLE 4: An article was bought for $250 and sold at a gain of 6.8%. Find
the selling price.
Since the selling price is determined by adding the cost and the profit, it can
be found by the following multiplication:

$250x(1+0.068)=$250x1.068=$267

There are two methods for working this multiplication. One is the standard
method of multiplication, and the other the method of eliminating the initial digit
one of the multiplier. The latter operation is shown below.

STEP 1: Set the dividend 250 on EFG, with G as the unit rod, and set the 68 of
the divisor 1.068 on AB (Fig. 86).
NOTE: When the multiplier is a mixed decimal, it is generally advisable to set
its unit figure on the unit rod. But experts usually do not bother to, since the digit
1 is not used in calculation. As long as you remember that 68 stands for 1.068, it
matters little to set the unit digit of the multiplier on the unit rod.
 STEP 2: Since the multiplier is a four-digit number, suppose that 250 has been
multiplied by 1,000, producing 250,000 on EFGHIJ, with G as the unit rod (Fig.
87).
Now multiplying the 6 on A by the 5 on F, set the product 30 on GH (Fig.
87).
NOTE: As both the 6 on A and the 5 on F are in the tens place, the product 30
must be set on GH.

STEP 3: Next multiplying the 8 on B by the same 5 on F, set the product 40 on

HI. This gives you 34 on GH (Fig. 88).
STEP 4: Next multiplying the 6 on A by the 2 on E, add the product 12 to the
53 on FG. This gives you 654 on FGH (Fig. 89).
STEP 5: Finally multiplying the 8 on B by the same 2 on E, add the product
16 to the 54 on GH. This gives you, on EFG, a total of 267, which is the answer
(Fig. 90).
NOTE: It should be noted that when the multiplier is a mixed decimal whose
one whole figure is in the unit place, the unit rod of the multiplicand becomes
that of the product. The reason for this is that the product may be regarded as
having been multiplied by one. Accordingly, in this multiplication, it is quite
easy to locate the unit rod of the product.

Rules for Finding the Unit Rod of the Product

RULE 1: When the multiplier is a mixed decimal whose whole figure one is in the
unit place—i.e., 1—the unit rod of the quotient forms on that of the
multiplicand.
RULE 2: Each time the value of this multiplier is raised by one place, the unit rod
of the product shifts by one rod to the right of that of the multiplicand, and each
time the value of this multiplier is reduced by one place, the unit rod of the
product shifts by one rod to the left of that of the multiplicand.
Rule (1) means that when the multiplier is 1.05 or 1.023, the unit rod of the
product forms on that of the multiplicand.
Rule (2) means that when the multiplier is 10.5 or 10.23, the unit rod of the
product forms on the first rod to the right of that of the multiplicand, and that
when the multiplier is 0.105 or 0.1023, the unit rod of the product forms on the
first rod to the left of that of the multiplicand.

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
(1) This method of multiplication simplifies calculation especially when the
second digit of the multiplier is zero, as in 103, 109, 1.082, etc.
When the multiplier is a number whose second digit is small, such as 11.114,
125, 1.078, etc., calculation is often simplified. However, this situation
sometimes requires a figure or figures which have to be carried over to the rod
next on the left.
(2) As shown in Example 4, when the multiplier is a mixed decimal whose
whole figure one is in the unit place, the multiplicand itself is used as the
product. In other words, the unit digit of the product forms on the unit rod of the
multiplicand. This enables the operator to locate easily the unit rod of the
product and to simplify calculations.
Because of these two advantages, this method of multiplication is
extensively used in the calculation of percentages in business.
DISADVANTAGES:
When the multiplier is a number whose second digit is large, like 17, 189,
etc., this method becomes awkward. It may involve remembering so many digits
that calculation becomes extremely difficult. This is especially true when the
multiplicand also is a number with many large digits.

7. Multiplication by Complementary Numbers

Multiplication can often be simplified by using the complement of a multiplier.
For instance, take the problem 26x98. The 26 is multiplied by 100, becoming
2,600. From this 26x2, 52 is subtracted. In this way the answer 2,548 is obtained.
The 2 is, of course, the complement of 98 with respect to 100. This method of
computation is better than the ordinary method of multiplication when the
multiplier is a number a little smaller than 100 or 1,000, etc., such as 97, 996,
etc.

EXAMPLE 1: 26x98=2,548

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 26 on DE, and on A, set 2, the complement of 98

with respect to 100 (Fig. 91). When the multiplier is a two-figure number, the
multiplicand is regarded as having been multiplied by 100. So in this problem
the unit rod of the product shifts to G.
STEP 2: Multiplying the 2 on A by the 6 on E, subtract
the product 12, which is to be set on FG, from the 6 on E.
This leaves 2,588 on DEFG (Fig. 92).
STEP 3: Multiplying the 2 on A by the 2 on D, subtract
the product 4 from the 8 on F. This leaves 2,548 on DEFG
(Fig. 93), the answer.

EXAMPLE 2: A manufacturer wishes to purchase a piece of machinery priced at

$7,250 on which there is a discount of 4% for cash. Find the price he pays in
cash.
The answer can be found by the following simplified multiplication.

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 7,250 on DEFG, and on A, set the 4 of 0.04,
which is the complement of 0.96 with respect to 1 (Fig. 94).
 NOTE: On the board you have this problem: 7,250—(7,250x0.04). In this
problem, the actual multiplier is 0.96, i.e., a decimal with its first significant
digit in the tenths place. So you may consider that the answer is obtained by
keeping the multiplicand as it is and subtracting from it 7,250x0.04. You should
note that when the multiplier is a decimal with its first significant digit in the
tenths place, the unit rod of the product remains that of the multiplicand.

STEP 2: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 5 on F, subtract the product 20, which

is to be set on GH, from the 5 on F. This leaves 7,248 on DEFG (Fig. 95).
NOTE: AS the 5 on F is in the tens place of the dividend, the product 20 must
be set on GH.
STEP 3: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 2 on E, subtract the product 8 from the
8 on G. This leaves 724 on DEF (Fig. 96).

STEP 4: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 7 on D, subtract the product 28 from

the 724 on DEF. This leaves 6,960 on DEFG (Fig. 97). The answer is $6,960.

Rules for Finding the Unit Rod of the Product

RULE 1: When the multiplier is a decimal whose first significant digit is in the
tenths place, the unit rod of the multiplicand remains that of the product.
RULE 2: Each time the value of this multiplier is raised by one digit, the unit rod
of the product shifts by one rod to the right of that of the multiplicand, and each
time the value of this multiplier is reduced by one digit, the unit rod of the
product shifts by one rod to the left.
 Rule (1) means that when the multiplier is 0.95 or 0.934, the unit rod of the
product forms on that of the multiplicand.
Rule (2) means that when the multiplier is 9.5 or 9.34, the unit rod of the
product forms on the first rod to the right of that of the multiplicand, and that
when the multiplier is 0.095 or 0.0934, the unit rod of the product forms on the
first rod to the left of that of the multiplicand.

Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES:
(1) The reader can easily see in Example 2 that this method is easier than
actually multiplying 7,250x0.96.
(2) As stated in Rule 1 for finding the unit rod of the product, when the
multiplier is a mixed decimal whose first significant digit is in the tenths place,
the unit rod of the multiplicand remains that of the product. This saves the
operator the trouble of finding the unit rod of the product. This is a real
advantage.
For these reasons this method of multiplication is extensively employed in
the calculation of percentages in business.
DISADVANTAGES:
This method has no particular disadvantages. However, it should be noted
that its utility is limited to problems in which the multipliers are numbers a little
smaller than 100, 1,000, etc. or numbers whose first digit is 9, such as 98, 987,
0.96, etc.

Exercises

(1) 24x88=2,112 (4) 169x987=166,803

(2) 37x98=3,626 (5) 408x996=406,368
(3) 851x99=84,249 (6) 3,600x0.92=3,312
IV. OTHER METHODS OF DIVISION

There is an older method of division which is as fast as the standard method of

division that I explained in my first book. But this method is no faster and it
requires the memorization of a complicated division table. Although this method
is still used by the older generation, it is generally becoming obsolete. Since this
method is so complicated and since it is hardly used today, I will not spend time
explaining it. Instead I shall present some methods of division which are popular
for business calculations.
Historically speaking, however, the "standard method of division" is older
than what I have called here the older method of division. In ancient China the
"standard method of division" was used by means of reckoning blocks.
However, the "older method of division," because of its convenience in the
calculation of weights not based on the decimal system, became more popular
than the "standard method of division." These weights were extremely important
in Chinese life because they were used in the conversion of currency. When the
abacus was introduced to Japan, it was the "older method of division" which
accompanied it. The currency in Japan also was not based on the decimal
system, so that although the "standard method of division" was strongly
advocated by some mathematicians, it never won real public support. It was not
until the new decimal-based currency of the Meiji era replaced the old Japanese
currency that the "standard method of division" actually became standard.

1. The Elimination of the Initial Digit of a Divisor Beginning

with One
There is a method which simplifies division by leaving out of calculation the
initial digit, one, of the divisor. The Japanese technical term for this division
may be translated as the initial-digit-one elimination division.
This division is particularly useful when the divisor is a number a little larger
than 100, 1,000 etc., such as 103, 1,014, etc. It is a counterpart of the
multiplication method in which the initial digit one of the multiplier is left out of
calculation.
 Let us take a very simple example. If you divide 306 by 102, you get the
quotient 3. In this case, since the first digit of the divisor 102 is 1, the first digit 3
of the dividend 306 may be used as the quotient. This principle is applied to this
method of division on the abacus. On the abacus board, in each step of the
division, the first digit of the dividend is used as the trial quotient, and thus the
necessity of setting the quotient and that of removing the first digit of the
dividend is eliminated, and calculation is considerably simplified and
accelerated. Example 1 shows how this division, "306÷102," is actually done on
the board.

EXAMPLE 1: 306÷102=3

STEP 1: Set the dividend 306 on FGH with H as the unit rod, and set the
divisor 102 on ABC (Fig. 98).
STEP 2: Suppose that you have divided the 306 on FGH
by the 100 of the 102 on ABC and have got the 3 on F as
the quotient figure. Multiply the 2 on C by the 3 on F, and
subtract the product 6 from the 6 on H. This clears the
board of the dividend, and leaves the quotient 3, the answer, on F (Fig. 99).
NOTE: On the board, 306 is divided by 100. But since the actual divisor is
102, the product obtained by the multiplication of 2 (i.e., the difference between
100 and 102) and 3 (i.e., the quotient) must be subtracted from 306. On the
board, the procedures of setting the first quotient figure 3 and of subtracting the
first digit 3 of the dividend are saved or eliminated.

EXAMPLE 2: 2,575÷103=25
 STEP 1: Set the dividend 2,575 on DEFG and the 3 of 103 on A (Fig. 100).
NOTE: There is no objection to setting the whole divisor 103 on the board.
However, experts do not, because this digit is not actually used in calculation,
and so long as they remember that the 3 on A stands for 103 it is not important to
set the whole divisor on the board.
STEP 2: As the divisor 103 is a three-digit number, suppose that you have
divided the 257 of 2,575 by the 100 of 103 and have tried the 2 on D as the
quotient figure.
Multiplying the 3 on A by the 2 on D, subtract the product 6 from the 7 on F.
This leaves, on EFG, 515 as the remainder of the dividend (Fig. 101).
NOTES: (a) As the second figure of the divisor 103 is zero, you must set the
product 6 on F, skipping over E. (b) In this step, as the 2 on D is used as the first
quotient figure, the procedures of setting the first quotient figure 2 and of
subtracting the first digit 2 of the dividend 257 are eliminated.
STEP 3: Next, suppose that you have divided the 515 on EFG by 100 and
have got the 5 on E as the second quotient figure.
Multiplying the 3 on A by the 5 on E, subtract the product 15 from the 15 on
FG. This clears the board of the remaining dividend, and leaves, on DEF, 25 as
the quotient (Fig. 102).
As the dividend was practically divided by 100, the unit rod of the quotient
moves to the second rod to the left of that of the dividend. Therefore, E becomes
the unit rod of the quotient. The answer is 25.
NOTE: In this step, as the 5 on E is used as the second quotient figure, the
procedures of setting the second quotient figure and of subtracting the first digit
5 of the dividend 515 are eliminated.

EXAMPLE 3: A merchant's sales increased 0.8% in the second month. The sales
for the second month amounted to $3,780. How much were the sales the first
month?
This problem can be worked out by the following division:
 $3,780÷1.008-$3,750

STEP 1: Set the dividend 3,780 on DEFG and the 8 of the divisor 1.008 on A
(Fig. 103).
NOTE: You must remember that 8 stands for 1.008.
STEP 2: As the divisor is a four-digit number, suppose that you have divided
the 3,780 on DEFG by 1000 and have got the 3 on D as the first quotient figure.
Multiplying the 8 on A by the 3 on D, subtract the product 24 from the 80 on
FG. This leaves, on EFG, 756 as the remainder of the dividend (Fig. 104).
NOTE: AS the second and third figures of 1.008 are zero, you must set the
product 24 on FG and not on EF.
STEP 3: Suppose that you have divided the 7,560 on EFGH by 1,000 and have
got the 7 on E as the second quotient figure.

Multiplying the 8 on A by the 7 on E, subtract the

product 56 from the 560 on FGH. This leaves, on FGH,
504 as the remainder of the dividend (Fig. 105).
NOTE: Again, be sure to set the product 56 on GH.
STEP 4: Suppose that you have divided the 5,040 on
FGHI by 1,000, with the 5 on F as the third quotient
figure.
Multiplying the 8 on A by the 5 on F, subtract the product 40 from the 40 on
HI. This clears the board of the dividend, and leaves 375 as the quotient on DEF
(Fig. 106).
As the divisor 1.008 is a mixed decimal, whose whole figure one is in the
unit place, the unit rod of the quotient is identical with that of the dividend. The
answer is $3,750.
When the divisor is a number whose second digit is not zero, such as 125,
137, etc., it often happens that a figure a little smaller than the first digit of the
dividend must be tried as a quotient figure. In such cases this method is less
efficient.
Here is an example showing how the division should be worked in such a
case.

EXAMPLE 4: A man withdrew his savings from an account after they had
earned 12% interest. If the amount he withdrew was $5,376, what was his
original investment?
This problem can be worked by the following division:

5,376÷1.12=4,800

STEP 1: Set the dividend 5,376 on EFGH and the last two digits 12 of the
divisor 1.12 on AB (Fig. 107).
NOTE: When a divisor is a mixed decimal, it is advisable for the beginner to
set its unit digit on a unit rod.

STEP 2: As the divisor is a three-digit number, suppose that you have divided
the 537 on EFG by 100, with the 5 on E as the first quotient figure, and found
that 5 is too large. It is because if you multiply the 1 on A by the 5 on E, the
product 5 which is to be set on F is larger than the 3 on F. So try 4 as the first
trial quotient figure in your mind. Then 1 is left on E as the first figure of the
remaining dividend. Multiply the 1 on A by this 4 which is mentally on E, and
you will see that you can subtract the product 4 from the 13 which remains
mentally on EF. Now subtract the 4 from the 13 by setting 4 on E and adding 6
to the 3 on F. This gives you 49 on EF, with the 4 on E as the first quotient
figure.
Of course, in this particular problem if the operator had looked at the
problem carefully, he would have tried 4 the first time. An experienced operator
can see at a glance that 4 is the proper first number of the quotient.
 STEP 3: Now multiply the 2 on B by the 4 on E, and
subtract the product 8 from the 97 on FG. This leaves, on
FGH, 896 as the remaining dividend (Fig. 109).
STEP 4: Next suppose that, in dividing the 896 on FGH
by 100, you have tried the 8 on F as the second quotient
figure.
Multiplying the 1 on A by the 8 on F, subtract the
product 8 from the 9 on G. This leaves, on GH, 16 as the
remaining subtrahend (Fig. 110).
STEP 5: Finally multiplying the 2 on B by the 8 on F,
subtract the product 16 from the 16 on GH. This clears
the board of the subtrahend and leaves 48 as the quotient
on EF (Fig. 111). The answer is $4,800.
NOTE: As the divisor 1.12 is a mixed decimal whose
whole figure one is in the unit place, the unit rod of the dividend remains that of
the quotient.

Rules for Finding the Unit Rod of the Quotient

RULE 1: When the divisor is a mixed decimal whose whole digit one is in the
unit place, the unit rod of the quotient forms on that of the dividend.
RULE 2: Each time the value of this divisor is raised by one digit, the unit rod of
the quotient shifts one rod to the left of that of the dividend, and each time the
value of this divisor is reduced by one digit, the unit rod of the quotient shifts
one rod to the right of that of the dividend.
For instance, when the divisor is 1.05 or 1.023, the unit rod of the quotient
forms on that of the dividend. When the divisor is 10.5 or 10.23, the unit rod of
the quotient forms on the first rod to the left of that of the dividend. When the
divisor is 0.105 or 0.1023, the unit rod of the quotient forms on the first rod to
the right of that of the dividend.
This rule may be restated as follows:
 RULE 2: The unit rod of the quotient forms on the rod to the left of that of the
dividend by as many rods minus one as there are whole digits in the divisor.
The unit rod of the quotient forms on the rod immediately to the right of that
of the dividend by as many rods plus one as there are zeros before the first
significant decimal figure.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages of this method of division are nearly

identical with those of the method of multiplication which leaves the initial digit
one of the multiplier out of calculation (see chapter 3, section 6).

ADVANTAGES:
(1) This method of division simplifies calculation when the second digit of
the divisor is zero, as in 105, 1.08, etc.
When the divisor is a number whose second digit is small, such as 13 or
1.12, etc., often this method simplifies calculation, although the sort of
difficulties illustrated in Example 4 may arise.
(2) As shown in Examples 3 and 4, when the divisor is a mixed decimal
whose whole digit one is in the units place, the unit rod of the quotient is
identical with that of the dividend. This is a great advantage to the abacus
operator, as he has no trouble in finding the unit rod of the quotient.
For these reasons this method of division is employed extensively in the
calculation of percentages in business, that is, for finding the cost of goods from
the selling price and the percent of profit.
DISADVANTAGES:
(1) When the divisor is a number whose second digit is large, such as 19,
183, etc., this method is awkward.
(2) When the divisor is a number whose second and successive digits are
large, this method usually is much too complicated.

2. Division by Complementary Numbers

When the divisor is a number a little smaller than 100, 1,000, etc., such as 98,
997, etc., division can be accelerated by using the complement of the divisor
with respect to 100, 1,000, etc. Let us take two simple examples. 98 goes into
196 twice. So you can divide 196 by 100 with 2 as the quotient if you add, to
196, 4 which is obtained by multiplying 2, the difference between 100 and 98,
and 2, the quotient. The 4 is the same number you have subtracted in excess. In
the same way you can divide 294 by 100 with 3 as the quotient if you add, to
294, 6 which is obtained by multiplying the 2 and 3, the quotient. The following
two rules will help you find the quotient of this division easily, especially if the
first digit of the divisor is 9.
RULE 1: The quotient can generally be found by adding 1 to the first digit of
the dividend when the quotient is a one-digit number, as in the above examples,
and when the final digit of the quotient is to be obtained.
RULE 2: In case the quotient is a more-than-one-digit number, the first digit
of each dividend is generally used as the trial quotient figure, except in finding
the final digit of the quotient.

EXAMPLE 1: 882÷98=9

STEP 1: Set the dividend 882 on DEF with F as the unit rod and set, on A, 2,
which is the complementary number of 98 with respect to 100. It is important to
note that although 100 is the divisor, only the complementary number of the real
divisor with respect to 100 is set on the board.
STEP 2: Since the quotient is a one-digit number, you can apply the above-
mentioned Rule 1 to this problem. Add 1 to the first digit 8 of the dividend 882
and you get 9. If 9 is the correct quotient, the following two equations should be
found equal.

Equation A: 882+(2x9)=900
Equation B: 100x9=900

Since the above two equations are equal, 9 is the correct quotient. In
equation A, 882 is the dividend, 2 is the complementary number, and 9 is the
quotient. In equation B, 100 is the divisor.
Now, multiplying the 2 on A by the trial quotient figure 9, add the product
18 to the 82 on EF. This gives you 900 on DEF. Since the divisor 98 is a two-
whole-digit number, the unit rod of the quotient is formed on D. The answer is 9
on D (Fig. 113).

EXAMPLE 2: 8,160÷96=85

STEP 1: Set the dividend 8,160 on DEFG, and set on A,

4, which is the complement of 96 with respect to 100 (Fig.
114). Since the dividend is a two-digit number, 100 is used
as the divisor.
STEP 2: Divide the 816 on DEF by 100, with the 8 on D
as the first trial quotient figure. In this step, apply Rule 2.
Now, multiplying the 4 on A by the 8 on D, add the product 32 to the 16 on EF.
This gives you 480 on EFG (Fig. 115).
STEP 3: In this final step, apply Rule 1 and try 5, which is larger than the 4 on
E by 1, as the next trial quotient figure. Multiplying the 4 on A by this 5, add the
product 20 to the 80 on FG, and you get 500 on FGH. This number is equal to
the 500 obtained by multiplying the divisor 100 by the trial quotient 5. As the
divisor is a three-whole-digit number, the unit rod of the quotient is formed on
the second rod to the left of that of the dividend. The answer is 85 on DE (Fig.
116).

EXAMPLE 3: 31,428÷0.97=32,400

STEP 1: Set the dividend 31,428 on DEFGH, and set on A, 3, the complement
of 97 with respect to 100 (Fig. 117).
STEP 2: Divide the 314 on DEF by 100, with the 3 on D as the first quotient
figure.
Multiplying the 3 on A by the 3 on D, add the product 9 to the 4 on F. This
leaves, on EFGH, 2,328 as the remainder of the dividend (Fig. 118).

STEP 3: Now divide the 232 on EFG by 100, with the 2 on E as the second
quotient figure.
Multiplying the 3 on A by the 2 on E, add the product 6 to the 2 on G. This
leaves 388 on FGH as the remainder of the dividend (Fig. 119).
STEP 4: In this final step, apply Rule 1 and try 4, which
is larger than the 3 on F by 1, as the final trial quotient
figure. Add, to the 388 on FGH, the product 12 obtained
by multiplying the 3 on A by this 4, and you get 400 on F.
This product is the same as that obtained by multiplying
the divisor 100 by this same 4. This shows that 4 is the
correct third quotient figure. In this division, the divisor is
a decimal fraction whose first significant digit is in the tenths' place. Therefore
the unit rod of the quotient is identical with that of the dividend. The answer is
32,400 (Fig. 120).

Rules for Finding the Unit Rod of the Quotient

RULE 1: When the divisor is a decimal fraction whose first significant digit is in
the tenths place, the unit rod of the dividend remains that of the quotient.
RULE 2: Each time the value of this divisor is raised by one place, the unit rod of
the quotient shifts by one rod to the left of that of the dividend, and each time the
value of this divisor is reduced by one place, the unit rod of the quotient shifts by
one rod to the right of that of the dividend.
For instance, when the divisor is 0.95, the unit rod of the quotient forms on
that of the dividend. When the divisor is 9.5, the unit rod of the quotient forms
on the first rod to the left of that of the dividend. When the divisor is 0.095, the
unit rod of the quotient forms on the first rod to the right of that of the dividend.
Rule 2 may be restated as follows:
 RULE 2: The unit rod of the quotient forms on the rod immediately to the left
of that of the dividend by as many rods as there are whole digits in the divisor.
The unit rod of the quotient forms on the rod immediately to the right of that
of the dividend by as many rods as there are zeros before the first significant
decimal figure.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages of this method of division are nearly identical
with those of the method of multiplication by means of complementary numbers.

ADVANTAGES:
(1) This method of division simplifies calculations when the divisor is a
number a little smaller than 100, 1,000, 1, or 0.01, etc., or especially numbers
whose first significant digit is 9, such as 98, 997, 0.96, or 0.0094, etc.
(2) As described in Rule 1 for finding the unit rod of the quotient, when the
divisor is a decimal fraction whose first significant digit is in the tenths place,
the unit rod of the quotient forms on that of the dividend. This is a great
advantage to the abacus operator, as he has no trouble in finding the unit rod of
the quotient.
Because of these advantages, this method is extensively used in business for
the calculation of percentages. For example, it is useful in finding the regular
price from the discount price and the discount rate.
DISADVANTAGES:
Its utility is limited to problems in which the divisor is a number just a little
smaller than 100, 1,000, etc.
When the divisor is a number whose first significant digit is smaller than 9—
such as 75, 0.82, etc., Rules 1 and 2 given for finding trial quotient figures do
not often apply. In such cases, this method of division is awkward, and the
standard method of division is more efficient.

Exercises

(1) 2,116÷92=23 (4) 382,305÷993=385

(2) 4,048÷88=46 (5) 705,042÷897=786
(3) 13,832÷988=14 (6) 1,645÷0.94=1,750
V. MORE ABOUT DECIMALS

In my first book I included a chapter on decimals. I tried to show in that

discussion the Japanese method of handling decimal fractions of various sorts.
However, an astute reader may have seen two interesting things about my
previous presentation. One thing was simply an oversight on my part, namely
that I gave very few clues as to how such a multiplication problem as
0.2x0.4=0.08 would be done on the abacus, i.e. a problem having decimals both
in the multiplicand and the multiplier. Also I neglected such division problems
as 1.2÷3=0.4, i.e., a problem having decimals in the quotient.
The other thing that a Western reader in particular might have found strange
is that I presented the following three problems as if they were different and each
required a different kind of treatment: 31.36÷0.32=98, 3.136÷0.032=98, and
0.3136÷0.0032=98. The reason this might seem strange is that when an
Occidental sets up any of these three problems on paper for long division, he
immediately reduces them all to the same problem, namely 3,136÷32=98. These
are treated as distinct problems in Japan because of the abacus tradition of
avoiding any mental effort and following the line of least resistance. The
Western reader may not be satisfied with this solution and may want to work out
his own compromise with the Japanese method. I think, however, that after a
beginner has practiced this method enough so that it becomes mechanical, he
will consider it better than any system which requires a non-mechanical, mental
effort—better than the Western method of recognizing the essential simplicity of
some problems.
Now let me turn to my original problem. In my first book, I explained how to
do the following problems:
MULTIPLICATION DIVISION
4x2=8 8÷2=4
25x15=375 375÷15=25
405x123=49,815 49,815÷123=405
34x1.2=40.8 40.8÷1.2=34
32x0.4=12.8 12.8÷0.4=32
98x0.32=31.36 31.36÷0.32=98
 32x0.04=1.28 1.28÷0.04=32
98x0.032=3.136 3.136÷0.032=98
32x0.004=0.128 0.128÷0.004=32
98x0.0032=0.3136 0.3136÷0.0032=98
The following five examples should explain how to do any other normal
multiplication and division problems.

EXAMPLE 1: (A) 18.7x53=991.1

(B) 98.6÷34=2.9

(A) shows that when the multiplier is a two-digit whole number, the unit
digit of the product is formed on the third rod to the right of that of the
multiplicand, i.e. on rod J.
(B) shows that when the divisor is a two-digit whole number, the unit digit of
the quotient is formed on the third rod to the left of that of the dividend, i.e. on
rod G.

EXAMPLE 2: (A) 3.4x1.2=4.08

(B) 6.45÷7.5=0.86
 (A) shows that when the multiplier is a mixed number with only one whole
digit in it, the unit rod of the product is formed on the second rod to the right of
that of the multiplicand, i.e. on rod I.
(B) shows that when the divisor is a mixed number with one whole digit, the
unit rod of the quotient forms on the second rod to the left of that of the
dividend, E.

EXAMPLE 3: (A) 31x31.9=988.9

(B) 0.9429÷72.5=0.013

(A) shows that when the multiplier is a mixed number with two whole digits,
the unit rod of the product is formed on the third rod to the right of that of the
multiplicand, i.e. rodK.
(B) shows that when the divisor is a mixed number with two whole digits,
the unit rod of the quotient is formed on the third rod to the left of that of the
dividend, i.e. rod E.

EXAMPLE 4: (A) 0.922x0.65=0.5993

 (B) 0.5796÷0.25=2.07

(A) shows that when the divisor is a decimal fraction with its first significant
digit in the tenths place, the unit digit of the product is formed on the first rod to
the right of that of the multiplicand, i.e. on rod H.
(B) shows that when the divisor is a decimal fraction with its first significant
digit in the tenths place, the unit digit of the quotient is formed on the first rod to
the left of that of the dividend, i.e. on rod F.

EXAMPLE 5: (A) 0.0289x0.00741=0.000214149

(B) 0.0374644÷0.00409=9.16

(A) shows that when the multiplier is a decimal fraction with its first
significant digit in the thousandths place, the unit rod of the product is formed on
the first rod to the left of that of the multiplicand, i.e. on rod F.
(B) shows that when the divisor is a decimal fraction with its first significant
digit in the thousandths place, the unit digit of the quotient is formed on the first
rod to the right of that of the dividend, i.e., on rod K.
VI. CALCULATIONS INVOLVING MORE THAN
ONE UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

1. Setting Compound Numbers on the Board

In setting a compound number, a measurement expressed in more than one unit,
on the board, the part with the highest denomination is first set on a unit rod, and
all the other parts are set so that they are separated by at least one vacant rod.
Below are examples of how a compound number should be set on the board.

In Example 1, 14 s. is separated from £15 by one vacant rod, while 9 d. is

separated from 14 s. by two vacant rods (Fig. 121), because during calculations
the number of pence may require the use of two digits and thus two rods. (There
are 12 pence in a shilling and 20 shillings in a pound.) In Example 2, 5 min. is
separated from 12 hr. by two vacant rods, because during calculations we may
have as many as 59 minutes and thereby need two rods for calculations and one
for separation. The 20 seconds is separated from 5 min. by one vacant rod,
because no additional rods will be necessary (Fig. 122).
It should be noted that the above arrangements of the compound numbers are
the most convenient not only for addition and subtraction but also for
multiplication and division. For further details, see Example 3.
 In Example 3, 1 ft. is separated from 7 yd. by one vacant rod, while 9 in. is
separated from 1 ft. by two vacant rods, because during calculations we may
have as many as 11 inches and thereby two rods (Fig. 123).
When only addition and subtraction are to be performed, each unit of
measurement is often given a separate unit rod, e.g., 1 ft. would be set on G and
9 in. on J. But when multiplication and division are also to be performed, it is
more convenient to set the units as in the above examples.

2. Converting Compound Numbers

EXAMPLE 1: Find the value of £37 10 s. in dollars if one pound equals $4.03.
This problem can be simplified as follows:

STEP 1: Set the multiplicand 37.5 on FGH, with G as the unit rod. Set the
multiplier 4.03 on ABC, leaving two rods vacant (Fig. 124).
NOTE: It is not really necessary to set the unit figure of the multiplier on a unit
rod.
 STEP 2: Multiplying 4 on A by 5 on H, set product 20 on IJ (Fig. 125).

STEP 3: Multiplying the 3 on C by the same 5 on H, set the product 15 on KL,

and clear H of the 5. This makes a total of 2,015 on IJKL (Fig. 126).
NOTE: AS the second figure of the multiplier is zero, set the product 15 on
KL, skipping JK.

STEP 4: Next, multiplying the 4 on A by the 7 on G, set the product 28 on HI.

This makes a total of 30,015 on HIJKL (Fig. 127).

STEP 5: Multiplying the 3 on C by the same 7 on G, set the product 21 on JK,

and clear G of the 7. This makes a total of 30,225 on HIJKL (Fig. 128).

STEP 6: Next, multiplying the 4 on A by the 3 on F, set the product 12 on GH.

This makes a total of 150,225 on GHIJKL (Fig. 129).
 STEP 7: Finally multiplying the 3 on C by the same 3 on F, set the product 9
on J, and clear F of the 3. This gives you a total of 151,125 on GHIJK (Fig. 130).
As the multiplier is a mixed decimal whose
whole figure is in the unit place, the unit rod of the
product forms on I, the second rod to the right of
G, the unit rod of the multiplicand. The answer is
$151,125.

EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of the following compound number in terms of

pence (12 pence=1 shilling; 20 shillings=1 pound).

£12 16s. 8d.

Written calculations:

On the abacus, the operation is performed much in the same way as in

written calculation. First £12 is multiplied by 20 and the resulting 240 s. is added
to 16 s. Next the sum 256 s. is multiplied by 12 and the product 3,072 d. is added
to 8 d. The answer is 3,080 d. However, on the abacus, both the multiplication
and addition are performed simultaneously, and calculations are much faster.
 STEP 1: Set 12 on AB, with B as the unit rod, 16 on DE, with E as the unit
rod, and 8 on H, with H as the unit rod (Fig. 131).
STEP 2: First multiply the 2 on B by 20, add the product 40 to the 16 on DE,
and clear B of the 2. This makes a total of 56 on DE.
Next multiplying the 1 on A by 20, set the product 20 on CD, and clear A of
the 1. This gives you a total of 256 on CDE (Fig. 132).
NOTE: In this procedure multiply the 2 on B by 20 first and the 1 on A by 20
next. If you multiply the digit on A first, the product may extend to rod B. This
will happen if the digit on A is large. If, for example, the number on A were 8,
setting the product 16 on BC would be rather confusing.
STEP 3: Now the 256 on CDE must be multiplied by 12 and added to the 8 on
H.
First multiply the 6 on E by 10, and set the product 60 on GH. This makes a
total of 68 on GH.

Next multiplying the same 6 on E by 2, add the product 12 to the 68 on GH,

and clear E of the 6. This gives you a total of 80 on GH (Fig. 133).
NOTE: Be sure to dispose of the 6 of 256 first, next the 5, and finally the 2.
STEP 4: Multiplying the 5 on D by 10, set the product 50 on FG. This makes a
total of 580 on FGH.
Next, multiplying the same 5 on D by 2, add the product 10 to the 58 on FG,
and clear D of the 5. This gives you a total of 680 on FGH (Fig. 134).
STEP 5: Multiplying the 2 remaining on C by 10, set the product 20 on EF.
This makes a total of 2,680 on EFGH.
 Finally, multiplying the same 2 on C by 2, add the product 4 to the 6 on F,
and clear C of the 2. This gives you a total of 3,080 on EFGH (Fig. 135). The
answer is 3,080 d.
NOTE: Experts usually save the trouble of setting such simple multipliers as
20 and 12 on the board.

EXAMPLE 3: Find the value of 6,190 d. in terms of pounds and shillings.

Written calculation:

On the abacus, the operation is performed in the

same way as in written calculation. First 6,190 is
divided by 12, next the quotient 515 is divided by
20.

STEP 1: Set 6,190 on IJKL, with L as the unit rod,

and set 12 on CD. See that there are four vacant rods
between the two numbers (Fig. 136).
 STEP 2: Comparing the divisor 12 and the 61 in
6,190, set the quotient figure 5 on G. Now multiply
the 1 on C by this 5, and subtract the product 5 from
the 6 on I. This leaves 1,190 on IJKL.
Next multiply the 2 on D by the same 5 on G,
and subtract the product 10 from the 11 on IJ. This leaves 190 on JKL (Fig.
137).

STEP 3: Comparing the divisor 12 and the 19 on

JK, set the second quotient figure 1 on H. Now
multiply the 1 on C by the 1 on H, and subtract the
product 1 from the 1 on J. This leaves 90 on KL.
Next multiply the 2 on D by the same 1 on H, and
subtract the product 2 from the 9 on K. This leaves 70 on KL (Fig. 138).
STEP 4: Comparing the divisor 12 and the 70 on KL, set the third quotient
figure 5 on I. Now multiply the 1 on C by this 5 on I, and subtract the product 5
from the 7 on K. This leaves 20 on KL. Next multiply the 2 on D by the same 5
on I, and subtract the product 10 from the 20 on KL. This leaves 10 on KL (Fig.
139).
STEP 5: Now leaving the 10 d. on KL as it is, you
must divide the 515 s. on GHI by 20 to convert it
into pounds.
Clear CD of its 12, and set the divisor 20 on AB,
leaving four vacant rods between it and the 515 on
GHI (Fig. 140).

STEP 6: Now comparing the 2 on A and the 5 on

G, set the quotient 2 on E. Multiplying the 2 on A by
this 2 on E, subtract the product 4 from the 5 on G.
This leaves 115 on GHI (Fig. 141).

STEP 7: Next compare the 2 on A and the 11 on GH, and set the quotient
figure 5 on F. Multiplying the 2 on A by this 5 on F, subtract the product 10
from the 11 on GH. This leaves 15 s. on HI. The answer is £25 15 s. 10 d. (Fig.
 142).
NOTE: Why are the pounds, shillings, and pence
figures set as they are in Examples 2 and 3?
The close arrangement of these figures is the
most efficient arrangement for performing the four
arithmetic operations. Any closer arrangement would cause confusion.
This arrangement affords another special advantage in that the standard
methods of multiplication and division can be used most efficiently.
Examine step 2 in Example 2, where pounds
are converted to shillings and you can see that the
standard method of multiplication forms the unit
digit of the product on the unit rod of the shillings
figure on the board.
Examine steps 2, 3, and 4 in Example 3, where
the pence are converted to shillings, and you can
see that the standard method of division forms the
unit digit of the quotient on the unit rod of the
shillings figure on the board. Any other
arrangement of the pounds, shillings, and pence
figures would require the use of methods of
multiplication and division other than Step 7 the
standard methods and would make calculations
less efficient.

3. Adding and Subtracting Compound Numbers

EXAMPLE 1:

There are two ways of adding measures. One is to add each compound
number from higher to lower denominations, and the other is to add up column
by column from lower to higher denominations as in written calculation. The
former method is generally used when both addition and subtraction are to be
performed, and it must always be followed when successive compound numbers
are dictated to the operator. The latter is considered to be a little faster if it can
be used.

METHOD A: Adding from higher to lower denominations:

STEP 1: Set 21 yd. on AB, with B as the unit rod. Set 1 ft. on D and 8 in. on G
(Fig. 143).
Refer to Fig. 123 at the beginning of this chapter.
STEP 2: Add 15 to the 21 on AB. This makes a total of 36 on AB.
Now add 2 to the 1 on D. This makes a total of 3 on D.
Next add 7 to the 8 on G. This makes a total of 15 on FG (Fig. 144).
STEP 3: Add 29 to the 36 on AB. This makes a total of 65 on AB.
Next add 2 to the 3 on D. This makes a total of 5 onD.
Finally add 11 to the 15 on FG. This makes a total of 26 on FG (Fig. 145).

STEP 4: Now divide the 26 on FG by 12, and add the quotient 2 to the 5 on D,
leaving the remainder 2 on G. This makes a total of 7 on D (Fig. 146).
 NOTE: In dividing the 26 on FG, experienced operators generally do not set
the divisor 12 on the board.
STEP 5: Finally divide the 7 on D by 3, and add the quotient 2 to the 65 on
AB, leaving the remainder 1 on D. This makes a total of 67 on AB. The answer
is 67 yd. 1 ft. 2 in. (Fig. 147).

METHOD B: Adding from lower to higher denominations:

STEP 1: Set 8 on unit rod G. Add 7 and 11 to the 8 on G, and you get a total
of 26 on FG (Fig. 148).

STEP 2: Divide the 26 on FG by 12, and set the quotient 2 on D, which is the
proper rod on which to set the quotient. This gives you 2 on D and leaves 2 on G
(Fig. 149).
STEP 3: Add 1, 2, and 2 successively to the 2 on D. This makes a total of 7 on
D (Fig. 150).

STEP 4: Divide the 7 on D by 3, and set the quotient 2 on B, which is the

proper rod on which to set the quotient. This gives you 2 on B and leaves 1 on D
(Fig. 151).
STEP 5: Finally add 21, 15, and 29 successively to the 2 on B. This makes a
total of 67 on AB. The answer is 67 yd. 1 ft. 2 in. on AB, D, and G respectively
(Fig. 152).
NOTE: Why are the yards, feet, and inches figures set as they are in this
example?
The great advantage of this arrangement of these figures is that the standard
methods of multiplication and division can be used. Notice the use of the
standard method of division in steps 4 and 5 of Method A, and in steps 2 and 4
of Method B in this example. For further details see Examples 2 and 3, section 2
of this chapter.

EXAMPLE 2: Subtract 12 days 17 hours 48 minutes from 25 days 12 hours 43

minutes.

STEP 1: Set 25 on AB, with B as the unit rod, set 12 on DE, with E as the unit
rod, and set 43 on GH, with H as the unit rod (Fig. 153).
STEP 2: Subtract 12 from the 25 on AB. This leaves 13 on AB (Fig. 154).

STEP 3: Since you cannot subtract 17 from the 12 on DE, borrow 1 from B,
and subtracting 17 from 24, add 7 to the 12 on DE. This makes 19 on DE (Fig.
155).
NOTE: In borrowing from B, you may add 24 to the 12 on DE, and subtract 17
from the sum 36. This gives you the same result 19.
STEP 4: Since you cannot subtract 48 from the 43 on GH, borrow 1 from the 9
on E, and subtracting 48 from 60, add the result 12 to the 43 on GH. This makes
55 on GH. Now you have 12 on AB, 18 on DE, and 55 on GH. The answer is 12
days 18 hours 55 minutes (Fig. 156).

EXAMPLE 3:

In the above example, the second and fourth compound numbers are to be
added, and the third to be subtracted.
When both additions and subtractions are to be performed, calculations
generally move from higher to lower denominations on each row. But they can
also move down each column—completing each column before moving to the
higher denomination.

METHOD A: Calculating from higher to lower denominations: STEP 1: Set £95 on

BC, with C as the unit rod, set 7 s. on unit rod F, and set 3 d. on unit rod I (Fig.
157).
STEP 2: Add 12 to the 95 on BC, producing 107 on ABC.
Add 8 to the 7 on F, yielding 15 on EF.

Add 5 to the 3 on I, yielding 8 on I.

 STEP 3: Subtract 7 from the 107 on ABC, leaving 100 on ABC.
As you cannot subtract 19 from the 15 on EF, borrow 1 from rod C.
Subtracting 19 from 20, add 1 to the 15 on EF. This gives you 16 on EF and 99
on BC (Fig. 159).
STEP 4: As you cannot subtract 10 from the 8 on I, borrow 1 from the 16 on
EF, and subtracting 10 from 12, add the result 2 to the 8 on I. This gives you 10
on HI and 15 on EF (Fig. 160).
STEP 5: Now add 26 to the 99 on BC, and you get 125
on ABC.
Add 2 to the 15 on EF, leaving 17 on EF.
Add 7 to the 10 on HI, yielding 17 on HI.
Finally subtract 12 from this 17 and carry 1 to the 17 on EF. This gives you 5
on I and 18 on EF. The answer is £125 18s. 5d. (Fig. 161).

METHOD B: Calculating from lower to higher denominations: An alternative is to

calculate column by column from lower to higher denominations.
First do the pence column on HI by means of complementary numbers,
yielding 5 d. on I.
Next do the shillings column on EF by means of complementary numbers,
and you get minus 2 s. on F. So borrow £1 from £95 to rectify this minus
quantity, and you get 18s. on EF and £94 left on BC.
In subtracting 19 s. from 15 s., you may borrow £1 instead of calculating by
means of complementary numbers.
Finally setting £94 on BC, calculate the pound column, which leaves £125
on ABC.
This gives you the same result, £125, 18 s., and 5 d. on ABC, EF, and I
respectively.

4. Multiplying Compound Numbers

EXAMPLE 1: Multiply the following compound number by 18.

£4 2s. 6d.

On the abacus the computation is made mostly in the same way as in the
following written calculation.

STEP 1: Set 4 on unit rod E, and 2 and 6 on H and K respectively. Set the
multiplier 18 on AB (Fig. 162).
NOTE: Experts, however, often do not actually set the multiplier.

STEP 2: First multiply the 6 on K by 18, and you get the product 108 on
LMN. Now clear K of its 6 (Fig. 163).

STEP 3: Now divide the 108 on LMN by 12 and you get the quotient 9 on K,
having cleared LMN of the 108. Here you should remember the divisor 12
without setting it on the board (Fig. 164).
 STEP 4: Next you must multiply the 2 on H by 18, and add the product 36 to
the 9 on K. In this procedure, first multiply the 1 on A by the 2 on H, then set the
product 2 on J. This gives you 29 on JK. Next multiply the 8 on B by the same 2
on H; add the product 16 to the 29 on JK, and clear H of its 2. This gives you a
total of 45 on JK (Fig. 165).

STEP 5: Now divide the 45 on JK by 20, and you get the quotient 2 on H, with
5 left over on K (Fig. 166).

STEP 6: Finally you must multiply the 4 on E by 18, and add the product 72 to
the 2 on H. In this process, first multiply the 1 on A by the 4 on E, and set the
product 4 on G. This gives you 42 on GH. Next multiply the 8 on B by the same
4 on E, add the product 32 to the 42 on GH, and clear E of its 4. This gives you a
total of 74 on GH. The answer is £74 5s. (Fig. 167).
NOTE: An alternative method for working this problem is to convert the
numerical figures of this problem to pence, and then to multiply the result by 18.
At the end of the problem the product is reconverted to pounds, shillings, and
pence. This method is often used when the multiplier is a decimal fraction.

5. Dividing Compound Numbers

EXAMPLE 1: Divide the following compound number by 14.

£243 2s. 8d.

On the abacus the division is performed much the same way as in the

following written calculation:

STEP 1: Set 243 on GHI, with I as the unit rod, and set 2 on unit rod L and 8
on unit rod O. The divisor 14 may be set either on AB or on BC, though
preferably on the former with four vacant rods between B and G (Fig. 168).
STEP 2: Divide the 243 on GHI by 14, and you get the quotient 17 on EF and
a remainder of 5 on I (Fig. 169).

STEP 3: Multiply the 5 on I by 20, and add the product 100 to the 2 on L,
clearing the 5 on I, and you get 102 on JKL (Fig. 170).
 STEP 4: Divide the 102 on JKL by 14, leaving a quotient of 7 on I and a
remainder of 4 on L (Fig. 171).

STEP 5: Multiply the 4 on L by 12, and add the product 48 to the 8 on O,

clearing the 4 on L, and you get 56 on NO (Fig. 172).

STEP 6: Divide the 56 on NO by 14, and you get the quotient 4 on L with no
remainder. The answer is £17 7s. 4d. (Fig. 173).
NOTES: (a) An alternative method for this problem is to convert everything to
pence and then to divide the result by 14. This result is converted to pounds,
shillings, and pence. When the figure of the highest denomination is smaller than
the divisor, division cannot be performed unless it is converted into that of the
lower denomination and makes a figure larger than the divisor, (b) On the board,
multiplication is performed simultaneously with addition, and division
simultaneously with subtraction. This means that to multiply numbers is to add
numbers and that to divide numbers is to subtract numbers. Accordingly,
multiplication and division are all the faster on the board than on paper.
VII. EXTRACTING SQUARE ROOTS

There are several methods of finding both the square and cube roots of numbers
on the abacus. They are all adaptations of algebraic methods.
Since the methods of finding cube roots are complicated, and are beyond the
scope of the interest and need of ordinary abacus operators, this book only
concerns itself with three typical methods of extracting square roots.
The first is the exact algebraic method. The second is considered the best by
some authoritative experts. The third is the most representative traditional
method and is the most widely accepted by modern abacus operators.
The method of finding the two-figure square root of a number is founded
upon the method of finding the square of an ordinary binomial (or two-
membered) expression, (a+b). The number is analyzed into (a2+2ab+b2) as in
algebra, and the square root is obtained.
Let us take the number 625 as an example of finding a two-figure square
root.
In all the three methods introduced here, the reader will see that the first step
consists in subtracting the square of a or 20 (=a2 or 400), the next of subtracting
2ab or 2x20x5 (=200), and the third of subtracting the square of b or 5 (=b2 or
25).
As a refresher, the standard written method of extracting square roots is as
follows:

625 is divided into pairs of digits beginning from the decimal point and
moving right and left (thus 18,967.103 is divided 1'89'67.10'30). Then
the largest perfect square which matches the first set of numbers is
selected—4 is the largest perfects square smaller than or equal to 6.2—
and the square root of 4, 2, is written both above the 6 and to the side.
The product, 4, is written below the 6. The 4 is subtracted from 6 and the next
pair of numbers is brought down—making 225. The number which is above the
square root sign, 2, is doubled and brought down to the side—here the 4 of the
45 at the side. Then a number is selected, 5, such that when placed with 4 to
make a two-digit number, 45, and that number is multiplied by the original
number selected, 45x5, the result is the largest number less than or equal to the
"quotient," which at this point is 225.
The following analysis will also help the reader to find the square root of 625
on the abacus. Note that in the series of algebraic equations given here, a is in
substance 20 and b is 5.

(a+b)2
=a2+2ab+b2
=202+(2x20x5)+52
=400+200+25
=625

Both the abacus method and this written method are based on algebraic
equations. In a simple problem (one involving a two-digit answer) both methods
of extracting a square root can be described by the binomial equation (a+b)2—a2
—2ab—b2=0. In a slightly more complicated problem (one involving a three-
digit answer) both can be described by the equation (a+b+c)2—a2—2ab—b2—
2ac—2bc—c2=0. To understand this compare the examples below, which show
the standard written method (left) and the abacus method (right).

In a trinomial problem this is what happens. At left is the written method and
at right the abacus method.
 This means that the numbers handled in the Japanese abacus method as
opposed to the Western written method are smaller and simpler. On the other
hand, the number of manipulations required is larger. Nevertheless, once an
operator becomes accustomed to using this Japanese method he can obviously
do a problem faster than he would have been able to on paper.

EXAMPLE 1: Find the square root of 625.

METHOD A: STEP 1: Set 625 on EFG, with G as the unit rod (Fig. 174). Mark off
the digits in sets of twos. The largest perfect square less than 6 is 4.
STEP 2: Set, on C, 2, the root of the 4. Square this 2, and subtract the product
4 from the 6 on E. This leaves 225 on EFG (Fig. 175).
NOTE: The 2 on C corresponds to the a of the expression (a2+2ab+b2).
STEP 3: Double the 2 on C, and set the product 4 on A (Fig. 176).
NOTE: Now the 4 on A corresponds with the 2a of the algebraic expression.

STEP 4: The 4 on A divides into the 22 on EF five times. Set the second trial
quotient figure 5 on D (Fig. 177).
NOTE: The 5 on D corresponds with the b of the algebraic expression.
STEP 5: Multiplying the 4 on A by the 5 on D, subtract the product 20 from
the 22 on EF. This leaves 25 on FG (Fig. 178).
NOTE: (4x5) corresponds with the 2ab of the expression.
STEP 6: Square the 5 on D, and subtract the product 25 from the 25 on FG.
This clears the board of 625, and shows that the 5 on D is the correct second
quotient figure. The answer is 25 on CD (Fig. 179).
NOTE: 52 or 25 corresponds with the b2 of the expression. Also note that this
method corresponds more strictly to the written algebraic method than the other
methods introduced below.

METHOD B: 2√625.

STEP 1: Set 625 on CDE, with E as the unit rod (Fig. 180).
Mark off the digits in sets of twos. The largest square less than 6 is 4.
STEP 2: Set, on A, 2, the root of the 4. Square this 2, and subtract the product
4 from the 6 on C. This leaves 225 on CDE (Fig. 181).
STEP 3: Double the 2 on A, making 4 on A (Fig. 182).
STEP 4: The 4 on A goes into the 22 on CD five times. Set the second trial
quotient figure 5 on B (Fig. 183).
NOTE: The 5 on B corresponds with the b of the expression.

STEP 5: Multiply the 4 on A by the 5 on B, and subtract the product 20 from

the 22 on CD. This leaves 25 on DE (Fig. 184).
STEP 6: Square the 5 on B, and subtract the product 25 from the 25 on DE,
and the board is cleared of the dividend (Fig. 185).
STEP 7: Finally halve the 4 on A into its original digit 2. Our square root is 25
on AB (Fig. 186).

METHOD C: 2√625
 STEP 1: Set 625 on CDE, with E as the unit rod (Fig. 187).
Mark off the digits in sets of twos. The largest square less than 6 is 4.
STEP 2: Set, on A, 2, the root of the 4. Square this 2, and subtract the product
4 from the 6 on C. This leaves 225 on CDE (Fig. 188).
NOTE: The 225 on CDE corresponds to the (2ab+b2) of the algebraic
expression.
STEP 3: Multiply the 225 on CDE by 0.5, and set the product 112.5 on CDEF
(Fig. 189).
NOTES: (a) If you find it hard to do this division mentally, you may first set
the product 112.5 on FGHI and later set it on CDEF. (b) The 112.5 on CDEF
corresponds to of the algebraic expression.

STEP 4: The 2 on A divides into the 11 on CD five times. Set the second trial
quotient figure 5 on B (Fig. 190).
NOTE: The 5 on B corresponds with the b of the expression.
STEP 5: Multiply the 2 on A by the 5 on B, and subtract the product 10 from
the 11 on CD. This leaves 12.5 on DEF (Fig. 191). b 2
NOTE: The 12.5 on DEF corresponds to of the expression.
STEP 6: Square the 5 on B mentally, and you get 25. Next either divide this
25 by 2 or multiply it by 0.5, and you get 12.5. If you find it hard to do this
calculation mentally you can do it on the board.
Now subtract this 12.5 from the 12.5 on DEF. This clears the board of the
625, and leaves the answer 25 on AB (Fig. 192).

EXAMPLE 2: Find the square root of 4,489 (Method B).

 STEP 1: Set 4,489 on DEFG, with G as the unit rod (Fig. 193). Mark off the
digits in sets of twos. In the first pair 44, the highest square root is 6.
STEP 2: Set, on B, 6, which is the root of the 44 on DE. Square this 6, and
subtract the product 36 from the 44 on DE. This leaves 889 on EFG (Fig. 194).
STEP 3: Double the 6 on B into 12 on AB (Fig. 195).

STEP 4: The 12 on AB divides into the 88 on EF seven times. Set the second
trial divisor figure 7 on C (Fig-196).
NOTE: The 7 on C corresponds with the b of the expression.
STEP 5: Now multiplying the 12 on AB by the 7 on C, subtract the product 84
from the 88 on EF. This leaves 49 on FG (Fig. 197).
NOTE: The 12 on AB multiplied by 7 corresponds with 2ab or (120x7).
STEP 6: Next square the 7 on C, and subtract the product 49
from the 49 on FG. This clears the board of the remainder of
the number or the b2 of the expression (Fig. 198).
STEP 7: Finally halve the 12 on AB into its original 6 on B.
Our square root is 67 on BC (Fig. 199).

EXAMPLE 3: Find the square root of 119,716.

The method of finding the three-digit square root of a number is founded
upon the algebraic method of finding the square of an ordinary trinomial (or
three-membered) expression, (a+b+c). A number is analyzed as in algebra, into
(a2+2ab+b2+2ac+2bc+c2) and the square root is found.
 STEP 1: Set 119,716 on CDEFGH, and mark off the digits in sets of twos.
In the first pair 11, the highest square root is 3 (Fig. 200).
STEP 2: Set, on A, 3, the first trial figure in the root. Square the 3, and
subtract the product 9 from the 11 on CD. This leaves 29,716 on DEFGH (Fig.
201).
NOTE: 3 corresponds to the a of the algebraic expression
(a2+2ab+b2+2ac+2bc+c2).

STEP 3: Double the 3 on A making 6 on A (Fig. 202).

STEP 4: Figuring how many times the 6 on A goes into the 29 on DE, we find
that 4 is correct. So we set 4 on B as the second trial figure in the root (Fig. 203).
NOTE: The 4 on B corresponds to the b of the algebraic expression.

STEP 5: Multiply the 6 on A by the 4 on B, and subtract the product 24 from

the 29 on DE. This leaves 5,716 on EFGH (Fig. 204).
NOTE: (4x6) or 24 corresponds to the lab of the algebraic expression.
STEP 6: Now square the 4 on B, and subtract the product 16 from the 57 on
EF.
This leaves 4,116 on EFGH (Fig. 205).
NOTE: The square of 4 corresponds to the b2 of the algebraic expression.
 STEP 7: Double the 4 on B, making 8 (Fig. 206).
NOTE: When the second trial divisor figure is 5 or larger, move the first
divisor figure to the first rod to the left, and set double the second trial quotient
figure on AB.
STEP 8: Figuring how many times the 6 on A goes into the 41 on EF, we find
that 6 is the proper figure. Set 6 on C as the third trial figure in the root (Fig.
207).
NOTE: The 6 on C corresponds to c of the expression.
STEP 9: Multiply the 6 on A by the 6 on C, and subtract the product 36 from
the 41 on EF. This leaves 516 on FGH (Fig. 208).
NOTE: 6x6 corresponds to the 2ac of the algebraic expression.
STEP 10: Multiply the 8 on B by the same 6 on C, and subtract the product 48
from the 51 on FG. This leaves you 36 on GH (Fig. 209).
NOTE: (8 on Bx6 on C) corresponds to the 2bc of the algebraic expression.

STEP 11: Square the 6 on C, and subtract the product 36 from the 36 on GH.
This clears the board of the remainder of the number, which corresponds to the
c2 the algebraic expression (Fig. 210).
STEP 12: Now halve the 6 on A and the 8 on B into the original 3 and 4
respectively. Our square root is 346 on ABC (Fig. 211).
NOTE: The 68 which was on AB corresponded to the 2ab of the algebraic
expression.
VIII. MORE EXERCISES

The exercises for the first, second, and third grades were actually used in
recent national abacus license examinations and are here reprinted through the
courtesy of the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Note: Exercises begin on the following page.
1. Eighth-Grade Operator GROUP A

(1 set per minute, or entire group with

70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥62 ¥35 ¥71 ¥20 ¥86 ¥14 ¥90 ¥57 ¥82 ¥49
15 70 45 38 92 20 26 69 54 80
40 29 36 92 50 97 -83 32 -73 21
71 86 50 13 29 65 59 70 -38 68
84 43 -92 56 -74 28 42 31 10 32
26 58 -27 90 51 73 -15 46 29 14
97 10 83 84 63 41 -60 18 76 95
80 64 19 47 -30 56 47 94 -61 70
39 17 -60 75 -48 30 31 25 40 53
53 92 84 61 17 89 78 80 95 76
¥567 ¥504 ¥209 ¥576 ¥236 ¥513 ¥215 ¥522 ¥214 ¥558

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 45x8=360 72÷2=36

(2) 73x4=292 135÷5=27
(3) 52x2=104 246÷3=82
(4) 38x7=266 126÷9=14
(5) 94x3=282 413÷7=59
(6) 15x6=90 300÷4=75
 (7) 86x9=774 744÷8=93
(8) 67x5=335 288÷6=48
(9) 21x8=168 183÷3=61
(10) 79x6=474 435÷5=87
(11) 134x3=402 8,829÷9=981
(12) 509x2=1,018 420÷4=105
(13) 876x8=7,008 2,634÷6=439
(14) 623x4=2,492 752÷2=376
(15) 258x9=2,322 4,336÷8=542
(16) 480x6=2,880 4,050÷5=810
(17) 942x5=4,710 1,906÷2=953
(18) 715x7=5,005 2,124÷3=708
(19) 301x4=1,204 1,068÷4=267
(20) 697x3=2,091 4,368÷7=624

2. Seventh-Grade Operator Assortment 1

GROUP A

(1 set per minute, or entire group with

70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥45 ¥63 ¥87 ¥31 ¥56 ¥94 ¥26 ¥79 ¥70 ¥12
78 95 60 19 27 70 98 16 45 60
30 59 31 40 68 19 -20 84 61 85
59 -80 48 95 90 51 -57 40 13 -32
61 -43 24 -87 31 35 41 62 90 -78
96 78 12 -28 47 60 93 97 24 45
20 51 39 30 82 89 -65 23 57 90
83 -27 50 72 43 46 10 95 38 76
 52 82 67 16 10 18 74 60 47 -53
17 90 29 -57 24 42 58 35 96 10
93 -64 15 20 93 37 -89 21 80 34
40 -37 98 65 51 68 -13 74 12 -89
62 10 54 -43 80 27 30 83 35 -71
81 46 70 -64 69 50 76 18 26 94
74 12 36 98 75 23 42 50 89 67
¥891 ¥335 ¥720 ¥207 ¥846 ¥729 ¥304 ¥837 ¥783 ¥250

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 7,832x6=46,992 402÷2=201

(2) 4,096x7=28,672 6,776÷7=968
(3) 6,348x8=50,784 3,282÷6=547
(4) 1,573x4=6,292 2,430÷3=810
(5) 8,105x9=72,945 5,536÷8=692
(6) 2,619x3=7,857 1,380÷4=345
(7) 5,980x6=35,880 3,180÷6=530
(8) 3,467x5=17,335 7,101÷9=789
(9) 9,024x9=81,216 3,408÷8=426
(10) 2,751x2=5,502 865÷5=173
(11) 3,647x6=21,882 3,896÷4=974
(12) 9,502x4=38,008 966÷7=138
(13) 6,138x3=18,414 1,184÷2=592
(14) 8,420x9=75,780 4,830÷6=805
(15) 4,975x2=9,950 807÷3=269
(16) 1,769x8=14,152 2,250÷5=450
(17) 7,081x4=28,324 2,468÷4=617
(18) 2,153x2=4,306 682÷2=341
(19) 5,304x5=26,520 5,648÷8=706
(20) 8,296x7=58,072 7,407÷9=823

Assortment 2

GROUP A

(70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥61 ¥47 ¥21 ¥86 ¥34 ¥53 ¥95 ¥78 ¥16 ¥41
72 16 90 47 68 61 59 40 83 68
30 28 64 91 -50 42 10 61 -24 90
84 60 -39 20 -37 90 -46 35 -70 42
12 59 -70 35 64 57 -89 84 25 37
89 32 94 58 15 32 71 27 93 56
93 75 18 24 40 18 20 95 41 27
10 39 56 10 -83 25 64 50 -67 10
56 40 -82 73 29 70 -23 32 80 96
34 18 25 69 71 64 87 19 35 53
59 83 43 26 97 86 30 94 78 39
67 71 80 49 -21 39 15 87 -46 28
75 50 -67 18 -60 80 -78 23 -59 70
20 94 -71 30 58 74 -62 16 90 14
48 26 53 75 92 91 34 60 12 85
¥810 ¥738 ¥215 ¥711 ¥317 ¥882 ¥187 ¥801 ¥287 ¥756

 GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 2,604x3=7,812 4,0774÷9=453

(2) 5,219x7=36,533 2,6674÷7=381
(3) 8,045x5=40,225 1,6124÷2=806
(4) 1,573x6=9,438 2,810÷5=562
(5) 3,987x2=7,974 8824÷3=294
(6) 6,820x4=27,280 5,096÷7=728
(7) 9,751x9=87,759 6804÷4=170
(8) 7,406x8=59,248 9574÷3=319
(9) 4,132x3=12,396 7,2404÷8=905
(10) 9,368x7=65,576 3,8824÷6=647
(11) 6,972x6=41,832 5,4814÷7=783
(12) 3,285x3=9,855 2,100÷6=350
(13) 5,049x2=10,098 6,246÷9=694
(14) 1,856x4=7,424 1,195÷5=239
(15) 8,391x8=67,128 3,488÷4=872
(16) 4,703x9=42,327 4354÷3=145
(17) 2,168x4=8,672 1,0544÷2=527
(18) 9,027x3=27,081 900÷5=180
(19) 7,430x7=52,010 7,744÷8=968
(20) 6,514x5=32,570 832÷2=416

3. Sixth-Grade Operator Assortment 1

GROUP A

(1 set per minute, or entire group with

70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥35 ¥64 ¥9,017 ¥781 ¥29 ¥83 ¥459 ¥6,082 ¥54 ¥207
409 5,013 928 350 67 962 104 94 592 18
852 937 241 19 8,024 38 -76 350 9,364 173
14 790 -58 28 71 5,093 -395 71 -108 14
3,267 28 -703 974 -438 126 7,201 259 -46 3,059
198 576 342 6,831 -92 40 68 37 15 86
41 102 96 402 684 57 890 25 687 542
620 58 430 56 305 814 24 68 30 69
93 4,681 73 98 586 71 16 1,704 879 250
8,065 25 16 34 90 2,708 -73 219 13 67
47 872 65 2,097 -1,632 345 -248 73 205 938
971 34 -809 516 -741 96 -3,091 854 -36 8,401
53 609 -7,521 45 -53 607 67 380 -4,071 97
702 91 -86 27 910 54 582 69 -728 45
86 43 54 603 57 219 35 146 92 623
¥15,453 ¥13,923 ¥2,085 ¥12,861 ¥7,867 ¥11,313 ¥5,563 ¥10,431 ¥6,942 ¥14,589

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 46x754=34,684 1,288÷56=23

(2) 703x13=9,139 1,568÷98=16
(3) 28x972=27,216 1,554÷21=74
(4) 159x69=10,971 1,505÷35=43
(5) 82x407=33,374 4,030÷62=65
(6) 514x18=9,252 4,324÷47=92
(7) 37x230=8,510 2,573÷83=31
(8) 950x51=48,450 1,102÷19=58
 (9) 64x805=51,520 1,406÷74=19
(10) 821x36=29,556 8,004÷92=87
(11) 798x84=67,032 516÷43=12
(12) 45x289=13,005 918÷27=34
(13) 172x52=8,944 5,472÷72=76
(14) 630x65=40,950 1,302÷14=93
(15) 84x906=76,104 3,936÷96=41
(16) 209x47=9,823 4,930÷58=85
(17) 51x743=37,893 5,963÷89=67
(18) 306x19=5,814 899÷31=29
(19) 97x308=29,876 3,640÷65=56
(20) 63x261=16,443 2,592÷54=48

Assortment 2

GROUP A

(70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥586 ¥41 ¥873 ¥268 ¥184 ¥725 ¥92 ¥308 ¥657 ¥468
93 705 345 981 510 86 743 96 14 274
610 539 62 705 61 97 10 473 280 59
139 285 204 -53 647 830 451 89 906 412
304 129 583 -178 79 15 -809 21 45 160
78 -450 691 94 803 957 -65 140 -12 358
42 -683 78 360 52 401 586 897 -138 907
175 -42 306 412 923 648 31 205 -879 13
762 801 452 -29 490 312 708 34 923 76
407 93 18 -506 735 60 -342 516 498 802
863 217 790 -635 96 502 -74 925 60 35
 51 -964 29 840 318 243 -623 650 327 791
920 -78 145 27 574 89 290 874 -705 623
98 360 67 491 26 173 968 731 -46 580
245 76 910 73 208 694 157 62 531 49
¥5,373 ¥1,029 ¥5,553 ¥2,850 ¥5,706 ¥5,832 ¥2,123 ¥6,021 ¥2,461 ¥5,607

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 403x73=29,419 888÷74=12

(2) 26x208=5,408 782÷23=34
(3) 589x74=43,586 3,953÷59=67
(4) 81x861=69,741 476÷17=28
(5) 170x49=8,330 7,990÷85=94
(6) 68x617=41,956 2,576÷46=56
(7) 945x14=13,230 6,643÷91=73
(8) 307x32=9,824 1,558÷38=41
(9) 69x506=34,914 5,518÷62=89
(10) 72x985=70,920 945÷27=35
(11) 34x194=6,596 4,335÷85=51
(12) 512x83=42,496 3,570÷42=85
(13) 49x508=24,892 882÷14=63
(14) 301x27=8,127 2,652÷68=39
(15) 758x91=68,978 7,068÷93=76
(16) 93x609=56,637 5,586÷57=98
(17) 206x35=7,210 783÷29=27
(18) 87x402=34,974 994÷71=14
(19) 65x253=16,445 1,512÷36=42
(20) 124x76=9,424 684÷19=36
4. Fifth-Grade Operator Assortment 1

GROUP A

(1 set per minute, or entire group with

70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

¥576 ¥8,294 ¥603 ¥3,918 ¥702 ¥423 ¥186 ¥307 ¥9,684 ¥237
2,089 435 481 706 9,318 357 534 1,273 509 7,815
961 3,108 894 327 529 4,108 129 918 763
846 912 5,021 986 437 689 9,705 134 -2,157
417 593 372 8,031 -654 1,594 671 8,059 -406
6,752 237 9,140 795 -231 380 830 462 -813 5,081
408 1,689 975 641 -3,048 516 -3,284 391 6,045
7,813 860 256 4,823 197 7,634 -157 4,907 526
359 7,046 -517 590 6,851 290 5,021 746 270 9,075
9,210 572 -8,306 254 960 825 789 598 3,481
783 904 421 1,085 -893 2,067 -493 7,610 934
5,034 745 6,359 143 -2,786 942 -7,260 852 -317 6,239
192 8,061 -738 562 402 8,759 -948 625 -8,059
624 753 -2,069 476 1,975 301 6,402 583 298
305 621 -847 7,209 5,064 176 365 2,064 172 4,928
¥36,369 ¥34,830 ¥12,045 ¥30,546 ¥18,823 ¥29,061 ¥12,490 ¥29,529 ¥10,930 ¥37,701

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)
 (1) 601x138=82,938 9,180÷108=85
(2) 247x375=92,625 8,232÷42=196
(3) 5,630x87=489,810 50,934÷653=78
(4) 415x746=309,590 49,282÷82=601
(5) 879x213=187,227 15,141÷309=49
(6) 358x601=215,158 28,917÷51=567
(7) 926x950=879,700 66,822÷74=903
(8) 104x594=61,776 26,236÷937=28
(9) 72x8,062=580,464 7,550÷25=302
(10) 983x429=421,707 30,784÷416=74
(11) ¥459x946=¥434,214 ¥14,196÷39=¥364
(12) ¥703x217=¥152,551 ¥8,333÷641=¥13
(13) ¥198x683=¥135,234 ¥5,508÷204=¥27
(14) ¥942x825=¥777,150 ¥70,590÷78=¥905
(15) ¥61x3,901=¥237,961 ¥45,568÷512=¥89
(16) ¥205x472=¥96,760 ¥51,085÷85=¥601
(17) ¥862x730=¥629,260 ¥9,280÷16=¥580
(18) ¥3,807x69=¥262,683 ¥65,016÷903=¥72
(19) ¥174x504=¥87,696 ¥22,372÷47=¥476
(20) ¥536x158=¥84,688 ¥31,850÷325=¥98

Assortment 2

GROUP A

(70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥1,063 ¥274 ¥319 ¥4,657 ¥530 ¥6,841 ¥805 ¥956 ¥728 ¥4,059
542 8,029 753 208 3,714 265 154 7,209 156 236
951 367 8,406 431 862 1,079 7,061 567 4,809 941
 674 3,510 837 -1,629 495 682 142 498 237 1,308
8,502 781 264 -370 7,023 236 869 3,015 416 179
349 -608 1,472 593 971 8,903 237 947 6,038 897
175 -2,153 950 8,042 839 579 9,740 572 345 2,610
928 -467 3,029 416 9,506 713 -392 1,086 -293 798
6,730 892 145 359 648 2,054 -128 621 -9,507 562
481 9,046 581 6,283 187 928 -5,093 835 184 8,205
7,209 431 936 107 2,368 435 817 2,690 451 386
856 584 7,620 -925 240 197 6,284 723 7,069 463
293 -5,670 814 -768 571 4,780 356 134 -273 5,017
4,018 -239 6,095 -5,890 124 305 -3,479 408 -690 423
367 915 728 174 6,059 146 -605 8,341 -5,182 574
¥33,138 ¥15,692 ¥32,949 ¥11,688 ¥34,137 ¥28,143 ¥16,768 ¥28,602 ¥4,488 ¥26,658

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 723x815=589,245 51,874÷74=701

(2) 38x4,079=155,002 45,301÷509=89
(3) 901x687=618,987 14,118÷26=543
(4) 467x942=439,914 42,151÷691=61
(5) 235x351=82,485 7,585÷37=205
(6) 6,702x14=93,828 8,676÷82=18
(7) 149x530=78,970 29,056÷908=32
(8) 584x603=352,152 3,302÷13=254
(9) 816x296=241,536 37,060÷85=436
(10) 950x728=691,600 68,482÷706=97
(11) ¥257x498=¥127,986 ¥11,856÷624=¥19
(12) ¥183x532=¥97,356 ¥40,356÷57=¥708
(13) ¥49x6,705=¥328,545 ¥52,136÷931=¥56
(14) ¥802x103=¥82,606 ¥33,615÷405=¥83
(15) ¥716x789=¥564,924 ¥59,512÷86=¥692
(16) ¥364x217=¥78,988 ¥2,856÷14=¥204
(17) ¥9,408x31=¥261,648 ¥26,274÷302=¥87
(18) ¥521x856=¥445,976 ¥8,428÷28=¥301
(19) ¥390x264=¥102,960 ¥77,104÷79=¥976
(20) ¥675x940=¥634,500 ¥6,885÷153=¥45

Assortment 3

GROUP A

(70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥741 ¥2,908 ¥456 ¥1,063 ¥601 ¥397 ¥8,509 ¥516 ¥907 ¥371
6,102 847 321 759 2,738 206 971 4,089 132 653
819 758 9,604 3,941 573 421 128 934 8,021 492
4,057 3,416 259 528 697 1,035 613 5,129 346 6,104
938 673 512 709 528 647 2,760 761 238 589
692 -105 7,364 247 7,089 531 597 830 -176 4,068
8,720 -369 947 5,482 316 785 381 6,208 -2,759 815
143 -5,280 396 620 -8,172 4,190 435 792 -681 7,920
9,567 721 4,018 135 -450 928 -7,043 831 3,460 9,173
285 954 130 8,062 849 6,273 -816 627 594 258
306 -1,470 685 594 9,403 806 564 7,283 -815 304
928 -536 8,207 317 -961 5,469 9,308 345 -5,092 167
5,034 182 793 486 -245 714 -726 590 4,978 5,049
476 6,093 278 901 -3,016 852 -4,952 1,054 703 726
315 942 1,850 6,873 254 3,098 -240 476 564 832
¥39,123 ¥9,734 ¥35,820 ¥30,717 ¥10,204 ¥26,352 ¥10,489 ¥30,465 ¥10,420 ¥37,521

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 415x948=393,420 55,647÷81=687

(2) 952x852=811,104 56,870÷605=94
(3) 381x176=67,056 7,599÷149=51
(4) 64x6,307=403,648 36,868÷52=709
(5) 890x219=194,910 2,808÷216=13
(6) 167x563=94,021 67,200÷75=896
(7) 523x490=256,270 8,289÷307=27
(8) 7,048x75=528,600 41,495÷43=965
(9) 279x284=79,236 28,952÷94=308
(10) 306x301=92,106 5,376÷128=42
(11) ¥675x369=¥249,075 ¥18,666÷306=¥61
(12) ¥1,948x54=¥105,192 ¥7,605÷15=¥507
(13) ¥403x890=¥358,670 ¥30,848÷64=¥482
(14) ¥21x4,701=¥98,721 ¥7,884÷219=¥36
(15) ¥906x548=¥496,488 ¥72,071÷743=¥97
(16) ¥587x132=¥77,484 ¥82,156÷92=¥893
(17) ¥862x607=¥523,234 ¥34,983÷507=¥69
(18) ¥359x286=¥102,674 ¥57,024÷81=¥704
(19) ¥730x913=¥666,490 ¥8,136÷452=¥18
(20) ¥124x725=¥89,900 ¥7,790÷38=¥205

5. Fourth-Grade Operator Assortment 1

 GROUP A

(1 set per minute, or entire group with

70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

¥629 ¥7,084 ¥13,472 ¥8,563 ¥698 ¥40,615 ¥293 ¥5,471 ¥90,386
3,167 653 4,081 795 5,907 123 6,748 186
82,036 3,471 958 6,041 654 7,850 913 42,305
578 49,680 65,412 359 3,761 584 1,095 -627
9,247 -8,163 7,504 7,261 80,342 1,609 78,932 -6,741
15,402 -794 963 50,178 531 90,476 689 20,567
139 162 80,721 98,432 4,270 6,398 17,504 492
8,576 27,905 3,852 -7,510 65,492 213 9,827 91,058
30,951 8,741 139 -42,087 789 27,064 451 -9,683
745 91,036 26,598 -623 10,928 947 82,076 -539
2,810 56,327 9,605 39,401 5,163 54,801 1,463 -31,870
71,684 209 437 896 73,095 1,326 60,852 5,324
493 -852 70,216 -8,304 817 37,892 3,174 908
4,508 -30,915 8,647 -712 1,204 935 52,630 3,216
60,392 -2,548 390 26,945 42,386 8,752 405 80,947
¥291,357 ¥201,996 ¥292,995 ¥179,635 ¥296,037 ¥279,585 ¥317,052 ¥201,014 ¥314,064

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 4,321x607=2,622,847 130,977÷567=231

(2) 9,108x938=8,543,304 440,700÷975=452
 (3) 7,685x452=3,473,620 336,226÷341=986
(4) 2,934x120=352,080 81,624÷456=179
(5) 5,017x543=2,724,231 622,800÷720=865
(6) 8,652x789=6,826,428 67,402÷134=503
(7) 3,476x204=709,104 502,854÷802=627
(8) 1,809x671=1,213,839 90,746÷289=314
(9) 6,523x316=2,061,268 294,240÷613=480
(10) 7,940x895=7,106,300 724,584÷908=798
(11) ¥2,463x271=¥667,473 ¥821,215÷851=¥965
(12) ¥6,289x613=¥3,855,157 ¥99,144÷408=¥243
(13) ¥3,045x492=¥1,498,140 ¥493,425÷675=¥731
(14) ¥8,251x507=¥4,183,257 ¥77,089÷127=¥607
(15) ¥7,836x324=¥2,538,864 ¥31,968÷296=¥108
(16) ¥5,970x749=¥4,471,530 ¥248,992÷502=¥496
(17) ¥9,012x830=¥7,479,960 ¥84,940÷310=¥274
(18) ¥4,758x186=¥884,988 ¥567,207÷963=¥589
(19) ¥8,617x905=¥7,798,385 ¥136,090÷439=¥310
(20) ¥1,394x658=¥917,252 ¥667,968÷784=¥852

Assortment 2

GROUP A

(70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

¥4,068 ¥371 ¥93,416 ¥8,506 ¥74,289 ¥1,903 ¥6,081 ¥25,937
975 30,142 6,904 75,243 315 246 943 3,216 51,402
43,106 5,489 21,586 759 1,082 36,152 3,257 64,108
1,279 901 7,843 60,138 471 580 87,109 967 80,624
50,813 6,492 397 -7,865 16,208 29,365 548 -7,091
 497 72,054 6,052 -971 4,539 5,078 20,816 -459 47,098
7,160 -523 87,931 1,084 293 8,914 9,457 620
9,582 -64,370 728 32,416 90,614 57,681 872 30,415
251 -7,865 240 -9,302 5,367 409 5,139 732 18,290
86,304 218 5,072 -615 86,970 1,853 726 -54,803
629 45,806 53,419 -48,127 9,156 60,729 43,065 -1,278
20,374 -9,762 805 793 304 498 2,193 -564
8,735 -689 70,693 6,540 762 7,031 76,340 8,925
281 10,935 2,581 924 8,045 247 629 90,183
95,346 8,317 164 20,398 57,823 46,372 15,084 7,846 79,503
¥329,400 ¥97,516 ¥357,831 ¥139,921 ¥356,238 ¥257,058 ¥272,259 ¥168,754 ¥301,230

GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 9,634x426=4,104,084 346,800÷850=408

(2) 2,761x593=1,637,273 64,390÷274=235
(3) 4,508x180=811,440 419,152÷536=782
(4) 7,985x867=6,922,995 89,027÷701=127
(5) 3,120x305=951,600 80,850÷165=490
(6) 6,842x751=5,138,342 250,158÷482=519
(7) 1,076x918=987,768 130,472÷347=376
(8) 8,453x472=3,989,816 586,112÷608=964
(9) 5,917x609=3,603,453 787,319÷923=853
(10) 3,209x234=750,906 95,559÷159=601
(11) ¥6,013x801=¥4,816,413 ¥368,193÷623=¥591
(12) ¥3,497x487=¥1,703,039 ¥26,520÷195=¥136
(13) ¥9,084x712=¥6,467,808 ¥216,832÷308=¥704
(14) ¥4,526x206=¥932,356 ¥603,880÷974=¥620
(15) ¥8,761x658=¥5,764,738 ¥140,322÷546=¥257
(16) ¥2,905x923=¥2,681,315 ¥666,462÷831=¥802
(17) ¥5,430x165=¥895,950 ¥88,665÷257=¥345
(18) ¥1,258x594=¥747,252 ¥402,047÷409=¥983
(19) ¥3,872x370=¥1,432,640 ¥326,876÷782=¥418
(20) ¥7,619x439=¥3,344,741 ¥469,090÷610=¥769

Assortment 3

GROUP A

(70% accuracy in 10 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

¥2,819 ¥314 ¥80,593 ¥4,295 ¥63,017 ¥7,694 ¥579 ¥18,024
15,038 2,639 921 50,973 4,361 853 4,106 9,132
946 708 1,650 391 25,703 4,081 95,248 389
71,405 4,512 789 -8,406 892 725 134 65,708
571 98,056 6,432 -829 7,210 28,139 3,079 -8,421
2,795 67,321 958 37,146 982 4,506 18,620 -968
346 -485 29,076 1,065 80,124 13,472 493 90,614
49,630 -7,249 513 94,752 6,873 956 7,851 2,837
7,512 -30,967 71,408 218 58,907 2,780 89,315 -756
86,057 8,293 4,817 -15,630 764 91,352 407 -36,571
983 51,420 43,160 -728 9,658 6,041 1,986 -4,720
6,108 -137 5,249 -6,203 435 467 50,732 945
729 -6,905 763 871 42,059 36,908 276 51,092
20,463 584 67,024 60,534 913 219 6,023 7,653
8,234 10,876 2,385 9,487 1,546 70,583 42,568 304
¥275,636 ¥198,980 ¥315,738 ¥227,936 ¥303,444 ¥268,776 ¥321,417 ¥195,262 ¥272,655


GROUP B GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes) (70% accuracy, 10 minutes)

(1) 1,975x419=827,525 93,063÷463=201

(2) 4,702x165=775,830 653,650÷850=769
(3) 6,819x382=2,604,858 45,310÷197=230
(4) 8,431x674=5,682,494 141,360÷304=465
(5) 3,587x503=1,804,261 546,336÷672=813
(6) 1,064x926=985,264 894,132÷918=974
(7) 5,293x708=3,747,444 102,910÷205=502
(8) 7,648x853=6,523,744 72,954÷86=189
(9) 9,320x497=4,632,040 337,608÷521=648
(10) 2,056x201=413,256 267,393÷749=357
(11) ¥3,674xl59=¥584,166 ¥213,852÷502=¥426
(12) ¥7,831x840=¥6,578,040 ¥74,889÷471=¥159
(13) ¥9,502x765=¥7,269,030 ¥756,286÷943=¥802
(14) ¥1,425x238=¥339,150 ¥199,080÷316=¥630
(15) ¥2,368x406=¥961,408 ¥694,848÷704=¥987
(16) ¥5,093x687=¥3,498,891 ¥97,552÷268=¥364
(17) ¥8,956x924=¥8,275,344 ¥498,261÷921=¥541
(18) ¥2,709x173=¥468,657 ¥84,525÷805=¥105
(19) ¥6,147x302=¥1,856,394 ¥524,286÷657=¥798
(20) ¥4,081x591=¥2,411,871 ¥37,674÷138=¥273

The National Examination for the

Third-Grade Abacus License

Held under the auspices of

the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry
 GROUP A

(Entire group of ten sets with 70% accuracy in ten minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

¥37,258 ¥20,139 ¥954 ¥638 ¥7,524
826 360,728 780,241 301,492 1,630
432,501 46,170 2,516 59,710 849,075
96,317 8,397 37,690 834 26,914
4,620 27,816 -8,215 6,185 -604,132
81,453 819,605 -496,507 720,943 -98,206
708,319 3,547 -21,365 62,397 715
5,492 64,052 619 958 3,854
975 573 84,035 36,270 179,038
67,154 945,610 7,283 917,846 43,927
849,560 8,324 209,714 513 -879
2,738 21,496 -95,480 6,905 -50,186
683 952 -347 80,673 -2,937
58,027 102,873 57,981 654,812 564
907,614 38,109 430,692 28,041 624,105
¥3,236,418 ¥2,449,206 ¥989,495 ¥2,885,103 ¥1,010,740

(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

¥406,725 ¥6,208 ¥872 ¥5,930 ¥18,357
157 37,461 46,237 20,718 9,041
54,860 801,537 695,018 463,802 378,260
3,746 972 79,561 549 56,834
760,912 -42,796 6,409 -87,056 672
538 -194,083 84,357 -109,867 29,138
28,301 -8,615 360,172 97,385 710,953
804,139 23,590 483 8,476 5,280
6,852 314 51,290 714 429
 19,026 260,475 3,625 689,502 69,704
497 7,132 976,108 -54,923 804,519
96,813 -56,084 741 -361 235
570,289 -392 29,083 -1,274 1,627
31,794 904,875 4,539 246,013 48,706
2,435 69.581 508,412 93,251 963,415
¥2,787,084 ¥1,810,175 ¥2,846,907 ¥1,372,859 ¥3,097,170

GROUP B
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 2,931x819=2,400,489
(2) 6,052x235=1,422,220
(3) 84.67x90.7=7,679.569
(4) 9,234x572=5,281,848
(5) 70,496x86=6,062,656
(6) 1,507x0.461=694.727
(7) 218x1,059=230,862
(8) 0.3875x6.48=2.511
(9) 5,689x3.24=18,432.36
(10) 0.4103x0.073=0.030
(11) ¥6,379x108=¥688,932
(12) ¥2,014x0.429=¥864
(13) ¥1,493x963=¥1,437,759
(14) ¥9,584x0.875=¥8,386
(15) ¥765x504.8=¥386,172
(16) ¥2,301x637=¥l,465,737
 (17) ¥40,678x91=¥3,701,698
(18) ¥5,896x20.5=¥120,868
(19) ¥8,125x0.736=¥5,980
(20) ¥3,207x214=¥686,298

GROUP C
(70% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 172,894÷631=274
(2) 0.20592÷3.96=0.052
(3) 361,444÷829=436
(4) 76.296÷408=0.187
(5) 50.735÷0.073=695
(6) 186,296÷584=319
(7) 212.795÷26.5=8.03
(8) 0.47693÷0.917=0.520
(9) 639,184÷7,024=91
(10) 11,526÷15=768.4
(11) ¥324,563÷463=¥701
(12) ¥185÷0.625=¥296
(13) ¥646,919÷7,109=¥91
(14) ¥455÷0.547=¥832
(15) ¥341,105÷85=¥4,013
(16) ¥66÷0.176=¥375
(17) ¥78,196÷90.4=¥865
(18) ¥282,048÷312=¥904
(19) ¥1,820÷2.08=¥875
 (20) ¥602,196÷938=¥642

The National Examination for the

Second-Grade Abacus License

Held under the auspices of

the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry

GROUP A

(Entire group of ten sets with

80% accuracy in ten minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

¥1,289,307 ¥483,971 ¥3,029,176 ¥62,501,478 ¥974,362
675,243 81,602,459 15,849 729,360 4,265,103
90,428,165 5,871,304 436,250 3,968,251 58,130,279
17,436 -90,562 20,754,318 91,087 86,341
7,360,294 -264,918 8,109,567 -46,083,529 679,854
6,548 -6,738,095 3,291 -857,901 1,502,463
874,310 10,947,283 97,846 5,340,782 7,318
48,039,152 306,947 521,738 19,648 80,264,597
2,157,896 54,732 70,983,462 654,270 392,086
93,405 7,086,529 1,240,573 -2,593 18,759
526,781 -32,169,840 612,984 -9,145,806 2,840,915
3,185,069 -7,615 54,601 -36,714 76,051,432
43,972 9,520,736 9,072,345 20,794,136 419,687
54,702,631 64,187 865,913 1,283,097 23,590
951,820 815,023 65,378,024 476,835 3,705,241
¥210,352,029 ¥77,482,141 ¥181,175,937 ¥39,732,401 ¥229,352,027

(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

 ¥537,641 ¥312,650 ¥8,029,137 ¥86,374 ¥80,625,749
7,241,930 1,287,094 79,630,821 10,342,569 79,853
35,082,469 64,238 948,675 493,720 5,986,072
697,508 40,175,982 52,149 6,205,917 395,846
-4,803,621 3,674 -2,407,536 8,253 10,793
-28,159 5,214,803 -163,904 274,068 9,753,261
-90,154,682 793,165 60,245,817 31,679 148,507
763,240 83,620,941 74,396 7,052,841 7.3,062,918
17,563 19,576 5,720,681 54,189,302 2,814,730
2,058,374 6,048,239 819,570 924,516 2,684
-386,019 852,497 -6,438 8,760,193 490,172
-9,785 41,056 -31,057,294 17,245 36,405
10,964,827 9,536,718 -98,763 536,980 41,205,396
8,435,719 27,418,305 4,502,698 3,875,421 6,897,013
70,296 907,523 381,052 90,641,835 541,628
¥-29,512,699 ¥176,296,461 ¥126,671,061 ¥183,440,913 ¥222,051,027

GROUP B
(80% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 60,937x2,154=131,258,298
(2) 42,618x7,309=311,494,962
(3) 804,752x962=774,171,424
(4) 18,509x0.5817=10,766.6853
(5) 93.125x6.048=563.22
(6) 76,084x8,539=649,681,276
(7) 0.20436x470.6=96.1718
 (8) 8,741x39,281=343,355,221
(9) 31,597x1.475=46,605.575
(10) 0.52963x0.0623=0.0330
(11) ¥47,512x8,063=¥383,089,256
(12) ¥90,386x0.7421=¥67,075
(13) ¥2,975x508.96=¥1,514,156
(14) ¥76,128x0.4375=¥33,306
(15) ¥38,604x2,869=¥110,754,876
(16) ¥65,093x0.0942=¥6,132
(17) ¥17,249x3,517=¥60,664,733
(18) ¥504,831x658=¥332,178,798
(19) ¥49,625x1.024=¥50.816
(20) ¥81,307x7,391=¥600,940,037

GROUP C
(80% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 8,485,074÷2,754=3,081
(2) 44,080,524÷5,436=8,109
(3) 0.2059086÷0.7068=0.2913
(4) 52,622,371÷61,403=857
(5) 0.6793975÷9.371=0.0725
(6) 2,984,785÷482=6,192.5
(7) 1,709.6483÷3,592=0.4760
(8) 5.74902÷0.0615=93.48
(9) 12,426,698÷1,987=6,254
(10) 610.42124÷82.09=7.436
 (11) ¥11,393,544÷3,918=¥2,908
(12) ¥641÷0.0784=¥8,176
(13) ¥12,945,709÷287=¥45,107
(14) ¥2,187÷0.4306=¥5,079
(15) ¥52,899÷5.496=¥9,625
(16) ¥6,593,836÷1,637=¥4,028
(17) ¥1,131÷0.8l25=¥l,392
(18) ¥59,415,129÷92,403=¥643
(19) ¥360,804÷70.25=¥5,136
(20) ¥51,693,213÷6,591=¥7,843

GROUP D

MENTAL CALCULATION
(70% accuracy, 2 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
¥58 ¥130 ¥61 ¥987 ¥83 ¥704 ¥32 ¥501 ¥23 ¥436
716 97 389 19 206 16 284 48 741 28
65 681 24 870 45 860 91 17 308 510
901 458 85 21 731 29 105 930 49 67
45 76 150 36 52 487 53 376 85 940
234 802 93 603 417 72 314 29 132 79
82 37 704 546 180 918 790 862 64 12
320 26 417 89 94 63 85 75 250 386
79 940 52 405 39 590 67 409 96 807
143 59 236 72 625 35 426 68 571 95
¥2,643 ¥3,306 ¥2,211 ¥3,648 ¥2,472 ¥3,774 ¥2,247 ¥3,315 ¥2,319 ¥3,360

The National Examination for the

 First-Grade Abacus License

Held under the auspices of

the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry

GROUP A

(Entire group of ten sets with

80% accuracy in ten minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

¥52,089,461 ¥432,186,075 ¥9,135,842 ¥4,170,326,958 ¥247,013,589
7,153,820 8,145,903,267 304,827,196 9,852,036 5,928,376
3,045,861,297 9,247,183 96,705 12,493,870 36,740,218
179,625,408 -62,098,541 2,036,754,981 -736,981,425 27,190
43,162 -762,309 1,408,273 -572,908 1,029,846,753
81,904,753 -5,280,931,764 83,927,654 1,630,857 3,507,461
9,286,041 3,679,452 702,149,836 6,058,249,731 574,268,109
7,306,154,289 24,805,691 5,368,071 93,175,648 61,930,548
8,479,503 901,326,785 6,520,743,189 567,903,412 459,862
297,580,364 4,270,516 49,386,527 -2,647,103 8,702,164,539
165,937 71,058,934 610,945 -3,901,728,564 6,382,047
64,327,810 -358,712,640 9,017,254,368 -28,157,496 418,079,635
4,710,698,325 -6,450,839 168,032,579 845,069,273 92,543,718
5,732,649 1,097,534,628 2,571,460 24,019 1,605,923
923,517,086 83,917 50,492,813 4,615,380 7,350,291,864
¥16,692,619,905 ¥4,981,140,355 ¥18,952,760,439 ¥7,093,253,688 ¥18,530,789,832

(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

¥2,709,658,341 ¥7,421,630 ¥921,376,048 ¥6,194,873 ¥314,726,905
5,182,069 65,049 6,347,208,195 804,725,361 2,645,718
890,246,753 4,086,739,215 -70,153,264 16,249 59,832,067
-731,482 615,908,743 -694,503 30,954,187 8,031,276,549
 -46,029,378 27,851,409 162,980,375 1,054,678,932 694,783
-9,017,486,523 9,372,586 3,015,467,928 7,240,156 3,501,624
3,592,710 7,251,094,863 7,935,681 201,536,498 968,135,470
109,264,538 36,281,597 84,029,135 871,250 25,840,391
72,503,694 548,617,320 3,748,256 76,109,382 6,401,279,835
65,871 3,946,075 -456,102,987 5,192,783,604 7,453,102
-1,874,305 8,905,173,246 -8,561,740 8,459,736 46,087,921
-380,516,924 639,182 -2,609,845,317 420,368,915 172,943,058
5,024,387,196 4,280,951 27,439 69,547,023 5,318,960
61,740,935 92,314,708 7,890,251 9,043,182,567 69,287
8,961,247 170,523,864 93,014,862 5,073,829 7,890,421,356
¥-561,035,258 ¥21,760,230,438 ¥7,498,320,359 ¥16,921,742,562 ¥23,930,227,026

GROUP B
(80% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 432,159x68,194=29,470,650,846
(2) 751,083x95,036=71,379,923,988
(3) 628,407x23,871=15,000,703,497
(4) 0.97815x80.6253=78.86364
(5) 360,798x0.17409=62,811.32382
(6) 584,162x75,382=44,035,299,884
(7) 23.6054x40.617=958.78053
(8) 8,079,231x3,925=31,710,981,675
(9) 127,496x5.4178=690,747.8288
(10) 0.603945x0.02649=0.01600
(11) ¥576,183x42,817=¥24,670,427,511
 (12) ¥862,054x0.06759=¥58,266
(13) ¥3,915,478x5,603=¥21,938,423,234
(14) ¥740,625x0.84512=¥625,917
(15) ¥184,397x739.24=¥136,313,638
(16) ¥902,871x0.28196=¥254,574
(17) ¥451,063x92,031=¥41,511,778,953
(18) ¥273,509x54,768=¥14,979,540,912
(19) ¥68,192x360.875=¥24,608,788
(20) ¥390,246x13,904=¥5,425,980,384

GROUP C
(80% accuracy, 10 minutes. Calculate
Problems 1-10
to the nearest thousandth; 11-20 to the nearest
yen.)

(1) 9,373,655,025÷48,237=194,325
(2) 59,530,739,332÷70,652=842,591
(3) 0.1271344371÷2.14863=0.05917
(4) 52,274,789,792÷56,104=931,748
(5) 40.87907525÷0.13807=296.075
(6) 330,085.21078÷69,018=4.78260
(7) 7,534,346,391÷35,769=210,639
(8) 0.4164695782÷0.07391=5.63482
(9) 80,233,503,322÷9,254=8,670,143
(10) 624.88295605÷84.925=7.35806
(11) ¥3,931,366,928÷15,896=¥247,318
(12) ¥635,615÷0.98013=¥648,501
(13) ¥44,731,890÷63.125=¥708,624
(14) ¥7,643,415,038÷37,142=¥205,789
 (15) ¥254,071,068÷296.71=¥856,294
(16) ¥46,113÷0.06459=¥713,934
(17) ¥52,348,910,242÷58,067=¥901,526
(18) ¥37,108,174,071÷4,057=¥9,146,703
(19) ¥174,669÷0.83424=¥209,375
(20) ¥39,176,554,843÷729,803=¥53,681

GROUP D

MENTAL CALCULATION
(80% accuracy, 2 minutes)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

¥321 ¥5,680 ¥759 ¥6,014 ¥495 ¥8,720 ¥147 ¥3,098 ¥254 ¥9,413
2,038 173 9,370 397 8,150 479 6,250 917 8,190
716 3,527 164 4,680 -243 6,093 863 1,340 -436 2,780
1,542 8,601 -527 251 -3,961 158 -235 654 -5,021
653 912 2,843 7,406 518 7,826 4,012 2,801 617
9,704 485 682 5,937 2,074 613 9,581 579 4,203 7,105
285 7,034 4,105 873 1,632 2,760 729 465 3,568
5,410 298 -3,524 695 -925 594 -1,936 7,602 -937 4,270
869 6,940 -913 1,208 784 3,408 -348 8,937 784 6,098
4,937 796 8,061 982 6,307 951 5,704 286 1,592
¥26,475 ¥34,446 ¥21,020 ¥28,443 ¥14,831 ¥31,602 ¥24,767 ¥26,679 ¥12,814 ¥32,538