Zero Crossing Detector using 741 IC

The zero crossing detector circuit is an important application of the op-amp

comparator circuit. It can also be called as the sine to square wave converter.
Anyone of the inverting or non-inverting comparators can be used as a zero-
crossing detector. The only change to be brought in is the reference voltage with
which the input voltage is to be compared, must be made zero (Vref = 0V). An input
sine wave is given as Vin. These are shown in the circuit diagram and input and
output waveforms of an inverting comparator with a 0V reference voltage.

Zero-Crossing Detector Using UA741 op-amp IC

As shown in the waveform, for a reference voltage 0V, when the input sine wave
passes through zero and goes in positive direction, the output voltage Vout is driven
into negative saturation. Similarly, when the input voltage passes through zero and
goes in the negative direction, the output voltage is driven to positive saturation.
The diodes D1 and D2 are also called clamp diodes. They are used to protect the
op-amp from damage due to increase in input voltage. They clamp the differential
input voltages to either +0.7V or -0.7V.

In certain applications, the input voltage may be a low frequency waveform. This
means that the waveform only changes slowly. This causes a delay in time for the
input voltage to cross the zero-level. This causes further delay for the output voltage
to switch between the upper and lower saturation levels. At the same time, the
input noises in the op-amp may cause the output voltage to switch between the
saturation levels. Thus zero crossing are detected for noise voltages in addition to
the input voltage. These difficulties can be removed by using a regenerative
feedback circuit with a positive feedback that causes the output voltage to
change faster thereby eliminating the possibility of any false zero crossing due to
noise voltages at the op-amp input.
 Zero-Crossing Detector Using 741IC -Waveforms

Zero-crossing Detector as Time Marker Generator

For an input sine wave, the output of the zero-crossing detector being a square
wave, is further passed through an RC series circuit. This is shown in the figure
below.

Zero-Crossing Detector Using Timing Marker Generator

If the time constant RC is very small compared to the period T of the input sine
wave, then the voltage across R of the RC circuit network called Vr will be a series
of positive and negative pulses. If the voltage Vr is applied to a clipper circuit using
a diode D, the load voltage Vload will have only positive pulses and will clip away
the negative pulses. Thus, a zero-crossing detector whose input is a sign wave has
been converted into a train of positive pulses at interval T by adding a RC network
and a clipping circuit.

Time Marker Generator Waveform

 Op Amp Precision Half-wave Rectifier
CIRCUIT

OP_HW_RECTIFIER.CR Download the SPICE file

Rectifiers are often called into action to measure signal strength. Rectify an AC signal,
pass it through a low-pass filter and the resulting DC level represents some measure of
the signal's magnitude. Although the series diode is the classic rectifier, it can't rectify
signals smaller that it own forward voltage! But what if your expected amplitude can be
as low as 100 mV? Op amps to the rescue! The advantage of op amp circuits lies in their
ability to compensate for non-linear devices in the feedback loop. Combining the
rectifying action of a diode with the accuracy of an op amp, this circuit creates a
precision rectifier.

INVERTING HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

During the negative half-cycle of a sinewave input, the output should be positive. During
the positive half-cycle, the output should be zero. The circuit that accomplishes this
amazing feat looks like the inverting amplifier with a couple of diodes added. Why two?
Only one actually does the rectifying action. The other simply keeps the op amp in
control while the signal output holds at zero.

For the negative half-cycle input, the op amp output goes positive forcing D1 to
turn ON and D2 to shut OFF.
It looks and acts just like the inverting amplifier, except for a diode in a series with the
op amp's output pin. But no need to worry, the output pin adjusts itself higher (by the
diode's forward voltage, about 0.6V ) to get the right voltage at the Vo. The classic
inverting equation applies.

Vo = - R2 / R1 ∙ VS

For R1 = R2 = 10k and VS = -1 V, the output is Vo = - 10k / 10k x -1 = +1 V. The

current running through both R1 and R2 is I = VS / R1 = 1 /10k = 0.1 mA. And like the
classic inverting amplifier, the op amp holds the negative input V- at 0V (virtual
ground).

For the positive half-cycle input, the op amp output goes negative forcing D2 to
turn ON and D1 to shut OFF.

The first question to ask is what is the output voltage Vo? Although the circuit looks a
little strange, the output actually sits at 0V. This is because the op amp still does its job
of holding V- at 0V. And because there's no current through R2, you get Vo = V- = 0V.
The only thing left to reckon with is the current running through R1, I = VS / R1 = +1 /
10k = 0.1 mA. During this half-cycle, the op amp's output swings negative to turn on D1
enough to pull 0.1 mA through the diode.
Peak Detector
Rectifier circuit gives average value of input signal; but in practice we need peak value of input signal.
This is achieved by peak detector circuit. The following figure shows a simple peak detector circuit
using diode and capacitor.

In the positive half cycle, diode D is forward biased and capacitor C starts charging. When input
reaches its peak value capacitor gets charged to positive peak value.
In negative half cycle, as input decreases, diode D is reversed biased and capacitor is isolated and
holds the peak value of previous cycle. Hence called as peak detector.
But in practice, output is taken across some load RL, so when input voltage decreases capacitor
discharges through load RL. To avoid this select RL of very large value so that capacitor discharges
very slowly hence almost holds the charge. Whatever charge it lost through RL is gets back in next
half cycle.

Limitation:

The diode D is acting as an instant switch, so supply gets loaded.

To avoid the loading while charging capacitor, we use op-amp as follows. Op-amp is placed between
input and diode D so loading is avoided as shown in circuit diagram below,
In positive half cycle, output of op-amp is positive so diode D is forward biased, capacitor charges to
peak value of input signal.
In negative half cycle, when input decreases diode D is reversed biased and capacitor is isolated and
holds the charge of previous half cycle. Since diode is reversed biased, op-amp is in open loop
condition and goes into saturation. Capacitor starts discharging through RL.
Let peak value of input is Vin peak = 10 V.
In the positive half cycle the capacitor holds the positive peak value i.e. +10V. In the negative half
cycle negative peak input is Vinpeak = -10V. Due to negative output diode D is reverse biased and
acts as open circuit isolating op-amp output and capacitor C. Capacitor C has a charge of +10V from
previous positive half cycle. This voltage is appeared to be as input to inverting terminal of op-amp.

Therefore differential input (Vid) to op-amp is,

Vid=-10-10=-20V=2×V(in peak)
For every op-amp there is a limit for maximum differential input voltage Vid. So care must be taken
while selecting op-amp.
The load resistance RL is not possible to have a very large value always, so we use another op-amp
as follows,
Here second op-amp acts as a voltage follower. Its input impedance is very high so capacitor
discharges very slowly i.e. capacitor almost holding the charge. Therefore output voltage is nothing
but voltage across capacitor (Peak value of input signal).
Vout = Voltage across capacitor, Vc
As output impedance of voltage follower is very small we can connect any value of RL.

Hysteresis Comparator

Hysteresis comparator A hysteresis comparator is operated by applying a positive feedback* to the

comparator. The potential difference between the High and Low output voltages and the feedback
resistor are adjusted to change the voltage that is taken as a comparison reference to the input voltage
for the +IN terminal. The width of variation in the reference voltage is the hysteresis width. In this
circuits the signal is input to the‐IN terminal ,the output is inverted.

Note: A comparator cannot be operated as a hysteresis comparator when a negative feedback is

applied.
• Operation without hysteresis

When the input signal and Vref (reference voltage) are nearly equal, exceeding the threshold value
due to noise or other causes will destabilize the output. (Chattering occurs)

When the input signal (-IN) is applied at a voltage sufficiently higher than Vref(+IN), the output is
varied according to Vref as a threshold.

When the input signal (-IN) is applied at a voltage equivalent to Vref(+IN), the input signal may or
may not exceed the threshold at Vref due to noise or other causes, resulting in an instability
(chattering).

• Operation with hysteresis

Since a margin is provided between the High-to-Low and Low-to-High thresholds, no chattering occurs in
the output even when a signal is input at a voltage near the threshold voltages.

When the input signal (-IN) is applied at a voltage sufficiently higher than VthH(+IN) and VthL(+IN), the
output is varied according to Vref as a threshold.

When the input signal (-IN) is applied at a voltage equivalent to VthH(+IN) or above, no chattering occurs
since the output will not respond unless the input falls below the threshold at VthL(+IN). VthL is the voltage
switching from Low to High. VthH is the voltage switching from High to Low.
Basic Op-amp Monostable Circuit
Introduction

Systems for generating and processing pulses make extensive use of multivibrators; these are circuits
which have two states. There are three types of multivibrator: astable (free-running), monostable
(one-shot), and bistable (flip-flop). There are many ways of implementing each type, and many
variants. Note: All the circuits in this document operate by using positive feedback to drive the op-
amp into saturation, it is therefore not the case that the two inputs of the op-amp can be assumed to
be at the same potential. See the comments on Worksheet 10 regarding op-amps vs comparators.

At initial power on (that is t = 0), the output (VOUT) will saturate towards either the positive rail
(+Vcc), or to the negative rail (-Vcc), since these are the only two stable states allowed by the op-
amp. Lets assume for now that the output has swung towards the positive supply rail, +Vcc. Then the
voltage at the non-inverting input, VB will be equal to +Vcc*β where β is the feedback fraction.
The inverting input is held at 0.7 volts, the forward volt drop of diode, D1 and clamped to 0v (ground)
by the diode, preventing it from going any more positive. Thus the potential at VA is much less than
that at VB and the output remains stable at +Vcc. At the same time, the capacitor, (C) charges up to
the same 0.7 volts potential and is held there by the forward-biased voltage drop of the diode.
If we were to apply a negative pulse to the non-inverting input, the 0.7v voltage at VA now becomes
greater than the voltage at VB since VB is now negative. Thus the output of the Schmitt configured
op-amp switches state and saturates towards the negative supply rail, -Vcc. The result is that the
potential at VB is now equal to -Vcc*β.
This temporary meta-stable state causes the capacitor to charge up exponentially in the opposite
direction through the feedback resistor, R from +0.7 volts down to the saturated output which it has
just switched too, -Vcc. Diode, D1 becomes reverse-biased so has no effect. The capacitor, C will
discharge at a time constant τ = RC.
As soon as the capacitor voltage at VA reaches the same potential as VB, that is -Vcc*β, the op-amp
switches back to its original permanent stable state with the output saturated once again at +Vcc.
Note that once the timing period is complete and the op-amps output changes back to its stable state
and saturates towards the positive supply rail, the capacitor tries to charge up in reverse to +Vcc but
can only charge to a maximum value of 0.7v given by the diodes forward voltage drop. We can show
this effect graphically as:

Op-amp Monostable Waveforms

Then we can see that a negative-going trigger input, will switch the op-amp monostable circuit into
its temporary unstable state. After a time delay, T while the capacitor, C charges up through the
feedback resistor, R, the circuit switches back to its normal stable state once the capacitor voltage
reaches the required potential.
This time delay period (T) of the rectangular pulse at the output, the unstable state time, is given as:

Op-amp Monostable Timing Period

If the two operational amplifiers feedback resistors are of the same value, that is: R1 = R2, then the
above equation simplifies down too:
Obviously there is a a certain amount of time that the capacitor takes to charge again from -
Vcc*β to VD (0.7v) and therefore during this period a second negative pulse may not start a new
timing period.
Then in order to ensure the correct operation of the op-amp monostable circuit upon the application
of the next trigger pulse, the time period between trigger pulses, (Ttotal) must be greater than the timing
period, T plus the time required for the capacitor to recharge, (Tcharging).
The charging recovery time is given as:

Where: Vcc is the supply voltage, VD is the diodes forward voltage drop, (usually about 0.6 to 0.7
volts) and β is the feedback fraction.
In order to ensure that the op-amp monostable circuit has a good negative trigger signal which starts
the timing period on the leading edge of the negative going pulse, and also to stop any false triggering
of the circuit when it is in its stable state, we can add a RC differentiating circuit to the input.
A differentiator circuit is useful in producing a negative output spike from a square or rectangular
input waveform. The sharp and abrupt reduction of the comparators threshold voltage below its
feedback fraction, β value drives the op-amp monostable into its timing period. A differentiator
circuit is formed using a resistor-capacitor (RC network as shown.