In construction[edit]

The City Court Building in Buffalo, New York

Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance compared
with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can have a
long service life. Concrete is used more than any other artificial material in the world.[85] As of 2006,
about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic meter for every
person on Earth.[86]

Mass structures[edit]
Main article: Mass concrete

Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November 2009. After
the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.

Due to cement's exothermic chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such
as dams, navigation locks, large mat foundations, and large breakwaters generate excessive heat
during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects, post-cooling[87] is commonly
applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam used a network of pipes between
vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid damaging
overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the concrete mix used,
and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months after the concrete is
placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass concrete structures.[87]
Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal byproduct is the use
of roller-compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement
than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then
roller compacted into a dense, strong mass.

Surface finishes[edit]
Main article: Decorative concrete
Advantage and Disadvantage of Concrete

Black basalt polished concrete floor

Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many
different finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against
staining, water penetration, and freezing.
Examples of improved appearance include stamped concrete where the wet concrete has a pattern
impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or brick-like effect, and may be accompanied
with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and table tops is polished concrete where the
concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives and sealed with polymers or other
sealants.
Other finishes can be achieved with chiseling, or more conventional techniques such as painting or
covering it with other materials.
The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important
stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structures.[88]
Prestressed structures[edit]
Main article: Prestressed concrete

Stylized cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in Scottsdale, Arizona

Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
construction to oppose tensile stresses experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of
beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the
reinforcement. For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the
bottom of the beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by
using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for
post-tensioned concrete, after casting.
More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are paved with this
material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the most widely
used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days. See Brutalism.

Cold weather placement[edit]

Extreme weather conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy condition, and humidity variations) can
significantly alter the quality of concrete. Many precautions are observed in cold weather
placement.[89] Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of
cement, thus affecting the strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important
precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the hydrated
cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside temperatures, the
heat of hydration will prevent freezing.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) definition of cold weather placement, ACI 306,[90] is:

 A period when for more than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops
below 40 ˚F (~ 4.5 °C), and
 Temperature stays below 50 ˚F (10 °C) for more than one-half of any 24-hour period.
In Canada, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following criteria
are used by CSA A23.1:

 When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and

 When there is a probability that the temperature may fall below 5 °C within 24 hours of placing
the concrete.
The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.5 MPa). CSA A 23.1
specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing.

Roads[edit]
Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on,[91] more reflective and last significantly longer than
other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-
paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a
well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly
less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can be used,
which eliminates the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for slightly
sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through use of
drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water-
distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather,
it is immediately absorbed by the ground.
Energy efficiency[edit]
Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced locally from local
resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. Similarly, relatively little
energy is used in producing and combining the raw materials (although large amounts of CO2 are
produced by the chemical reactions in cement manufacture).[92] The overall embodied energy of
concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for most structural and
construction materials.[93]
Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building.[94] Concrete
walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames.[95] Air leakage accounts for a large
percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the
efficiency of both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed
for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature
swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs.[96] While insulation reduces energy loss
through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern
concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient
building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam
or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced
concrete to create the structure.

Fire safety[edit]

Boston City Hall (1968) is a Brutalist design constructed largely of precast and poured in place concrete. It was
voted "The World's Ugliest Building" in 2008

Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel frames, since
concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer under the same fire
conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for the same effect as
above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre, can also be used in extreme environments
like a missile launch pad.
Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and
hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry technology and Insulating Concrete
Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating
foam that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced
concrete to create the structure.
Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds,
hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal
movement. However, this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly
where a relatively higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces.

Earthquake safety[edit]
As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger
earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the
structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like
other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced
masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally.[97] These risks can be
reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul, Turkey[98]).

Degradation[edit]
Main article: Concrete degradation
Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar

Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the expansion of corrosion products of the
steel reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea
water effects, bacterial corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical damage and
chemical damage (from carbonatation, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water).[99] The micro fungi
Aspergillus Alternaria and Cladosporium were able to grow on samples of concrete used as a
radioactive waste barrier in the Chernobyl reactor; leaching aluminum, iron, calcium, and silicon.[100]

Composition[edit]
Concrete is a composite material, comprising a matrix of aggregate (typically a rocky material) and a
binder (typically Portland cement or asphalt), which holds the matrix together. Many types of
concrete are available, determined by the formulations of binders and the types of aggregate used to
suit the application for the material. These variables determine strength, density, as well as chemical
and thermal resistance of the finished product.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or
crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.
A cement, most commonly Portland cement, is the most prevalent kind of concrete binder. For
cementitious binders, water is mixed with the dry powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-
liquid slurry that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and
hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material. Other cementitious
materials, such as fly ash and slag cement, are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the
cement or directly as a concrete component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.
Admixtures are added to modify the cure rate or properties of the material.
Mineral admixtures use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials
include fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants; ground granulated blast furnace slag, a
byproduct of steelmaking; and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces.
Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel reinforcement. Such concrete
can be formulated with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. Therefore,
it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar.
Other materials can also be used as a concrete binder, the most prevalent alternative is asphalt,
which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and
delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.

Cement[edit]
Main article: Cement

Several tons of bagged cement, about two minutes of output from a 10,000 ton per day cement kiln

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland
cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its color to Portland limestone, quarried
from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture
of calcium silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites—compounds which combine calcium,
silicon, aluminum and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials
are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon,
aluminum and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most
commonly gypsum).
In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton of
clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial
installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to
produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex
and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it
into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being
used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows
cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.[33]

Water[edit]
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.[34]
As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete,
whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump.[35] Impure water used to
make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.[36]
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.[37]
Reaction:[37]
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 (approximately; the
exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary)
Aggregates[edit]
Main article: Construction aggregate

Crushed stone aggregate

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required.
Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding
aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps
between the aggregate as well as paste the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is
typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate
reduces the cost of concrete.[38] The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder,
so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the
influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.[39]
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.
Reinforcement[edit]
Main article: Reinforced concrete

Constructing a rebar cage that will be permanently embedded in a finished reinforced

concrete structure

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression

load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, aramid fibers, carbon fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to
carry tensile loads.

Admixtures[edit]
Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete
to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are
defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared".[40] The most common
admixtures are retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less
than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of
batching/mixing.[41] (See § Production below.) The common types of admixtures[42] are as
follows:

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials

used are calcium chloride, calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate. However, use of
chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some
countries, so that nitrates may be favored, even though they are less effective than
the chloride salt. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the
properties of concrete in cold weather.
 Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces
damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However, entrained air
entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease compressive
strength by 5%.[43] If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a result of the
mixing process, Defoamers can be used to encourage the air bubble to
agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically
a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in
concrete.
 Crystalline admixtures are typically added during batching of the concrete to lower
permeability. The reaction takes place when exposed to water and un-hydrated
cement particles to form insoluble needle-shaped crystals, which fill capillary pores
and micro-cracks in the concrete to block pathways for water and waterborne
contaminates. Concrete with crystalline admixture can expect to self-seal as
constant exposure to water will continuously initiate crystallization to ensure
permanent waterproof protection.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic, or "fresh", concrete, allowing it to be
placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is
lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete
while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this
use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics.
  Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers
that have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more
than is practical with traditional plasticizers. Superplasticizers are used to increase
compressive strength. It increases the workability of the concrete and lowers the
need for water content by 15–30%. Superplasticizers lead to retarding effects.
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and
bleeding.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid,
and tartaric acid.
Mineral admixtures and blended cements[edit]
Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these very fine-
grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete
(mineral admixtures),[41] or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements).[47] Products which incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and other
useful materials with pozzolanic properties into the mix, are being tested and used. This
development is due to cement production being one of the largest producers (at about 5
to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions,[48] as well as lowering costs, improving
concrete properties, and recycling wastes.

 Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially

replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend
on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is pozzolanic,
while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.[49]
 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of steel
production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It
has latent hydraulic properties.[50]
 Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica
fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a
higher surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is
used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use
of superplasticizers for workability.[51]
 High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and
durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark
gray or black in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color,
making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is
important.
 Carbon nanofibers can be added to concrete to enhance compressive strength and
gain a higher Young’s modulus, and also to improve the electrical properties
required for strain monitoring, damage evaluation and self-health monitoring of
concrete. Carbon fiber has many advantages in terms of mechanical and electrical
properties (e.g., higher strength) and self-monitoring behavior due to the high tensile
strength and high conductivity.[52]
 Carbon products have been added to make concrete electrically conductive, for
deicing purposes.[53]
https://www.qualityengineersguide.com/top-6-important-quality-tests-of-concrete
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/grades-concrete-strength-selection/20570/
https://www.baseconcrete.co.uk/different-types-of-concrete-grades-and-their-uses/
Applications of Concrete
Concrete has been used for construction since ancient times. Modern day concrete application include
dams, bridges, swimming pools, homes, streets, patios, basements, balustrades, plain cement tiles, mosaic
tiles, pavement blocks, kerbs, lamp-posts, drain covers, benches and so on….

It is interesting to note that over six billion tons of concrete is produced each year, and is the second most
widely used substance. Concrete is specific to different applications like rebuilding, mending and
construction. Concrete building components in different sizes and shapes are also made before hand and
later applied. They include wall panels, doorsills, beams, pillars and more. Post-tensioned slabs is a
preferred method for industrial, commercial and residential floor slab construction.

Ready Mixed concrete is durable and hard wearing and is used for variety of applications owing to its crack-
resistance and durability. Situ concrete is cast in place, on site. Precast concrete finds application in
concrete curtain walls, exterior cladding and structural walls, as it monolithic and can be easily used for
two-way structural systems. It is also adjustable to post tensioning and easily adapts to any building shape.

Cast-in-place concretes

Cast-in-place concrete is an unhardened state, like ready-mix, and is placed in moulds. Ready mixed
concrete is proportioned and mixed off the project site. It finds application in foundations and slabs-on-
ground, walls, beams, columns, floors, roofs, bridges, pavements, and other infrastructure.

Controlled-density fill is used as structural fill, foundation pillar, pavement base an pipe bedding. It is also
known as flowable mortar.

Decorative purpose

The life expectancy of concrete flooring materials is much more than other flooring material. It is used to
enhance concrete applications and to add colour and texture to interiors, driveways, pathways and patios

Fiber Cement

Fiber cement is made using a mixture of sand, cellulose fibers and cement. It has a wood-like appearance,
is durable and used for decorative shapes and trim applications.

Green roof

Vegetative roofs are used in residential societies, office buildings, hospitals, schools, recreational facilities,
shopping centers and airports.

Building design

Concrete is used to provide prolonged building benefits by functioning as thermal mass, acoustical barrier
and durable structure

White Topping

It is a Portland cement concrete overlay on existing asphalt concrete pavement and used in airport
pavements, highways, secondary roads, and other pavements.
Other Applications

o Beams, drain tiles, piers, steps

o Post, Beam and Deck
o Pilasters and round column forms
o Brickledge application
o Hardscape < Pavers
o High Performance Admixtures
o Masonry
o Soil solidification
o Stucco < Tilt-up
o Insulating Concrete Form
o Motorways/roads, overpasses and parking structures
o Brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles
o Building structure, fences and poles

Over the years, concrete has established itself as a sturdy building material used for different applications.
The inherent benefits of using concrete as a construction material are durability, fire-resistance, low
maintenance, energy efficiency and environmental friendliness. Owing its generic qualities, it is not
surprising that concrete is used more than any other man-made material on earth.