Coordinators

.
.
 Support Material Preparation Team
Chemistry – XI

S.No. Subject Expert Designation School

1. Dr. Hans Raj Modi Vice Principal/HOS RPVV, Link Road

Karol Bagh Delhi
2. Dr. Deepak Kumar Ruhela Lect. Chemistry RPVV, Surajmal
Vihar Delhi
3. Dr. Anil Kumar Lect. Chemistry RPVV, Tyagraj
Nagar
4. Amit Kumar Manav Lect. Chemistry RDJK, Govt. Co.
Ed, Sr. Sec. School
Bhajanpura
5. Shyoraj Singh Malik Lect. Chemistry RPVV, Link Road
Karol Bagh

i
 Course Structure
Class : XI (Theory) (2018-19)
Chemistry
Total period (Theory 160 + Practical 60)

Time : 3 Hours] Total Marks : 70

Unit No. Title No. of Periods Marks

Unit I Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 08
Unit II Structure of Atom 10 08
Unit III Classification of Elements and 06 04
Periodicity in Properties
Unit IV Chemical Bonding and Molecular 14
Structure
Unit V States of Matter: Gases and Liquids solids 18
Unit VI Chemical Thermodynamics 16 20
Unit VII Equilibrium 14
Unit VIII Redox Reactions 06
Unit IX Hydrogen 08 20
Unit X s -Block Elements 10
Unit XI p -Block Elements 18
Unit XII Organic Chemistry: Some Basic 14
Principles and Techniques
Unit XIII Hydrocarbons 12 18
Unit XIV Environmental Chemistry 06
Total 160 70

ii
 Unit I : Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 8 Periods
General Introduction: Importance and scope of chemistry.
Nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory:
concept of elements, atoms and molecules.
Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept and molar mass,
percentage composition, empirical and molecular formula, chemical
reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.
Unit II : Structure of Atom 10 Periods
Bohr’s model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells,
dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie’s relationship, Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes
of s, p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals - Aufbau
principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule, electronic
configuration of atoms, stability of half-filled and completely filled
orbitals.
Unit III : Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
06 Periods
Modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic
trends in properties of elements -atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii,
Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency.
Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100
Unit IV : Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 14 Periods
Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis
structure, polar character of covalent bond, covalent character of ionic
bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of covalent molecules,
VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization, involving s, p and d orbitals
and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of
homonuclear diatomic molecules(qualitative idea only), hydrogen
bond.

Unit V : States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 18 Period

Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding,

melting and boiling points, role of gas laws in elucidating the
concept of the molecule, Boyle’s law, Charles law, Gay Lussac’s law,
Avogadro’s law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation,

iii
 Avogadro’s number, ideal gas equation. Deviation from ideal behaviour,
liquefaction of gases, critical temperature, kinetic energy and molecular
speeds (elementary idea)

Liquid State: vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative

idea only, no mathematical derivations)

Solid state: Classification of solids based on different binding

forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and
crystalline solids (elementary idea). Unit cell in two dimensional and
three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing
in solids, packing efficiency, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a
cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and magnetic properties.
Unit VI : Chemical Thermodynamics 16 Periods
Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat,
energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions. First law
of thermodynamics -internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and
specific heat, measurement of ΔU and ΔH, Hess’s law of constant heat
summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation,
atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution
and dilution. Second law of Thermodynamics (brief introduction).
Introduction of entropy as a state function, Gibb’s energy change for
spontaneous and non- spontaneous processes, criteria for equilibrium.
Third law of thermodynamics (brief introduction).
Unit VII : Equilibrium 14 Periods
Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of
equilibrium, law of mass action, equilibrium constant,factors affecting
equilibrium- Le Chatelier’s principle, ionic equilibrium- ionization of
acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization,
ionization of poly basic acids, acid strength, concept of pH, Henderson
Equation, hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solution,
solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).
Unit VIII: Redox Reactions 06 Periods
Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number,
balancing redox reactions, in terms of loss and gain of electrons and
change in oxidation number, applications of redox reactions.

iv
 Unit IX : Hydrogen 08 Periods
Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation,
properties and uses of hydrogen, hydrides-ionic covalent and interstitial;
physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen
peroxide -preparation, reactions and structure and use; hydrogen as a
fuel.
Unit X : s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) 10 Periods
Group 1 and Group 2 Elements General introduction, electronic
configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of
each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties
(such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical
reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens, uses. Preparation
and Properties of Some Important Compounds: Sodium Carbonate,
Sodium Chloride, Sodium Hydroxide and Sodium Hydrogencarbonate,
Biological importance of Sodium and Potassium. Calcium Oxide and
Calcium Carbonate and their industrial uses, biological importance of
Magnesium and Calcium
Unit XI : p-Block Elements 18 Periods
General Introduction to p-Block Elements :
Group 13 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration,
occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical
reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group, Boron -
physical and chemical properties, some important compounds, Borax,
Boric acid, Boron Hydrides, Aluminium: Reactions with acids and
alkalies, uses.
Group 14 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration,
occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical
reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements. Carbon-catenation,
allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some
important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of Silicon and a
few uses: Silicon Tetrachloride, Silicones, Silicates and Zeolites, their
uses.
Group 15 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration,
occurrence, oxidation states, trends in physical and chemical properties;
Nitrogen preparation properties and uses; compounds of Nitrogen,
preparation and properties of Ammonia and Nitric Acid, Oxides of
v
 Nitrogen(Structure only) ; Phosphorus - allotropic forms, compounds
of Phosphorus: Preparation and Properties of Phosphine, Halides and
Oxoacids (elementary idea only).
Unit XII : Organic Chemistry -Some Basic Principles and Technique
14 Periods
General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and
quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic
compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive
effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic
and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations,
carbanions, electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.
Unit XIII: Hydrocarbons 12 Periods
Classification of Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons:
Alkanes - Nomenclature, isomerism, conformation (ethane only),
physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical
mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis.
Alkenes - Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical
isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical
reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides
(Markownikov's addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation,
mechanism of electrophilic addition.
Alkynes - Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical
properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character
of alkynes, addition reaction of - hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides
and water.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature,
benzene: resonance, aromaticity, chemical properties: mechanism of
electrophilic substitution. Nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel
Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group
in monosubstituted benzene. Carcinogenicity and toxicity.
Unit XIV : Environmental Chemistry 06 Periods
Environmental pollution - air, water and soil pollution, chemical
reactions in atmosphere, smog, major atmospheric pollutants, acid rain,
ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse
effect and global warming- pollution due to industrial wastes, green
chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategies for
control of environmental pollution.

vi
PRACTICALS
Evaluation Scheme for Examination Marks
Volumetric Analysis 08
Salt Analysis 08
Content Based Experiment 06
Project Work 04
Class record and viva 04
Total 30

PRACTICAL SYLLABUS Total Periods 60

Micro-chemical methods are available for several of teh practical experiments.
Wherever possible such techniques should be used :
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod
2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterization and Purification of Chemical Substances
1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.
2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound
3. Crystallization of impure sample of any one of the following: Alum,
Copper Sulphate, Benzoic Acid.
C. Experiments based on pH
(a) Any one of the following experiments :
- Determination of pH of some solutions obtained from fruit juices,
solution of known and varied concentrations of acids, bases and salts
using pH paper or universal indicator.
- Comparing the pH of solutions of strong and weak acids of same
concentration.
- Study the pH change in the titration of a strong base using universal
indicator.
(b) Study the pH change by common-ion in case of weak acid and weak bases.
D. Chemical Equilibrium.

vii
 CHEMISTRY (Code No. 043)
Question Paper Design
Class-XI (2018–19)

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70

S. Typology of Questions Very Short Short Long Total %
No. short Answer-I Answer-II Answer Marks Weightage
Answer (SA–I) (SA-II) (LA)
(VSA) (2 marks) (3 marks) (5 marks)
(1 marks)
Remembering–(Knowedge
based Simple recall ques-
tions, to know specific facts,
1. 2 1 1 – 7 10%
terms, concepts, prin- ciples,
or theories, Identify, define,
or recite, information)
Understanding–(Com-
prehension–To be famil-
iar with meaning and to
understand conceptually,
2. – 2 4 1 21 30%
interpret,compare,contrast,
explain , paraphrase infor-
mation)
Application (Use abstract
information in concrete
situation, to apply knowl-
edge to new situations,
3.
Use given content to in- – 2 4 1 21 30%
terpret a situation, provide
an example, or solve a
problem)
High Order Thinking
Skills (Analysis & Syn-
thesis–Classify, Compare,
Contrast, or differentiate
4.
between different pieces 2 – 1 1 10 14%
of information, Organize
and/or integrate unique
pieces of information from
a variety of sources)
Evaluation–(Appraise,
judge, and/or justify the
value or worth of a decision
5. 1 2 2 – 11 16%
or outcome,or to predict
outcomes based on values)

TOTAL 5×1=5 7×2=14 12×3=36 3×5=15 70(27) 100%

viii
 Question Wise Break Up
Type of Ques. Mark per Ques. Total No. of Ques. Total Marks
VSA 1 5 05
SA-I 2 7 14
SA-II 3 12 36
LA 5 3 15
Total 27 70
1. Internal Choice : There is no overall choice in the paper. However, there
is an internal choice in one question of 2 marks weightage, one question of
3 marks weightage and all the three questions of 5 marks weightage.
2. The above template is only a sample. Suitable internal variations may be
made for generating similar templates keeping the overall weightage to
different form of questions and typology of questions same.

ix
 Chemistry - XI
Index

S. No. Chapter Name Page No.

1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1

2. Structure of Atom 14
3. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 30
4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 41
5. Gases, Liquids and Solids 53
6. Chemical Thermodynamics 75
7. Equilibrium 85
8. Redox Reactions 99
9. Hydrogen 107
10. s-Block Elements 117
11. p-Block Elements 124
12. Organic Chemistry : Some basic Principles and Techniques 135
13. Hydrocarbons 155
14. Environmental Chemistry 168
Question Papers 175-197

x
  Matter : Anything that has mass and occupy space.
 Precision : If refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same
quantity.
 Accuracy : It refers to the agreement of a particular value to the true value
of the result.
 Mass and weight : Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in
body, while weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object. The mass
of a substance is constant whereas its weight may vary from one place to
another due to change in gravity.
 Volume : 1 L = 1 dm3 = 103cm3 = 10–3 m3

 Temperature : K = °C + 273.15; =

 Standard Temperature Pressure (STP) : 0°C (273.15 K) temperature

and 1 atm pressure.
 Normal Temperature Pressure (NTP) : 20°C (293.15 K) temperature
and 1 atm pressure.
 Standard Ambient Temperature Pressure (SATP) : 25°C (298.15 K)
temperature and 1 atm pressure
 Scientific Notation : Expressing a number in the form N × 10n, and N
can vary between 1 to 9.99.
 Significant figures : These are meaningful digits which are known with
certainty.
 Laws of Chemical Combination :
Ø Law of Conservation of Mass (Antonie Lavoisier) : Mass can
neither be created nor be destroyed.
Ø Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust) : A given compound

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1

 always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass.
Ø Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton) : When two elements
combine to form two or more compounds, then the different masses
of one element, which combine with a fixed mass of the other, bear
a simple ratio to one another.
Ø Gay Lussac’s Law : When gases combine or are produced in a
chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio provided all gases
are in the same temperature and pressure.
e.g., 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)
2 Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol
(at same T, P)
 Atomic Mass : It is defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an
element as compared to the mass of an atom of carbon – 12 taken as 12.
Atomic mass is represented by ‘u’ (unified mass).
1u = 1.66056 × 10–24 g
 Molecular mass : It is algebraic the sum of the atomic mass of the elements
present in the molecule.
For example : Molecular mass of CH4 = (1 × 12) + (4 × 1) = 16 u
 Avogadro Number : It is the amount of atoms or molecules present in
one mole of a substance.
Avogadro number (NA) = 6.022 × 1023 mol–1
 Molar Mass : The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its
molar mass.
For example : Molar mass of CH4 = (1 × 12) + (4 × 1) = 16g mol–1
 Mole (n) : It is amount of a substance that contains as many particles or
entities as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure C-12.
1 mole of a substance = Molar mass of substance = Avogadro’s Number
of chemical units = 22.4L volume at STP of gaseous substance
e.g., 1 mole of CH 4 = 16g of CH 4 = 6.022 × 10 23 molecules of
CH4 = 22.4L at STP
VL
n = = = =

 Molar Volume (Vm) : It is volume occupied by one mole of gas at STP.

Molar volume of a gas = 22.4L at STP (273 K, 1atm) or 22.7L at STP (273

2 Chemistry Class XI
 K, 1 bar)
Calculating Molar Volume: PV = nRT
nRT 1mol × 0.082L atm K −1mol−1 × 273K
∴ V = = = 22.4L
P 1 atm
Or

V =
1 bar

 Percentage Composition : Mass % of the element

 Empirical Formula : It represents the simplest whole number ratio of

various atoms present in a compound. For e.g., CH is the empirical formula
of benzene.
 Molecular Formula : It shows the exact number of different of atoms
present in a molecule of a compound. For e.g., C6H6 is the molecular
formula of benzene.
 Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae :
Molecular formula = n × Empirical formula

Where; n=

 Information Conveyed by a chemical equation :

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

(i) 1 molecule of N2 + 3 molecules of H2 → 2 molecules of NH3

(ii) 1 mole of N2 + 3 mole of H2 → 2 mole of NH3
(iii) 1 × 28g of N2 + 3 × 2 g of H2 → 2 × 17 g of NH3
(iv) 1 × 22.4L of N2 + 3 × 22.4L of H2 → 2 × 22.4L of NH3
at STP at STP at STP
 Limiting Reagent : It is the reactant which gets consumed first or limits
the amount of product formed.
 Mass Percent : It is the mass of the solute in grams per 100 grams of the
solution.

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 3

 Mass percent
=

 Parts per million (ppm) : It is part of solute per million part of solution
by mass.

ppm =

 Molarity (M) : It is number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (dm3)

of the solution.

Molarity =

Molarity equation : M1V1 = M2V2

(Before dilution) (After Dilution)
Molarity of a solution decreases on increasing temperature.
Molarity of pure water is 55.56 mol L–1
 Molality (m)—It is number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000g (1kg)
of solvent.
No. of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass
mass of solvent in kg
Molality is independent of temperature.
 Mole Fraction(x) is the ratio of number of moles of one component to
the total number of moles (solute and solvents) present in the solution.

x1 = and x2 =
The sum of all the mole fractions in a solution is equal to one. i.e., x1 + x2 = 1

1 - Mark Questions

1. Name two chemical compounds used in treatment of cancer.

2. What is AZT ? Mention its use in medical science.
3. Give an example each of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture.
4. Differentiate solids, liquids & gases in terms of volume & shapes.
5. Classify following as pure substances and mixtures : air, glucose, gold,
sodium and milk.

4 Chemistry Class XI
 6. What is the difference between molecules and compounds? Give examples
of each.
7. What is the SI unit of density ?
8. What is the SI unit of molarity ?
9. Define accuracy.
10. What are the two different system of measurement ?
11. What is the difference between mass & weight ?
12. Define significant figures.
13. Define precision.
14. Which measurement is more precise 4.0g or 4.00g ? [Ans. 4.00 g]
15. How many significant figures are there in (i) 3.070 and (ii) 0.0025 ?
[Ans. (i) 4 (ii) 2]
16. Express the following in the scientific notation : (i) 0.0048 (ii) 234,000
17. State Avogadro’s law.
18. State law of definite proportions.
19. State Gay Lussac’s Law of combining volumes of gases.
20. If ten volumes of dihydrogen gas react with five volumes of dioxygen
gas, how much volume of water vapour would be produced ?
[Ans. 10 volumes]
21. Define unified mass (u).
22. Calculate the number of atoms in 32.0 u of He. [Ans. 8]
23. Define molar volume of a gas.
24. What is the volume of 17 g of NH3 gas at STP (298 K, 1 atm) ?
[Ans. 22.4 L]
25. What is the value of one mole ?
26. Calculate the number of molecules present in 22.0 g of CO2.
[Ans. 3.011 × 1023]

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 5

 27. How many molecules of SO2 are present in 11.2 L at STP ?
[Ans. 3.011 × 1023]
28. Which has more number of atoms ? 1.0 g Na or 1.0 g Mg. [Ans. 1.0 g Na]
29. How many oxygen atoms are present in 16 g of ozone (O3) ?
[Ans. 2.007 × 1023]
30. At STP, what will be the volume of 6.022 × l023 molecules of H2 ?
[Ans. 22.4L]
31. 1L of a gas at STP weighs 1.97g. What is molecular mass ?
[Ans. 44.128 g mol–1]
32. Write the relationship between empirical formula and molecular formula.
33. Which is more informative ? Empirical formula or Molecular formula.
34. A subtance has molecular formula C6H12O6. What is its empirical formula.
35. Empirical formula of a compound X(Molar mass = 78 mol–1) is CH. Write
its molecular formula.
36. How are 0.5 mol Na2CO3 and 0.5 M Na2CO3 different from each other ?
37. Why molality is preferred over molarity of a solution ?
38. Define molarity of a solution.
39. What is the effect of temperature on molarity of solution ?
40. What is limiting reactant in a reaction ?

2 - Mark Questions
1. How can we say that sugar is solid and water is liquid?
2. How is matter classified at macroscopic level?
3. Classify following substances as element, compounds and mixtures : water,
tea, silver, steel, carbon dioxide and platinum.
4. The body temperature of a normal healthy person is 37°C. Calculate its
value in°F.

6 Chemistry Class XI
 5. At what temperature will both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales read the
same value?
6. Convert 5L into m3.
7. What does the following prefixes stand for :
(a) pico (b) nano (c) micro (d) deci
8. How many significant figures are present in the answer of the following
calculations :
(i) 0.0125 + 0.8250 + 0.025

(ii)

9. Convert ‘450 pm’ into SI unit and write the answer in scientific notation
upto 2 significant figures.
[Ans. 4.5 × 10 m]–10

10. The density of vanadium is 5.96 g cm–3. Express this in SI unit.

[Ans. 5960 kg m–3]
11. 45.4 L of dinitrogen reacted with 22.7 L of dioxygen and 45.4 L of nitrous
oxide was formed. The reaction is given below : 2 N2 (g)+ O2 (g) → 2 N2O
(g) Which law is being obeyed in this experiment? Write the statement of
the law.

12. Write main points of Dalton’s atomic theory.

13. Give one example each of a molecule in which empirical formula and
molecular formula is (i) Same (ii) Different.

14. Calculate the number of moles in the following masses :

(i) 7.85g of Fe; (ii) 7.9mg of Ca

15. Calculate average atomic mass of chlorine using following data:

Isotope   % Natural abundance   Molar mass

35Cl 75.77 34.9689
37Cl 24.33 36.9659 [Ans. 35.5 u]

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 7

 16. Calculate the percent of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in ethanol (C2H5OH)
[Ans. 52.14%, 13.13%, 34.73%]
17. How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of CuSO4 ? [Ans. 39.8g]
18. Calculate the amount of water (g) produced by the combustion of 16 g of
methane. [Ans. 36g]
19. How many moles of methane are required to produce 22 g CO2 (g) after
combustion? [Ans. 0.5 mol]
20. A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water.
Calculate the mass per cent of the solute. [Ans. 10%]
21. Calculate molarity of water if its density is 1.00 g mL-1. [Ans. 55.56 M]
22. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its
4 g in enough water to form 250 mL of the solution. [Ans. 0.4 M]
23. The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL-1. Calculate molality of
the solution. [Ans. 2.8m]
24. Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which the mole
fraction of ethanol is 0.040 (assume the density of water to be one).
[Ans. 2.31 M]
25. NH3 gas can be prepared by Haber’s process as, N2(g) + 3H2 (g) →
2NH3(g). At a particular moment concentration of all the species is 2
moles; calculate the concentration of N2 and H2 taken initially.
[Ans. 3 mole, 5 moles]
26. A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with
chloroform, CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of
contamination was 15 ppm (by mass).
(i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
[Ans. (i) ~ 15 × 10–14 g (ii) 1.25 × 10–4 m]

8 Chemistry Class XI
 27. Potassium superoxide, KO2 is used in rebreathing gas masks to generate
oxygen.
4KO2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 4KOH(s) + 3O2(g)
If a reaction vessel contains 0.15 mol KO2 and 0.10 mol H2O, what is the
limiting reactant? How many moles of oxygen can be produced?
[Ans. KO2, 1.125 mol]
28. How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 g of MnO2 according to the
equation.
4HCl(aq) + MnO2(s) → 2H2O(l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) [Ans. 8.40 g]
29. 0.5 mol of H2S and SO2 are mixed together in a reaction flask in which the
following reaction takes place : 2H2S (g) + SO2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
Calculate the number of moles of sulphur formed. [Ans. 0.75 mol]
30. Pure oxygen is prepared by thermal decomposition of KC1O3 according
to the equation :

Calculate the volume of oxygen gas liberated at STP by heating 12.25 g
KClO3(s). [Ans. 3.36 L]

31. The density (in g mL–1) of a 3.60 M sulphuric acid solution that is 29%
H2SO4 (Molar mass = 98g mol–1) by mass will be..... [Ans. 1.21 g/ml]
32. The cost of table salt (NaCl) is Rs. 10 per Kg. calculate its cost per mole.
(Moar mass of NaCl is 58.5 gmol–1) [Ans. 0.58 Rs.]
33. Mole fraction of the solute in a 1.00 molal aqueous solutioon is......
[Ans. 0.0177]
34. Disolving 120 g of urea (Molar mas of urea = 60 g mol–1) in 1000 of
water gave a solution of density 1.15 g/mL. The molarity of the solution
is .............. [Ans. 2.05 M]

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 9

 35. Calculate the percentage of N in urea. (Molar mass of urea = 60 g mol–1]
[Ans. 46.66%]
36. 7.5 grams of gas occupy 5.6 Litres of volume at STP. The gas is .........
(a)
NO (b) N2O (c) CO (d) CO2
[Ans. NO]
37. 25 mL of 3.0 M HCl are mixed with 75 mL of 4.0 M HCl. If the volumes
are additive, the molarity of the final mixture will be. [Ans. 3.75 M]
38. Hydrogen peroxide and water contain 5.93% and 11.2% of hydrogen
respectively. Show that the data illustrate law of multiple proportions.
39. How many atoms and molecules are present in 124 g of phosphorus
(P4)? [Ans. Atoms = 4 NA & Molecules = NA]
3 - Marks Questions

1. Give three main points of difference between a compound and a mixture.

2. Define homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture with example.
3. Write seven fundamental quantities & their units
4. Pressure is defined as force per unit area of the surface. The SI unit of
pressure, Pascal is :
1Pa = 1 Nm–2
If mass of air at sea level is 1034 g cm-2, calculate the pressure in Pascal.
[Ans. 1.01332 × 105 Pa] 
5. The following data are obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react
together to form different compounds :
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Mass of dinitrogen 14 14 28 28
Mass of dioxygen 16 32 32 80
Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by the above experimental
data ? Give its statement.

10 Chemistry Class XI
 6. Calculate :
(i) Mass in gram of 5.8 mol N2O
(ii) Number of moles in 8.0 g of O2
(iii) Molar mass if 11.2 L at STP weigh 8.5 g.
[Ans. (i) 255.2 g (ii) 0.25 mol (iii) 17 g mol–1]
7. In three moles of ethane (C2H6), calculate the following :
(i) Number of moles of carbon atom,
(ii) Number of moles of hydrogen atoms,
(iii) Number of molecules of ethane.
[Ans. (i) 6 moles, (ii) 18 moles, (iii) 1.81 × 1024]
8. 16 g of an ideal gas SOx occupies 5.6 L at STP. What is its molecular
mass ? What is the value of X ? [Ans. 64u, x = 2]
9. Calculate the number of moles :
(i) 5.0 L of 0.75 M Na2CO3
(ii) 7.85 g of Fe
(iii) 34.2 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) [Ans. (i) 3.75, (ii) 0.14, (iii) 0.1]
10. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following :
(i) 52 moles of Ar. (ii) 52u of He (iii) 52g of He.
[Ans. (i) 3.13 × 1025 (ii) 13 (iii) 7.83 × 1024]
11. Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of
0.2000g of vitamin C gives 0.2998g of CO2 and 0.819g of H2O. What is
the empirical formula of vitamin C ?
12. A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen, 24.27% carbon and 71.65%
chlorine. Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular
formulas? [Ans. CH2C1, C2H4Cl2]
13. A compound made up of two elements A and B has A = 70%, B = 30%.
Their relative number of moles in the compound is 1.25 and 1.88, calculate :
(i) Atomic masses of the elements A and B
(ii) Molecular formula of the compound , if its molecular mass is found
to be 160. [Ans. (i) 56 and 16, (ii) A2B3]

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 11

 14. Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) required for making
500 mL of 0.375 molar aqueous solution. (Molar mass of sodium acetate
is 82.0245 g mol–1). [Ans. 15.375 g]
15. Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample
which has a density, 1.41 g mL–1 and the mass per cent of nitric acid in it
being 69%. [Ans. 15.44 M]
16. What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in mol L–1 if its 20 g are
dissolved in enough water to make a final volume up to 2L ? [Ans. 0.029 M]
17. Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl according to the reaction :
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75
M HCl ? [Ans.0.94 g]
18. The reaction 2C + O2 → 2CO is carried out by taking 24.0 g of carbon
and 96.0 g of O2. Find out.
(i) Which reactant is left in excess ?
(ii) How much of it is left ?
(iii) How many grams of the other reactant should be taken so that nothing
is left at the end of the reaction ? [Ans. (i) O2, (ii) 64 g, (iii) 72]
19. A 10 g sample of a mixture of calcium chloride and sodium chloride is
treated with Na2CO3 to precipitate calcium as calcium carbonate. This
CaCO3 is heated to convert all the calcium to CaO and the final mass of
CaO is 1.62 g. Calculate % by mass of NaCl in original solution.
[Ans. 67.9%]
20. 3.0 gm of H2 react with 29.0 gm of O2 yield H2O.
(i) Which is the limiting reagent?
(ii) Calculate the maximum amount of H2O that can be formed.
(iii) Calculate the amount of the reactant left unreacted.
[Ans. H2, 26.8g H2O & 5.2 g O2]
21. Zinc and hydrochloric acid react accordingly to the reaction:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
If 0.30 mol Zn are added to hydrochloric acid containing 0.52 mol of HCl,

12 Chemistry Class XI
 How many moles of H2 are produced?
[HCl is limiting reagent; H2 formed = 0.36 mol]
22. How many moles of Lead (II) chloride will be formed from a reaction
between 6.5g of PbO and 3.2 g of HCl? [Atomic mass of Pb = 207 u]
[Ans: 0.029 mole]
23. What volume of oxygen at N.T.P is needed to cause the complete
combustion of 200 ml of acetylene? Also calculate the volume of carbon
dioxide formed. [Ans: 500 mL of O2 & 400 mL of CO2]
5 - Marks Questions
1. (i) A black dot used as a full stop at the end of a sentence has a mass of
about one attogram. Assuming that the dot is made up of carbon, calculate
the approximate number of carbon atoms present in the dot.
[Hint : 1 attogram = 10–18 g] [Ans. 5.02 × 104]
(ii) Which one of the following will have largest number of atoms ?
(a) 1g Au (s) (b) 1g Na (s) (c) 1g Li (s) (d) 1g of Cl2(g)
[Ans. (i) 39.81 g (ii) 1 g of Li]
2. (i) What is the difference between empirical formula and molecular
formula ?
(ii) A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only. Burning a small
sample of it in oxygen gas 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g of water and
no other products. A volume of 10.0 L (measured at STP) of this welding
gas is found to weigh 11.6 g. Calcuate (i) Empirical formula, (ii) molar
mass of the gas, and (iii) Molecular formula.
[Ans. (i) CH, (ii) 26 g mol–1, (iii) C2H2]
3. (i) What is the difference between Molarity and Molality.
(ii) The Molarity of a solution of sulphuric acid is 1.35 M. Calculate its
molality. (The density of acid solution is 1.02 g cm–3). [Ans. 1.52 m]
4. (i) Define : (a) Mole fraction (b) Mass percentage.
(ii) If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L–1, what is its volume needed
for making 2.5 L of its 0.25 M solution ? [Ans. 0.0025 L]

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 13

 Chapter - 2
Structure of

Atom
• Information about fundamnetal particles of atom
Name of UNIT Electron Proton Neutron
Constant
Mass amu 0.000546 1.00728 1.008665
kg 9.109 × 10–31 1.673 × 10–27 1.675 × 10–27
Charge Coloumbs – 1.602 × 10–19 + 1.602 × 10–19 Zero
esu – 4.8 × 10–10 + 4.8 × 10–10 Zero
Relative – 1 + 1 Zero

• Electromagnetic radiations : Energy emitted from any source (in forms

of waves) in which electric and magnetic fields oscillated perpendicular to
each other and travelling with a velocity of light is known as EM radiation.
• Characteristics of waves :
(a) Wavelength : The distance of one crest and
one trough in a wave. Denoted by ‘λ’.
(b) Frequency : Number of waves passing
through a given point in one second.

Denoted by υ.

(c) Amplitude : The height of crest or depth of a trough denoted by ‘a’.

(d) Wave Number : Number of waves per unit length denoted by

= (or m–1)

14 Chemistry Class XI
 (e) Velocity : Linear distance travelled by a wave in one second.

velocity of light c = =

∴ υ =

• Energywise order for EM radiation.

cosmic < γ rays < X rays < UV < VIBGYOR < IR < Microwaves < Radiowaves
→
λ (Inc.) υ (Dec.) Energy (Dec.)

• Photon : A packet or particle of light energy is knows as Photon.

• Planck’s quantum theory : The energy emitted or absorbed by a source

is discontinuous in form of small packet of energy, called quantum.
Quantum of light is called photon.
E a v
E = hv (h = Planck's constant)
E = nhv (h = 6.626×10–34 J sec)
If ‘n’ photons are emitted E = nhυ

• Photo electric effect : The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a

metal surface when a light of suitable frequency falls on metal surface.

hυ – hυ0 = mv2

hυ ⇒ Energy of incident light on metal surface.

hυ0 ⇒ Work function of metal.

mv2 = Kinetic energy by which e– is emitted from metal surface.

• de Broglie equation : All material particles in motion also exhibit wave like
properties.
h h
λ= =
mv p

Structure of Atom 15
 For microscopic particles mass is very less therefore Wavelength of wave
associated with it can be detected.

For macroscopic particles mass is large, λ of wave associated with it can

not be detected. Hence dominant wave character.

Hence microscopic bodies have dual nature, where as macroscopic bodies

have particle nature.

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to determine the exact position and velocity of a moving

subatomic particle simultaneously with accuracy.

∆x × m∆v ≥

∆x = uncertainty in position

∆v = uncertainty in velocity

Bohr’s theory for H [H like one e– systems He+; Li2+]

(1) e– revolving round the nucleus in circular path [stationary state; SHELL]
with a definite angular momentum [n no. of shell of e–] and with
definite energy

En = ⇒ – 2.18 × 10–18

(2) As n increases, Energy of e– becomes less – ve [Due to less force of Proton

attraction]

As n decreases, Energy of e– becomes More – ve [Due to more force of

attraction by protons]

(3) In infinity shell e– has zero force of attraction therefore zero energy.

16 Chemistry Class XI
 (4) Electron energy only changes by definite values ∆E = Ef – Ei.

Hydrogen spectrum : When e– in hydrogen atom is provided energy it gets

excited to higher shell from ground state, it comes back to ground state by
emitting energy in definite values.
“Quanta” : The emission of light energy is known as emission spectra. It
corresponds to each atom depending upon which energy shell e– is excited.
It is discontinuous spectra as ‘λ’ of light radiations do not merge with each
other like in VIBGYOR (Continous Spectra).
When e– falls from any excited state to

= 1,09,678 R = Rydberg constant = 109678 cm–1

ni = 1, nf = 2, 3, 4, .... [Lyman series] (UV)

ni = 2, nf = 3, 4, 5, .... [Balmer series] (VIBGYOR)

ni = 3, nf = 4, 5, 6 [Paschem series] IR.

ni = 4, nf = 5, 6, 7 [Bracket series] IR.

ni = 5, nf = 6, 7, 8 [Pfund series] IR.

Quantum numbers : The noumbers which completely define the state of

e– in an atom.
(1) Principal Quantum No. : It describes the distance of e– from nucleus ‘n’
i.e., defines the shell no. It is denoted by ‘n’.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....
K, L, M, N, O .....
(2) Azimuthal (l) Quantum No. : It defines the path of e– decided by angular
momentum of e–. Each angular momentum value corresponds to one
subshell. The no. of subshells in a shell is 0 to n – 1.

Structure of Atom 17
 n l (0 to n-1)
1 0 l = 0 ‘s’ subshell

2 0, 1 l = 1 ‘p’ subshell

3 0, 1, 2 l = 2 ‘d’ subshell

4, 0, 1, 2, 3 l = 3 ‘f ’ subshell
All subshells are wave functions for locating e–.
In the same shell energy increase s < p < d < f.
(3) Magnetic Quantum No. : It gives the no. of magnetic orientations
an e– can have in a subshell. That is number of orbitals in a sub-shell.
ms = –l........o........+ l = (2l + 1).
(4) Spin Quantum No. : An e– is continuously spinning on its own axis.
1 1
The value of s = or –
2 2
An orbital can have maximum two e– one with clockwise and other with
anticlockwise spin.
Aufbau principle
(a) Electrons are filled in increasing order of energy of sub-shell.
(b) As ‘n + l’value increases energy of e– increases in that sub-shell.
(c) For two sub-shells with same ‘n + l’ value, as ‘n’ value increases
energy of e– increases.
Pauli’s principle
No two electrons can have same set of four quantum numbers in an atom.
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
The pairing of e– in degenerate orbitals (different orbitals with same energy)
will get paired only once they have been singly occupied with same spin.
Important Points
The filling of e– in subshells follows this order. (As per Aufbau principle)
(A) 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p
< 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p

18 Chemistry Class XI
 (B) Half filled and completely filled subshells have more stability than
incompletely filled subshells.
Cr = [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Cu = [Ar] 4s1 3d10
(C) As the shell no. inc. size of subshell increases e.g., size of (2s > 1s) ; (3p
> 2p); (4d > 3d)
(D) The region in an orbital where probability of finding the e– is zero is known
as Nodal plane (or Node).
The no. of [radial nodes] = n – l – 1 & Angular Nodes = l, Total nodes = n–1.

(E) ψ(psi) ψ2(psi square)

A wave function for The square of wave function where
locating an electron the probability of finding the e– is
maximum.
[Each value of ψ2 is a region and defines
one orbital]

(F) Orbit Orbital

(1) A definite distance from the (1) A probability region for locating
nucleus for finding the e– the e– around the nuclues.
[e– as a particle] It is a wave function [e– as a wave]

(2) It has definite size and e– in (2) It does not define definite size.
this orbit has definite energy. But only a boundary region diagram
of a wave for locating the e–.

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
A. Fundamental particles of an atom, Electromagnetic Spectrum &
Bohr’s Theory
1 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. If the length of the crest of a wave is 4 pm. Write the wavelength of
this wave. [Ans.8 pm]
Q. 2. A radiation emitted from a hot iron is photon or quantum ?

Structure of Atom 19
 Q. 3. The line spectrum of an element is known as fingerprints of its atom.
Comment
Q. 4. What is the value of the Bohr’s radius for the first orbit of hydrogen
atom ?
Q. 5. Distinguish between a photon and a quantum.
Q. 6. What type of metals are used in photoelectric cell ? Give one example.
[Ans. With large size, less work function.]
Q. 7. Which series of lines of the hydrogen spectrum lie in the visible
region'?
Q. 8. Cs shows maximum photoelectric effect, why ?
Q. 9. Mention the physical significance of ψ and ψ2.
Q. 10. Why did Heisenberg's uncertainty principle replaces the concept of
definite orbit by the concept of probability?
Q. 11. What is uncertain in uncertainty principle ?
Q. 12. Can a moving cricket ball have a wave character ? Justify your answer.
Q. 13. Heisenberg uncertainty principle has no significance in our everyday
life. Explain.
Q. 14. Out of the d orbitals which does not have four lobes ?
Q. 15. Write the Schrodinger wave equation.
Q. 16. Why uncertainty in position is more when uncertainty in velocity is
less for an electron ?
Q. 17. What is the lowest value of n that allows g orbitals to exist ?
Q. 18. What are the four quantum numbers of 19th electron of copper ?
(Given : Atomic number of copper = 29)
Q. 19. Which quantum number is not obtained from solution of Schrödinger
wave equation ?
Q. 20. How many electrons will be present in the sub-shells having ms, value
of – 1/2 for n = 4 ?
Q. 21. Write the electronic configuration of Ni2+. (At. No. of Ni = 28)
Q. 22. How many radial and angular nodes are present in 2p orbital.
[Ans. Radial nodes = 0, Angular nodes = 1]

20 Chemistry Class XI
 Q. 23. Which of the following orbitals are possible ?
1p, 2s, 2p and 3f
Q. 24. Write the name of non-directional subshell.
Q. 25. Write the name of quantum number which determines the orientation
of orbitals.
Q. 26. Write the name of quantum number which determines the shape of
orbitals.
Q. 27. Using s, p, d notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum
numbers :
(a) n = 4, l = 2 (b) n = 1, l = 0. [Ans. (a) 4d (b) 1s]
Q. 28. How many orbitals are present in 'g' subshell ?
Q. 29. How many total electrons can be filled in all orbitals with
(n + l) = 5 ? [Ans. 18 electrons (4p6 3d10 5s2]
Q. 30. Name the dipositive ion represented by the electronic configuration
: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6. [Ans. Ca2+]
Q. 31. Is it correct to say that every atom with even atomic number has all
electron paired ?
Q. 32. Cr in ground state has how many unpaired electrons.
(Cr, Atomic number = 24).
Q. 33. Which has more energy of electron 4p or 5s ?
Q. 34. Nitrogen has correct configuration of 1s2, 2s2, 2px1,2py1, 2pz1 is
described by which principle ?
Q. 35. What are degenerate orbitals ?

2 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. Define black body and black body radiations.
Q. 2. Give the essential postulates of Bohr’s model of an atom. How did it
explain ?
(i) the stability of the atom ?
(ii) origin of the spectral lines in H-atom ?

Structure of Atom 21
 Q. 3. What is quantisation ? How quantisation of energy was introduced
in Bohr’s model ?
Q. 4. What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same
wavelength as the Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of He+spectrum?
[Ans. n1 = 1 and n2 = 2]
Q. 5. What transition of Li2+ spectrum will have the same wavelength as
that of the second line of Balmer series in He+spectrum ?
[Ans. n2 = 6 to n1 = 3]
Q. 6. Calculate the energy required for the process
He+(g) ——→ He2+ (g) + e–
The ionization energy for the H atom in the ground state is 2.18 ×
10–18 J atom–1] [Ans. 8.72 × 10–18 J]
Q. 7. Calculate the wave number for the longest wavelength transition in
the Balmer series of atomic hydrogen. [Ans. 1.523 × 106 m–1]
Q. 8. To which orbit the electron in H atom will jump on absorbing 12.1
eV energy ? [Ans. 3rd orbit]
Q. 9. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+. What is
the radius of this orbit? [Ans. – 54.38 eV, 0.2645 Å]
Q. 10. What is the distance of separation between 3rd and 4th orbit of
H-atom ? [Ans. 3.703 Å]
Q. 11. The energy of electron in the first Bohr’s orbit is – 13.6 eV. Calculate
the energy of electron in the first excited state. [Ans. – 3.4 eV]
Q. 12. Calculate the number of protons emitted in 10 hours by a 60 W sodium
lamp emitting radiations of wavelength 6000 Å.
Q. 13. Which one has a higher energy, a photon of violet light with wavelength
4000 Å or a proton of red light with wavelength 7000 Å ?
[Given. h = 6.62 × 10–34 J sec.]
Q. 14. A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm.
Calculate the number of protons emitted per second by the bulb.
[Ans. 2.012 × 1020 s–1]

22 Chemistry Class XI
 Q. 15. What are the maximum number of emission lines when the excited
electron of a H atom in n = 4 drops to the ground state ? [Ans. 6]
Q. 16. Which has more energy, light radiation of wavelength 400 pm or light
radiation of frequency 1015 Hz ?
Q. 17. Find the energy of electron in 4th shell of Li2+ ion.
Q. 18. What is the wave number of an electron with shortest wavelength
radiation in Lyman spectrum of He+ ion?
Q. 19. Write short note on :
(a) Continuous and discontinuous spectrum.
(b) Absorbtion and emission spectrum.
Q. 20. Calculate the mass of the photon with wavelength of 3 .6 Å.
[Ans. 6.135 × 10–29 kg]
Q. 21. Calculate the mass of the photon with wavelength of 5 pm.
Q. 22. On the basis of uncertainty principle show that an electron cannot
exist with in atomic nucleus. (Given : Nuclear radius = 10–I5 m)
[Hint : Taking 10–15 m as ∆x, the ∆v comes much higher than the
velocity of light and hence is not possible]
Q. 23. Explain why the uncertainty principle is significant only from the
motion of subatomic particles and is negligible for macroscopic
particles?
Q. 24. List two differences between orbit and orbital .
Q. 25. Show that the circumference of the Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom
is an integral multiple of the de Broglie wavelength associated with
the electron revolving around the orbit
Q. 26. Comment on “Bohr’s model is against the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle”.
Q. 27. What are the similarities and difference in 2s and 2px orbitals and 1s
and 2s orbitals ?
Q. 28. Draw shape of d x 2 − y2 orbital.

Structure of Atom 23
 Q. 29. On the basis of Pauli’s exclusion principle show that the maximum
number of electrons in the M -shell (n = 3 ) of any individual atom
is 18.

Q. 30. Designate each subshell with n = 4.

Q. 31. List the possible values for all the quantum numbers for the following
subshell.

(a) 2p (b) 4f

Q. 32. Write down the electronic configuration of Fe3+ and Ni2+. How many
unpaired electrons are present? (Given Atomic number, Fe = 26,
Ni = 28).

Q. 33. Out of principal, angular, magnetic and spin quantum number, which
quantum number determines the ?

(a) Shape of the orbital

(b) Number of orbitals in an orbit

(c) Size of the orbital

(d) Spin orientation of the electron.

Q. 34. What is the Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity ? Explain with

suitable example.

Q. 35. Explain why :

(a) The three electrons present in 2p subshell of nitrogen remain

unpaired.

(b) Cr has configuration 3d5 4s1 and not 3d4 4s2.

Q. 36. (a) What is difference between 'l' and 'L'?

(b) Nitrogen has 7 proton, 7 electron and 7 neutrons. Calculate the

number of electron, protons and neutrons in N3– ion.

Q. 37. Which one is having higher energy?

(a) Last electron of Cl– or last electron of O2–.

(b) n = 4, l = 3 or n = 5, l = 2.

24 Chemistry Class XI
 3 - Mark Questions
Q. 1.(i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is
– 2.18 × 10–18 J atom-1. What is the energy associated with the fourth
orbit ?
(ii) Calculate the radius of Bohr’s third orbit for hydrogen atom.
[Ans.– 1.36 × 10–19 J atom–l .4.761 nm]
Q. 2. A bulb emits light of wave length 4500Å. The bulb is rated as 150
watt and 8% of the energy is emitted as light. How many photons are
emitted by the bulb per second ? [Ans. n = 27.2 × 1018]
Q. 3. When light with a wavelength of 400 nm falls on the surface of sodium,
electrons with a kinetic energy of 1.05 × 105 J mol-1 are emitted.
(a) What is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
sodium ?
(b) What is the maximum wavelength of light that will cause a
photoelectron to be emitted ?
[Ans. a = 3.2255 × 1019 J, b = 616 nm]
Q. 4. Compare the frequency of light radiations emitted when electron falls
from 5th shell to the 2nd shell in Li2+ ion and electron falls from 4th
shell to the 1st shell in He+ ion.
Q. 5. Calculate the number of waves made by Bohr electron in one complete
revolution in its third orbit. [Ans. 3]
Q. 6. What should be the ratio of velocities of CH4 and O2 molecules
so that they are associated with de Broglie waves of equal
wavelength ? [Ans. 2]
Q. 7. Calculate the wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated in
a particle accelerator through a potential difference of 1 kv.
[Given 1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J] [Ans. 3.87 × l0–7 m]
Q. 8. (i) Discuss the similarities and differences between a 1s and 2s orbital.
(ii) Draw the shape of d z2 .
Q. 9. Calculate the wavelength of a tennis ball of mass 60 gm moving with
a velocity of 10 m per second. (h = 6.626 × 10–34 kg m2 s–1)
[Ans. 10–3 metre]

Structure of Atom 25
 Q. 10. Calculate the wavelength of 1000 kg rocket moving with a velocity
of 3000 km/hr. (h = 6.626 × 10–34 kg m2 s–1)
[Ans. 7.9512 × 10–40 m]
Q. 11. Calculate the uncertain it in the velocity of a cricket ball of mass 150
g, if uncertainity in its position is of the order of 1 Å.
[Ans. 3.5 × 10–24 m s1]
Q. 12. (a) What is de-Broglie wavelength for an electron moving with velocity
of light?
(b) What is the angular momentum of electron in 5th shell?
Q. 13. Two particles A and B have wavelength λA = 5 × 10–10 m and λB =
10 × 1010 m. Find their frequency, wave number and energies. Which
has more penetrating power and why ?
Q. 14. (a)Which has max. uncertainty regarding position and why ?
Electron, proton and neutron.
(b) Find the number of waves associated with a light radiation of time
period 5 ns.
Q. 15. If an electron in He+ has angular momentum of 5h/2π. Find its energy
and wavelength associated with it. Find the kinetic energy of this
electron.
Q. 16 .(i) An atomic orbital has n = 2. What are the possible values of l and ml ?
(ii) List the quantum numbers (m1 and l) of electrons for 3d orbital.
(iii) Which of the following orbitals are possible ?
2d, 1s, 2p and 3f.
Q. 17. (a) Write the maximum number of electron in a subshell with l = 3 and
n = 4.
(b) Write the maximum number of electron that can be associated with
the following set of quantum numbers ?
n = 3, l = 1 and ml = – 1
(c) Write the maximum number of electron that can be accomodated in
an atom in which the highest principal quantum number value is 4.
Q. 18. (i) Write the electronic configurations of the following ions :
(a) H– (b)Na+ (c)O2– (d) F–
26 Chemistry Class XI
 (ii) What are the atomic numbers of elements whose outermost electrons
are represented by (a) 3s1(b) 2p3 and (c) 3p5 ?
(iii) Which atoms are indicated by the following configurations ?
(a) [He] 2s1 (b) [Ne] 3s2 3p3 (c) [Ar] 4s2 3d1.
Q. 19. Calculate:
(a) Total number of spherical nodes in 3p orbital.
(b) Total number of nodal planes in 3p orbital.
(c) Nodal planes in 3d orbital.
5 - Mark Questions
Q. 1.(a) Define Photoelectric effect ? Mention its one practical application in
daily life.
(b) Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when
it is exposed to radiation of wavelength 6800 Å. Calculate threshold
frequency (νo) and work function (Wo ) of the metal.
[Ans. νo = 4.41 × 1014 s–1 Wo = 2.92 × 10–19 J]
Q. 2.(a) The electronic energy in Bohr’s orbit is negative .How will you account
for it?
(b) The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. What will be the
energy of the first orbit of He+ and Li2+ ions ?
[Ans. E1 of He+ = – 54.4 eV, E1 of Li2+ = – 122.4 eV ]
Q. 3.(a) Define the following terms :
(i) Threshold frequency (ii) Work function.
(b) The work function for Cs atom is 1 .9 eV. Find threshold wavelength
(λ0)and threshold frequency (ν0) of this light radiation. If Cs metal is
irradiated with a radiation of wavelength 500 nm find kinetic energy
and velocity of emitted electron.
Q. 4.(a) State de Broglie equation. Write its significance.
(b) A beam of helium atoms moves with a velocity of 2.0 × 103 m s–1.
Find the wavelength of the particle constituting the beam
(h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s) [Ans. 49.9 pm ]
Q. 5.(a) State Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical
expression. Also give its significance.

Structure of Atom 27
 (b) Calculate the uncertainity in the position of a dust particle with mass
equal to 1 mg if the uncertainity in its velocity is 5.5 × l0–20ms–1.
[Ans. 9.55 × 1010 m]
Q. 6.(a) Cricket ball, a tennis ball and a proton which has more uncertainity
in velocity and which follows Heisenberg uncertainity principle
maximum.
(b) What is the similarity in de-Broglie and Heisenberg principle? Which
is different from Bohr theory for structure of atom?
(c) Why energy in a given subshell is negative?
Q. 7.(a) Write short notes on:
(i) Aufbau principle (ii) Pauli’s principle (iii) Hund’s rule.
(b) Write the electronic configuration of the following ions :
(i) Fe3+ (ii) Cu+ [Given Atomic number of Fe and
Cu are 26 & 29]
Q. 8.(a) Draw the shapes of the following orbitals.
(i) 3dxy (ii) dz2
(b) What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal
quantum number n = 3 ?
(c)
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following
quantum numbers:-
(a) n = 3, l = 0, (b) n = 4, l = 2, (c) n = 5, l = 3, (d) n = 1, l = 0
Q .9. Explain the following :
(i) Energy of electron is not decided by : n, l ,m and s.
(ii) Maximum number of electron with – 1/2 spin for n = 3 is 6,9,12
or none.
(iii) Maximum number of electron can be present for n + l = 4.
(iv) 3f subshell is not possible.
(v) Maximum number of electrons in a subshell is :
(2l + l) or (4l + l) or n2

28 Chemistry Class XI
 Q. 10.(a) A neutral atom has 2K, 8L and 15 M electrons. Find the total numbers
of electrons in s, p, d and f subshell.
(b) How many unpaired electrons are present in the following ions :
Al+, Cr2+, Co3+ and Mn2+
(Given Atomic number : Al=13, Cr = 24, Co = 27 & Mn = 25)
(c) One electron is present in 4f subshell. What is the sum of n + l +
m1 + ms values assuming ‘f ’ subshell follows – 3 to + 3 order of
filling electron.
Q. 11. Answer the following :
n + l value for 14th electron in an atom.
(a)
(b) Increasing order of filling electron in 4f, 5p and 6d subshells.
(c)
‘m’ and ‘l’ value for last electron of Mg atom.
(Given atomic number of Mg is 12)
(d) Subshell in which last electron is present in Ga.
(Given Atomic number of Ga is 31)
(e) Sum of spin of all the electron in element having atomic number 14.

Structure of Atom 29
The first systematic classification of elements was provided by Russian chemist
D.I. Mendeleev.
1. Mendeleev's periodic law
“The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions
of their atomic weight.”
2. It was modified to Modern Periodic law :
“The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions
of their atomic numbers.”
It is the long form of periodic table :
7 Horizontal rows are called Periods and 18 Vertical columns are called
Group
Group-1 are called Alkali metals Group-2 are called Alkaline earth metals.
Group-15 are called Pnicogens Group-16 are called Chalcogens
Group-17 are called Halogens Group-18 are called Noble gases
3. 1st
period—2 elements 2nd and 3rd period—8 elements
4th and 5th period—18 elements 6th period—32 elements
7th period—Incomplete (32 elements)
4. Groups
1 and 2 — ‘s’ block elements last electron entered in ‘s’ subshell [s1, s2]
3 to 12 — ‘d’ block elements last electrons entered in ‘d’ subshell [d1 to d10].
13 to 18 — ‘p’ block elements last electrons enter in ‘p ’ subshell [p1 to p6].
Two f-block series lanthanoids and actinoids are placed in the bottom of
periodic table.
5. (A) In ‘s’ and ‘p’ block elements the electrons enters in outer most shell.
In ‘d’ block elements the electron enters in the penultimate shell (n – 1).

30 Chemistry Class XI
 ‘f ’ block elements last electron enter the antepenultimate shell (n – 2).
(B) ‘f ’ block elements are placed in between ‘d’ block elements.
‘f ’ block elements in 2 rows [4f lanthanoids, 5f actinoids]
6. General outer electronic configuration
‘s’ block : ns1, ns2 [Group 1 to 2]
‘p’ block : ns1np1 to ns2 np6 Group 13 to 18
‘d’ block : ns0–2 (n – 1) d1 to 10 Group 3 to 12
‘f ’ block : (n – 2)f 1 to 14 (n – 1)d0, 1 ns2
7. General periodic trends in properties of elements
Atomic Radius
(A) Left to right decreases due to effect of successive increasing nuclear change
without addition of a new shell.
(B) From top to bottom atomic radius increases due to successive addition of
shell.
(C) Noble gases have large radius than group 17 due to complete filling of
electron in outer shell electron-electron repulsion mildy increases.
Covalent radius
It is half of the distance between the centre of nuclei of two adjacent similiar
atoms which are bonded to each other by single covalent bond.
van der waal's radius
van der waal's radius is defined as one-half the distance between the centres
of nuclei of two nearest like atoms belonging to two adjacent molecules of the
element in the solid state.

Metallic radius
Half of the distance between the centres of the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in the
metallic crystal. A comparision of the three atomic radii show that van der waal's
radius is maximum while the covalent radius has the least value.
van der waal's radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius
Ionic radius (A) Cation radius < Atomic radius—due to more no. of protons than

Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 31

number of electron coloumbic force increases, size decreases.
[Mg2+ < Mg+ < Mg]
(B) Anion radius > Atomic radius—Due to more number of electron than
number of protons
[N3– > O2– > F–]
Electron-Electron repulsion increase, coloumbic force of attraction
decreases.
For Isoelectronic species—More is the charge of cation lesser the size.
(C)
More is the charge of anion, more is the size.
(D) Size — O2– > F– > Na > Na+ > Mg2+
8. (A) Ionization energy :
The minimum amount of energy which is required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from an isolated atom in the gaseous state is called
Ionization enthalpy.
M(g) + Energy —→ M+ + e–
IE3 > IE2 > IE1
Variation of I.E along a period:
Ionization energy increase along the period because atomic radii decrease
and nuclear charge increase along the period.
I ionization enthalpy Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ar
II ionization enthalpy Be < C < B < N < F < O < Ne
Variation down the group:
Inozation energy decrease down the group because atomic radius increase
down the group.
Metallic behaviour : Decrease from left to right due to increase in
ionization enthalpy.
Non metallic behaviour : Increase from left to right due to more number
of electron in outershell and added electron goes towards nucleus.
(9) Screening effect or shielding effect:-
It is the decrease in the force of attraction between nucleus and outermost
electron due to presence of inner shell electrons. As a result, the outer most

32 Chemistry Class XI
 electrons does not feel full charge of the nucleus. The actual charge felt by
an electron is called effective Nuclear charge.
Shielding effect is in the following order
s > p > d > f
d & f subshell show weak sheilding effect because their orbital size are large
and are more diffused.
(10) Isoelectronic species:
Ions of different elements which have the same number of electons but different
no. of protons are called isoelectronic ions.
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ N3– O2– F–
No. of Protons 11 12 13 7 8 9
No. of electrons 10 10 10 10 10 10
Ionic Radii Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F– < O2– < N3–
(11) Electron gain enthalpy:
The enthalpy change when an extra electron is added to neutral gaseous atom to
form anion.
E(g) + e– → E– (g)
■ Trends—From left to right—Increase due to decrease in size, more attraction
of added electron by nucleus.
■ From top to bottom—Decreases as the added electron is away from nucleus
due to increase in size.
■ Cl has more negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine—Due to small
size of fluorine extra added electron has more inter electronic repulsion than
chlorine which has large size.
■ Similarly Phosphorus and Sulphur have negative electron gain enthalpy than
nitrogen and oxygen respectively.
■ Maximum electron gain enthalpy—Chlorine (in periodic table)
■ Electron gain enthalpy—
Halogen > Oxygen > Nitrogen > Metal of group 1 and 13 and non metal of
group 14 > metal of group 2.
■ 2nd electron gain enthalpy is always positive.

Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 33

(12) Electro negativity:
The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electron towards itself in a
bonded state.
# Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
# Cesium is the least electronegative element in the periodic table.
# Electronegativity is decrease down the group and increase along the period.
Difference between electron gain enthalpy and Electronegativity.
Electron gain enthalpy is the energy, but electronegativity is not the energy, it is
only the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons.
Three highest electronegative atoms F > O > N.
Maximum electronegative Assign to F.
* Lightest element : — Hydrogen
* Lightest metal : — Lithium
* Heaviest metal (highest density) : — Osmium
* Most reactive metal : — Caesium
* Most reactive nonmetal : — Fluorine
* Most malleable metal : — Gold
* Electrically best conductor : — Silver
* Metals which are relatively volatile : — Zn, Cd, Hg
* Strongest reducing agent in aqueous solution : — Lithium
* Strongest oxidising agent : — Fluorine
* The element of lowest ionization energy : — Caesium
* The element of highest ionization energy : — Helium
* The most electronegative element : — Fluorine
* The element of highest electron gain enthalpy : — Chlorine
* The group containing most electropositive metals : — Group 1
* The group containing most electronegative metals : — Halogens Group 17
* The group containing maximum number of gaseous elements : — Group 18

34 Chemistry Class XI
 (13) Second period element—Show different behaviour that I group
element—Due to (a) small size (b) High electron negativity (C) High
polarising power (d) absence of ‘d’ orbital.
Na3[Al(OH)6] exists but Na[B(OH)4] not exists.
(14) The similarities in properties of first member of a group to second member
of just next higher group due to comparable atomic radius, nearly same
polarising power of ions is known as diagonal relationship.
Li Be B C N
Na Mg Al Si P
Elements with number of e– in valance shell
(a) 1, 2, 3 metals
(b) 4 metalloids
(c) 5, 6, 7 non-metals
(d) 8 noble gas

1 -Mark Questions
1. Metals are placed on which side of modern periodic table ?

2. Which pair of elements has similar properties ? [Ans. 13, 31]

3. Which atomic number refers to a non-metal elements ? [Ans. 17, 35]

Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 35

 4. Eka Aluminium & Eka silicon are known as ...... and ........ .
5. (a) Name the element which exhibit diagonal relationship with Be.
(b) Which group elements are known as chalcogens?

6. Which pair of elements are ‘s’ block elements ? [Ans. Both]

7. The element with ns2, np5 configuration is non-metal or metal ?

8. Define van der waal's radius.
9. Write the outer shell configuration of atomic number 31. [Ans. 4s2 4p1]
10. Find the group number and period number of element having atomic
number 52. [Ans. Period = 5th, Group = 16th]
11. Arrange O2–, O–1, O in decreasing radius (size). [Ans. O2– > O–1 > O]
12. Which element is iso-electronic with Na+ ? (Given Na atomic number: 11)
[Ans. Ne]
13. Why noble gas have bigger size than halogens?
14. An element is placed in 5th period and 3rd group what is its atomic no. ?
[Ans. 39]
15. Why first electron gain enthalpy of sulphur is more negative than oxygen?
16. Write general outer electronic configuration of 4f series elements.
[Ans. 6s2 5d0–1 4f 1 to 14]
17. Write the IUPAC name of element with atomic number 115, 107.
18. Write two isoelectronic species with Br (35). [Ans. Kr+ Se–1]
19. What is covalency of Al in [AlCl4]– ? [Ans. 4]
20. Write the IUPAC Symbol for the element having atomic number 120.
[Ans. Ubn]
21. Show that 4th period can have maximum 18 elements in it.
22. Second IE is always more than first IE, why ?
23. Electronegativity of F > Cl > Br > I, why ?
24. Arrange F and Cl in terms of increasing chemical reacitity.
25. Second IE of Na is more than second IE of Mg. Why ?
26. ∆egHΘ1 is exothermic while ∆egHΘ2 is endothermic, justify.

36 Chemistry Class XI
 27. IE for cation is more than neutral atom. Why ?
28. Define diagonal relationship with the help of an example.
29. Out of O– and O, which has more negative electron gain enthalpy?
2 - Mark Questions
1. Cations are smaller than their parent atom whereas anions are larger in
size than their parent atom. Explain.
2. Ionization energy of nitrogen is more than ‘O’ and ‘C’ both, why ?
3. First ionization energy of boron is less than Be but size of Be is less than
Boron. Why ?
4. Electron gain enthalpy of Mg is positive. Explain.
5. Define Covalency
6. The reactivity of halogens decrease down the group but of alkali metals
increases down the group. Why?
7. Name a halogen, a metal and a group13 element which are liquid at
30°C. [Ans. Br, Hg, Ga]
8. The reducing power of elements increases down the group but reverse is
true for oxidising power along a period. Why ?
9. What is the formula of binary compound formed between :
(a) 1st element of 1st group and iodine.
(b) 2nd element of 2nd group and 1st element of 17th group.
10. Arrange in the following in increasing order of property indicated:
(a) Size I, F, Cl, Br
(b) Oxidising power I, F, Br, Cl
11. Oxygen is more non-metallic than nitrogen but less than fluorine why ?
12. LiCl, LiBr, LiI are covalent as well as ionic why ?
13. PbCl2 is more stable than PbCl4. Why ? [Ans. Inert pair effect]
14. [Magnesium and Lithium both form nitrides why ?
15. Which has least IE [3p3, 3p6, 2p3, 2p6]?
16. (a) IE of sulphur is lower than chlorine.
(b) Arrange the following in decreasing order of their electronegativity:
F, O, N, Cl, C, H.

Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 37

 17. Element ‘A’ in group 17 (2nd period)
‘B’ in group 16 (2nd period)
‘C’ in group 15 (2nd period)
Arrange ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ in their decreasing order of electronegativity and
ionization enthalpy.
18. Element ‘A’ 13 group forms ionic compounds. Write the :
(a) Formula of its oxide.
(b) Arrange the following in their decreasing electropositive character Mg,
Na, Al, Si.
19. Write the atomic number of element place diagonally to :
(a) Group 14, period 4 (b) Group 2, period 5
(c) Group 17, period 4
20. An element has outer shell electronic configuration 4s2 4p3. Find :-
(a) The atomic number of element place next below it.
(b) Atomic number of next noble gas.
3 - Mark Questions
1. What is metallic radius, Covalent radius, van der waal’s radius. Give one
example for each.
2. Oxygen has first electron gain enthalpy exothermic while second
endothermic still a large number of ionic oxides are formed. Why ?
3. In some properties Boron shows different properties with respect to rest
of the membering the group. Justify.
4. Out of group 17, 18 and I, predict:-
(a) Which has most negative first electron gain enthalpy ?
(b) Which shows most metallic behaviour ?
(c) Which has highly positive electon gain entalpy?
5. What are (a) representative elements, (b) Transition elements, (c)
Lanthanoid and actinoids. Give their positions in modern periodic table.
6. Why LiF, NaF, KF, RbF, CsF are ionic ? But LiF is less ionic than CsF.
7. (a) Why Ca has larger atomic radius than Al ?
(b) Why 2s2 e– is difficult to remove than 2p electron ?
8. (a) Why the compounds of group 17 with group 13 elements are more

38 Chemistry Class XI
 ionic and stable than with (group 1) elements? (b) Na2O is more ionic than
Li2O. why?
9. Explain the following data :
Ionization energy Cl < H < O < N < F.
10. IE2 of 3rd period elements is as follows. Why ?
Mg < Si < Al < P < S < Cl < Ar < Na.
11. Account fot the following:
(a) Halogens have very high negative electron gain enthalpy
(b) The electron gain enthalpy of Cl (Z = 17 )is more negative than that
of Fluorine ( Z = 9 ).
(c) Ionization enthaply of Nitrogen ( Z = 7 ) is more than oxygen ( Z = 8).
12. What are the d- block elements? Write any four properties of d - block
elements and give their general outer electronic configuration.
13. Explain the following:
(a) Modern Periodic law. (b) Electronegativity (c) Shielding effect
14. Among the second period elements the actual ionization enthalpies are in
the order Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne. Explain why?
(i) Be has higher (DiH)1 than B (ii) O has lower (DiH)1 than N and F ?
15. What do you understand by the isoelectronic species ? Name a species
that will be isoelectronic with each of the following atoms or ions.
(i) F– (ii) Ar (iii) Ca2+ (iv) Rb+
16. (a) Show by a chemical reaction with water that Na2O is a basic oxide
and Cl2O7 is an acidic oxide.
(b) Name a species that will be isoelectronic with each of the following
atoms or ions, (i) F– (ii) Ca2+
17. The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJmol–1) of group-13 elements are:
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
How would you explain this deviation from the general trend ?
18. The first (IE1) and the second (IE2) ionization enthalpies (kJ mol–1) of
three elements are given below:
I II III
IE1 403 549 1142
IE2 2640 1060 2080
Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 39
 Identify the element which is likely to be:-
(a) a non metal (b) an alkali metal (c) an alkaline earth metal
5 - Mark Questions
1. (A) Which of the following have same chemical properties :
(a) Atomic no. 17, 53 (b) Atomic no. 8, 52
(c) Both (d) None
(B) Answer the following :
(i) B, Al, Ga (decreasing order of atomic radii).
(ii) C, S, N (decreasing order of (DHeg)1)
(iii) Al forms amphoteric oxide. Why ?
(iv) Si is a semiconductor while ‘C’ is a non-metal, why ?
2. Element ∆iHΘ1 ∆iHΘ2 ∆egHΘ1
I 1681 3374 – 328
II 1008 1846 – 295
III 2372 5251 + 48
(a) The most reactive non-metal.
(b) The least reactive non-metal.
(c) The least reactive element. Give reasons also.
[Ans. (a) 1 (b) II (c) III]

40 Chemistry Class XI
 1. The interaction between two atoms which holds them together within a
molecule or ions in known as chemical bond.
2. The elements with one, two, three, four, five, six or seven electrons is outer
shell, use these electrons to complete octet. The electrons which take part
in two or more atoms to complete octet is known as electrovalency.
3. Lewis symbols or electron dot symbols involve the presentation of valence
electrons (outer electrons) in an atom Na, Mg:, A  l., Si
 . etc.

4. Electrovalent bond or ionic Bond : The bond (chemical interaction)
between two atoms formed by complete transference of electron from
valence shell (outer shell) of an atom to another to complete octet is known
as ionic bond.
5. This ionic bond is favoured by low ionization enthalpy of metal, high
electron gain enthalpy of non-metal atom and high lattice enthalpy.
6. Characteristics of ionic compound : They are solids, a definite arrangement/
pattern of ion (to give crystalline solids), high melting point and boiling
point, conductors in fused state and in aqueous medium, soluble in H2O
[Hydration].
7. Lattice enthalpy : The energy released when one mole of ionic solid
is formed from its ions in their gaseous state. Lattice energy is directly
proportional to charge of ion and inversely proportions to size of ions i.e.,
more is charge density, more is lattice enthalpy.
8. Mg —→ Mg2+ + 2e– O + 2e– —→ O2–
(2, 8, 2) (2, 6)
Mg2+ + O2– —→ MgO Ionic compound [A crystalline lattice].

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 41

 9. (a) Born Haber Cycle : For formation of ionic compound e.g., Na+Cl –.

(b) Ionic bonds are Non directional in nature.
10. Fajan’s Rule : Polarizability and polarizing power. The power of a cation
to distort the negative field of an anion is called polarising power and the
tendency of anion to get distorted its negative field by a cation is known
as polarizability. Factors affecting polarizing power and polarizability are:
(a) High charge and small size of cation.
(b) High charge and large size of anion.
11. Covalent Bond : Lewis Langmuir Concept
The (chemical interaction) bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons
between combining atom as to complete their octets is known as covalent
bond and no. of electrons involved is called their covalency.
12. Formal charge : [Total no. of valence e– in free atom] – [Total no. of non
bonding electrons] – [Total no. of shared electrons]
13. The valence bond approach : (a) The two atomic orbitals with one
electron each, overlap to give maximum electron density region common
to both atoms is known as single covalent bond

(b) The strength of covalent bond is proportional to extent of overlapping

between the atomic orbitals of valence shell.
14. Characteristics of covalent compounds—(a) They are in all three physical
states solid, liquid, or gas depending upon factors like molecular mass,
van der Wall's force, covalency, Hydrogen bonding, polarity etc.

42 Chemistry Class XI
 (b) These are directional, soluble in less polar or non-polar solvents, less
melting point and boiling point [than ionic compounds] due to weak van
der-Waal forces, bad or good conductor of electricity.
15. Hybridization : (a) Phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals with
slightly different energies to form new orbitals of equal energy and identical
shape. The new orbitals are knows as hybrid orbitals.
(b) The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to number of atomic orbitals
mixing.
(c) As the ‘s’ character in hybrid orbital increases, electronegativity and
size of hybrid orbital increases.
16. VSEPR (Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory):-
(a) There are three types of repulsion in a covalent molecule lp - lp >
lp - bp > bp - bp.
(b) These repulsion depend upon difference in electronegativity between
combining atom.
17. Sigma and Pi π bond : (a) The bond formed by overlap of two atomic
orbitals along the internuclear axis of two atoms is Sigma bonds.
Extent of overlap is large therefore strong bond.
(b) π bond : The bond formed by sideways overlap of two atomic orbitals,
extent of overlap is not along the nuclear axis therefore it is a weak bond.
(c) A single bond contains σ bond; A double bond is one σ and one π bond
a triple covalent bond contains one σ and 2π bonds.
18. Resonance : (a) The delocalization of electrons in a molecule/ion which
results in observed bond length, bond order, bond energy different from
normal covalent bond data is known as resonance. Various resonating
structures have nearly same energy and interconvertible to each other.
(b) It gives stability to the molecule/ion. Atom do not shift their position in
any of the resonating structure. The structure which is near to all resonating
structure and nearly explain the property of that molecule/ion is known

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 43

 as resonating hybrid.

]
2–

19. Dipole moment (μ) : (a) For polar covalent molecules (atoms with
difference in electronegativity] the product of charge present on either
atom and distance b/w them is known as dipole moment. (b) Being vector
quantity, if net resultant of all vector is zero the molecule has zero dipole
moment and known as non polar molecule.

Non-polar

20. Hydrogen bonding : The electrostatic interaction b/w molecules when

H is bonded with highly electronegtive atoms (F, O, N only).
(a) Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding : Hydrogen
bonding with in a molecule.
(b) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : When
hydrogen bonding is present between two same or
different molecules.

21. Molecular orbital theory : (a) The overlap of atomic orbitals of same
symmetry of two homonuclear atoms to give addition or subtraction of
wave functions and form bonding MO and antibonding MO respectively
is known as MO theory.
(b) The e– are filled in molecular orbitals in their increasing order ot their
energies in a molecule.
(c) Bond order :
= No. of electron in BMO – No. of electrons in ABMO
2

44 Chemistry Class XI
 (d) More is bond order more is bond energy lesser is the bond length. If
bond order zero then molecule/molecular ion do not exist.
(e) Increasing order of energy of MO for upto 14e– (For B2, C2 and N2).
* *
* * * *
σσ1s , σ, σ1s1,sσ, σ2 s , σ, σ2 s2,sπ, σ*2 1pxs , σ
=, ππ ,2σpy =
*
,σ π
, 2 pz , ,ππ2 px =
σ =ππ ,,σ
*
π =
*
π 2 py , σ 2 pz
1 s 2 s 1s 2 pz 2
2s px 2 s 2 py,
2 pz 2 px 2 py
2 py 22 px
pz

* * * * * ** *
for other molecules → σ 1s , σ 1σs ,1σs ,2σs ,1σs , 2σs ,2σ , π 2 px2 pz=, ππ22pxpy ,=ππ2 2pxpy=, ππ22pxpy =
s , 2σpz2 s , σ
, σπ2 pz
2 py , σ 2 pz

(d) This theory also decides the magnetic behaviour of molecules.

22. Coordinate covalent bond : The sigma bond formed by donation of lp
into vacant unhybridised orbital of other atom (acception atom) is known
as coordinte covalent bond or donor acceptor or dative bond.

H3N → BF3
23. Bond strength; Bond energy; Bond length :
For covalent molecule Bond Enthalpy : C ≡ C > C = C > C — C
Bond Length : C ≡ C < C = C < C — C
Bond angles : (a) As the no. of lp increase; bp – lp, lp – lp repulsion
increase therefore bond angles decrease.
(b) As lp decreases bond angle increases.
Important Points :
24. (a) Maximum density of H2O at 4°C due to extensive. Intermolecular
hydrogen bonding.
(b) H2O to H2S bond angle decrease
(c) NH3 more μ than NF3.
(d) NCl3 more μ than NF3.
25. Van der waal forces weak intermolecular force of attraction.
(a) Dipole dipole interactions there which are present between polar
molecules.
(b) Dipole induced dipole interactions. Those which are present polar
between and non polar molecules.

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 45

 (c)
Instantaneous dipole instantaneous induced dipole interaction
(London force) dispersion forces: Those present between non-polar
molecules.
(d) Ion induced dipole interaction: Those which are present between ions
and non-polar molecules.
1 - Mark Questions
1. What is the covalency of Al in AlCl3 ? [Ans. 3]
2. Out of MgCl2 and NaCl which is more ionic?
3. Out of CCl4 CHCl3 and CH2Cl2, which is most polar.
4. Al2O3 has ionic or covalent bond. [Ans. Ionic]
5. AlF3 or AlCl3, which is more covalent ? [Ans. AlCl3]
6. What is the covalency of B in [BF4]1– ? [Ans. Four]
7. Ionic bonds are formed by metal with non-metals ? (True/False)
[Ans. True]

8. Report covalency of 'N' in NH3 and . [Ans. 3, 4]

9. Arrange HF, HCl and HBr in increasing order of their polarity.
10. Draw Lewis dot structure of CO.
11. Draw Lewis dot structure of NH3.

12. More is the number of resonating structures more is the stability of that
molecule/ion. (True/False) [Ans. True]
13. Write O2, O2+ and O2– in their decreasing order of bond order.
[Ans. (O2+ > O2 > O2–]
14. Out of H2+, H2 which is more stable? [Ans. H2]
15. Why dipole moment of BeCl2 is zero.
16. CO2, BeCl2, ICl4–, SF6 which has zero dipolemoment? [Ans. All]
17. Determine the number of antibonding electrons in O2+ ? [Ans. 1]
18. N2, O2, F2 Arrange N2, O2 and F2 in decreasing order of their stability?
[Ans. N2 > O2 > F2]
19. Which has zero dipole moment, CO2 or SO2? [Ans. CO2]

46 Chemistry Class XI
 20. Dipole moment of hydrogen halides decreases from HF to HI. Why ?
21. Which out of the following does not show resonance CO32–, BO33–,
SO42– ?
[Ans. BO33–]
2 - Mark Questions

1. Which are isostructural species ,CO2, BeCl2 and BCl3 ?

[Ans. ; CO2, BeCl2 all linear]

2. Out of the following BCl 3 , H 2 O, NO 3 – which have the same
hybridization?
[Ans. BCl3 NO3–]
3. Which is angular or bent XeF2, H2O, NO2 ? [Ans. XeF2, NO2]
4. Which is not linear XeF2, or CO32– ? [Ans. CO32–]
5. Which hydrocarbon is having most electronegative carbon atom?
(a) CH ≡ CH (b) CH2 ≡ CH2 (c) CH3—CH3.
[Ans. a > b > c as ‘s’ character increase EN increases]
6. N(SiH3)3 and N(CH3)3 are not isostructural justify ?
[Ans. Si has vacant ‘d’ orbital ‘C’ does not]
7. Arrange the following in decreasing order of their bond angles.
CH4, BeCl2, NH3. [Ans. BeCl2 > CH4 > NH3]
8. Hydrogen bond is shorter than H—H bond. (True/False) [Ans. True]
9. Which has nearly same bond angle ?
+ + +
NH4 , CCl4, CH3 [Ans. NH4 , CCl4]
10. Which pair have different hybridization ?
AlCl3; [AlCl4]–
(a) (b) BF3; [BF4]–

(c) (d) [Ans. (c)]

11. KHF2 exist but KHCl2 KHBr2 does not and why ?
[Ans. (HF .... HF) Hydrogen bonding]
12. Why chlorine does not form hydrogen bonding whereas N does? .
[Ans. Cl has large size]

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 47

 13. Which of the following molecules have sp3 hybridized Be atom ?
(a) BeCl2(g) (b) BeCl2 (solid) (c) BeCl42–. [Ans. BeCl2 solid [BeCl42–]
14. Out of [AlF6]3– and [Al2O3], which have both covalent and ionic bond ?
[Ans. AlF6]3–
15. Which have the shortest carbon-carbon bond length ?
(a) Diamond (b) Benzene (c) Ethane (d) Cyclopropane [Ans. (b)]
16. Which H2O or HCl is not liquid and why ?
17. Which is not see saw shaped ?
(a) SF4 (b) XeO2F2(c) XeOF2 (d) SCl4. [Ans. XeOF2]
–
18. Which is more stable, H+
2 or H2 ? [Ans. H2 ]
+

19. B2 has ten electrons but paramagnetic why ?

20. Draw the resonating structure of

21. ClF3 is bent T shaped but BF3 is planar. Explain.
22. Density of ice is less than water. Why ?
23. o-Nitrophenol has less B.P. than p-nitrophenol. Why?

24. (a) H2O + H+ → H3O+ (b) NH3 + H+ → . Out of (a) and (b), which
is associated with change in hybridization, if any?

25. Why do noble gas Ne2 does not exist but Ne2+ exists ?
26. H2O is liquid at room temperature but H2S is gas why ?
27. O2 is paramagnetic but O22– (peroxide ion) is diamagnetic why ?
28. What is the difference between σ (sigma) and π (pi) bond explain
diagrammatically ?
29. (a) F2 and Cl2, which has less bond dissocition energy and why ?
(b) Out of O2+, O2– which is more stable and why ?
30. What is the difference between bond enthalpy and bond dissociation
enthalpy ?

48 Chemistry Class XI
 3 - Mark Questions

1. Arrange in decreasing order of bond angle :

(a) H2O, H2S, H2Se [Ans. H2O > H2S > H2Se]

(b) NO2+, NO2, NO2– [Ans. ]

(c) PF3, PH3, PCl3 [Ans. PCl3 > PF3 > PH3]

2. C2 exists whereas Be2 does not. Explain why ?

3. C2H4, C2H2, C2H6 arrange in decreasing order of :

(a) Bond length of C—C bond.
(b) Bond energy of C—C bond.
4. Predict hybridization of carbon atoms in the compound
CH3 – CH = C = CH – CH3
5. What is the formula of compound and the _______.
Nature of bond formed beween element ‘X’ atomic no. 31 and element
‘y’ atomic number 8? Draw the Lewis dot structure. [Ans. X2O3]
6. Which are odd electron molecules/ions : PCl3, NO, , O2+, O2–, O2 ?
7. Write the bond angle in each of the following :
SO42– CO32– [H3O]+ PCl5 SF4
8. Write the number of electrons in valence shell of ‘S’ in (a) SF6 (b) SO2
(c) SO3. [Ans. 12, 10, 8]
9. Arrange the following from strongest hydrogen bond to weakest
hydrogen bond.
(a) H—F .... H—N H—F ..... H—O
(b) H—O ... N—H H—F ..... H—F
10. Give hybridization of following:
XeF4, SF4, BF4–, ClF3.

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 49

 11. Explain the following :
(a) PH3 is non polar PCl3 is polar why ?
(b) PCl5 is non polar BF4– is polar why ?
(c) BCl3 is non polar NCl3 is polar why ?
12. Five moles of σ bonds is present in simple hydrocarbon with sp 2
hybridization. Give formula of the compound.
13. Determine the formal charge of each ‘O’ atom, in O3.

5 - Mark Questions

1. Arrange the following in increasing order of property indicated :

(a) H2O, NH3, H2S, HF (Polar character)
(b) HF, HCl, HBr, HI (Dipole moment)
(c) O2, O2+, O2– (Stability)
(d) NO3–, , NO (‘S’ character of hybridization)
(e) BeCl2, BCl3, CCl4, PCl3 (Bond angle)
2. Which has:-
(a) Zero dipole moment CO2; SO2.
(b) sp hybridization SO2, SO3, or none.
(c) No octet rule OF2, BCl3, H2Se.
(d) Zero bond order Ne2, He2, or both
(e) Paramagnetic character Cl–, Br, I–
3. Which has both (a) Polar and nonpolar bond H2O2 or BCl3.
(b) sp and sp3 hybridization Propyne or Ethyne
(c) σ and π bonds and sp hybridization CH 2 = C = CH 2 or
CH2 = CH—CH3.

50 Chemistry Class XI
 (d) Ionic and covalent bond, coordinate bonds: AgNO3 AgF Ag2SO4.
(e) Coordinate and only σ bond H3O+; ]

4. (a) What is resonance hybrid? Explain its significance related to stability

of compound.
(b) Draw resonating structures of benzene.
5. Why (a) BaSO4 is insoluble although ionic in nature?
(b) ClF3 has bent T-shape?
(c) SO2 is angular but SO3 is planar.
(d) NH, PH3 have same hybridization but different bond angle?
(e) CuSO4.5H2O looses 4H2O on heating but not fifth H2O?
6. Explain the scheme of hybridization in C2H4, C2H6 and C2H2.
7. Draw the resonating structures and resonance hybrid of following : CO32–,
NO3–, SO3, and C6H6.
8. Draw the Lewis dot structure of (a) Al2O3 (b) Mg3N2 (c) CCl4 (d) Na2O2
(e) NCl3.
9. Draw the shapes of : BrF3, XeF4, NH4+, ClF5, XeF6.
10. Arrange in increasing order of property indicated:
(a) HF, HCl, HBr, HI (thermal stability)
(b) LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI (ionic character)
PH3 PCl3 (covalent character)
(c)
O2 → O2+ (bond length)
(d)
N2 → N2+ (bond order)
(e)

11. (a) Write the molecular orbital configuration of N2. Calculate its bond
order and predict its magnetic behaviour.

(b) Which out of NH3 and NF3 has higher dipolemoment and why?

Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 51

 12. (a) Describe the hybridisation in case of PCl5 molecule (Atomic No. of
P = 15)

(b) Why are axial bonds longer as compared to equatorial bonds in PCl5
molecule?

(c) Which of the following has maximum bond angle?

H2O, CO2, NH3 & CH4

52 Chemistry Class XI
  On the basis of nature of intermolecular forces/molecular interactions,
matter exists in three physical states : solid, liquid and gas.
 Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion between
interacting particles (atoms and molecules). Attractive/repulsive
intermolecular forces are known as van der Waal’s forces.
Different types of van der Waal’s forces are :
(a) Disperson forces or London forces : The interaction which is present
between two non polar molecules for example force between : noble gases.
(b) Dipole-dipole forces : The interaction which is present between
molecules having permanent dipoles i.e., between polar molecules, for
example NH3, HCl etc.
(c) Dipole-induced dipole forces : The interaction which is present
between a polar and non polar molecule.
 Boyle’s law : At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of
gas, varies inversly with volume.

P α
P1V1 = P2V2 [At constant temperature]
 Charle’s law : At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
V α T

= [At constant pressure (p) and n]

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 53

  Gay Lussac’s law : At constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of
gas varies directly with the absolute temperature.

P ∝ T, = [At constant volume (V) and n].

 STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) : STP means 273.15 K

(0°C) temperature and 1 bar (i.e., exactly 105 Pascal.) Volume occupied
by 1 mole gas at STP = 22.7 L.
If pressure is taken in atm (atmosphere), then the standard molar volume
is 22.4 L.
 Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT
R is universal gas constant.
R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1 = 0.0821 L atm mol–1 K–1 = 0.083 L bar mol–1 K–1

 Combined gas law : =

 Density and molar mass of a gaseous substance :

M =

 Dalton’s law of partial pressure : Dalton states that the total pressure
exerted by the mixture of non reacting gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of individual gases.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..... [at constant T, V]
P1 = x1 × PTotal = Here x1 is called mole fraction of the first gas.
Pdry gas = PTotal – Aqueous tension.
Here aqueous tension is the pressure exerted by water vapours.
 Compressibility factor : The extent of deviation of a real gas from an
ideal behaviour is expressed in terms of compressibility factor, Z =
For ideal gas, Z = 1 at all temperatures and pressures. For real gases, greater
is the deviation in the value of Z from 1, more is the deviation from ideal
behaviour. When Z < 1, the gas is said to show negative deviation. This
implies that gas is more compressible then expected from ideal behaviour.
When Z > 1, the gas is said to show positive deviation and the gas is less
compressible than expected from ideal behaviour.

54 Chemistry Class XI
 At ordinary temperatures (T ≥ 273 K), only H2 and He show positive
deviations. However at low temperatures, even these gases show negative
deviation i.e., < 1. For example, in case of these gases, if T << 273 K,
Z < 1.
 Boyle temperature : The temperature at which a real gas behaves like an
ideal gas over an appreciable pressure range is called Boyle temperature
or Boyle point.
 Causes of deviation from ideal behaviour : The following two
assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases are faulty :
(a) The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible as compared
to the total volume of the gas.
(b) The forces of attraction or repulsion between the gas molecules are
negligible.
The above assumptions are correct only if the temperature is high and
pressure is low.
van der Waal’s equation :

= RT for 1 mole of the gas

= nRT for n moles of the gas

Here a and b are constants called van der Waal’s constants.

 Significance and units of van der Waal’s constants : ‘a’ gives the idea of
the magnitude of attractive forces among the gas molecules. As correction

in pressure is P = therefore a = (P × V2)/n2 = atm L2 mol2.

As correction in volume V = nb, therefore ‘b’ has the unit of L mol–1.
The near constancy in the volume of b shows that the gas molecules are
incompressible.
 Vapour pressure : The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid, when
it is in equilibrium with the liquid surface, at constant temperature.
 Boiling temperature : The temperature at which vapour pressure of a
liquid is equal to the external pressure.
 At 1 atm, boiling temperature is called normal boiling point.
 At 1 bar boiling temperature is called standard boiling point.

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 55

  Vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends upon (i) intermolecular forces,
(ii) Temperature.
 Surface tension is defined as force acting per unit length perpendicular to
the line drawn on the surface. Its units is Nm–1.
 Effect of temperature on surface tension : Surface tension decreases with
increase in temperature with the increase in temperature, kinetic energy
of molecules increases. As a result, intermolecular forces decreases and
hence force acting per unit length decreases.
 Viscosity : It is defined as resistance offered to the flow of liquid due to
internal friction between layers of fluids as they pass over each other.

F = ηA.

η is called coefficient of viscosity.

Effect of temperature on viscosity : Viscosity decrease with increase in
temperature because with the increase in temperature the average kinetic
energy increases and the intermolecular forces can be easily overcome.

The Solid State

Crystalline and Amorphous solids

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids

1. They have regular geometry They have irregular geometry

2. They have long range order They have short range order.

3. They have sharp melting point. They have no sharp melting point.

4. They are anisotropic They are isotropic

5. They give clean and smooth surface on They give irregular cut on cleavage
cleavage.
6. They have definite heat of fusion. They do not have definite heat of
fusion.
7. They are true solids. They are pseudo solids or super
cooled liquids.

56 Chemistry Class XI
Anisotropic : Solids which have different values of their physical properties such
as refractive index, conductivity etc. in different directions.
Isotropic : Solids which have same values of their physical properties such as
refractive index, conductivity etc. in different directions.
Classification of crystalline solids:

Space lattice (Crystal lattice)

A regular arrangement of the constituents particles ( atoms, molecules
or ions ) in the three dimensional space which represent the geometry of
a crystal is called space lattice.
There are only 14 possible three dimensional lattices. These are called
Bravias lattices
Unit cell
The smallest repeating unit of the space lattice is called unit cell.

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 57

Total number of atoms (Particle) per unit cell (Z)
Number of
Unit cell Contributions
particles (Z)
Simple cubic (1/8 × 8) = 1 atom ( corner) 1
Body centred cubic (1/8 × 8) = 1 atom ( corner) 2
(l × l) = l atom ( Body centre)
Face centred cubic (1/8 × 8) = 1 atom ( corner) 4
(1/2 × 6) = 3 atom ( face centre)
Close packing
Close packing in one dimensions
In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with two of its neighbours.

Close packing of spheres in one dimensional

Close packing in two dimension

Square close packing

In this arrangement each sphere is in contact with four of its neighbours, thus
packing is called square close packing.

Coordination number is four.

52.4% of the available space is occupied by the spheres (AAA type

arrangement).

Square close packed layer

58 Chemistry Class XI
Hexagonal close packing
In this arrangement each sphere is in contact with six of its neighbours,
thus packing is called Hexagonal close packing.
Coordination number is six.
60.4% of the available space is occupied by the spheres (ABAB type
arrangement).

Close packing in three dimensional

HCP and CCP have equal efficiency i.e 74% of the space is occupied and
coordination number is 12. CCp arrangement has FCC lattice.
Unoccupied spaces in solids are called interstitial voids or interstitial
sites.
Two types of interstitial voids are:
(i) Tetrahedral void    (ii) Octahedral void
Number of tetrahedral voids = 2 N
(where N is number of close packed particles)
Number of octahedral voids = N
Type of unit cell Relarion between r, a, & d Packing fraction
Simple cubic r = a/2 52.4%
Body centred cubic 3a a 68%
d= r=
2 2 2
Face centred cubid a a 74%
d= r=
2 2 2

r = radius of the atom, d = nearest neighbour distance between two atoms

& a = edge length of unit cell.

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 59

Packing Efficiency ( Packing fraction)
The percentage of the total space which is occupied by the particles in a
certain packing is known as packing efficiency or the total spacefilled is
called packing fraction.
Number of atoms in unit cell Volume of one atom
Packing efficiency =
Volume off the cubic unit cell

Density of the unit cell

Z × M (g)
Density of the unit cell =
a3 × N A

where Z is the number of atoms per unit cell, M is molar mass / atomic
mass, a is the edge length of the cubic unit cell and NA is the Avogadro
constant
Imperfection or Defects in solids
Any deviation from perfectly ordered arrangement of atoms in crystal is
called imperfection or defect. There are two types of the defects : (i) Line
defects (ii) point defects.
(i) Line defects
The defects which arise due to irregularity or deviation from ideal
arrangement in entire row of lattice points.
(ii) Point defects
The defects which arise due to irregularity in the arrangement of atoms
or ions are called atomic imperfection or point defect.
Point defects can be classified in to three types
(a) stoichiometric defect (b) Non stoichiometric defect
(c) Impurity defect
(a) stoichiometric defect (i) vacancy defect : When some of the lattice sites are
vacant in a crystal, the crystal is said to have vacancy defect.
(ii) Interstitial defect : When some constituent particles occupy an interstitial
site the crystal is said to have interstitial defect.

60 Chemistry Class XI
(iii) Schottky defect: It is basically a vacancy defect in ionic solids
In this defect equal number of cations and anions are missing from their
lattice site so that the electrical neutrality is maintained.
Conditions causing Schottky defects :
(i) high coordination number, and
(ii)
small difference in the size of cations and anions
For example, NaCl, KCl, KBr
(iv) Frenkel defect
In this defect, the smaller ion (usually cation) is dislocated from its normal
site to an interstitial site.
It creates a vacancy defect at its original site and an interstitial defect at
its new location. Frenkel defect is also called dislocation defect.
Conditions causing Frenkel defects :
This type of defect is generally occurs in compounds which have
(i) low coordination number, and
(ii) large difference in the size of cations and anions.
Frenkel defects are found in silver halides (AgCl, AgBr and AgI)
(b) Non stoichiometric defects
Theses defect are of the two types:-

(a) Metal excess defect :

(i) Metal excess defect due to anion vacancies:
In this case, negative ions may be missing from their lattices leaving holes
in which the electron remain entrapped to maintain the electrical neutrality.
The anionic sites occupied by unpaired electrons are called F-centres.
(ii) Metal excess due to the presence of extra cations at interstitial sites:
In this case, there are extra positive ions occupying interstitial sites and
electrons in another interstitial sites to maintain electrical neutrality.

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 61

(b) Metal deficiency defect
In this defect, the positive ions may be missing from their lattice sites.
The extra negative charge may be balanced by some nearby metal ion
acquiring extra positive charges.
(c) Impurity defect (Due to ions)
The process of adding impurities to a crystalline substance so as to change its
properties is called doping
p -type semiconductors
Group-14 group elements doped with group-13 are called p-type
semiconductors because group 13 elements like B, A1 or Ga contains three
valence electrons.
n-type semiconductors :
When group 14 elements (Si or Ge) are doped with group 15 elements like
P or As,
Magnetic properties:
Diamagnetic substances (Diamagnetism.)
The substances which are weakly repelled by the external magnetic field
are called diamagnetic substances, e.g. TiO, H, 0, NaCl, benzene, etc.
Paramagnetic substances
The substances which are weakly attracted by external magnetic field are
called paramagnetic substances.
Ferromagnetic substances (Ferromagnetism):-
The substances which are strongly attracted by a magnetic field are called
ferromagnetic substances. For ex :- Fe, Ni, Co , CrO2
Antiferromagnetic substances (Antiferromagnetism):
The substances which have net magnetic moments zero due to equal and
opposite allignment of domains.
Examples are MnO, FeO, CoO, NiO and many other oxides.
Ferrimagnetic substances (Ferrimagnetism):
Ferrimagnetism is observed when the magnetic moments of the domains in
the substance are aligned in parallel and anti-parallel directions in unequal
numbers.

62 Chemistry Class XI
 Ferromagnetism (a)

Antiferromagnetism (b)

Ferrimagnetism (c)

1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the intermolecular forces, which include the term. van der Waal’s
forces. [Ans. LONDON forces, Dipole-Dipole, Dipole-induced dipole]
2. Define Boyle’s law.
3. Write the condition in terms of temperature and pressure, under which all
gases obey Charle’s law. [Ans. High temperature, low pressure]
4. Mention the volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas at STP.
[Ans. 22.7 L]
5. Define the term absolute zero. [Ans. 0K]
6. Define aqueous tension.

7. Mention the S.I. unit for the quantity . [Ans. Nm4 K2 mol–1]
8. Define the term critical temperature.
9. Write any two postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases.
10. Which curve in the figure represents the curve for ideal gas ? [Ans. B]

11. Define the term normal boiling point of a liquid.

12. Mention the factors on, which the vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends ?
13. Define surface tenstion.
14. What do you understand by the term viscosity?

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 63

 15. Out of Ethyl alcohol or Dimethyl lether, which one have higher vapour
pressure at same temperature ? [Ans. Dimethylether]
16. Why glass is called supercooled liquid?
[ Hint: Its molecules move under gravity.]
17. Why glass planes fixed to windows or doors of old buildings are found
be thicker at the bottom ?
18. Some of the glass objects from ancient civilizations are found to be milky
in appearance. Explain.
[Hint: Reallignment of molecules takes place due to movement because
of constant heating and cooling]
19. "Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature" what does this statement
mean ?
20. What makes a glass different from a solid such as quartz? Under what
conditions could quartz be converted into glass?
[Hint: On melting quartz and then rapidly cooling it.]
21. Write a feature which will distinguish a metallic solid from ionic solid.
22. Name the crystal system for which all four types of unit cells are possible.
[ Hint: Orthorhombic]
23. What is the total number of atoms per unit cell in a FCC crystal structure?
24. What difference in behaviour between the glass and sodium chloride would
you expect to observe,if you break off a piece of either cube?
25. Give the significance of a lattice point.
26. What type of stochiometric defect is shown by (i) ZnS and (ii) CsCl?
27. If the formula of a compound is A2B, which sites would be occupied by
A ions?
[Hint: A ions occupy tetrahedral voids]
28. How many octahedral voids are there in 1 mole of a compound having
cubic closed packed structure?

64 Chemistry Class XI
 29. Calculate the number of atoms in a cubic unit cell having one atom on
each corner and two atoms on each body diagonal.
30. In NaCl crystal, Cl– ions form the cubic close packing. What sites are
occupied by Na+ ions?
31. In Corrundum, O2– ions from hep and Al3+ occupy two third of octahedral
voids. Determine the formula of corrundum.
32. Why is Frenkel defect not found in pure alkali metal halides?
33. What is the formula of a compound in which element Y forms ccp lattice
and atoms X occupy 1/3rd of tetrahedral voids ?
34. Although pure silicon is an insulator then how does it behave as a
semiconductor on heating?
35. Name the crystal defect which lowers the density of an ionic crystal.
36. What makes the crystal of KCl sometimes appear violet?
37. Which point defect in ionic crystal does not alter the density of the relevant
solid?
38. Name one solid in which both Frenkel and Schottky defects occur.
39. Fe3O4 is ferrimagnetic at room temperature but becomes paramagnetic at
850 K. Why?
40. Why common salt is some time yellow instead of being pure white ?
41. Why conductivity of the metal decrease with increase in temperature ?
42. What type of substances would make better permanent magnets,
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic ?
43. What type of magnetism is shown by a substance if magnetic moments
of domains are arranged in the same direction ?

2 - Marks Questions
1. What will be the minimum pressure required to compress 500 dm3 of air
at 1 bar to 200 dm3 at 30°C ? [Ans. 2.5 bar]
2. Name the intermolecular force present in :
(i) H2O (ii) HCl [Ans. H-bonding, Dipole-Dipole]

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 65

 3. Explain Avogadro’s law.
4. Find the molar mass of a gas if 300 mL of this has mass of 0.368 g at STP.
[Ans. 27.84 g/mol]
5. Why do real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour ? Write van der
Waal’s equation for n moles of a gas.
6. Calculate the temperature of 4 mole of a gas occupying in 5 dm3 at 3.32
bar. (R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1) [Ans. 50K]
7. Calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and 1 bar
pressure. [R = 0.83 bar LK–1 mol–1] [Ans. 5.05 L]
8. Explain the physical significance of van der Waal’s parameter.
9. Compressibility factor ‘Z’ of a gas is given as Z = .

(i) What is the value of Z for an ideal gas ?

(ii) For real gas, what will be the effect on value of Z above Boyle
temperature ? [Ans. Z = 1, Z > 1]
10. At 25°C and 760 mm Hg pressure a gas occupies 600 mL volume. What
will be its pressure at a height where temperature is 10°C and volume of
the gas is 640 mL. [Ans. 676.6 mm Hg]
11. Define the terms :
(i) Standard boiling point.
(ii) Vapour pressure of a liquid.
12. Drops of liquid are spherical in nature. Explain. Mention the effect of
temperature on surface tension.
13. Write the S.I. units of :
(i) Surface tension.
(ii) Coefficient of viscosity.
14. Define viscosity. Mention the effect of temperature and pressure on
viscosity of a liquid.

66 Chemistry Class XI
 15. Explain :
(i) Liquid drops are spherical in shape, why?
(ii) Liquid tends to rise in a capillary.
List four distinctions between crystalline and amorphous solids with one
16.
example of each.
17. Give suitable reason for, the following-
(a) Ionic solids are hard and brittle (b) Copper is malleable and ductile
18. Explain:
(a) List two differences between metallic and ionic crystals.
(b) Sodium chloride is hard but sodium metal is soft.
What do you understand by the following types of stacking sequences:
19.
(a) ABAB................ (b) ABCABC............
What kind of lattices do these sequences lead to?
20.
21. Calculate the number of atoms in a cubic based unit cell having one atom
on each corner and two atoms on each body diagonal.
22. A unit cell consists of a cube in which there are A atoms are at the corners
and B atoms at the face centres. Two A atoms are m issing from the two
corners of the unit cell. What is the formula of this compound ?
23. Pure silicon is an insulator. Silicon doped with phosphorus is a
semiconductor. Silicon doper with gallium is also a semiconductor. What
is the difference between the two types?
24. Explain how vacancies are introduced in a solid NaCl crystal when a
compound containing cation of higher valence is added to it?
25. What is meant by non-stoichiometric defect? Ionic solids which have
anionic vacancies due to metal excess defect develop colour. Explain with
the help of suitable example.
26. Define the term 'point defects'. Mention the main difference between
stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric point defects.
27. In a crystalline solid, anions B are arranged in a cubic close packing.
Cations A are equally distributed between octahedral and tetrahedral voids.
If all the octahedral voids are occupied, What is the formula of the solid?

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 67

 In a solid, oxide ions are arranged in ccp.one sixth of the tetrahedral voids
28.
are occupied by the cations A while one - third of the octahedral voids are
occupied by the cation B. What is the formula of the compound ?
29. In the mineral, spinel having the formula MgAl2O2 oxide ions are arranged
in the cubic close packing, Mg2+ ions occupy tetrahedral voids and Al3+
ions occupy the octahedral voids.
(i) What percentage of tetrahedral voids is occupied by Mg2+ ions ?
(ii) What percentage of octahedral voids is occupied by Al3+ ions?
30. The electrical conductivity of a metal decrease with rise in temperature
while that of a semiconductor increase. Explain
31. CdCl2, will introduce impurity defect if added to AgCl crystal. Explain.
32. In a crystalline solid, the atoms A and B are arranged as follows:
(a) Atoms A are arranged in ccp array.
(b) Atoms B occupy all the octahedral voids and half of tetrahedral voids.
What is the formula of the compound ?
33. Nickel oxide has formula Ni0.94O1.00. What fractions of the nickel exist as
Ni2+ and Ni3+ ions?
34. The composition of a sample of wustite is Fe0.93O1.00. What percent of
iron is present in the form of Fe(III)?
35. Tungsten crystallizes in body centred cubic unit cell. If the edge length of
the unit cell is 316.5 pm, what is the radius of tungsten atom ?
[Ans: 137 Pm]
3 - Mark Questions
1. Define and explain Dalton’s Law of partial pressure.
2. A balloon is filled with hydrogen at room temperature. It will burst if
pressure exceeds 0.2 bar. If at 1 bar pressure the gas occupies 2.27 L
volume, upto what volume can the balloon be expanded?
[Ans. 11.35 L]
3. Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8g of dioxygen and 4g of
dihydrogen confined in a vessel of 1dm3 at 27°C.
[R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1] [Ans. 56.025 bar]

68 Chemistry Class XI
 4. 300 mL of oxygen gas at – 10°C are heated to 10°C. Find the volume of
gas at 10°C if pressure remains constant. [Ans. 322.8 mL]
5. A gas at a pressure of 5 atm is heated from 0° to 546°C and is simultaneously
compressed to one third of its original volume. Find the final pressure of
the gas. [Ans. 45 atm]
6. Pressure of one gram of an ideal gas A at 27°C is found to be 2 bar. When
2g of another gas (ideal) B is introduced in the same flask at the same
temperature the pressure becomes 3 bar. Find a relationship between their
molecular masses. [Ans. MB = 4MA]
7. What will be the pressure exerted by a mixture of 3.2g of methane and
4.4 g of carbon dioxide contained in a 9 dm3 flask at 27°C.
[Ans. 0.82 atm]
8. A neon-dioxygen mixture contains 70.6 dioxygen and 167.5 neon. If the
pressure of the mixture of gases in cylinder is 25 bar. What is the partial
pressure of dioxygen and neon in the mixture. [ Ans. 5.25 bar, 17.75 bar]
9. With the help of a gas laws, deduce an expression for the ideal gas equation.
What is the utility of the gas equation ?
10. A vessel of 120 mL capacity contains a certain mass of a gas at 20°C and
750 mm Hg pressure the gas was transferred to a vessel whose volume is
180 mL. Calculate the pressure of the gas at 20°C. [Ans. 500 mm Hg]
11. Explain :
(i) Liquid at higher altitudes boil at low temperature.
(ii) In hospital surgical instruments are sterlised in auto caves.
(iii) Out of, alcohols and ethers of comparable mass which one have higher
boiling points ?
12. (i) Define surface energy in relation to surface tension.
(ii) Name the temperature at which the density of water is maximum.
(iii) Moist soil grains are pulled together. Explain.
13. (i) Define the term coefficient of viscosity. Name the unit of viscosity
coefficient in cgs system.
(ii) Give the difference between boiling and evaporation.
14. Explain with suitable reason :
(i) Tea or coffee is sipped from the saucer, when it is quite hot.
(ii) Liquids posseses fluidity.

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 69

 15. Which among the following will have ?
(i) HCl or H2O (Higher boiling point)
(ii) Ether or water (Higher viscosity)
Br2(l) or water (Lower surface tension)
(iii)
16. Write the relationship between atomic radius (r) and edge length (a) of
cubic unit cell for
(a) Simple cubic unit cell (b) Body centred cubic unit cell
(c) Face centred cubic unit cell
17. Write and explain three differences between Schottky and Frenkel defects
under the heads :
(i) Effect on density (ii) Effect on electrical conductivity
(iii) Effect on stability of the crystal
18. What is a semiconductor? Describe the two main types of semiconductors
on the basis of their conductance mechanism.
19. Explain the following with one examples each :
(a) Ferromagnetism (b) Antiferromagnetism
(c)
13-15 compounds
20. Explain the following terms with suitable examples :
(a) Ferrimagnetism (b) n-type semiconductor
(c) Forbidden zone
How would you account for the following :
21.
(i) Frenkel defects are not found in alkali metals.
(ii) Schottky defects lower the density of the related solid.
(iii) Impurity doped silicon is a semiconductor.
22. (a) What type of semiconductor is obtained when silicon is doped with
boron?
(b) What type of magnetism is shown in the following alignment of
magnetic moments ?

70 Chemistry Class XI
 (c) What type of defect is produced when AgCl is doped with CdCl2 ?
Answer the following questions:
22. (i) What type of stoichiometric defect shown by the crystal ?
(ii) How is the density of the crystal affected by this defect ?
(iii) What type of ionic substances show such defect ?

24. (a) A compound forms hexagonal close-packed structure. What is the

total number of voids in 0.5 mol of it? How many of these are tetrahedral
voids?
(b) Atoms of element B form hcp lattice and those of the element A
occupy 2/3rd of tetrahedral voids. What is the formula of the compound
formed by the elements A and B?
25. An element crystallises in a cubic close packed structure having a fcc
unit cell of an edge 200 pm. Calculate the density if 200 g of this element
contain 24 × 1023 atoms. [Ans. : 41.6 g cm–3]
26. A fcc unit cell containing atoms of element (molar mass 60.4 g mol–1) has
cell edge 4 × 10–8 cm. Calculate the density of unit cell.
[Ans. : 6.23 g/cm3]
27. KF has NaCl structure. It's density is 2.48 g/cm3. Calculate edge length
of crystal lattice. (Given At. mass of K = 39 g mol–1, F= 19 g mol–1 and
NA = 6.002 × 1023 mol–1) [Ans. : 538 pm]
28. Molybednum has atomic mass 96 g mol–1 with density 10.3 g/cm3. The
edge length of unit cell is 314 pm. Determine lattice structure whether
simple cubic, fcc or bcc. (Given NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol–1)
[Ans. : Z = 2, bee type]
29. Iron has a bcc unit cell with a cell edge of 286.65 pm. The density of iron
is 7.87 g cm–3. Use this information to calculate Avogadro's number (At.
Mass of Fe = 56 g mol–1)
[Ans. : 6.022 × 1023 mol–1]
States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 71
 30. The density of copper metal is 8.95 g cm–3. If the radius of copper atom
is 127 pm, is the copper unit cell a simple cubic, a body-centred cubic or
a face centred cubic structure?
(Given at. mass of Cu = 63.54 g mol–1 and NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol–1]
[Ans. : Z = 4, fcc type]
31. The well known mineral fluorite is chemically calcium fluoride. It is
known that in one unit cell of this mineral there are 4 Ca2+ ions and 8F–
ions and that Ca2+ ions are arranged in a fee lattice. The F– ions fill all the
tetrahedral holes in the fcc lattice of Ca2+ ions. The edge of the unit cell
is 5.46 × 10–8 cm in length.
The density of the solid is 3.18 g cm–3. Use this information to calculate
Avogadro's number (Molar mass of CaF2 = 78.08 g mol–1].
[Ans. : 6.02 × 1023 mol–1]
32. Silver crystallizes in face centred cubic unit cell. Each side of this unit cell
has a length of 400 pm.Calculate the radius of the silver atom. (Assume
the atoms just touch each other on the diagonal across the face of the unit
cell.That is each face atom is touching the four corner atoms.)
[Ans: 141.5 pm|
33. The density of the lead is 11.35 g cm–3 and the metal crystallizes with fcc
unit cell.Estimate the radius of the lead atom. [Ans: 175 pm]
34. An element with density 11.2 g cm–3 forms a f.c.c lattice with edge length
of 4 × 10–8 cm. Calculate the atomic mass of the element.
[Ans: 107.9 gmol–1]
35. An element with molar mass 27 g mol–1 forms a cubic unit cell with edge
length 4.05 × 10–8 cm. If its density is 2.7 g cm–3, what is the nature of
the cubic unit cell? [Ans : FCC]
36. An element crystallizes in a fcc lattice with cell edge of 250 pm. Calculate
the density if 300 g of this element contain 2 × 1024 atoms. [ 38.4 g/cm3]
37. An element 'X' (At. mass = 40 g mol–1) having FCC structure, has unit
cell edge length of 400 pm. Calculate the density of 'X' and the number
of unit cell in 4g of 'X'
[d = 4.15 g/cm3, No. of unit cell = 1.5 × 1022]

72 Chemistry Class XI
 5 - Mark Questions
1. (a) An element has atomic mass 93 g mol–1. If the edge length of its unit
cell is 300 pm, identify the type of unit cell. [Ans.: BCC, Z = 2]
(b) Write any two differences between amorphous solids and crystalline
solids.
2. (a) Calculate the number of unit cells in 8.1 g of aluminium, if it
crystallizes in a f.c.c. structure. (Given: Atomic mass of Al = 27 g
mol–1) [Ans: No. of unit cell 4.5 × 1022]
(b) Give reasons:
(i) In stoichiometric defects, NaCl exhibits schotky defect and not
Frenkel defect.
(ii) Silicon on doping with Phosphorus forms n-type semiconductor.
(iii) Ferrimagnetic substances show better magnetism than antiferromagnetic
substance.
3. (a) An element crystallises in b.c.c. lattice with cell edge of 400 pm.
Calculate its density if 500 g of this element contains 2.5 × 1024
atoms. [Ans: 6.25 g/cm3]
(b) A metallic element crystallises into a lattice having a pattern of
ABAB........ and packing of spheres leaves out voids in the lattice.
What type of structure is formed by this arrangement?
[Ans: HCP]
4. Mention the intermolecular forces present between :
(a) H2O and alcohol (b) Cl2 and CCl4 (c) He and He atoms (d) Na+ ion
and H2O (e) HBr and HBr.
5. (a) Find the pressure of 4g of O2 and 2g of H2 confined in a bulb of
1 litre at 0°C.
(b) What is the molar volume of a gas at SATP conditions ?
(c) Define and explain Gay Lussac’s law.
6. (a) For Dalton’s law of pressure derive the expression Pgas = Xgas Ptotal.

(b) A 2-L flask contains 1.6 g of methane and 0.5 g of hydrogen at
27°C . Calculate the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture and also,
calculate the total pressure.
[Ans. pCH4 = 1.23 atm, pH2 = 3.079 atm, Ptotal = 4.31 atm.]

States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids 73

 7. (a) Using van der waal’s equation calculate the constant ‘a’ when two
moles of a gas confined in a four litre flask exerts a pressure of 11.0 atm.
at a temperature of 300 K. The value of ‘b’ is 0.05 litre mol–1.
[Ans. 6.49 atm L2 mol–2]
8. (a) Mention the factors on which vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends.
(b) Define boiling point of a liquid.
(c) Which will have higher viscosity Glycerol or Ethylene glycol?
[Ans. Glycerol]
(d) Surface tension of a liquid .......... with increase in the magnitude of
intermolecular forces. [Ans. Increases]

74 Chemistry Class XI
  System : Specific part of universe in which thermodynamic observations
are made.
 Surroundings : Everything which surrounds the system.
 Types of the System :
(i) Open System : Exchange both matter and energy with the
surroundings. For example : Reactants in an open test tube.
(ii)
Closed System : Exchange energy but no matter with the surroundings.
For example : Reactants in a closed vessel.
(iii)
Isolated System : Neither exchange energy nor matter with the
surroundings. For example : Reactants in a thermos flask. No system is
perfectly isolated.

Thermodynamic Processes :
(i) Isothermal process : ∆T = 0
(ii) Adiabatic process : ∆q = 0
(iii) Isobaric process : ∆P = 0
(iv) Isochoric process : ∆V = 0
(v) Cyclic process : ∆U = 0
(vi) Reversible process : Process which proceeds infinitely slowly by a
series of equilibrium steps.
(vii) Irreversible process : Process which proceeds rapidly and the system
does not have chance to achieve equilibrium.
 Extensive Properties : Properties which depend upon the quantity or
size of matter present in the system. For example : mass, volume, internal
energy, enthalpy, heat capacity, work etc.

Chemical Thermodynamics 75
  Intensive Properties : Properties which do not depend upon the quantity
or size of matter present in the system. For example : temperature, density,
pressure, surface tension, viscosity, refractive index, boiling point, melting
point etc.
 State Functions : The variables of functions whose value depend only on
the state of a system or they are path independent. For example : pressure
(P), volume (V), temperature (T), enthalpy (H), free energy (G), internal
energy (U), entropy (S), etc.
 Internal Energy (U) : It is the sum of all kind of energies possessed by
the system.
 First Law of Thermodynamics : “The energy of an isolated system is
constant.”
Mathematical Form : ∆U = q + w
 Sign Conventions for Heat (q) and Work (w) :
(i) W = + ve, if work is done on system
(ii) W = – ve, if work is done by system
(iii) q = + ve, if heat is absorbed by the system
(iv) q = – ve, if heat is evolved by the system
 Work of Expansion/compression : w = – Pext (Vf — Vi)
 Work done in Isothermal Reversible Expansion of an Ideal Gas :
wrev = – 2.303 nRT log

Or, wrev = – 2.303 nRT log

 Significance of ∆H and ∆U : ∆H = qp and ∆U = qv

 Relation between ∆H and ∆U: ∆H = ∆U + (np – nr)RT for gaseous
reaction.
(i) ∆H = ∆U if (np – nr) is zero; e.g., H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
(ii) ∆H > ∆U if (np – nr) is positive; e.g., PC15(g) → PCl3(g) + C12(g)
(iii) ∆H < ∆U if (np – nr) is negative; e.g., N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
 Heat capacity (C) : Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
a substance by 1°C or 1 K.
q = C∆T

76 Chemistry Class XI
  Specific heat capacity (Cs) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of a substance by 1°C or 1K.
q = Cs × m × ∆T
 Molar Heat Capacity (Cm) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1°C or 1K.
q = Cm × n × ∆T
 Standard State of a Substance : The standard state of a substance at a
specified temperature is its, pure form at 1 bar.
 Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆f Hθ) : Enthalpy change accompanying
the formation of one mole of a substance from its constituent elements
under standard condition of temperature (normally 298 K) and pressure
(1 bar).
Ø ∆f Hθ of an element in standard state is taken as zero.
Ø Compounds with – ve value of ∆fHθ are more stable than their
constituents.
Ø ∆rH° = Σiai∆f Hθ (products) – Σibi∆f Hθ (reactants) : Where ‘a’ and
‘b’ are coefficients of products and reactants in balanced equation.
 Standard Enthalpy of Combustion (∆ c H θ ) : Enthalpy change
accompanying the complete combustion of one mole of a substance under
standard conditions (298 K, 1 bar)
 Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation : The total enthalpy change
of a reaction remains same whether it takes place in one step or in several
steps.
 Bond Dissociation Enthalpy : Enthalpy change when one mole of a
gaseous covalent bond is broken to form products in gas phase. For
example : Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g); ∆Cl-Cl Hθ = 242k/mol–1.
For diatomic gaseous molecules; Bond enthalpy = Bond dissociation
(i)
Enthalpy = Atomization Enthalpy.
For Polyatomic gaseous molecules; Bond Enthalpy = Average of the bond
(ii)
dissociation enthalpies of the bonds of the same type.
 ∆rHθ = Σ∆bondHθ (Reactants) –– Σ∆bondHθ (Products).
 Spontaneous Reaction : A reaction which can take place either of its own
or under some initiation.
Chemical Thermodynamics 77
  Entropy (S) : It is measure of degree of randomness or disorder of a

system. ∆Ssys = . Unit of Entropy = JK–1 mol–1

 Second Law of Thermodynamics : For all the spontaneous processes

totally entropy change must be positive.
∆Stotal = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr > 0
 Gibbs Helmholtz Equation for determination of Spontaneity :
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
(i) If ∆G = – ve, the process is spontaneous
(ii) If ∆G = + ve, the process is non-spontaneous
(iii) If ∆G = 0, the process is in equilibrium
 Relation between Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium Constant :
∆Gθ = – 2.303 RT log Kc.
 Third law of thermodynamic : The entropy of a perfectly crystalline
solid at absolute zero (0 K) is taken to be zero.

1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the thermodynamic system to which following belong:
(i) Human body (ii) Milk in Thermos flask (iii) Tea in steel kettle
2. Identity State functions out of the following : Enthalpy, Entropy, Heat,
Temperature, Work, Free energy.
3. Give two examples of state functions.
4. Write the mathematical statement of first law of thermodynamics.
5. Predict the internal energy change for an isolated system ? [Ans. Zero]
6. Why ∆H is more significant than ∆U ?
7. Write one example each of extensive and intensive properties.
8. Write a chemical equation in which ∆H and ∆U are equal.
9. Write the relationship between ∆H and ∆U for the reaction :
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g).

78 Chemistry Class XI
 10. Define standard enthalpy of formation.

11. Why is the standard enthalpy of formation of diamond not zero although
it is an element ?

12. The enthalpy of atomization of CH4 is 1665 kJ mol–1. What is the bond
enthalpy of C-H bond ? [Ans. 416.25 kJ]

13. Identify the species for which ∆f Hθ = 0, at 298 K : – Br2, Cl2, CH4 .

[Hint : Cl2(Br2 is liquid at 298K)]

14. For the reaction 2Cl(g) → C12(g); what are the sign of ∆H and ∆S ?

15. For an isolated system ∆U = 0, what will be ∆S ?

16. Why entropy of steam is more than that of water at its boiling point ?

17. Out of Diamond and Graphite which has higher entropy ?

18. Write an example of endothermic spontaneous reaction.

19. State second law of thermodynamics.

20. State third law of thermodynamics.

21. Which has more entropy ? 1 mol H2O(l) at 25°C or 1 mol H2O(l) at 35°C.

22. At what temperature the entropy of a perfectly crystalline solid is zero?

23. For a certain reaction ∆Gθ = 0, what is the value of Kc ?

24. How can a non spontaneous reaction be made spontaneous ?

25. For a reaction both ∆H and ∆S are negative. Under what conditions does
the reaction occur.

2 - Marks Question

1. In a process 701 J of heat is absorbed by a system and 394 J work is done

by the system. What is the change in internal energy for the process ?
[Ans. 307 J]

Chemical Thermodynamics 79
 2. Neither q nor w is state functions but q + w is a state function. Explain.

3. Classify the following as extensive or intensive properties :

Heat capacity, Density, Temperature, Molar heat capacity.

4. Derive the relationship between ∆H and ∆U.

5. Derive the relationship Cp – Cv = R.

6. A 1.25g sample of octane (C8 H18) is burnt in excess of oxygen in a bomb

calorimeter. The temperature of the calorimeter rises from 294.05 to
300.78K.If heat capacity of the calorimeter is 8.93 kJ K–1. Find the heat
transferred to calorimeter. [Ans. 0.075 kJ]

7. Show that for an ideal gas, the molar heat capacity under constant volume
conditions is equal to 3/2 R.

8. Expansion of a gas in vacuum is called free expansion. Calculate the work

done and change in internal energy when 1 mol of an ideal gas expands
isothermally from I L to 5 L into vacuum.

9. State and explain Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation with a suitable
example.

10. Derive the relationship between ∆H and ∆U. Given, N2(g) + 3H2(g) →
2NH3(g); ∆rH° = – 92.4 kJ mol1; What is the standard enthalpy of formation
of NH3 gas ? [Ans. – 46.2 kJ mol–1]

11. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction : H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g).
Given the bond enthalpies H2,Br2 and HBr are 435 kJ mol–1,192 kJ mol–1
and 368 kJ mol–1 respectively. [Ans. – 109 kJ mol–1]

12. Is the bond dissociation enthalpy of all the four C-H bonds in CH4 same?
Give reason in support of your.

13. Define the term entropy. Write its unit. How does entropy of a system
change on increasing temperature?

80 Chemistry Class XI
 14. Dissolution of ammonium chloride in water is endothermic but still it
dissolves in water readily. Why ?

15. Calculate the entropy change in the surroundings when 1.00 mol of H2O(I)
is formed under standard conditions; ∆f Hθ = – 286 kJ mol–1.
[Ans. 959.7 J K–1 mol–1]

16. The enthalpy of vaporization of a liquid is 30 kJ mol–1 and entropy of

vaporization is 75 J K–1 mol–1. Calculate the boiling point of liquid at 1
atm. [Ans. 400 K]

17. The equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the value of
∆Gθ ? R = 8.314J K–1 mol–1, T = 300 K. [Ans. – 5.527 kJ mol–1]

18. Derive the relationship, ∆G = – T∆Stotal for a system.

19. The ∆H and ∆S for 2Ag2O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g) are given 61.17 kJ mol–1
and 132 JK–1 mol–1 respectively. Above what temperature will the reaction
be spontaneous ? [Ans. > 463.4 K]

3 - Mark Questions

1. Differentiate between the following (with examples) :

(i) Open and Closed System.

(ii) Adiabatic and Isothermal process

(iii) State function and path function

2. Calculate the maximum work obtained when 0.75 mole of an ideal

gas expands isothermally and reversibly at 27°C from a volume of 15 L
to 25 L. [Ans. – 955.7 J]

3. Calculate the number of kJ necessary to raise the temperature of 60 g of

aluminium from 35 to 55°C . Molar heat capacity of Al is 24 J mol–1J
mol–1K–1. [Ans. 1.067kJ]

Chemical Thermodynamics 81
 4. The reaction of cyanamide, NH2CN(s), with Dioxygen was carried out in
a bomb calorimeter, and ∆U was found to be – 742.7 kJ mol–1 at 298K.
Calculate Enthalpy change for the reaction at 298K,
NH2CN (s) + O2 (g) → N2 (g) + CO2(g) +H2O (I)
[Ans. – 741.5 kJ mol–1]

5. The enthalpy of combustion of methane, graphite and dihydrogen

at 298 K are – 890.3 kJ mol–1, – 393.5 kJ mol–1 and – 285.8 kJ mol–l
respectively. Calculate enthalpy of formation of methane gas.
[Ans. – 74.8 kJ mol–1]
6. Explain the Born Haber Cycle to determine the lattice enthalpy of NaCl.
7. Enthalpies of formation of CO(g), CO2(g), N2O(g) and N2O4(g) are
– 110, – 393, 81 and 9.7 kJ mol–1 respectively. Find the value of ∆rH for
the reaction; N2O4(g) + 3CO(g) → N2O(g) + 3CO2(g) .
[Ans. – 777.7 kJ mol–1]
8. The combustion of 1 mol of benzene takes place at 298K .After combustion
CO2 and H2O are formed and 3267 kJ mol–1 of heat is liberated. Calculate
∆f Hθ(C6H6).
Given : ∆f Hθ(CO2) = – 286 kJ mol–1, ∆f Hθ(H2O) = – 393 kJ mol–1
[Ans. 48.51 kJ mol–1]
9. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of CH3OH (1) from the
following data :
CH3OH (1) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O (1); ∆cHθ = – 726 kJ mol–1

C(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ∆f Hθ = – 393 kJ mol–1

H2(g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(1); ∆f Hθ = – 286 kJ mol–1
[Ans. – 239 kJ mol–1]
10. For oxidation of iron, 4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) entropy change is
– 549.4 J K-1 mol–1 at 298 K. In spite of negative entropy change of this
reaction, why is the reaction spontaneous ? (∆rHθ for this reason is – 1648
kJ mol–1) [Ans. ∆Stotal = + 4980.6 J K–1 mol–1]

82 Chemistry Class XI
 11. Give reasons :

(i) Evaporation of water is an endothermic process but it is spontaneous.

(ii) A real crystal has more entropy than an ideal crystal.

(iii) Entropy of universe is increasing.

12. For the reaction at 298 K, 2A + B → C; ∆H = 400 kJ mol–1, ∆S = 0.2 kJ

K–1 mol–1. At what temperature will the reaction become spontaneous
considering ∆H and ∆S to be constant over the temperature range.
[Ans. T > 2000 K]

13. Reaction X → Y; ∆H = + ve is spontaneous at temperature “T”. Determine

(i) Sign of ∆S for this reaction.

(ii) Sign of ∆G for Y → X

(iii) Sign of ∆G at a temperature < T.

5 - Mark Questions

1. (a) What is reversible process in Thermodynamics?

(b) Name the thermodynamic processes for which : (i) q = 0 (ii) ∆U = 0

(iii) ∆V = 0 (iv) ∆P = 0.

(c) Water decomposes by absorbing 286.2 kJ of electrical energy per mole.

When H2 and O2 combine to form one mole of H2O, 286.2 kJ of heat is
produced. Which thermodynamic law is proved? Write its statement.

2. (a) Although heat is a path function but heat absorbed by the system
under certain specific conditions is independent of path. What are those
conditions ? Explain. [Hint : qv = ∆U and qp = ∆H]

(b) It has been found that 221.4 J is needed to heat 30g of ethanol from
15°C to 18°C. Calculate (a) specific heat capacity, and (b) molar heat
capacity of ethanol. [Ans. (a) 2.46 Jg–1°C–1, (b) 113.2 J mol–1C–1]

Chemical Thermodynamics 83
 3. (a) Differentiate the terms Bond dissociation enthalpy and Bond Enthalpy.

(b) Calculate enthalpy change for the process CCl4(g) → C(g) + 4Cl(g)
and calculate Bond enthalpy of C-C1 bond in CCl4.Given : ∆vap Hθ(CCl4)
= 30.5 kJ mol–1; ∆f Hθ(CCl4) = – 135.5 kJ mol–1; ∆aHθ(C) = 715 kJ mol–1
and ∆aHθ(Cl2) = 242 kJ mol–1. [Ans. 1304 kJ mol–1, 326 kJ mol–1]

4. Predict the sign of ∆S for the following changes :

(i) Freezing of water,

(ii) C(graphite) → C(diamond)

(iii) H2(g) at 298 k and 1 bar → H2(g) at 298 k and 10 bar

(iv) H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)

(v) 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

5. (i) Define Gibbs free energy. Give its mathematical expression. What is
Gibb’s energy criteria of spontaneity.

(ii) For the reaction : 2A(g) + B(g) → 2D(g), ∆Uθ = – 10.5 kJ and
∆Sθ = – 44.1 J K–1. Calculate ∆rGθ for the reaction, and predict whether
will occur spontaneously. [Ans. ∆rGθ = + 0.16 kJ, Non spontaneous]

84 Chemistry Class XI
  Equilibrium : It is a state in a process when two opposing processes
(forward and reverse) occur simultaneously at the same rate. The free
energy change at equilibrium state is zero i.e., ∆G = 0.
 Equilibrium constant : For a general reaction :
aA + bB 

 cC + dD

Kc = and Kp =

 Relationship between Kp and Kc :

Kp = Kc (RT)∆ng
∆ng = np(g) – nr (g)
 Magnitude of equilibrium constant depends upon the way in which a
reaction is written :

Chemical equation Equilibrium constant

aA + bB 

 cC + dD K

cC + dD 

 aA + bB K =
1

naA + nbB 

 ncC + ndD K = Kn
2

1 1 1 1
aA + bB 
 cC + dD
n n n n K3 = K1/n
 Predicting the direction of reaction :
If Qc = Kc ⇒ the reaction is in a state of equilibrium.
Qc > Kc ⇒ the reaction proceeds in reverse direction.
Qc < Kc ⇒ the reaction proceeds in forward direction.

Equilibrium 85
  Ostwald’s dilution law : Degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte,

α=
 Ionic Product of water (Kw) = [H3O+] [OH–] = 10–14 at 298K
 Le-Chatelier’s Principle : When a system of equilibrium is subjected to
a change in temperature, pressure or concentration, the equilibrium shifts
itself in such a way so as to undo or nullify the effect of change.
 Outcomes of Le-Chatelier’s Principle
Change at equilibrium Shift in equilibrium
Increase in temperature Endothermic direction
Decrease in temperature Exothermic direction
Increase in pressure Towards lesser gaseous moles
Decrease in pressure Towards greater gaseous moles
Increase in Conc. of reactants Forward direction
Increase in Conc. of products Reverse direction
 Conjugate Acid or Base : Acid-base pair which differ by H+ ion.
Species – H+ = Conjugate base
Species + H+ = Conjugate acid
 pH of solution :
pH = –log [H3O+] or [H+] = 10–pH , pOH = –log [OH–]
pH + pOH = pKw = 14 at 298K
 Common ion effect : The depression of ionisation of weak electrolyte by
the presence of common ion from a strong electrolyte is called common
ion effect. For example degree of dissociation of NH4OH decreases in the
presence of strong electrolyte NH4Cl.
 Hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions : Hydrolysis of salt is
defined as the reaction of cation or anion with water as a result of which
the pH of water changes.
1. Salts of strong and strong bases (e.g., NaCl) do not hydrolyse. The
solution pH will be 7.
2. Salts of weak acids and strong bases (e.g., CH3COONa) hydrolyse,
pH >7 (The anion acts as a base).
X– + H2O 

 HX + OH–
(Weak acid) (Weak base)

86 Chemistry Class XI
 pH = + (pKa + log C)
3. Salt of strong acids and weak bases (e.g., NH4Cl) hydrolyse, pH < 7.
(The cation acts as an acid).
M+ + H2O 

 MOH + H+

pH = (pKb + logC)

4. Salt of weak acids and weak base (e.g., CH3COONH4) hydrolyse.

The cation acts as an acid and anion as a base but whether the solution is
acidic or basic depends upon the relative values of Ka and Kb for these
ions.
M+ + X– + H2O 

 MOH + HX

pH = (pKa – pKb)
 Buffer solutions : The solutions, which resist the change in pH on dilution
or addition of small amounts of acid or base, are called buffer solutions.
 Basic buffer : Solution of weak base and its salt with strong acid, For
e.g., NH4OH + NH4Cl
 Acidic buffer : Solution of weak acid and its salt with strong base, For
e.g., CH3COOH + CH3COONa.
 Henderson Hasselbalch Equation for the pH of Buffer solution—

pH = pKa + log (for acidic buffer)

= pKa + log
pOH (for basic buffer)

 Solubility Product (Ksp) : The equilibrium constant that represent the

equilibrium between undissolved salt (solute) and its ions in a saturated
solution is called solubility product constant (Ksp).
For
AxBy xAy+ + yBx–
Ksp = [Ay+]x [Bx–]y = (xs)x (ys)y = xx. yx. s(x+y)
where s = Molar solubility
If ionic product < Ksp ; salt remain dissolve.
If ionic product > Ksp ; salt will be precipitated.

Equilibrium 87
  Relationship between solubility (s) and solubility product (Ksp).
Ksp = xx.yy. sx + y
For binary salts (e.g., AgCl, AgBr, AgI) Ksp = s2
For Ternary salts (e.g., PbI2) Ksp = 4s3
1 - Mark Questions
1. Define physical equilibrium. Give an example also.
2. Fizz is observed when soda water bottle is opened. Why ?
3. Justify the statement : ‘Both physical and chemical equilibria are dynamic
in nature’
4. State Henry’s law.
5. In a reversible reaction, the two substances are in equilibrium. If the
concentration of each one is reduced to half, then what is the effect on the
equilibrium constant ?
6. K1 and K2 are equilibrium constant for reactions (1) and (2)
(1) N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
(2) NO(g) 1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
calculate the relation between K1 and K2
7. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reaction :
3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2(g)
8. Classify the equilibrium as homogenous or heterogenous :
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(1) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH (aq)
(PNH3 )
9. Kp = 3 1
(PH2 ) 2 (PN2 ) 2

Write the balanced chemical equation corresponding to the above

expression.
10. Give the direction in which the reaction would proceed if Qc > Kc.
11. Hb(s) + O2(g) HbO2(s)
Predict the direction in which equilibrium gets shifted if partial pressure
of O2(g) is lowered.
12. Discuss the position of equilibrium if the following reaction is carried out
in the presence of catalyst.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

88 Chemistry Class XI
 13. In which case the yield of the product will be more.
A B K1 = 1010
X Y K2 = 106
14. Value of Kc at 500 K for A + 2B C is 10.6
Determine the value of Kc at the same temperature for C A + 2B
15. Why do we sweat more on a humid day ?
16. Why does a catalyst not affect the magnitude of equilibrium constant ?
17. Write the relation between Kp and Kc for the given reaction.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
18. Write the expression of Kc for the following reaction
CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)
19. Write the expression of Kp for the following reaction
Cu(NO3)2 (s) 2 CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
20. For an exothermic reaction, what happens to the equilibrium constant if
temperature is increase ?
21. Ka for HA1 is 10 and Ka for HA2 is 12
Which acid is stronger.
22. For tribasic acid Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3
What will happen to the acid strength of polyprotic acid if protons are
lost ?
23. C(s) Diamond (Density = 3.5 g/cm3) C(s) Graphite (Density = 2.3 g/
cm3)
What will be the effect of increasing the pressure in this equilibrium.
24. Under what condition does the active mass becomes equal to the
molarity ?
25. Which expression of Kc or Keq, involved solutions and gases only?
26. What will be the change in the direction of equilibrium if Ne gas is added
in a reaction at constant volume?
27. What will be the effect on the boiling point of liquid if pressure is
increased ?

Equilibrium 89
 2 - Mark Questions
1. What is Kc for the following equilibrium when the equilibrium
concentration of each substance is :
[SO2] = 0.60M, [O2] = 0.82 M and [SO3] = 1.90 M ?
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
2. At a certain temperature and total pressure of 105 Pa, iodine vapour contains
40% by volume of I atoms
I2(g) 2I(g)
Calculate Kp for the equilibrium. [Ans. 2.67 × 104 Pa]
3. Explain why pure liquids and solids can be ignored while writing the
equilibrium constant expression ?
4. A sample of HI(g) is placed in flask at a pressure of 0.2 atm. At equilibrium
the partial pressure of HI(g) is 0.04 atm.
What is Kp for the given equilibrium ?
2 HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g) [Ans. 4]
5. One mole of H2O and one mole of CO are taken in 10 L vessel and heated
to 725 K. At equilibrium 40% of water (by mass) reacts with CO according
to the equation,
H2O(g) + CO(g) H2 (g) + CO2(g)
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction. [Ans. 0.444]
6. At 1127 K and 1 atm pressure, a gaseous mixture of CO and CO2 in
equilibrium with soild carbon has 90.55% CO by mass
C (s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)
Calculate Kc for this reaction at the above temperature. [Ans. 0.153]
7. Describe the effect of :
(a) addition of H2
(b) addition of CH3OH
(c) removal of CO
(d) removal of CH3OH
on the equilibrium of the reaction :
2H2(g) + CO (g) CH3OH(g)

90 Chemistry Class XI
 8. A + 3 B 2X ; K = x
What will be the equilibrium constant for the decomposition of 1 mol
of x ?
9. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) ; ––––––– K1
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g) ; ––––––– K2
H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(g) ; ––––––– K3
Determine the equilibrium constant for
2 NH3(g) + 5/2O2(g) 2NO(g) + 3H2O)(g).
10. Kc for PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl (g) is 0.04 at 25°C
How much mole of PCl5 must be added to 3 L flask to obtain a chlorine
concentration of 0.15 M ? [Ans. 2.1]
3 - Mark Questions
1. Four moles of PCl5 are heated in a closed 4 dm3 container to reach
equilibrium at 400 K. At equilibrium 50% of PCl5 is dissociated. What is
the value of Kc for the dissociation of PCl5 into PCl3 and Cl2 at 400 K
[Ans. 0.50]
2. (a) How does the value of equilibrium constant predict the extent of a
reaction ?
(b) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction ?
3. (a) Define the equilibrium constant.
(b) For the general reaction :
a A(g) + b B(g) c C (g) + d D(g).
Derive the relationship between Kp and Kc
4. (a) What is meant by dynamic nature of equilibrium ?
(b) Consider the following transformation.
A B K1 = 1
B C K2 = 2
C D K3 = 3
Calculate the value of K for A D
5. Kc for SO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) SO3(g) at 600ºC is 61.7
Calculate Kp. What is the unit Kp for the above equilibrium. [R = 0.0821
L atm K–1 mol–1]

Equilibrium 91
 6. 3.2 mole of HI were heated in a sealed bulb at 444ºC till the equilibrium
state was reached. Its degree of dissociation was found to be 20%. Calculate
the number of moles hydrogen iodide, hydrogen and i odine present at the
equilibrium point and also determine the equilibrium constant.
2HI(g) H2 (g) + I2 (g).
7. At 25ºC and 1 atm, the partial pressure in an equilibrium mixture of N2O4
NO2 are 0.7 and 0.3 atm, respectively. Calculate the partial pressure when
they are in equilibriums at 25ºC and at a total pressure of 10 atm.
8. 13.8 g of N2O4 was placed in a 1L reaction vessel at 400 K and allowed
to attain equilibrium: N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
The total pressure at equilbrium was found to be 9.15 bar. Calculate Kc,
Kp and partial pressure at equilibrium. [Kc = 2.6]
9. The equilibrium constant for the following reaction is 1.6 × 105 at
1024 K
H2(g) + Br(g) 2HBr(g)
Find the equilibrium pressure of all gases if 10.0 bar a HBr is introduced
into a sealed container at 1024 K.
–2
[PH eq. = PBr eq. = 2.5 × 10 bar; PHBr = 10.0 bar]
2 2
10. In a reaction: CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(l) Hθ = – 92 kJ/mol 
Indicate the direction in which equilibrium will shift when:-
(i) Temperature is decreased.
(ii) Pressure is decreased.
(iii) Ne gas is added at constant pressure.
5 – Mark Questions
1. Dihydrogen gas is obtained from natural gas by partial oxidation with
steam as per following endothermic reaction :
CH4 (g) + H2O (g) CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
(a) Write as expression for Kp for the above reaction.
(b) How will the values of Kp and composition of equilibrium mixture
be affected by :
(i) increasing the pressure
(ii) increasing the temperature
(iii) using a catalyst ?

92 Chemistry Class XI
 2. At 473 K, equilibrium constant Kc for decomposition of phosphorus
pentachloride, PCl5 is 8.3 × 10–3. If decomposition is depicted as,
PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) Hθ = 124.0 kJ mol–1
(a) Write an expression for Kc for the reaction.
(b) What is the value of Kc for the reverse reaction at the same
temperature?
(c) What would be the effect on Kc if (i) PCl5 is added (ii) pressure
is increased (iii) the temperature is increased ? [(b) KC = 120.48 (c)
(i) No effect (ii) No effect (iii) Kc increase]
3. Ammonia is prepared by Haber’s process is which the following reaction
occurs
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) Hθ = – 93.6 kJ
Mention the effect of following on the equilibrium concentration of
ammonia:-
(a) Increasing pressure
(b) Increasing temperature
(c) Use of catalyst at an optimum temperature.
(d) Addition of inert gas at constant volume.
(e) Addition of inert gas at constant pressure.
4. Ethyl acetate is formed by the reaction between ethanol and acetic acid
and the equilibrium is represented as :
CH3COOH( ) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
(i) Write the concentration ratio (reaction quotient), Qc, for this reaction
(note : water is not in excess and is not a solvent in this reaction)
(ii) At 293 K, if one starts with 1.00 mol of acetic acid and 0.18 mol of
ethanol, there is 0.171 mol of ethyl acetate in the final equilibrium
mixture. Calculate the equilibrium constant.
(iii) Starting with 0.5 mol of ethanol and 1.0 mol of acetic acid and
maintaining it at 293 K, 0.214 mol of ethyl acetate is found after
sometime. Has equilibrium been reached ?
[(ii) 3.92 (iii) Qc = 0.204, Equilibrium has not been attained.]

Equilibrium 93
 Ionic Equilibrium
1 – Mark Questions
1. Which of the following are Lewis acids ?
H2O, BF3, H+, NH4+
2. Write the conjugate acids for the following Bronsted bases.
C6H5OH, H2O
3. Write the conjugate bases for the following Bronsted acids.
H2O, CH3COOH.
4. Which of the following are Lewis acids ?
(a) H2O, (b) AlCl3 (c) NH4+
5. Define the Ostwald’s dilution law.
6. SO32– is Bronsted base or acid and why ?
7. Why pH of our blood remains almost constant at 7.4 though we quite often
eat spicy food ?
8. pH of black coffee is 5.0 at 25ºC. Is black coffee acidic or basic ?
[Ans. Acidic]
9. What will be the value of (pKa + pKb) at 25ºC.
10. What will be the pH of 1 M KNO3 solutions at 25ºC?
11. CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) CaCl2(aq) + Heat
Discuss the solubility of CaCl2 if temperature is increased.
12. Why does the solubility of CO2 decrease with rise in temperature ?
13. The solubility of A2 X3 is y mol dm–3. Calculate its solubility product.
14. Write the Ksp expression for Al (OH)3
15. What is the condition for precipitation of a salt ?
16. Pridict whether the solution is acidic, basic or natural when NH4NO3
undergo hydrolysis.
17. Explain why pure NaCl precipitates out when HCl gas is passed through
the solution of NaCl ?
18. Give the Henderson’s -Hasselbalch equation for an acidic buffer solution.
19. On which of the factors the equilibrium depend : Temperature, nature of
reactant and product, initial concentration and pressure of the reactants.

94 Chemistry Class XI
 20. What are amphoteric substances ? Give one example.
21. What could be the temperature 15ºC or 100ºC for Kw = 7.5 × 10–14 ?
22. What happens to ionic product of water if some acid is added to it ?
23. What is the conjugate base of HCO – ?3
2 – Mark Questions
1. Explain ionic product of water. What is the effect of temperature on ionic
product of water ?
2. What is pOH ? What is its value for neutral water at 25ºC ?
3. (a) Define buffer solution.
(b) Give one example each of acidic and basic buffer.
4. The solubility of Ca3(PO4)2 in water is x moles / litre. Calculate its
solubility product. [Ans. 108x5]
5. Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M solution of acetic acid. Ka for CH3COOH
is 1.8 × 10–5 at 25ºC. [Ans. 3.37]
6. Calculate pH when 9.8 g H2SO4 is dissolved in 2 litre of solution. [1]
7. Calculate the pH of 10–9 M HCl. [Ans. pH = 6.9957]
8. An acid having pH = 6 is diluted 100 times. What will be the pH of the
final solution ? [Ans. pH = 6.98]
9. Calculate the pH of 10–10 M NaOH solution. [Ans. pH = 7.0004]
10. Solid Ba(NO3)2 is gradually dissolved in a 1.0 × 10–4 M Na2CO3 solution.
At what concentration of Ba2+ will a precipitation took place ?
(Ksp for BaCO3 = 5.1 × 10–9) [Ans. 5.1 × 10–5 M]
11. The pKa of acetic acid and pKb of ammonium hydroxide are 4.76 and
4.75 respectively. Calculate the pH of ammonium acetate solution.
[Ans. 7.005]
3–Mark Questions
1. What is meant by the conjugate acid-base pair ? Find the conjugate acid/
base for the following species :
HNO2, CN–, HClO4, F–, OH–, OH3–, and S2–.
2. Define solubility product. Calculate the solubility product of Ca(OH)2 if
its solubility is 3 moles L–1. [Ans. Ksp = 108]

Equilibrium 95
 3. Calculate the pH of the following mixture.
200 mL of M/10 H2SO4 + 400 mL of M/10 H3PO4 + 400 mL of M/10
HCl. [0.69]
4. The solubility product of AgCl in water is 1.5 × 10–10. Calculate its
solubility in 0.01 M NaCl aqueous solution. [1.5 × 10–8 M]
5. Predict whether a precipitate will be formed or not on mixing 20 ml of
0.001 M NaCl solution with 80 mL of 0.01 M AgNO3 solution, Ksp for
AgCl is 1.5 × 10–10 . [Yes, ppt. will be formed]
6. Equal volumes of three acids solution with pH 3, 4 and 5 are mixed in a
vessel. What will be the H+ ion concentration in the mixture ?
7. Calculate the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 50 mL of 0.2 M HCl
and 50 mL of 0.1 M NaOH. [Ans. 1.3010]
8. The pH of 0.1 M hydrocyanic acid solution is 5.2. What is the value of
Ka for hydrocyanic acid ? [Ans. Ka = 3.69 × 10–10]
9. A buffer solution is prepared by mixing equal concentration of weak base
and its salt with strong acid. For the base Kb is given as 10–9. Calculate
the pH of the buffer solution. [5]
10. Calculate the pH of the resultant mixtures :
(a) 10 mL of 0.2 M Ca(OH)2 + 25 mL of 0.1 M HCl
(b) 10 mL of 0.01 M H2SO4 + 10 mL of 0.01 M Ca(OH)2
(c) 10mL of 0.1 M H2SO4 + 10mL of 0.1 M KOH.
[(a) 12.632 (b) 7 (c) 1.3]
11. Equal volumes of 0.002 M solutions of sodium iodate and cupric chlorate
are mixed together. Will it lead to precipitation of copper iodate ? (For
cupric iodate Ksp = 7.4 × 10–8). [NO ppt. will ocurr]
12. What is the maximum concentration of equimolar solutions of ferrous
sulphate and sodium sulphide so that when mixed in equal volumes, there is
no precipitation of iron sulphide ? (For iron sulphide, Ksp = 6.3 × 10–18)
[5.02 × 10–9 mol L–1]
13. The ionization constant of aniline is 3.69 × 10–10 :
(i) Calculate pH of 0.01 M solution of aniline.
(ii) Calculate the degree of dissociation of aniline in the solution.
(iii) Calculate the ionization constant of conjugate acid of the aniline.

96 Chemistry Class XI
 14. The Ksp for Al(OH)3 is 2.7 × 10–11. Calculate its solubility in g/L and pH
of this solution.
15. Calculate the volume of water required to dissolve 0.3 gm of Zn(OH)2 to
get a saturated solution. Ksp [Zn(OH)2] = 1 × 10–15
[Given Atomic mass of Zn = 65.3, O = 16, H = 1 g mol–1 respectively]
16. The pH of an aqueous solution of ammonia is 11.5. Find the molarity of
the solution. Kb (NH4OH) = 1.8 × 10–5 [0.57]
17. What is the pH of the solution when 0.2 mole of HCl is added to 1 L of
the solution containing 0.1 M each of CH3COOH & acetate ion. Assume
that volume is 1 L.
Ka(CH COOH) = 1.8 × 10–5. [1]
3
5 – Mark Questions
1. Calculate the pH value of the following solutions.
(a) 10–2 M HCl.
(b) 10–3 M H2SO4.
(c) 10–4 M NaOH
(d) 0.04 M NaOH.
(e) 0.03 M HCl. [Ans. (a) 2 (b) 2.6990 (c) 10 (d) 12.60 (e) 1.5229]
2. (i) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 2.0 mol/L CH3COOH
in 1.0 mol/L of CH3COONa . [Given Ka for CH3COOH is 1.8 × 10–5 at
25ºC.]
(ii) Calculate the change in pH of the buffer after the addition of 0.01 mol
NaOH.
(iii) Calculate the pH of the buffer after the addition of 0.01 M HCl ?
[Ans. (i) 4.4337, (ii) 0.0065, (iii) 4,4372]
3. (a) What is solubility product ? How is it different from ionic product ?
(b) Calculate the solubility of PbCl2 if its solubility product is 1.0 × 10–6
at 298 K. [Ans. 6.3 × 10–3 M]
4. (a) Write short notes on the following :
(i) Common ion effect
(ii) Buffer solution

Equilibrium 97
 (b) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.2 mole of NH4Cl
and 0.1 mole of NH4OH per litre. Kb for NH4OH = 1.8 × 10–5
[Ans. 8.966]
5. 500 mL saturated solution of Ca(OH)2 is mixed with equal volume of 0.4
M NaOH. How much Ca(OH)2 in mg is precipitated ?
[Ka (Ca(OH)2) = 4.42 × 10–5 at 25ºC]
6. Calculate the pH of 0.1 M ammonia solution. Calculate the pH after 50
mL of this solution is treated with 25 mL of 0.1 M HCl.
(Given Kb (NH3) = 1.77 × 10–5.]

98 Chemistry Class XI
 Chapter - 8
Redox
Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction :
Oxidation Reduction
1. Addition of oxygen 1. Removal of oxygen
2. Removal an Hydrogen 2. Addition of Hydrogen
3. Addition of an electronegative 3. Removal of an electronegative
element. element.
4. Removal of an electropositive 4. Addition of an electropositive
element element.
5. Loss of electron(s) 5. Gain of electron(s)
6. Increase in oxidation number. 6. Decrease in oxidation number.

 Reducing Agent : Donor of electrons.

 Oxidising Agent : Acceptor of electrons.
 Redox Reaction : Reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place
simultaneously.
 Oxidation Number : It is charge that an atom appears to have in a given
species when the bonding electron are counted towards more electro-
negative atom.
 Calculation of Oxidation Number :
(a) Oxidation number of all the elements in their elemental form (in
standard state) is taken as zero. Oxidation number of element in a molecule
Cl2, F2, O2, P4, O3, Fe, H2, N2, C (graphite) is zero.
(b) Common Oxidation number of elements of first group is +1. Common
Oxidation number of elements of second group + 2.
(c) For ions composed of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal
to the charge on the ion.

Redox Reactions 99
 (d) The oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds is – 2. While in
peroxides (e.g., H2O2, Na2O2), each oxygen atom is assigned an
oxidation number of – 1, in super oxides (e.g., KO2, RbO2) each
oxygen atom is assigned an oxidation number of – (½).
(e) In oxygen difluoride (OF2) and dioxygen difluoride (O2F2), the oxygen
is assigned an oxidation number of + 2 and + 1, respectively.
(f) The oxidation number of hydrogen is + 1 but in metal hydride its
oxidation no. is – 1.
(g) In all its compounds, fluorine has an oxidation number of – 1.
(h) The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a
compound must be zero.
(i) In polyatomic ion, the algebraic sum of all the oxidation numbers of
atoms of the ion must equal the charge on the ion.
 Types of Redox Reactions:
(i) Combination Reaction : 0 0 +2 –3
∆
3 Mg (s) + N2 (g) → Mg3N2 (s)
(ii) Decomposition Reaction : +1 +5 – 2 +1–1 0
∆
2KClO3(s) → 2 KC1(s) + 3O2 (g)
(iii) Metal Displacement : + 2 + 6 – 2 0 +2+6–2 0
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
(iv) Non-metal displacement : 0 +1–2 +2–2+1 0
Ca (s) + 2 H2O (1) → Ca (OH)2 + H2 (g)
(v) Disproportionation reactions : It is a reaction in which same
element is reduced and oxidized simultaneously.
0 –1 +1
C12 (g) + 2 OH– (aq) → Cl– (aq) + ClO– (aq) + H2O (1)
 Stock Notation : Representing oxidation number of metal in Roman
numerals within parenthesis after the symbol or name of metal in the
molecular formula or name of a compound. For e.g., Stock Notation of
Ferric oxide is Fe2(III)O3 or Iron (III) oxide.
 Fractional Oxidation Number : When two or more atoms of an element
are present in different oxidation states, then calculated oxidation number
may comes out as fractional due to average of all the different oxidation
states.

100 Chemistry Class XI

 In reality no element can have a fractional oxidation state.
 Balancing of Redox Reactions :
(A) Oxidation number method
(B) Half reaction method
 Electrode Potential (E) : Potential difference between electrode and
electrolytic solution due to charge separation.
 Standard Electrode Potential (Eθ) : Electrode Potential measured at 298
K and 1M concentration of metal ions (or 1 bar pressure of gas).
 Electrochemical Cell : A device in which chemical energy of a spontaneous
redox reaction is converted into electrical energy.

Cell diagram: Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | cu

LHS oxidation, Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
RHS reduction Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
Overall reaction Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
 Representation of an Electrochemical cell :
———— Flow of electrons ———→
←———— Flow of current ———
Zn(s) | Zn2+ (aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu(s)

Left Electrode Salt Bridge Right Electrode

LOAN Oxidation Reduction
Anode Cathode
Negative Positive
 Functions of Salt Bridge : (i) To complete inner circuit. (ii) To maintain
electrical neutrality around electrudes.

Redox Reactions 101

Valency: Valency is the combining capacity of en element. Valency of an element
cannot be zero.

Limitation of Concept of Oxidation Number

Acc. to the concept of oxidation number, oxidation means increase oxidation

number, during, oxidation there is decrese in elecron density while increase in
electron density around the atom under going reduction.

1 - Mark Questions
1. Define oxidation and reduction according to electronic concept.
2. Define oxidation and reduction according to oxidation number.
3. A freshly cut apple is almost white but it turns reddish brown after
sometime. Give reason.
4. Define oxidation number.
5. Write oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4.
6. Write oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O72–.
7. Write Stock notation of MnO2 and AuCl3.
8. Define redox reaction with example.
9. Define disproportionation reaction. Give one example.
10. Define the term redox tirration.
11. Name the indicator used in redox titrations involving K2Cr2O7 as an
oxidizing agent.
12. At what concentration of Cu2+ (aq) will electrode potential become equal
to its standard electrode potential ? [Ans. 1 M]
13. The standard reduction potentials of three metals cations X, Y and Z are
+ 0.52, – 3.03 and – 1.18 V respectively. Arrange X, Y and Z in order of
increasing reducing power. [Ans. X < Z < Y]
14. An electrochemcial cell consists of two electrodes i.e., Anode and Cathode.
What is the direction of flow of electrons in this cell ?
15. Why anode is negatively charged in an electrochemical cell.
16. Out of Zn and Cu vessel one will be more suitable to store 1 M HCl ?
[Ans. Cu]
θ θ
Given = – 0.76 V, = + 0.34 V.

102 Chemistry Class XI

 15. Is it safe to stir 1 M AgNO3 solution with copper spoon ?
θ θ
Given = + 0.80 V, = + 0.34 V. [Ans. No]
2 - Mark Questions
1. Identify oxidant and reductant in the reaction :
I2 (aq) + 2S2O32– (aq) → 2 I– (aq) + S4O62–(aq).
2. Calculate oxidation number of Fe in Fe3O4 and write a suitable justification
of your answer.
3. Oxidation-reduction reactions are complementary. Explain.
4. Write formula for the following compounds :
(i) Mercury (II) chloride
(ii) Nickel (II) sulphate
(iii) Iron (III) sulphate
(iv) Chromium (III) oxide
5. Justify that the reaction : H2O(s) + F2 → HF + HOF is a redox reaction.
6. A decomposition reaction may or may not be a redox reaction. Write two
decomposition reactions in support of the statement.
7. Split the reaction 2 K (s) + C12 (g) → 2 KC1 (s) into oxidation and reduction
half reactions.
8. Calculate the oxidation number of underlined elements in following
compounds :
(i) CaO2  (ii) H2S2O7  (iii) K2MnO4  (iv) KI3
9. Write the functions of salt bridge in an electrochemical cell.
10. Define the term redox couple. Write the practical application of redox
couple.
11. The standard reduction potentials of two metals A and B are – 0.76 V and
+ 0.34 V respectively. An electrochemical cell is formed using electrodes
of these metals.
(i) Identify the cathode and anode.
(ii) Write the direction of flow of electron.

Redox Reactions 103

 3 - Mark Questions
1. Calculate oxidation number of :
(i) Cr in Cr2O42–
(ii) O in KO2
(iii) Na in Na2O2.
2. Account for the following :
HNO3 acts as oxidizing agent while HNO2 can act both as reducing
(i)
and oxidizing agent.
AgF2 is unstable compound and act as a strong oxidizing agent.
(ii)
(iii) Ozone acts as an oxidising agent.
3. Permanganate ion (MnO4–) reacts with sulphur dioxide gas in acidic
medium to produce Mn2+ ion and hydrogen sulphate ion. Write ionic
equation and balance by ion electron method.
4. Balance the following equation by oxidation number method :
P4(s) + OH– (aq) → PH3 + H2PO2– (aq) [Basic Medium]
5. Balance the following equation in basic medium :
C12O7 (g) + H2O2 (1) → ClO2– (aq) + O2 (g)
6. Depict the galvanic cell in which the reaction
Zn (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s) takes place. Further show :
(i) Which electrode is negatively charged ?
(ii) The carriers of the current in the cell
(iii) Individual reaction at each electrode.
7. Explain why ?
(i) Reaction FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + Fe does not occur.
(ii) Zinc can displace copper from aqueous CuSO4 solution but Ag cannot.
(iii) Solution of AgNO3 turns blue when copper rod is immersed in it.
5 - Mark Questions
2–
1. (i) MnO4 undergoes disproportionation reaction in acidic medium but
MnO4– does not. Give reason.
(ii) Give one example each of the following redox reactions:
(a) Combination reaction

104 Chemistry Class XI

 (b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Metal displacement reaction
2. Consider the cell reaction of an electrochemical cell : Ni(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) →
Ni2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s) and answer the following questions :
(i) Write anode and cathode half reactions.
(ii) Mention the direction of flow of electrons.
(iii) How is the electrical neutrality maintained in the solutions of the two
half cells.
(iv) Write the formula for calculating standard emf of this cell.
(v) How does the emf change when the concentration of silver ions is
decreased ?
3. Justify the reason that following reactions are redox reactions.
(a) CuO (s) + H2 (g) ——→ Cu (s) + H2O (g)
(b) Fe2O3 + 3CO (g) ——→ 2 Fe (g) + 3CO2 (g)
(c) NH3 (g) 5O2 (g) ——→ 4NO (g) + 5H2O (g)
(d) BCl3 (g) + 3 LiAlH4 ——→ B2H6 + LiCl + AlCl3
(e) 2K + F2 ——→ 2KF
[Hints:– CuO is oxidizing agent, H2 is acting as reducing agent because Cu (II)
is changing to Cu (0) by gain of e– H2 is getting oxidised to H2O (g), its
oxidations sate is changing from 0 to +1, by loss of electrons.
(ii) It is redox reaction: Fe2O3 is getting reduced to fe. CO is getting oxidised
to CO2.]
4. Using standard electrode : Predict if the reaction between as the following is
feasible.
(i) Fe3+ (aq) and I– (aq)
Ag+ and Cu
(ii)
Fe3+ and Br– (aq)
(iii)
(iv) Ag and Fe3+ (aq)
Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq)
(iv)
Hint:– EθI /I– = 0.541 V, EθCu2+/Cu, = 0.34V, EθBr /Br– = 1.09V, EθAg+/Ag = 0.80V,
2 2
EθFe3+/Fe2+ = 0.77V.
5. Draw the diagram for the galvanic cell which would have overall chemical
reaction as

Redox Reactions 105

 Zn + 2Ag+ ——→ Zn2+ + 2Ag.
Answer the following :
(i) Write the reactions occurring at each electrode.
(ii) In which directions do the electrons flow in the external circuit?
(iii) Name the salt to be taken in salt bridge.
(iv) Label the anode and cathode.
(v) How does the EMF change when the concentration of solvers ions is
decreased?

106 Chemistry Class XI

 Chapter - 9
Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table and also the lightest
element known. Electronic configuration of Hydrogen is 1s1.
 Isotopes of hydrogen :
(i) Protium (11H)
(ii) Deuterium (12H or 12D)
(iii) Tritium (13H or 13T)
 Preparation of Dihydrogen :
(i) Laboratory preparation : Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2.
(ii) Commercial preparation : By electrolysis of acidified water.
(iii) High purity dihydrogen is obtained by electrolysing warm aqueous
barium hydroxide.
 Properties :
* Reaction with halogen: H2 + X2 → 2HX [X = F, Cl, Br, I]
D
* Reaction with oxygen: H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) DHø
= – 285.9 kJ mol–1
D 2NH (g) DHø
* Reaction with nitrogen: 3H2(g) + N2(g) → 3
= –92 kJ mol–1
D 2MH(s)
* Reaction with alkali metals: H2(g) + 2M(g) →
It is relatively inert at room temperature due to the high H-H bond enthalpy.
 Uses of Dihydrogen :
(i) For synthesis of Ammonia (NH3)
 (ii) For production of Methanol (CH3OH)
(iii) In oxyhydrogen torches
(iv) In a fuel cell.
 Hydrides
(i) Ionic or salt like or saline hydrides are formed with most of the
s-block elements. Significant covalent character is found in LiH, BeH2
and MgH2.
(ii)
Covalent or Molecular hydrides are formed with most of the p-block
elements. There are further classified as :
(a) Electron deficient hydrides are formed by group 13 elements e.g.,
B2H6. They acts as Lewis acid.
(b) Electron Precise hydrides are formed by group 14 elements e.g.,
CH4.
(c) Electron rich hydrides have lone pair of electrons on central atoms
of the molecules. Elements of group 15-17 form these types of hydrides.
NH3, HF has high m.p./b.p. due to presence of intermolecular hydrogen
bonding.
(iii)
Metallic or Non-stoichiometric or Interstitial hydrides are formed
by d and f -block elements. For example La H2.87 or NiH0.6–0.7.
 Water : (H2O)
Hard water : Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts in the
form of hydrogencarbonate, chloride and sulphate. Hard water does not
give lathers with soap.
Soft water : Water free from soluble salts of calcium and magnesium is
soft water.
Types of Hardness :
Temporary hardness is due to presence of calcium or magnesium
hydrogen carbonate in water.
Temporary hardness can be removed by :
(i) Boiling
(ii) Clark’s Method
Permanent hardness :
Such hardness is due to presence of calcium or magnesium chlorides and
sulphates.

108 Chemistry Class XI

 Permanent hardness can be removed by :
(i) Treatment with washing soda
(ii) Calgon’s method
(iii) Ion exchange method.
Demineralised or Deionised water : Water free from all soluble mineral
salts is known as demineralised water.
 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Preperation :
(i) By electrolytic oxidation of acidified sulphate solutions at high current
density.

(ii) 2-Ethylanthraquinol H2O2 + (oxidised product)

 Physical Properties
(i) Miscible with water in all proportions.
(ii) A 30% of H2O2 solution is marked as ‘100 volume’ hydrogen peroxide.
 Chemical Properties :
(i) It acts as an oxidising as well as reducing agent.
(ii) Oxidising action in acidic medium :
2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+ (aq) + H2O2 (aq) → 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(iii) Reducing action in acidic medium :
2MnO4– + 6H+ + 5H2O2 → 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + SO2
 Storage of H2O2 :
(i) Stored in wax-linked glass or plastic vessels in dark. Urea can be added
as a stabiliser.
(ii) It is kept away from dust because dust can induce explosive
decomposition of the compound.
 Uses of H2O2 :
(i) As an antiseptic it is sold in the market name perhydrol.
(ii) In synthesis of hydroquinone.
(iii) As a bleaching agent.

Hydrogen 109
 1. Auto–protolysis of water: Water accepts a proton from other water
molecule to from H3O+ and OH– this porous is called auto – protolysis of
water
H2O(l) + H2O(l) 

 H3O+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Its significance is that water can act as acid as well as base i.e. it is
amphoteric in nature.
2. Hydrogen economy:–It is transportation and storage of energy in the form
of liquid or gaseous hydrogen. Advantage of hydrogen economy is that
energy is transmitted in the form of dihydrogen and not as electric power
3. Hydrogenation:–It is a process of converting polyunsaturated oils in
edible fats.
Ni
Vegetable oil + H2 Vanaspati ghee (fat).
473K
4. Syngas:–It is a mixture of CO and H2 in 1:1 ratio and also known as water
gas or syntnesis gas.
1270 K
C(s) + H2O(g) CO2 + H2(g)
Ni
Carbon Carbon monoxide

5. Water gas shift reaction.

673 K
CO + H 2 O CO 2 + H 2
iron chromate as catalyst

6. Full-cell:– Fuel cell is a cell in which chemical energy of fuel is converted

into electrical energy.
7. Structure of water:– It is bent molecule in gas phase with HOH bond
angle 104.5° and O–H bond length of 95.7 pm as shown if figure

110 Chemistry Class XI

 8. Calgon:– It is sodium polymetaphosphate (NaPO3)n it is used to remove.
Permanent hardness of water.
9. De-ionized water:– Pure di-mineralised (ionized water) free from all
soluble mineral matter is obtained by passing water successively through
a cation exchanger (in the H+ form) and an anion exchanger for removal
by cation and anions

1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the isotope of hydrogen which is radioactive in nature. [Ans. Tritium]

2. H+ ions does not exist freely and is always associated with other atoms or
molecule. Explain.

3. Give the composition of water gas. [Ans. CO, H2]

4. Name the compound whose electrolysis in aqueous state, give high purity
(99.95%) dihydrogen. [Ans. aq Ba(OH)2 solution]

5. Give the main purpose of water gas shift reaction.

6. Write the chemical reaction occuring during coal gasification.

7. Name the element used in fuel cell for generating electricity. [Ans. H2]

8. Give an example of electron deficient covalent hydride. [Ans. B2H6]

9. Name the hydrides which have high potential for hydrogen storage.

[Ans. Metallic hydrides]

10. Name the groups in d-block elements which do not form metallic hydrides.

[Ans. 7, 8, 9]

Hydrogen 111
 11. H2 is relatively inert at room temperature. Explain.

12. Complete the reaction :

C(s) + H2O(g) (A) ___ (g) + (B) ___ (g) . [Ans. CO, H2]

13. Name the phenomenon as a reason of which water has unusual boiling
point. [Ans. Extensive hydrogen bonding]

14. Draw structure of water.

15. At atmospheric pressure ice crystallised in the ......... form but at very low
temperature it condenses to ......... form. [Ans. Hexagonal, cubic]

16. Mention the temperature at which density of ice is maximum. [Ans. 4°C]

17. Density of ice is .......... than density of liquid water. [Ans. Less]

18. Complete the reaction :

2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) —→

19. How many hydrogen-bonded water molecules (s) are associted in

CuSO4.5H2O. [Ans. One]
20. Name the compound used in Clark’s method to remove temporary hardness
of water. [Ans. Lime]
21. Write the chemical formula of “Calgon”. [Ans. Na4P6O18]
22. A 30% solution of H2O2 is marketed as ........ volume. [Ans. 100 volume]
23. Draw gas phase structure of H2O2.
24. Name the organic compound whose auto-oxidation is used to produce
H2O2 commercially or industrially. [Ans. 2-Ethylanthraquinol]
25. How is heavy water obtained from ordinary water?
2 - Mark Questions
1. Complete the following reactions :
(i) CO(g) + H2(g)

(ii) Zn(s) + NaOH(aq)

112 Chemistry Class XI

 2. Among NH3, H2O and HF which would you except to have highest
magnitude of hydrogen bonding and why ?
3. How do you except the metallic hydrides to be useful for hydrogen storage ?
Explain.
4. How can the production of dihydrogen obtained from “Coal gasification”
be increased ?
5. Write the name of isotopes of hydrogen. What is the mas ratio of these
isotopes ?
6. Complete the reactions :
(i) CO(g) + 2H2(g)

(ii) CH4(g) + H2O(g)

7. Comment on the reactions of dihydrogen with :
(i) Chlorine, (ii) Sodium.
8. Arrange the following :
(i) LiH, NaH, CsH (In increasing order of ionic character)
(ii) H—H, D—D, F—F (In decreasing order of bond dissociation
enthalpy)
9. List two uses of dihydrogen.
10. Complete the reactions :
(i) H2 + CO + RCH = CH2 —→
(ii) H2 + RCH2CH2CHO —→
11. Give two reactions to show amphoteric nature of water.
12. Complete the reactions :
(i) 2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) —→
(ii) 6CO2(g) + 12H2O(l) —→
13. What is the difference between the term hydrolysis and hydration.
14. What do you understand by term ‘autoprotolysis’ of water ? What is its
significance ?

Hydrogen 113
 15. What causes the temporary and permanent harness of water ?
16. Is demineralised or distill water useful for drinking purposes ? If not, how
can it be made useful ?
17. Explain the terms : (i) Hydrogen economy. (ii) Fuel cell.
18. Write chemical reactions to justify that hydrogen peroxide can function
as an oxidising as well as reducing agent.
19. Compare the structure of H2O and H2O2.
20. How does H2O2 behaves as a bleaching agent ?
21. H2O2 acts as an oxidizing as well as reducing agent. Why?

3 - Mark Questions
1. Complete the chemical reactions :
(i) 8LiH + Al2Cl6 —→
(ii) 2LiH + B2H6 —→
2. What do you understand by : (i) Electron deficient, (ii) Electron precise,
(iii) Electron rich compounds of hydrogen ? Provide justifications with
suitable examples.
3. What do you understand by the term “non-stoichiometric hydrides” ? Do
you expect this type of the hydrides to be formed by alkali metals. Explain
and Justify your answer.
4. Arrange the following :
(i) CaH2, BeH2, TiH2 (in order of increasing electrical conductance)
(ii) NaH, MgH2, H2O (in order of increasing bond dissociation enthalpy)
(iii) Li, F, H (in order of increasing ionisation enthalpy)
5. What do you understand by the terms :
(i) Syn gas (ii) Water gas shift reaction (iii) Producer gas.
6. Would gas except the hydrides of N, O and F to have lower boiling point
than the hydrides of their subsequent group members ? Give reasons.
7. Can phosphorous with outer electronic configuration 3s23p3 form PH5 ?
Explain.

114 Chemistry Class XI

 8. Why and how the hydrogen is regarded as a fuel of future ? Explain.
9. Write the reactions when dihydrogen reacts with (i) O2 (ii) N2 (iii) Cl2
under specific conditions.
10. Name the hydrides :
(i) Which is non stoichiometric in nature ?
(ii) Which are stoichiometric compounds ?
(iii) Which has electron rich type hydrides ?
11. Complete the reactions :
(i) CaO(s) + H2O(g) —→
(ii) AlCl3(g) + H2O(l) —→
(iii) Ca3N2(s) + H2O(l) —→
12. Discuss the principle and method of softening of hard water by synthetic
exchange of resin method.
13. What is meant by ‘demineralised’ water and how can it be obtained ?
14. What properties of water make it useful as a solvent ? What types of
compound can it (i) dissolved (ii) hydrolyse ?
15. Calculate the strength of 10 volume solution of H2O2.
16. Complete the reactions :
(i) 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H+(aq) + H2O2(aq) —→
(ii) HOCl + H2O2 —→
(iii) Mn2+ + H2O2 —→
17. Give three uses of H2O2.
18. Complete the reactions :
(i) CaC2 + 2D2O →
(ii) SO3 + D2O →
(iii) Al4C3 + 12D2O →
19. Give the limitations of using H2 as a fuel.
20. H2O2 is stored in a wax lined glass or plastic vessels. Explain an equation
showing decomposition of H2O2 on exposure to light.

Hydrogen 115
 5 - Mark Questions
1. Answer the following :
(a) Name the most abudant form of hydrogen isotope. [Ans. 11H]
(b) Name the particles emitted by tritium. [Ans. β–]
(c) Mixture of CO and H2 is used for preparation ......... . [Ans. Methanol]
(d) Name the catalyst used in Haber’s Process for manufacture of NH3(g).
[Ans. Fe]
(e) Name two electron rich hydrides. [Ans. NH3, H2O]
2. Answer the following :
(a) During Clark’s method. Name the compound in which Mg is
precipitated out. [Ans. Magnesium Hydroxide]
(b) Give the formula of Zeolite used in ion exchange method to remove
permanent hardness of water. [Ans. NaAlSiO4]
(c) Complete the reaction :
BaO2.8H2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
(d) H2O2 is miscible with water. Assign reason.
(e) Name the compound when can be used as a hair beach, mild antiseptic
in the form of perhydrol. [Ans. H2O2]
3. 1. Complete the following chemical equations
2. ________ + water → CaCO3 + NH3 (Ammonia)
+
3. ________ + Hydrogen peroxide H
→ CrO5+ ________
4. Na2O + H2O → ________
5. D2O + Na3AS → ________
Hints (i) CaNCN. + 3H2O → CaCO3 + 2NH3
(ii) Al4C3 + H2O → 4Al (OH)3 + 3CH4
+
(iii) Cr2O72– + 4H2O2 H
→ 2CrO5 + 5H2O
(iv) Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
(v) 3D2O + Na3AS → 3NaOD + ASD3
4. Describe the usefulness of water in biosphere and biological systems.

116 Chemistry Class XI

 Chapter - 10
s-Block
Elements
 s-block elements consists of group-I (Alkali metals) and group-2 (Alkaline
earth metals).
 Group 1st elements—Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.
 Group 2nd elements—Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra.
 Atomic radius—Atomic radius of alkali metals are greater than alkaline
earth metals.
 Hydration enthalpy : Decreases with increases in ionic sizes.
 Ionic mobility : Smaller the size of ion, more highly it is hydrated and
hence lower is its ionic mobility.
Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+
 Ionisation enthalpies : 1st I.E. of group 1st is smaller than group 2nd
elements but 2nd I.E. of group 2nd is smaller than group 1st elements.
 Flame colouration : Due to low I.E., s-block elements and their salts
imparts characteristics colour of oxidising flame (except Be and Mg). Be
and Mg do not show flame colouration because they have small size and
very high ionisation enthalpy.
 Reducing character : Due to large negative electrode potentials alkali
metals are stronger reducing agent than alkaline earth metal.
 Reactivity towards air :
4Li + O2 —→ 2Li2O (Lithium oxide)
2Na + O2 —→ Na2O2 (Sodium peroxide)
M + O2 —→ MO2 (M = K, Rb, Cs metal superoxide)
Alkaline earth metals being smaller in size do not from superoxides.
 Reactivity towards H2O :
2M + 2H2O —→ 2MOH + H2

s-Block Elements 117

 (Alkali metal)
M + 2H2O —→ M(OH)2 + H2
(Alkaline earth metals)
 Reactivity towards hydrogen :
2M + H2 —→ 2MH
(M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
M + H2 —→ MH2
(M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)
2BeCl2 + LiAlH4 —→ 2BeH2 + LiCl + AlCl3.
 Reactivity towards halogens :
2M + X2 —→ 2MX (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
M + X2 —→ MX2 (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)

BeO + C + Cl2 BeCl2 + CO

 Solution in liquid ammonia : The fresh solution of alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals (except Be and Mg) is deep blue, paramagnetic and
highly reducing due to presence of ammoniated electrons.
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonate in water :
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < RbCO3 < Cs2CO3
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonates in water.
BaCO3 < SrCO3 < CaCO3 < MgCO3 < BeCO3
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal sulphates in water :
BaSO4 < SrSO4 < CaSO4 < MgSO4 < BeSO4
 Thermal stability of alkali metal carbonates :
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < Rb2CO3 < Cs2CO3
 Thermal stability of alkaline earth metal carbonates :
BeCO3 < MgCO3 < CaCO3 < SrCO3 < BaCO3
 Anamolous behaviour of Li and Be : It is due to very small size, high
I.E. and high polarising power (i.e., charge/radius)
 Diagonal relationship (similarities) between Li and Mg :
(i) Both Li and Mg are hard.
(ii) Both react with N2 to form nitrides.

118 Chemistry Class XI

 6Li + N2 —→ 2Li3N
3Mg + N2 —→ Mg3N2
(iii)
Decomposition of carbonates :
Li2CO3 Li2O + CO2

MgCO3 MgO + CO2

(iv) Both LiCl and MgCl2 are deliquescent. They form hydrates salts
LiCl.2H2O and MgCl2.6H2O.
(v) Decomposition of nitrates :
4LiNO3 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2
2Mg(NO3)2 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
 Diagonal relationship (similarities) between Be and Al :
(i) Both are passive to acids due to formation of oxide layer.
(ii) Hydroxides of both dissolve in alkali to form [Be(OH)4]2– and
[Al(OH)4]–.
(iii) Chloride of both has bridged structure.
(iv) Both have tendency to form complexes of BeF42–, AlF63–.
 Manufacturing of washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) :
Solvay process :
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O (l) —→ NH4HCO3 (aq)
NH4HCO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) —→ NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl (aq)

2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3 (g)
 Manufacturing of caustic soda (NaOH) : Castner-Kellner cell.

Cathode : Na+ + e– Na-Hg

Anode : Cl– —→ + e–
2Na-Hg + 2H2O —→ 2NaOH + 2Hg + H2
 Plaster of paris : (CaSO4.½H2O)
2(CaSO4.2H2O) 2(CaSO4).H2O + 3H2O
Gypsum

s-Block Elements 119

  Cement is a finely powdered mixture of calcium silicates and aluminate
along with small quantities of gypsum which sets into a hard stone like
mass when treated with water.
1 - Mark Questions
1. What is the oxidation state of K in KO2 ?
2. Why are group I element called alkali metals ?
3. Potassium carbonate cannot be prepared by solvay process. Why ?
4. LiCl is soluble in organic solvent. Why ?
5. Why are group I elements called alkali metals ?
6. Alkali metals are strong reducing agents. Why ?
7. Why do alkali metals give characteristics flame colouration ?
8. Arrange the following in order of increasing covalent character : MCl,
MBr, MF, MI (where M = Alkali metal) [Ans. MF < MCl < MBr < MI]
9. Alkali metals can not be obtained by chemical reduction method. Explain.
10. Why is sodium metal kept under kerosene oil ?

11. Why Be and Mg do not give characteristics colour to the flame ?

12. Arrange the alkaline earth metal carbonate in the decreasing order of
thermal stability.
13. Why do alkaline earth metals not form any superoxide ?
14. Why gypsum is added to cement ?
15. How plaster of paris is obtained from gypsum ?
16. BeO is insoluble in water but BeSO4 is soluble in water ? Why ?
17. Why second I.E. of group II elements is less than group I elements ?
18. What is quick lime ? How is it prepared ?
19. Why does Be shows similarities with Al ?
20. Name the alkaline earth metal hydroxide which is amphoteric.

120 Chemistry Class XI

 2 - Mark Questions
1. Why are alkali metals soft and have low melting points ?
2. Write any four similarities between Li and Mg.
3. Why are potassium and caesium rather than Lithium used in photoelectric
cells ?
4. Why is Li2CO3 decomposed at a lower temperature whereas Na2CO3 at
higher temperature ?
5. Among the alkali metals which has :
(i) Highest melting point.
(ii) Most electropositive character
(iii) Lowest size of ion.
(v) Strongest reducing character. [Ans. (i) Li (ii) Cs (iii) Li (iv) Li]

6. Why does the solubility of alkali earth metal carbonates and sulphates
decreases down the group ?
7. Draw the structure of BeCl2 in (i) Vapour phase (ii) Solid state.
8. When CO2 gas is passed in lime water it turns milky but in case of excess
CO2 milkiness disappears. Support the statement by giving suitable
reaction equations.
9. (i) Eθ for M2+ (aq) + 2e– —→ M(s) (where M = Ca, Sr, Ba) is nearly
constant.
(ii) What is dead burnt plastar ? How is it obtained from gypsum?
10. Write two important uses of (i) Limestone (ii) Quick lime.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Assign reason for the following :
(i) Compounds of lithium are generally covalent.
(ii) Alkali metals are strong reducing agent.
(iii) LiCl is more covalent than NaCl.
2. Discuss the various reactions that occur in Solvay process.

s-Block Elements 121

 3. Explain why ?
(i) Lithium salts are commonly hydrated.
(ii) Sodium peroxide is widely used as as oxidising agent.
(iii) Sodium wire is used to remove moisture from benzene but can’t be
used for drying alcohol.
4. Sodium hydroxide is generally prepared by electrolysis of brine solution
in the Castner-Kellner cell :
(i) Write the reactions that occur in the cell.
(ii) Write any two uses of NaOH.
5. Explain with suitable reasons :
(a) A solution of Na2CO3 is alkaline.
(b) Alkali metals are prepared by electrolysis of their fused chlorides.
(c) Sodium is found to be more useful than potassium ?
6. Arrange the following in order of property mentioned against each :
(i) BaCl2, MgCl2, BeCl2, CaCl2 (Increasing ionic character)
(ii) Mg(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 (Increasing solubility in water)
(iii) BeO, MgO, BaO, CaO (Increasing basic strength)
7. What happens when :
(i) Mg is burnt in air.
(ii) Quick lime is heated with silica.
(iii) Chlorine is heated with slaked lime.
8. Write the raw material required for the manufacture of portland cement ?
Why gypsum is added into it.
9. (i) Why alkaline earth metals cannot be obtained by reduction of their
oxide ?
(ii) Why the elements of group 2 are known as alkaline earth metals ?
10. (i) Alkaline earth metals forms ionic salt having bivalent cations. Explain.
Why ?
(ii) A piece of magnesium ribbon continues to burn in SO2. Why ?

122 Chemistry Class XI

 5 - Mark Questions
1. Explain the following observation :
(a) LiI is more soluble than KI in ethanol.
(b) Sodium reacts with water less vigorously than potassium.
(c) LiF is insoluble in water.
(d) The mobilities of the alkali metal ions in aqueous solution are Li+ <
Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+.
(e) Lithium is the only alkali metal to form a nitride directly.

2. Complete the following reaction equations :

(i) BeCl2 + LiAlH4 →
(ii) CaO + SiO2 →
(iii) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 →
(iv) CaO + P4O10 →

(v) Ca(OH)2 + CO2 →

3. Compare the solubility and thermal stability of the following :

Compounds of the alkali metals with those of alkaline earth metals

(a) nitrates (b) carbonates (c) sulphates.
4. Explain the significance of Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg)
and Calcium(Ca) in biological fluids.
5. Explain the significance of Sodium Potassium, Magnesium and Calcium
biological fluids.
6. (i) A solutions of Na2CO3 is alkaline why?
(ii) BeO insoluble but BeSO4 in soluble in water. Why?
(iii) Lithium salts are commonly hydrated and those of other alkali metal
ions are usually anhydrous give reasons.
(iv) What is the importance of cement.
(v) What happen when quick lime is heated with silica.

s-Block Elements 123

 Chapter - 11
p-Block
Elements

General outer Electronic configuration : ns2np1–6.

Inert Pair Effect:
 Reluctance of ns2 electrons of valence shell to participate in bond formation
is termed as inert pair effect.
 It arises due to poor or insufficient shielding of ns2 electrons by intervening
d- or f-electrons & hence increases down the group.
Causes of Anomalous Behaviour of First Element in groups of p-Block:
(i) Very small size
(ii) Unavailability of vacant d-orbital
(iii) Tendency to form pp – pp multiple bonds.
Group No-13 Elements: (B, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Nh)
 General Electronic Configuration: ns2 np1
 Atomic radius: B < Ga < Al < In <TI
rGa < rAl due to ineffective shielding of valence electrons by intervening 3d-
electrons in Ga.
 Ionization Enthalpies: : B > Tl > Ga > Al > In
 Electronegativity: B > Tl > In > Ga > Al
 Oxidation States: B (+3), Al (+3), Ga (+3, +1), In (+3, +1), Tl (+1, +3)
Tl (+1) is more stable than Tl (+3) due to inert pair effect.
 Nature of Compounds: Compounds of group 13 elements are electron
deficient i.e. Lewis Acid and hence used as industrial catalyst e.g. BF3, AlCl3.
 Oxides: B2O3 Al2O3, Ga2O3 ln2O3 Tl2O
Acidic Amphoteric Basic Strongly Basic

 Halides: MX3 type, Electron deficient (Lewis acid), AICI3 exist as dimer
 Borax: Na2B4O7.10H2O. On heating it form transparent glassy bead
consisting of NaBO2 + B2O3.
 Boric acid: H3BO3, It acts as a Lewis acid by accepting electron pair from
OH– ions of water.
 Diborane: B2H6, Colourless & toxic gas, acts as Lewis acid due to having
electron deficient 3c-2e– bonds. Obtained by treating BF3 with LiAIH4 or
NaH, Also obtained by treating NaBH4 with l2.
 Borazine: B3N3H6, It is isostructural with benzene and hence known as inor-
ganic benzene. Prepared by heating B2H6 withNH3
Group -14 Elements: (C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb,Fl)
 General Electronic Configuration: ns2 np2
 Atomic radius: C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
 lonisation Enthalpy: LiHx : C > Si > Ge > Sn < Pb
 Oxidation States: C (+4), Si (+4), Ge (+4, +2), Sn (+4, +2), Pb (+4, +2)
Pb (+2) is more stable than Pb (+4) due to inert pair effect.
 Oxides: Form di oxides (MO2) & mono oxides (MO).
PbO2 is powerfull oxidizing agent because Pb stabilizes in +2 oxidation state
due to inert pair effect. CO2 is gas while SiO2 is network solid because C has
ability to form pp — pp multiple bonds.
 Halides: Form tetra halides (MX4) & dihalides (MX2).
Tetra halides are more covalent due to greater polarizing power of cation.
CCI4 is not hydrolysed with water as C has no vacant d-orbital to accept
electron pair from water.

p-Block Elements 125

 Catenation: C >> Si > Ge ≈ Sn >> Pb
 Allotrops of carbon: Diamond (sp3), Graphite (sp2), Fullerenes (sp2)
 Silicones: Silicones are synthetic organosilicon compounds containing
R2SiO repeating units. Silicones are water repellent, heat resistant, chemi-
cally inert, electrical insulators, resistant to oxidation.
 Silicates: Silicates are compounds in which anions are derived from
Si–o–si– tetrahedral units.
 Zeolites: Zeolites are 3D silicates in which some of the Si atoms are replaced

by Al3+ ions and negative charge is balanced by cations such as Na+, K+,
Ca2+ etc.
 ZSM-5 is used in petrochemical industries to convert methanol into petrol.
Group - 15 Elements: (N, P, As, Sb, Bi, Mc)
 General Electronic Configuration: ns2 np3
 Atomic radius: N < P < As < Sb < Bi
 lonisation Enthalpy: DiH1: N > P > As > Sb > Bi
 Oxidation States: N (+5, +3), P (+5,+3), As (+5, +3), Sb (+5,+3), Bi (+5,
+3) Bi (+3) is more stable than Bi (+5) due to inert pair effect.
 Oxides: Form trioxides (M2O3) & pentaoxides (M2O5).
 Halides: Form trihalides (MX3) & pentahalides (MX5).
Nitrogen does not form penta halides because it cannot extend its covalency
beyond four due to absence of vacant d-orbitals.
Pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides due to greater polarizing
power of cation.
 Hydrides: MH3 type, Lewis base, pyramidal structure
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
(Basic character, Bond angle & Thermal Stability)
NH3 < PH3 < AsH3 < SbH3 < BiH3
(Reducing Character) PH3< AsH3< NH3< SbH3< BiH3 (Boiling point)

126 Chemistry Class XI

 Oxides of Nitrogen: Nitrogen having ability to form pp – pp multiple bonds
can form oxides in all oxidation states from +1 to +5 i.e. N2O, NO,N2O3,
NO2,N2O4 & N2O5
 Dinitrogen (N2): Much less reactive due to high bond enthalpy of N≡N.
Prepared by heating (NH4)2Cr2O7 or a solution of NH4Cl + NaNO2.
 Ammonia (NH3): Pungent & irritating smell gas. It is prepared on commer-
cial scale by Haber's process. NH3 acts as Lewis base /Ligand / complexing
agent due to the presence of electron pair on N atom.
 Nitric acid (HNO3): It is very powerfull oxidizing agent because it readi-
ly gives nascent oxygen both in concentrated or dilute form. Concentrated
HNO3 oxidizes non-metals to their oxoacids and metals to their nitrates.
 Allotropes of Phosphorous: White (Most reactive due to angular strain),
Red & Black phosphorous.
 Phosphine (PH3): Poisonous gas with rotten fish smell, it is prepared by
heating white phosphorous with concentrated. NaOH in inert atmosphere of
CO2. Phosphine can also be prepared by dropping H2O or HCI on Ca3P2.
 Phosphorous trichloride (PCl3): Colourless liquid, fumes in moisture due
to the formation of HCI.
 Phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5): In gaseous state it is covalent (trigonal
bipyramid) but in solid state it is ionic i.e. [PCl4]+[PCl6]–.
 Oxoacids of Phosphorous:
(i) Hypophosphorous acid (H3PO2): Monobasic, reducing
(ii) Phosphorous acid (H3PO3): Dibasic/reducing
(iii) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4): Tribasic, Non-reducing
(iv) Hypophosphoric acid (H4P2O6): Tetrabasic, non-reducing a
(v) Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7): Tetrabasic, non-reducing

1 - Mark Questions
1. Mention two important ores of boron?
2. Name the elements of group 13 which forms only covalent compounds?
3. Why the atomic radius of gallium is less than that of Al ?

p-Block Elements 127

 4. Why does Boron forms electron deficient compounds ?
5. Boron does not exist as B3+ ion. Why ?
6. Why the trihalide of group 13 elements fume in moist air ?
7. Aluminium form [AlF6]3– but boron does not form [BF6]3–.
8. Why boric acid is a monobasic acid ?
9. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous AlCl3. Give reason.
10. AlCl3 exist as dimer while BCl3 exist as monomer, why ?
11. Mention the type of hybridization of Boron in B2H6. [Ans. sp3]
12. Write the formula of inorganic benzene.
13. Why aluminium utensils should not be kept in water overnight.
14. Explain what happens when boric acid is heated.
15. BCl3 exists but BH3 does not. Explain.
16. Why SnCl4 is more covalent than SnCl2 ?
17. Why PbCl4 is good oxidising agent ?
18. What are germanes and plumbanes ?
19. Give one example of zeolite.
20. Mention the type of hybridization of carbon in diamond and graphite.
21. Why CCl4 is insoluble in water but SiCl4 is soluble in water? Explain.
22. Give two uses of silicones.
23. Why graphite is used as lubricant ?
24. Lead (Pb) do not form PbI4. Why ?
25. CO2 is gas while SiO2 is solid at room temperature. Explain why ?
26. Explain why silicon shows a higher covalency than carbon?
27. Out of carbon and silicon which can form multiple bonds and why ?
28. Write the formula of dry ice.
29. Mention the basic building unit of all silicates.
30. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity, but diamond is not. Why ?
31. Give chemical equation in support of the fact that all bonds in molecule
of PCl5 are not equivalent.

128 Chemistry Class XI

 32. Why does NH3 act as a complexing agent?
33. Why is ammonia highly soluble in water?
34. Name the gas evolved when (NH4)2Cr2O7 is heated.
35. Why dinitrogen is much less reactive at room temperature?
36. Why pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides?
37. PCl5 exist but NCl5 does not exist. Give reason.
38. NF3 is not hydrolysed while NCl3 can be readily hydrolysed.Give reason.
39. What is the basicity of H3PO3?
40. Why NO2 dimerises to form N2O4?
41. In PCl5 all five P – Cl bonds are not identical. Explain
42. NO is a colourless gas but becomes brown on releasing in air. Give reason.
43. What is the covalency of nitrogen in N2O5?
44. Why is bond angle in PH4+ ion higher than that in PH3?
45. Arrange in order of increasing bond angle: NO2, NO2+, NO–2
46. Why PCl3 fumes in moisture?
47. PCl5 is ionic in solid state. Why?
48. Why has PH3 lower boiling point than NH3?

2 - Mark Questions
1. Draw the structure of diborane.
2. What happens when :
(a) Borax is heated strongly.
(b) Boric acid is added to water.
3. Write balanced chemical equations for :
(a) BF3 + LiH —→
(b) B2H6 + NH3 —→
4. Write chemical reactions to justify amphoteric nature of Al.

p-Block Elements 129

 5. Suggest reason why the B-F bond length in BF3 and BF4– differ.
6. Give reason for the following :
(i) BF3 act as weak Lewis acid.
(ii) Boron cannot show covalency more than four.
7. How can you explain higher stability of BCl3 as compared to TlCl3?
8. Give reason for the following :
(i) Aluminium alloys are used to make aircraft body.
(ii) Aluminium wire is used to make transmission cables.
9. Describe the shapes of BF3 and BH4–. Assign the hybridization of boron
in these species.
10. Explain the chemistry of borax bead test.

11. [SiF6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not. Give reason.

12. Hydrolysis of SiCl4 take place but of CCl4 does not. Why ?
13. Account for the following :
(a) CO2 is gas while SiO2 is solid at room temperature.
(b) Solid CO2 is known as dry ice.
14. Elemental silicon does not form graphite like structure as carbon does.
Give reason.
15. Suggest a reason as to why CO is poisonous?
16. How is excessive content of CO2 responsible for global warming ?
17. What is allotropy ? Name two elements which exhibit allotropy.
18. Write equations for the production of water gas and producer gas from
coke.
19. Define zeolite. Name the zeolite which converts alcohols directly into
gasoline.
20. Arrange the hybrides of group 14 elements in increasing order of :
(a) Thermal stability
(b) Reducing power.

130 Chemistry Class XI

 21. What happens when (write chemical equations only)
(i) H3PO3 is heated.
(ii) (NH4)2Cr2O7 is heated
22. Complete the reactions:
(i) Cu + HNO3 (Cone.)→
(ii)
I2 + HNO3 (Cone.) →
23. Draw the structure of N2O5 & H4P2O7
24. Complete the following reactions:
(i) NH4Cl (aq) + NaNO2 (aq) →
(ii) P4 + NaOH + H2O →
25. State and explain the favourable conditions according to Le Chateleir's
Principle for preparation of ammonia by Haber's process. Give reason:
(i) NH3 is basic while PH3 is feebly basic in nature.
(ii) Nitrogen show catenation tendency less than phosphorous.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Give reasons of the following :
(i) In diborane, two B—H—B bonds are different from common covalent
bonds.
(ii) Aluminium metal shows amphoteric behaviour.
(iii) Quartz is used to develop extremely accurate clocks.
2. A certain salt X gives the following results :
(i) Its aqueous solution is alkaline to litmus.
(ii) It swells up to a glassy material Y on strong heating.
(iii) When conc. H2SO4 is added to a hot solution of X, white crystal of
an acid Z separates out. Write equations for all the above reactions and
identify X, Y and Z.
3. Write balanced equation for :
(i) B2H6 + H2O —→
(ii) Al + NaOH —→
(iii) NaOH + B2H6 —→

p-Block Elements 131

 4. List two important properties in which boron differs from the rest of the
members of group. Mention the main reasons for the difference.
5. What are electron deficient compounds? Are BCl3 and SiCl4 electron
deficient species ? Explain.

6. Select the member(s) of group 14 that :

(i) Forms the most acidic dioxide.
(ii) Is commonly found in + 2 oxidation state.
(iii) Used as semiconductor.
7. What are allotropes ? Sketch the structure of two allotropes of carbon
namely diamond and graphite.
8. Give suitable reasons for the following :
(a) CO2 turns lime water milky, but if passed for a long time, the solution
become transparent again.
(b) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity but diamond is insulator.
(c) Lead (IV) chloride is highly unstable towards heat.
9. (i) Write the resonance structure of CO32– and HCO3–.
(ii) Write the name of thermodynamically most stable form of carbon.
10. (i) Explain why is there a phenomenal decreases in ionisation enthalpy
from carbon to silicon ?
(ii) Write an industrial application of silicones.
A compound 'A' on heating gives a brown gas 'B'. The gas 'B' dimerises on
11.
cooling to form colourless solid 'C. Identify 'A','B' & 'C. Write chemical
equations involved.
12. Write balanced equations for:
(i) Cu2+ + NH3(l) →
(ii)
Ca3P2 + HCl →
(iii) Zn + HNO3 (Cone.) →

132 Chemistry Class XI

 13. Give reason:
(i) N-N bond dissociation enthalpy is less than P-P bond dissociation
enthalpy.
(ii)
R3P = O exists but R3N = O does not.
CN– ion exists but CP– does not.
(iii)

5 - Mark Questions

1. When metal X is treated with NaOH, a white precipitate ‘A’ is obtained,

which is soluble in excess of NaOH to give soluble complex (B). Compound
‘A’ is soluble in dilute HCl to form compound ‘C’. The compound ‘A’
when heated strongly gives ‘D’, which is used to extract metal. Identify
X, A, B, C and D. Write suitable equations to support their identities.
2. (i) If B-Cl bond has dipole moment explain why BCl3 molecules has zero
dipole moment.
(ii) A mixture of dil. NaOH and aluminium pieces is used to open drain.
Give reason.
(iii) Aluminium wire is used to make transmission cables. Why ?
3. (i) Identify the compounds X and Y in the following reactions :
(a) Na2B4O7 + 2HCl + 5H2O → 2NaCl + X

(b) X HBO2 Y.

(ii) Write the name of group 13 element which is used to measure high
temperature.
(iii) Why in case of thallium + 1 oxidation state is more stable than + 3?
4. Compare the general trend in the following properties of the elements of
group 13 and 14 :
(a) Atomic size, (b) Ionisation enthalpy, (c) Metallic character,
(d) Oxidation states, (e) Nature of halides.

p-Block Elements 133

 5. Name the following :
(a) The crystalline form of silica used in modern radio and T.V. broadcasting
and mobile radio communication.
(b) The oxides of carbon which form a complex with haemoglobin 300
times more faster than oxygen.
(c) The allotrope of carbon which has ∆f Hθ = 0.
(d) A type of polymer is semiorganic in nature.
(e) Two man made silicates.
6. Explain the formation of (i) water gas (ii) producer gas. Give their uses.
What happens when CO2 is passed through limewater? (i) for short duration
(ii) for long duration.
7. A translucent waxy solid (A) on heating in an inert atmosphere is converted
to its allotropic form (B). The solid (A) on reaction with NaOH liberates
a gas (C) with rotten fish smell. With excess of chlorine (A) forms (D)
which hydrolyses to compound (E). Identify (A) to (E) and write chemical
reactions involved.
8. Ammonium dichromate on heating gives a gas 'A' which reacts with
hydrogen in presence of catalyst to give another pungent smell gas 'B'.
Gas 'B' freely dissolves in water to give a weak base 'C Aqueous solution
of CuSO4 reacts with 'C to produce a deep blue colour compound 'D'.
Identify A, B, C & D and write chemical reactions involved.

134 Chemistry Class XI

 on
ugati
3
SP –S
H
Hype
rconj Organic Chemistry:
H
σ bond

C
C C Some Basic
H
H
H
Chapter - 12 Principles And
Techniques
 The branch of chemistry which deals with hydrocarbons and their
derivatives is called organic chemistry.
 Carbon forms large number of organic compound because of its properties
of catention and tetravalency.
 Functional Group : An atom or a group of atoms, joined in a specific
manner, which provides certain characteristics chemical properties to the
organic compounds, is called functional group.
 Homologous : A group or series of an organic compound each containing a
characteristics functional group from a homologous series and the members
of the series are called “homologous”. Each successive member differ
by –CH2 in molecular formula (14 in molar mass).
 Fission of a Covalent Bond :
(a) Homolytic cleavage : In this cleavaage, one of the electrons of the
shared pair in a covalent bond goes with each of the bonded atoms.

Heterolytic cleavage : In heterolytic cleavage the bond breaks in
(b)
such a fashion that the shared pair of electrons remains with one of
the fragment.

Ions
 Electron displacement effects in sigma covalent bonds.
Inductive effect (I) : Polarisation of a bond caused by the polarisation of
adjacent bond is referred to as the inductive effect.

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 135

 + Inductive effect (+ I)
Two types of inductive effect
– Inductive effect (– I)

 It is a permanent effect and decrease with the increase in distance.

– I effect : —NO2 > —F > —Cl > —Br > —I > —OCH3 > – C6H5
+ I effect : —C(CH3)3 > — CH(CH3)2 > —C2H5 > —CH3
 Electromeric effect : The complete transfer of the shared pair of π
electrons of a multiple bond to one of the atoms in the presence of the
attacking reagent is called electromeric effect.
 If the transference of e– towards attacking reagent + E effect.
 If the transference of e– takes place away from attacking reagent – E effect.

 Resonance effect (+ R effect) : The polarity produced in the molecule

by the interaction of two π-bond and lone pair of electrons present on an
adjacent atom.

+ R Effect :

– R Effect :
 Hyperconjugation : It is special kind of resonance in which delocalisation
of e– takes place through overlap between σ-bond orbital and π-orbital.
It is also called no bond resonance.

136 Chemistry Class XI

 sp3–s
sp2

 IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds : Following rules are

used to write the IUPAC name of an organic compound.
Rule 1. : Longest chain rule : The chain containing the principal functional
group, secondary functional group and multiple bonds as many as possible
is the longest possible chain.
In the absence of functional group, secondary group and multiple bonds,
the chain containing the maximum number of C-atoms will be the longest
possible chain e.g.,

Choose the word root from the table given below for the longest possible
chain.
Word Root for Carbon Chain
Chain length Word root Chain length Word root
C1 Meth- C7 Hept
C2 Eth- C8 Oct
C3 Prop- C9 Non
C4 But- C10 Dec
C5 Pent- C11 Undec
C6 Hex- C12 Dodec

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 137

Rule 2 : Lowest number rule : Numbering is done in such a way so that :
(1) branching if present gets the lowest number.
(2) the sum of numbers of side chain is lowest.
(3) principal functional group gets the lowest number.
Select the principal functional group from the preference series :
—COOH > —SO3H > —COOR > —COX > —CONH2 > —CN > —NC
> —CHO > C = O > —OH > —SH > —NH2 > —OR > = > ≡
Functional group other than the principal functional group are called
substituents.
Rule 3
 Naming the prefixes and suffixes : Prefix represents the substituent and
suffix is used for principal functional group.
Primary prefixes are cyclo, bicyclo, di, tri, tetra, tetrakis etc.

Secondary prefixes are tabulated below :

Substituent Prefix Substituent Prefix
—F Fluoro —N=N— diazo
—Cl Chloro —N=O nitroso
—Br Bromo —NO2 nitro
Primary suffix are ene, ane or yne used for double, single and triple bonds
respectively.
Secondary suffixes are tabulated below :
S.No. Class Formula Prefix Suffix

1. Acid halides halocarbonyl —oyl halide

2. Alcohols —OH hydroxy —ol
3. Aldehydes —CHO formyl —al
—carbaldehyde
4. Ketones C = O oxo (keto) —one
5. Amides —CONH2 carbamoyl —amide

138 Chemistry Class XI

 6. Amine —NH2 amino —amine
7. Carboxylic acid —COOH carboxy —carboxylic acid
8. Ester —COOR alkoxy carbonyl —alkyl alkanoate
9. Nitriles —CN cyano —nitrile
10. Sulphonic acid —SO2—OH sulpho —sulphonic acid
Here according to the rules, given above, the IUPAC name of a compound
can be written as ⇒ Prefixes + Word root + Suffixes.
 Secondary prefix + Primary prefix + Word root + primary suffix +
secondary suffix
4 3 2 1
for e.g., CH3 CH — CH2 CHO ← Principal functional group
| (—al)
OH — substituent (hydroxy)
3 — Hydroxybutanal
↑ ↑ ↑
prefix word suffix
root
 If more than two similar functional groups are present, all the groups are
considered as substituent, for e.g.,
3 2 1
CH2 — CH — CH2
| | |
CN CN CN
Propane-1, 2, 3-tricarbonitrile
 Naming of Aromatic compounds : IUPAC accepted their common trivial
names e.g.,

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 139

  Purification and Characterization of Organic Compounds :
(1) Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen : Lassiagne’s extract is heated with
FeSO4 solution in presence of alkali, the solution is cooled and acidified
with dil. H2SO4. If a green or blue colouration is obtained, it confirms the
presence of N in the organic compound. The chemistry of the test is :
Na + C + N ——→ NaCN
From organic compound
2NaCN + FeSO4 → Fe[CN]2 + Na2SO4; Fe[CN]2 + 4NaCN → Na4[Fe(CN)6]
Sodium ferrocyanide

3Na4[Fe(CN)6] + 4Fe3+ Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3.xH2O + 12Na+

Ferric ferrocyanide (Prussian Blue)
This test is very delicate and is given by all compounds containing C and
N. Hydrazine do not respond to this test since they do not contain carbon.
Formation of blood red colour indicates the presence of both N and S.

Na + C + N + S NaSCN
From organic compound Sodium thiocyanate or Sodium sulphocyanide

Fe3+ + → [Fe(SCN)]2+ + Na+

Ferric thiocyanate (blood red colour)
 Detection of sulphur : If S is present, during fusion with Na metal, Na2S
is formed which may be tested as follows :
(i) With sodium nitroprusside violet colouration is produced :
Na2S + Na2 [Fe(CN)5(NO)] → Na4[Fe(CN)5(NOS)]
Sodium nitroprusside (Violet colour)
(ii) With lead acetate, black precipitate of PbS is formed.
Na2S + (CH3COO)2 Pb → PbS + 2CH3COONa
 Detection of halogens :
(a) Lassaigne’s test : When the organic compounds is fused with Na
metal, the halogens combine with Na to form sodium halides.
The presence of these halides is tested with AgNO3 solution.
(i) A white ppt. soluble in NH4OH indictes chlorine.
(ii) A pale yellow ppt. partially soluble in ammonia indicates bromine.

140 Chemistry Class XI

 (iii) A yellow ppt. insoluble in ammonia indicates iodine.
If the organic compound also contain N or S, the sodium extract is first
boiled with dil. HNO3 to decompose any cyanides or sulphides, otherwise
these will form ppt. with AgNO3 solution.
 Detection of phosphorus : Phosphorus is detected by fusing the organic
compound with sodium peroxide, in which phosphorus is converted into
sodium phosphate.
The fused mass is extracted with H2O and then boiled with conc. HNO3
and then ammonium molybdate is added. Appearance of yellow ppt. or
yellow colouration due to the formation of ammonium phosphomolybdate
indicates the presence of phosphorus.
 Estimation of carbon and hydrogen : Liebig’s method : A known mass
of the organic compound is heated strongly with excess of dry copper oxide
in a current of dry air or oxygen (free from CO2) when carbon present in
the organic compound is oxidised to CO2 and hydrogen to H2O.

C + 2CuO CO2 + 2Cu; 2H + CuO H2O + Cu

Percentage of carbon =

Percentage of Hydrogen =

 Estimation of nitrogen :
(a) Dumas method :
N + CuO —→ N2 + Small amounts of oxides of nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen + Cu CuO + N2

Percentage of nitrogen =
(b) Kjeldahl’s method :

Organic compound + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 Na2SO4

+ 2NH3 + 2H2O
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 141

 Percentage of nitrogen :

 Estimation of halogens : (Carius method) :

Percentage of chlorine =
143.5

Percentage of bromine =

Percentage of iodine =

 Percentage of sulphur =

 Estimation of phosphorus : A known mass of the organic compound

is heated with fuming HNO3 in a Carius tube when phosphorus of the
organic compound is oxidized to H3PO4. Phosphoric acid thus formed
is precipitated as magnesium ammonium phosphate by adding magnesia
mixture (a solution containing MgCl2, NH4Cl and NH4OH.)

Percentage of phosphorus :

 Estimation of oxygen : A definite mass of an organic compound is

decomposed by heating with N2 gas. The mixture is then passed over red
hot coke when all oxygen is converted to CO. This mixture is then passed
through I2O5 when CO is oxidised to CO2 producing iodine. The % of
oxygen can be derived from the amount of CO2 or I2 produced.

Percentage of oxygen :

Method of Purification of organic compounds :

 Crystallisation : Process of solidification of a pure substance from its
dissolved state. This method is based upon differences in their solubility
in a given solvent or in mixture of solvents.

142 Chemistry Class XI

  Sublimation : It is a process of conversion of a solid into gaseous state
on heating without interchanging into liquid. The process is used for the
separation of volatile solids, which sublime on heating from the non-
volatile solids.

 Distillation : It is a process of conversion of a liquid into vapours by

heating followed by condensation of vapours. The method is used for the
purification of liquids which boil without decomposition and are present
with non-volatile impurities.
 Fractional distillation : Process used to separate mixture of two or
more miscible liquids having different boiling points. It is mainly used in
distillation of petroleum, coaltar and crude oil.
 Distillation under reduced pressure : This process is used when the
liquid has a tendency to decompose near its boiling point. Under reduced
pressure, the liquid will boil at a low temperature without decomposing.
 Steam distillation : Purification of a substance from non-volatile
impurities provided the substance itself is volatile in steam and insoluble
in water.
 Chromatography : Technique of separating the consitituents of a
mixture by the differential movement of individual components through
the stationary phase under the influence of mobile phase. Two types of
chromatography.
Chromatography

Adsorption Chromatography Partition Chromatography

Column Thin layer (TLC) Paper chromatography

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 143

 1 - Mark Questions
1. Identify the most electronegative element in CH2FCl.
2. Write the hybrid orbitals used by 'C' in ethene .

3. Identifiy the tertiary (3°) and quarternary (4°) carbon in

4. How many σ and π bonds are there in given organic compound.

144 Chemistry Class XI

 2 - Mark Questions
6. How many σ and π bonds are present in each of the following
molecules ?
(a) HC ≡ CCH = CHCH3 (b) CH2 = C = CH—CH2CH3
[Ans. (a) σ = 10, π = 3 (b) σ = 12, π = 2]
7. Mention the hybridisation of C* and shape of the compound.
(a) H2C* = O (b) CH3—C* ≡ N
8. Which bond in more polar in the following pair of molecules :
(a) CH3—H or CH3—Br (b) CH3—NH3 or CH3—OH
9. Draw formula of first four members of homologeous series begining with
the compound CH2 = CH2.
10. (a) Why does carbon exhibit catenation to maximum extent ?
(b) Give hybridization of each carbon in following compound
CH2=CH—CN.
Nomenclature
1 - Mark Questions
1. Write the IUPAC name of

(a)

(b)

2. Draw structure of 3-isopropyl-2-methylhexane.

3. Write the structure of compound that contains both 1° and 2° alcohol.
4. Give IUPAC name of following :

(a)

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 145

 (b)

5. Give IUPAC name of following bond-line formulae :

(a) (b)

2 - Mark Questions
6. Write the correct order of priority of the following functional groups :

—C≡N, , —OH,
7. Write the structural formula of :
(i) o-Ethylanisole (b) 4-Ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene
8. Identify the functional groups in :

(a) (b)

9. Give IUPAC name of following :

(a)
CH3 — (CH2)3 — CH — CH (CH3) — CH (CH3)2
|
CH2 — CH2 — CH (CH3)2

(b)

10. Give condensed and bond-line structural formulae and identify the
functional group(s) present, if any for :
(a) Cycloocta-1, 5-dine
(b) 2(4-isobutylphenyl) propanoic acid

146 Chemistry Class XI

 3 - Mark Questions
11. Draw the structure of :
(a) Pent-3-enoic acid
(b) 4-Methylpentanone
(c) 4-Ethyl-3-fluorophenol.
12. Write the IUPAC name of the following compound :

Isomerism
1 - Mark Questions
1. Write functional isomer of molecular formula C3H6O.
2. Write tautomeric form of following structures :
(a) (b)

3. Identify the chiral carbon in the given compound

CH3—CHOH—CH2—CH3.
2 - Mark Questions
4. What is the relationship between the members of the following pairs of
structures ?

5. Write all the possible isomers of the aromatic compound C8H10.

Concepts in Reaction Mechanism
1 - Mark Questions
1. Identify electrophilic centre in CH3CHO.
2. Identify nucleophilic centre in CH3Br.

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 147

 3. Arrange the following in decreasing order of stability :

4. Which of the following species can act as an acid and why ?
CH3—O– or CH3—OH
5. What types of attacking reagents are produced by heterolytic cleavage of
bonds ?
6. Out of CH3COOH and NO2CH2COOH which is more acidic in nature
and why ?
7. Identify the most stable carbocation among the following :

8. Identify the weakest nucleophile among the following :
– − –
N H 2 ,CH 3 — N — CH 3 ,CH 3 — N H

9. Select the nucleophile and electrophile in the following :

10. Give reason (CH3)3C+ is more stable than

2 - Mark Questions
11. Mark the electrophillic centre in the following molecules :
CH3CN, CH3I, CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH
12. Benzylic free radical is more stable than allylic free radical. Explain with
resonance.
13. Classify each of the following carbon intermediates :
(a) (CH3)3C+ (b)

(c) (d)
14. Classify whether the following reaction is rearrangement addition, or
elimination ?

15. Write the product of following reaction.

(1) H 3C− ≡ C − CH 3 liq

Na
NH → 3

148 Chemistry Class XI

 (2) CH3CH2CH2CH3
3 - Mark Questions
16. Write structure of various carbocation that can be obtained from
2-methylbutane. Arrange thee carbocation in order of increasing stability.
17. Classify the reaction type as elimination, rearrangement addition and
substitution.
(a)

OH
|
(b) CH3—CH(Br)—CH(CH3)2 CH3CH2 — C — CH(CH3)2
18. Follow the flow of electrons indicated by the curved arrows and predict
the products :
(a)

(b)

(c)

19. Name the electrophile/nucleophile generated by following species :

(a) HNO3 + H2SO4

(b) CH3COCl
(c) alc. KCN

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 149

 20. Identify the nucleophiles, electrophiles and free radicals amongst the
following :

Cl+, BF3, (CH3)3N, ,

21. Which is more stable and why ?
(a) (b)

(c)
5 Mark Questions
(a) Arrange the following according to given property :

(dereasing order of stablity)
– – – –
(b) HC ≡ C, CH 2 = C H, CH 3 – C H 2 , C H 3 (increasing order of stability)

(c)
(increasing order of stability)

(d)
(dereasing order of stablity)
(e) (decreasing order of stablity)

Electronic Displacement in Covalent Bond

1-Mark Questions
1. Name the kind of effect that operates to explain the stability of carbocations.
2. Why inductive effect is also called transmission effect ?
3. Which permanent effect of organic compound is also known as ‘No bond
resonance effect’ ?
4. Which is correct and why ?

150 Chemistry Class XI

 5. Write resonating structure of the following and show the movement of
electron by curved arrows :
(a) CH3—COO– (b) CH2 = CH—Cl
2 Mark Questions
6. Draw the resonating structure of :

(a) (b)
7. Write resonance structure of :
(a) C6H5NH2 (b) C6H5NO2
8. Explain why alkyl groups acts as e– donar when attached to a π-system.
9. Resonance structures of propenal are given below. Which of these
resonating structure is more stable ? Give reason.

CH2 = CH—CH = O
(I) (II)
10. Explain the following terms :
(a) Electromeric effect (b) Hyperconjugation
11. (a) Explain + I and – I effect.
(b) Select the group giving + I effect and – I effect from the following
list :
(i) —NO2 (ii) —CN (iii) Cl– (d) CH3–
12. Explain the importance of inductive effect in determination of acidic or
basic strength of substances.
5-Mark Questions
(a) Give reason for the following :
(a) Chlorobenzene is O– and P– directing towards the electrophillic
substitution reaction.
(b) Inductive effect decrease with the increase in distance.
(c) Hyperconjugation effect is extended form of resonance effect.
(b) Arrange the following according to given property :
(a) —NO2, —COOH, —F, —CN, —I (increasing order of – I effect)
(b) CH3—, (CH3)2C—, (CH3)2CH—, CH3CH2—
(decreasing order of + I effect)

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 151

 1 - Mark Questions

1. What conditions must be satisfied by a suitable solvent in the crystallization

method ?

2. Which technique can be used for purification of iodine that contains traces
of NaCl ?

3. When do we use hot water funnel for filteration ?

[Hint : When organic substance crystallises during filtration.]

4. A liquid (10 mL) has three components A, B, C. Which technique is most

suitable to separate A, B, C from such a small amount of mixture ?

5. A substance has boiling point 355 K, but it starts decomposing near this
temp. Which type of distillation process is suitable for its purification ?

6. Name the adsorbent used in column chromatography.

7. Which technique can be used to seperate naphthene from kerosene oil

present in its mixture ?

8. A mixture contains nitrobenzene and benzoic acid. How can this mixture be
separated into its constituents by technique of extraction using appropriate
chemical reagent ?

[Hint : By using hot water as solvent and adopting differential extraction.]

9. Name a suitable technique of separation of the components from a mixture

of :

(a) Water and aniline.

(b) Methanol and Propanone.

2-Mark Questions
1. A student was given the compound C6H4(NH2)SO3H for elemental
analysis, while performing Lassaigne’s test for N, what colour will he get
and why ?
2. Why diazonium salts do not show sodalime test for nitrogen ?
[Hint : Because salts do not liberate NH3 gas under there conditions.]

152 Chemistry Class XI

 3. What is the function of fusing the organic compound with sodium
metal ?
4. If silver nitrate solution is added to chlorobenzene, will there be formation
of white ppt.
5. Name the oxidising agent used in the combustion tube along with the
organic compound. [Ans. CuO]
6. Why is it necessary to boil Lassaigne’s extract with HNO3 before testing
it for halogens ?
7. 0.25 g of an organic compound containing C, H and O was analysed by
the combustion method. The increase in the mass of calcium chloride tube
and the potash bulbs at the end of the operation was found to be 0.15 g
and 0.1837 g respectively. Calculate the percentage composition of the
compound.
8. Will CCl4 give white precipitate of AgCl on heating it will silver nitrate?
Give reason.
9. For which type of compounds Kjeldahl’s method is not applicable ?
10. 0.90 of an organic compound on combustion 2.64 g of CO2 and 0.63 g of
H2O. Calculate the percentage of C and H in the compound.
3-Mark Questions
11. What will happens if a student acidifies the Lassaigne's extract with dil.
H2SO4 in place of dilute HNO3. Write the reaction involved.
12. (a) In DNA and RNA, nitrogen atom is present in the ring system. Can
Kjeldahl’s method is used for the estimation of N-present in these. Give
reasons.
(b) Why is it necessary to use ethanoic acid and not sulphuric acid for
acidification of sodium extract for testing sulphur by lead acetate test ?
13. 0.2325 g of an organic compound was analysed for nitrogen by Duma’s
method. 0.0317 L of moist nitrogen was collected at 25°C and 755.8 mm
pressure calculate the percentate of nitrogen. Aq. tension of water at 25°C
is 23.8 mm Hg.
5-Mark Questions
14. (a) Out of the different gases formed in Duma’s method, which gas is not
observed over an aqueous solution of KOH.

Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques 153

 (b) What is the function of adding small amount of K2SO4 and a little
amount of Hg or CuSO4 is Kjeldahl's flask ?
(c) Explain why a solution of KOH used to absorb CO2 evolved during
the estimation of carbon in an organic compound.
(d) An organic compound contain diazo group (—N=N—) or nitro
group or ‘N’ in the ring. Name the method used to estimate nitrogen
in the compound.
15. (a) 0.4 g of the compound was Kjeldahl’s and ammonia evolved was

absorbed into 50 ml of H2SO4 solution. The residual acid solution

was diluted with distilled water and the volume was made upto 150 ml.

20 ml of this diluted solution required 31 ml of NaOH solution for

complete neutralization. Calculate the % of N is compound. [Ans. 46.8%]
(b) Write the formula for the pursian blue colour obtained during
Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
(c) Give test to detect the presence of sulphur in compound.

154 Chemistry Class XI

 Chapter - 13
Hydrocarbons
 Preparation of Alkanes :
(1) From unsaturated hydrocarbons :

(2) Wurtz reaction

R–X + 2Na + X–R R–R + 2 NaX

(3) Decarboxylation :
[Sodium salt of carboxylic acid + NaOH + CaO → Alkane [nc = 1 less]
 (4) Kolbe’s Electrolysis :
Current Higher alkane 
 Potassium salt of carboxylic acid (aq) →

 

 Chemical Properties of Alkanes :
(1) Halogenation : One (H) atom is replaced by halogen at a time.

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) CH3Cl + CH2Cl2 + CHCl3 + CCl4

(2) Aromatization : n-Hexane

 Preparation of alkenes :
(1) From alkynes [Alkyne + H2 —→ Alkene]

(2) From alkyl halide by (dehydrohalognation)

156 Chemistry Class XI


Carbon attached with halogen is α-carbons
Carbon attached with α-carbons is β-carbons
Halogen is removed and ‘H’-atom is removed from β-carbon to form
(C = C) double bond.
(3) By dehydration of alcohols (Loss of water molecule)

Carbon attached to alcohoic group is α-carbon.

Carbon attached to α-carbon is β-carbon.

(4) From vicinal dihalides [Compounds in which halogen atom are
attached with adjacent carbons]

 Chemical Properties of Alkenes :

(1) Addition of Halogens :

(2) Addition of H—X :

(A) Markownikov’s rule (M.R.) : During electrophillic addition of
hydrogen halide, the electron deficient electrophile (E+) always attack

Hydrocarbons 157
 on that doubly/triply bounded carbon atom. which already has greater
number of hydrogen atoms.

(B) Peroxide/Kharasch effect (Anti M.Rule) : This effect takes place in

presence of organic peroxides when the hydrogen free radical attacks
on that doubly bonded carbon which has lesser number of hydrogen
atoms.

(3) Ozonolysis

In this reaction all those carbons which form double bonds get finally

converted into carbonyl carbons. If alkenes are symmetrical then both
carbonyl compounds are same.
If more than two double bonds are present then we get atleast one
compound which has two carbonyl groups at the end. Such bifunctional
compounds are formed from that part of alkene which is in between
the double bonds.

For cyclic alkenes :

158 Chemistry Class XI

 (D) With potassium paramagnate :
(i) Cold dilute alkaline KMnO4 = Bayer’s reagent.

[ Alkene + cold dil. KMnO4 → Diol]
Bayer’s test for the presence of (C = C) bond
Compound + cold dil. alk. KMnO4 —→ Purple colour decolourised
∴ Compound is alkene.
(ii) Hot KMnO4

+ Hot KMnO4

Alkynes
 Preparation :
(1) CaC2 + 2H2O —→ Ca(OH)2 + HC ≡ CH
Calcium carbide Acetylene
(2) From vicinal dihalides

—
—

 Chemical properties :
(1) Hydration [Addition of water]

Hydrocarbons 159
 (2) Addition of Halogen molecule : [Alkyne + 2X2 —→ Tetrahalides]

(3) Ozonolysis : [Alkyne +O3 —→ Dicarbonyl compound]

(4) Cyclic Polymerisation:

Benzene
 Preparation :

(2)

(3)

Chemical properties of benzene

(1) Nitration :

(2) Halogenation :

160 Chemistry Class XI

 (3) Friedal-Craft Alkylation :

(4) Friedal-Craft Acylation :

Huckel’s Rule :
Conditions : (i) Compound must be cyclic & planar
(ii) Complete delocalisation of πe–
(iii) Presence of (4n + 2) πe–.(n = 1, 2, 3, ....)

Derivatives of Benzenes :

Ortho/Para directors : Group which direct the incoming electrophile to

attach at ortho/para positions.
Meta directors : Groups which direct the incoming electrophile to attack
at meta position.

Hydrocarbons 161
 1-Mark Questions

1. Give IUPAC name of

2. Give the IUPAC name of

3. Give the standard formula of 5-sec-butyl, 4-isopropyldecane.

4. Give the standard formula of 4-tert-butyl – 4-ethyl-2, 2, 5, 5-tetramethyl
hexane.
5. How we can obtain isobutane from n-butane?
6. n-Hexane

2-Mark Questions
7. Out of 2-methylpentane and 2, 3-dimethylpentane which has greater boiling
point and Why ?
8. Give the structure of alkyl halide which when treated with sodium metal in
presence of ether gives (CH3)2CH.CH(CH3)2.
9. Complete :

10. Explain :
(i) Staggered form of ethane is more stable than eclipsed form.
(ii)Wurtz reaction is carried out in dry ether.

162 Chemistry Class XI

 Alkenes
1-Mark Questions

11. Give IUPAC name of

12. Give hybridisation of central carbon in allene (CH2=C=CH2)

13. Name the effect which decide the stability of alkenes.
14. Complete the reaction : CH3—CH=CH2 + HBr
15. What is product formed during addition of HBr in alkenes in presence of
peroxides ?

16. Name the reagent to convert CH3—C≡C—CH3 —→

2-Mark Questions
17. Arrange the alkenes in decreasing order of stability.
CH3—CH = CH(CH3), CH2 = CH2, CH3—CH = CH2
18. Complete the reaction CH2 = CH — C = CH2 + O3
|
CH3
19. Complete the reaction :

20.

21. Name the alkene which will yield a mixture of cyclopentanone and propanal
on treatment with O3 followed by reduction with Zn.
22. An alkene on treatment with H—Br in presence of peroxide can generate

two types of free radicals and

Predict the final product.

23. Explain :
(i) Melting point of cis-2-butene is lower than that of trans-2-butene.
(ii) Kharasch/peroxide effect is spontaneous with HBr only.

Hydrocarbons 163
 3 Mark Questions
24. Complete the reactions :
(i) (CH3)2C = CH—CH3 + Hot KMnO4 —→
(ii) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + Cold dil. KMnO4 —→
Organic Peroxide
(iii) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + HBr
25. Indicate the reagents used to form the following products :

26. (i) Convert: iso-propylbromide —→ n-propyl bromide.
(ii) Give IUPAC name of Vinyl chloride.

Alkynes
1 Mark Questions
27. Give IUPAC name of acetylene.
28. Which alkyne would you start with to prepare CH3—CH2—CH2—CO—
CH3 ?
29. Name the reagent used in the following changes :

30. Give the alkyne which produce acetic acid and proponoic acid on treatment
with alkaline KMnO4 at 100°C.
2 Mark Questions
31. Convert : Acetylene → Propylene.
32. Convert : Ethylene → Acetylene.

33. How you will obtain :

34. Give the product when 1-methylcyclohexene reacts with :

(i) Aq. acidic KMnO4 (ii) O3 followed by Zn/CH3COOH.

164 Chemistry Class XI

 3 Mark Questions

35. Pent-1-yne (A) (B) (C)

Catalyst

Identity A, B and C compounds and give their reactions.

Benzene
1 Mark Questions
36. Who discovered benzene ?

37. Give reason whether is aromatic or not.

38. Is pyrrole an aromatic compound or not ? Give reason.

Anhy.
39.

40. Give major product only

+ conc. HNO3 + conc. H2SO4 —→ ?

41. Give major product only

2 Mark Questions
42. (i) Convert Acetylene —→ Benzene
(ii)

43. Distinguish chemically butyne and but-2-yne.

44. (i) Planar, cyclic, conjugated compounds with (4n + 2) πe– are knows
as ...... .
(ii) Planar, cyclic, conjugated compounds with (4n) πe– are knows as ...... .
3 Mark Questions
45. Convert: Ethylene —→ Nitrobenzene.

Hydrocarbons 165
 46. Give chemical tests to distinguish the following :
(i) Pent-1-yne and pent-2-yne
(ii) Ethylene and Acetylene
(iii) Ethane and Ethylene
47. Complete the following reactions :
(i) CH3COONa + NaOH —→
(ii) iso-butyl bromide + alc. KOH —→
(iii) iso-butyl alcohol + conc. H2SO4

(iv) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + HBr

(v) + H2O

(vi) (CH3)2C==CH2 + Cold dil. KMnO4 —→

(vii) (CH3)2C==CH.CH3 + Hot KMnO4 —→

(viii) (CH3)2C==CH.CH3 + O3

+  →
1. Alc. KOH
(ix)
2. NaNH 2

(x) CaC2 + H2O —→

(xi) CHCl3 + Ag —→
H → +
(xii) CH3—C≡CH + H2O 
2+ Hg

(xiii) CH3—C≡CH2CH3 + O3

(xiv) CH3– CH = CH2 + Alc. KMnO4

(xv) C6H6 + H2

48. Conversions :
(i) Ethane → Ethyne
(ii) Acetylene → But-2-yne

166 Chemistry Class XI

 (iii) Propene → Propanol
(iv) Acetic acid → Methane
(v) Acetylene → Acetone (CH3COCH3)
(vi) Acetylene → Cyclohexane
49. A hydrocarbon (X) on treatment with ammonical AgNO3 gave white
precipitate. On treatment with water in dil. H2SO4 and HgSO4, it gave
CH3—CHO. When (X) is treated with 1mol of NaNH2/NH3, along with
n-propyl bromide, gave compound (Y), which on treatment with Lindlar’s
catalyst gave (Z) compound (Z) on treatment with O3 along with Zn gave
HCHO and butanal. Identify X, Y, Z and givel all the reactions.
50. An alkyl halide C5H11Br(A) reacts with alc. KOH to give on alkene (B)
which reacts with Br2 to give compound (C), which on dehydrobromination
gives an alkyne (D). On treatment with sodium metal in liquid ammonia,
one mole of (D) Give one mole of sodium salt of (D) and half mole of H2(g).
Complete hydrogenation of (D) yields a straight chain alkane. Identify A,
B, C and D. Give the reaction involved.
51. The sex attractant phormone of codling moth has the molecular formula
C13H24O. On catalytic reduction this compound gives 3-Ethyl-7-methyl-1-
decanol having molecular formula C13H28O. On reduction ozonolysis the
pheromme produces Pentan-2-one, 4-ketohexanal and 2-Hydroxyethanal.
On the basis of these information, Write the structure of this pheromme.
52. 896 mL of a hydrocarbon (A) having 87.80% C and 12.19% H weights 3.28
g at STP. Hydrogenation of (A) gives 2-methylpentane. Also compound (A)
on hydration in presence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives Ketone (B) having
molecular formula C6H12O. The ketone (B) gives a positive iodoform test.
Find the structure of (A) give all reactions.
[Hint : (i) 1 mole of a compound at STP contains 22400 mL volume
(ii) Ketones having structures gives positive iodoform test]

53. (a) Compound A{C10H18O} undergo reaction with H2SO4 at 250°C to yield
a mixture of two alkenes {C10H16}. The major alkene product (B) gives
only cyclopentanone after ozone treatment followed by reduction with Zn
in CH3COOH. Identify (A) and (B) give the reactions involved.
(b) Convert PhC≡CH —→ PhC≡C.CH3
(c) Benzene does not give addition reactions under normal conditions.

Hydrocarbons 167
 on
ugati
rconj
Hype
3 H
SP –S H
σ bond
C C
C H

Chapter - 14
H
H
Environmental
Chemistry
 Environmental chemistry deals with the study of the origin, transport,
reactions, effects, fates of chemical species in the environment.
 Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our
surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings.
 Main regions of atmosphere are (i) trophosphere (ii) Stratosphere
(iii) mesosphere and (iv) ionosphere.
 Pollutants can be (i) gaseous air pollutants (e.g., SO2, NO2, CO2, H2S,
O3 hydrocarbons etc. and (ii) particular pollutants (e.g., dust, mist, fumes,
smoke, smog etc.)
 Gaseous air pollutants : SO2 can cause acute irritation to the membranes
of the eyes resulting in tears and redness. It is also responsible for acid rain.
NO2 is extremely toxic to living tissues, textiles and in the production of
photochemical smog.
 Particulate pollutants : They are of two types :

(i) Visible particulate or viable particulates : There are the minute living
organisms that are disposed in atmosphere. Ex. Bacteria, fungi, moulds etc.

(ii) Non-viable particulates : These are formed either by the breakdown
of larger materials or by the condensation of minute particles and droplets.
For example mists, smoke, fumes and dust.
 Green House Effect is the phenomenon of warming of earth by absorption
and re-emission of solar radiations.
 Green house gases are CO2, CH4, O3 water vapours, chlorofluoro carbons
etc.
  Acid raid : When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called acid
rain. It damages monuments and structures made of firm marble, corrode
articles made from metals, destroy plants and trees and it is also harmful
to the aquatic life in lakes and rivers.
H2O + SO2 → H2SO3

SO2 + O3 → SO3 + O2

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

NO + O2 → NO2

NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2

 Ozone hole is formed over South Pole due to depletion of ozone layer.
CFCs and NO are responsible for ozone layer deplection.
 Effects of deplection of ozone layer : With the depletion of ozone layer,
more UV radiation filters into troposphere. UV radiations lead to ageing
of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer, killing of many phytoplanktons,
damage to fish productivity etc.
 Smog is derived from smoke and fog.
 Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog
and sulphur dioxide. It is also called reducing smog.
 Photochemical smog occurs in warm and dry sunny climate. It has high
concentration of oxidizing agents and therefore, it is also called as oxidizing
smog.
 There are three main components of photochemical smog : nitrogen oxides,
ozone and organic derivatives such as acrolein, formaldehyde, peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN). PAN has the highest toxicity to plants attacking younger
leaves and causing ‘bronzing’ and ‘glazing’ of their surface.
 Water Pollution : It is mainly caused by industrial waste which include
heavy metals like Cd, Pb and Hg.
 Eutrophication : The process is which nutrient enriched water bodies
support a dense plant population, which kills animal life by depriving

Environmental Chemistry 169

 it of oxygen and result in subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as
Eutrophication.
 BOD : The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the
organic matter present in a certain volume of a sample of water, is called
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
 Land Pollution : It is caused by pesticides. Most pesticides can be divided
into three categories—Insecticides, Herbicides and fungicides.
 The environmental pollution can be controlled :
(a) By recycling of household and industrial wastes.
(b) By sewage treatment.
(c) Incineration converts organic material to CO2 and H2O.
 Green Chemistry is a way of thinking and is about utilizing the existing
knowledge and principles of chemistry and other science to reduce the
adverse impact on environment.
 Green Chemistry in Day to Day life :
(1) Dry cleaning of clothes by using liquified CO2 along with detergent
instead of tetrachloroethene.
(2) Bleaching of paper and clothes by using H2O2 a better bleaching agent
as compared to Cl2.
 Global Warming:
About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth's
surface, which increases its temprature, the rest of the heat radiates back
to the atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by the gases such as CO2,
CH4, O3, CFCS and H2O vapour they add to the heating of the atmosphere
causing Global worming.
Environmental chemistry
1-Mark Questions
1. Define environmetntal pollution.
2. Name three toxic metals that can pollute the enviroment.

170 Chemistry Class XI

 3. Name the four non-viable particulates present in atmosphere.
4. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of ozone in atmosphere.
5. What is the name of the compound formed when CO combines with blood ?
6. Which gas caused Bhopal Gas Tragedy ? Give its formula.
7. What is the meaning of the term eutrophication with regard to water
pollution ?
8. Every year some people die by being in a room containing a faulty heater
that uses coal, gas or oil. How might the death occur ?
9. Mention two ways to reduce air pollution caused by automobiles.
10. How fluoride in tooth paste protects teeth against decay ?
[Hint : By converting hydroxyapatite (enamel on the surface of the teeth)
into much harder fluorpatite]
11. What do you mean by Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ?
12. Greenhouse effect leads to global warming. Which substances are responsible
for greenhouse effect ? What does CFC stands for ?
13. What does CFC stands for ?
14. Which out of CO2 and CO is more toxic and why ?
15. Name the various components into which atmosphere can be divided.
2-Mark Questions
1. Write the adverse effect of excessive use of (i) fertilizers, and (ii) pesticides
in the soil.

2. Write down the reactions involved during the formation of photochemical

smog.
3. Why does rain water normally have a pH of about 5.6 ? When does it become
acid rain ? Why is acid rain considered as a threat to Taj Mahal ?
4. What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants ?

Environmental Chemistry 171

 5. Explain giving reasons “The presence of CO reduce the amount of
haemoglobin available in the blood for carrying oxygen to body cells.”
6. What should be the tolerable limit of fluoride ions in drinking water ? What
happens if it is higher than 10 ppm ?
7. Name four methods for waste management.
8. “Oxygen plays a key role in the troposhere while ozone in the stratosphere.”
Explain.
9. Write the effect of the folowing gases on human being : SO2, NO2, CO,
CO2.
10. What are viable and non-viable particulates ?
11. How does SO2 cause pollution ? Give steps to control it.
12. A person started using underground water after facing acute shortage
in municipality water supply. He felt taxative effect. What could be the
cause ?
3-Mark Questions
1. What do you understand by Ozone hole ? What are its consequences ?
2. What do you mean by green chemistry ? How will it help decrease
environmental pollution ?
3. How can domestic waste be used as manure ?
4. What is the composition of photochemical smog and classical smog ? How
do the two differ in their behaviour ?
5. A large no. of fish are suddenly found floating dead on a lake. There is no
evidence of toxic dumping but you find an abundance of phytoplankton.
Suggest a reason for the fish kill.
6. Do as directed :
(i) Name two important sinks of CO2.
(ii) What is marine pollution ?

172 Chemistry Class XI

 (iii) What is humification ?
[Hint : Production of humus by micro-organism in soil]
7. In view of green chemistry name the following :
(i) A chemical which can be used in place of CFC as blowing agent.
(ii) A chemical which can replace chlorine containing bleaching in paper
industry.
8. Write the causes of depletion of ozone in the stratosphere. Write reactions
also.
9. What are the harmful effects of small size particulate matters ?
10. How oxides of nitrogen are generated ? What are the harmful effects of
oxides of nitrogen ?
5-Mark Questions
1. What do you understand by greenhouse effect ? What are the major
greenhouse gases ? Why does green house effect leads to global warming
? What could be the consequences of globa warming ?
2. Discuss the importance of dissolved oxygen in water. What processes are
generally responsible for the deoxygenation of the water ?
3. How is photochemical smog formed ? What are harmful effects of
photochemical smog ? Give some control measures to reduce photochemical
smog ?
4. What is soil pollutoin ? Mention four ways of controlling soil pollution.
5. Explain the following terms :
(a) Green house effect
(b) Green chemistry
(c) Ozone layer depletion
(d) Global warming
(e) Eutrophication

Environmental Chemistry 173

 6. (a) Discuss the effects if green house gases were totally missing in earth’s
atmosphere.
(b) Chlorine radicals play an important role in ozone layer depletion. Write
chemical reactions in support of the statement.
7. For dry cleaning, in the place of tetrachloroethane, liquefied carbon dioxide
wiht suitable detergent is an alternative solvent. What type of harm to the
environment will be prevented by stopping use of tetrachloroethane? Will
use of liquefied carbon dioxide wiht detergent by completely safe from the
point of view of pollution? Explain.

174 Chemistry Class XI

 Solved

Solved Practice Paper-1

Class : XI—Chemistry (Theory)
Time Allowed : 3Hrs M.M. : 70

General Instructions :
(a) All questions are compulsory.
(b) Q. No. 1 to 5 are very short answer type questions and carry one mark each.
(c) Q. No. 6 to 12 are short answer type questions and carry 2 marks each.
(d) Q. No. 13 to 24 are short answer type questions and carry 3 marks each.
(f) Q. No. 25 to 27 are long answer type questions and carry 5 marks each.

1. Which of the following has maximum number of significant figure ?

(i) 0.00453 (ii) 4.8046 (iii) 5.643.
2. How are 0.5 m NaOH and 0.5 M NaOH different from each other ?
3. Explain why Na+ is smaller in size than Na atom.
4. Draw resonating structures of CO32– ion.
5. Define unit cell.
6. Determine the emperical formula of an oxide of iron which has 69.9% iron
and 30.1% dioxygen by mass. [Atomic mass : Fe = 55.85, O = 16.00]
7. (a) Write the electronic configuration of Cu2+ ion.
(b) Why are Bohr’s orbits called stationary states?
8. (a) How many subshells are associated with n = 4 ?
(b) How many electrons will be present in the subshells having ms value of
– for n = 4 ?

Solved Paper
Unsolved Paper 175
 9. (a) What do you understand by isoelectronic species ?
(b) Write a cation and an anion which is isoelectronic with Ar.
10. Give the shapes of following covalent molecules using VSEPR theory :
(i) NH3 (ii) ClF5
Or
(a) Use molecular orbital theory to product why Be2 molecule does not
exist.
(b) Compare the stability of O2+ and O2–.
11. Rain damages the monuments like Taj Mahal in Agra when industries are
present near by. Why?
12. Discuss the relationship between Green house effect and Global warming.
13. The work function for caesium atom is 1.9 eV. Calculate.
(a) The threshold wavelength.
(b) If the caesium element is irradited with a wavelength of 500 nm, calculte
the kinetic energy of ejected electron. [Given 1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19J]
14. Use the periodic table to identify the following :
(a) A group whose elements show valence 2 and 6.
(b) A metal which can form a predominantly stable covalent halide of the
formula MX.
(c) The group having metalloid, non-metal liquid as well as gas at room
temperature.
15. Compare the relative stabilities of O2– & N2+ and comment on their magnetic
behaviour.
16. Give reasons for the following :
(i) H2O has higher boiling point than HF.
(ii) Ice foats on the surface of water.
(iii) KHF2 exists but KHCl2 does not.
17. What is the hybridisation of the central atom in (i) H3O+, (ii) XeF2, (iii)
XeF4 ? What are their geometry?
18. (a) In terms of Charle’s law, explain why – 273°C is the lowest
temperature ?
(b) 20 mL of hydrogen measured at 15°C are heated to 35°C, what is the
new volume at the same pressure.

176 Chemistry Class XI

 19. Define van der waal’s equation. The van der Waal’s constants for two gases
are as follows :
Gas a (atm L2 mol–1) b(L mol–1)
X 1.39 0.0391
Y 3.59 0.427
Which of them more easily liquefiable and which has greater molecular
size ?
20. (a) Name the different salts that causes permanent hardness of water. (any
two)
(b) How do we obtain demineralised water from hard water after passing it
from synthetic ion exchange resins ? Give reaction ?
21. What happen when :
(a) Boric acid is added to water.
(b) Al is treated with dil. NaOH.
(c) BF3 is treated with NH3
22. Write IUPAC names of the following :
(a) (b)

(c)

23.
Write the naming reactions :

(i) Wurtz reaction

(ii) Decarboxylation of sodium salt of fatty acid

(iii) Friedal Craft alkylation reaction.
Or
Complete the following reactions :

(a) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr

(b) CH3—Cl + Na
Alc. KOH
(c) ?
∆

24. (a) Mention two similarities in the behaviour of Be and Al to show that they
have diagonal relationship.
(b) What is the biological importance of Na in our body ?

Solved Paper 177

 25. (a) What happens when :
(i) Propene is treated with HBr.
(ii) Benzene is treated with methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous.
AlCl3.
(iii) When methyl bromide treated with sodium metal in presence of dry
ether.
(b) Justify that phenolic group in aromatic benzene is ortho and para
directing.
Or
(a) How is benzene obtained from ethyne ? What is process called ?
(b) What happens when ethyne is heated with water in the presence of
mercuric sulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid ?
(c) What is Markovnikov's Kov rule ?
26. (a) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction ?
(b) Write the conjugate acids for the Bronsted base OH– and CH3COO–.
(c) Determine the pH of 10–8 MHCl solution taking into account the H+
produced by water also. (Given log 11 = 1.0414).
27. (a) Propanal and pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis product of an alkene. What
is the structural formula of the alkene ?
(b) An Alkyl halide (A) of formula C6H13Cl on treatment with alcoholic
KOH give two isomeric alkenes (B) and (C)(C6H12). Both alkenes on
hydrogenation give 2, 3-dimethylbutane. Predict the structure of A, B
and C.

178 Chemistry Class XI

 Marking Scheme

1. 4.8046.
2. In 0.5 m NaOH, 1 mol NaOH present in 1 kg solvent while in 1.0 M NaOH,
1 mol NaOH present in 1 L of solution.
3. Na+ has only 2 shells and more effective nuclear charge.
4.

5. Correct definition of unit cell

6.
Element % by mass At. mass Relative atoms Simple Whole
number ratio
Fe 69.9 55.85 1 2

O 30.1 16.00 1.5 3

Empirical formula : Fe2O3

7. (a) Cu2+ (27) : [Ar]3d 94s°.
(b) When an electron is revolving in Bohr’s orbit it does not lose energy.
8. (a) n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, 3
s, p, d, f subshells are associated with n = 4.
(b) Total number of electrons in shell n = 4 is 32 half of this i.e., 16 elements

will have ms = – .
9. (a) The species having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic
species.
(b) Ca2+, Cl–

10. (i) (ii)

Marking Scheme 179

 OR
(a) M.O. configuration of Be2 molecule is :
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2

Bond order = (4 – 4) = 0
Since bond order is zero, Be2 molecule is not possible.
(b) B.O. (O2+) = (10 – 5) = 2.5

B.O. (O2–) = (10 – 7) = 1.5

Since B.O. of O2+ is more than that of O2–, O2+ is more stable.
11. Industries produce lot of oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur which dissolve
in rain water to form H2SO4 and HNO3. The rain thus becomes acid rain.
The marble (CaCO3) of the monuments is attacked by these acids and get
decayed.
12. Green house effect traps the incoming radiations of sun. With day by day
depletion fo ozone layer. More UV radiations enter the atmosphere. As an
effect of the green house, they remain trapped in atmosphere, this leads to
rise in temprature of the Earth, which is called Global warming.

13. (a) W0 =

λ0 =
(b) E = W0 + K.E.

K.E. =

= 19.88 × 10–19 (0.2 – 0.15)

= 0.994 × 10–19 J

180 Chemistry Class XI

 14. (a) Group-16
(b) Lithium
(c) Group-17
15. M.O. electronic configuration of O2–
= Bond order =
M.O. electronic configuration of N2+

Bond order =
As bond order of N2+ > bond order of O2–. Therefore, N2+ is more stable
than O2–.
16. (i) Due to strong hydrogen bonding or greater intermolecular hydrogen
bonding in H2O than in H-F. H2O forms four bond with other water
molecule wheres HF forms only two H-bonds.
(ii) Density of ice is less than (water) liquid form.
(iii) Due to H-bonding in HF H—F.....H—F.....H—F. This can dissociate to
give HF2– ion and hence KHF2 exists but no H-bnding in H—Cl. So
HCl2– ion not exist.
17. (i) sp3, pyramidal.
(ii) sp3d, linear.
(iii) dsp2, square planar.
18. (a) At – 273°C, volume of the gas becomes equal to zero i.e., the gas ceases
to exist.

(b) According to Charle’s law :

=

V1 = 20 mL V2 = ? mL
T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K T2 = 35 + 272 = 308 K

V2 = =
Volume of hydrogen gas at 35°C = 21.38 mL

19. (a)

(b) Greater the value of ‘a’, more easily the gas is liquefiable. Similarly,
greater the value ‘b’ greater is the molecular size. Hence, gas ‘y’ will be
more easily liquefiable and will have greater molecular size.
20. (a) CaCl2, MgCl2

Marking Scheme 181

 (b) In cation exchange resin

In anion exchange resis

Finally H+ + OH– H2O(l)
21. (i) B(OH)3 + 2H2O → B(OH)4– + H3O+
(ii) 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O → 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3H2
(iii) BF3 + NH3 → [H3N → BF3] (Adduct)
22. IUPAC names of the compounds are:
(i) Propylbenzene
(ii) 2, 5 - Dimethylheptane
(iii) 3-Chloropropanal
23. (i) Wurtz’s reaction :
2CH3Cl + 2Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaCl
Ethane
(ii) Decarboxylation of sodium salt of fatty acid with soda line.

RCOONa + NaOH R—H + Na2CO3
(iii) Friedal Craft reaction: When benzene treated with alkyl halide in
presence of AlCl3, Alkyl benzene in formed.

OR

(a) CH3—CH = CH2 + HBr CH3—CH2—CH2—Br

(b) 2CH3Cl + Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaCl

(c)
CH3—CH==CH—CH3

+ CH3—CH2—CH==CH2 + KCl + H2O

24. (a) (i) Like Al, Be is not readily attacked by acids because of the presence
of an oxide film on the surface metal.

182 Chemistry Class XI

 (ii) Be(OH)2 dissolved in excess of NaOH to give [Be(OH)4]2– just as
Al(OH)3 dissolve in NaOH to form [Al(OH)4]–1.
(b) Na+ ions are present in blood plasma and in the interstitial fluid. These
ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals and in regulating
the flow of water across cell membranes.
25. (a) (i) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr —→ CH3 – CH – CH3
|
Br
2 — Bromopropane

(ii)

(iii) 2CH3Br + 2Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaBr

(b) This is because of + R (resonance effect) —OH group. The electron

density is increased at o- and p-positions as compared to at m-position.
Hence the new group will enter at p-position.

Or

25. (a)

(b) HC≡CH + HOH [H2C==CH—OH] Tautomerism

→

(c) H2C==CH—CH3 + HBr —→

26. (i) K =

(ii) H2O, CH3COOH

(iii) Total [H3O+] = [H3O+]acid + [H3O+]H2O
–8 –7
= 10 + 10
= 11 × 10–8 M
Marking Scheme 183
 pH = – log(H3O+)
pH = – log (11 × 10–8)
pH = – (log 11 + log 10–8)
pH = 8 – log 11
pH = 8 – 1.0414 = 6.9586
27. (a) CH3 — CH2 — CH = C — CH2 — CH3
|
C2 H 5
3-Ethylhex - 3- ene

(b) (i)

(ii)

(iii)

184 Chemistry Class XI

 Practice Paper-II
Subject : Chemistry (Theory)
Class : XI
Time : 3 Hrs. M.M. : 70

(i) All questions are compulsory.

(ii) Q. No. 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer Question carrying 1 mark each.
(iii) Q. No. 6 to 12 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 2 marks each.
(iv) Q. No. 13 to 24 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 3 marks each.
(v) Q. No. 25 to 27 are Long Answer Questions and carrying 5 marks each.
(vi)Use log tables, if necessary, Use of calculator is not allowed.
1. In a reaction A + B2 → AB2, identify the limiting reagent when 2 mole of
A are mixed with 3 mole of B2.
2. Write the general outer electronic configuration of f-block elements.
3. Define critical temperature.
4. Classify the following as Lewis acid or Lewis base :
NH4+ and NH3
5. What is the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4 ?
6. (a) How many sub-shells are associated with n = 5 ?
(b) How many electrons will be present in these sub-shell having ms value
of – ½ for n = 4 ?
7. Give one point to differentiate the following thermodynamic terms :
(a) Extensive properties and intensive properties.
(b) Isothermal process and isobaric process.
8. Account for the following :
(a) K2CO3 cannot be prepared by Solvay process.
(b) Alkali metals are not found in nature in free state.
Or
Write balanced equations for the reaction between :
(a) Na2O2 and water
(b) Na2O and CO2
9. Give suitable reasons for the following :
(a) [SiF6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not.
(b) Diamond is covalent, yet it has high melting point.

Unsolved Paper 185

 10. (a) What type of isomerism is shown by pentane and 2-methylbutane ?
(b) Write the name of isomerism among the following compounds :

CH3—CH2—CHO and
11. How green chemistry has helped in the dry cleaning of cloths and laundry?
12. What is the impact of use of pesticides on soil pollution?
13. Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which
has density 1.40 g mL–1 and the mass percent of nitric acid in it being 69%.
Molar mass of HNO3 = 63 g mol–1.
14. Account for the following :
(a) An anion is always bigger than its parent atom.
(b) Chlorine (Cl) have more negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine
(F). [Given: Atomic No. F = 9, Cl = 17]
15. Give the shapes of following covalent molecules using VSEPR theory :
(a) CIF3  (b) XeF4  (c) AsF5
16. Compare the relative stability of the following species on the basis of
molecular orbital theory and indica their magnetic properties :
O2+, O2–, O22–
17. (a) In terms of Charle’s law, explain why – 273°C is the lowest temperature ?
(b) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of dioxygen and 4 g of
dihydrogen confined in a vess of 1 dm3 at 27°C.
[R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1]
18. (a) For the reaction, 2Cl(g) → Cl2(g), what are the signs of ∆H and ∆S ?
(b) For the reaction at 298 K, 2A + B → C, ∆H = 400 kJ mol–1 and ∆S = 0.2 kJ
K–1 mol–1. At what temperature will the reaction becomes spontaneous ?
19. Balance the following redox reaction in basic medium : (Write steps of any
one method used)
MnO4–(aq) + I–(aq) → MnO2(s) + I2(s) [In basic medium]
20. (a) Draw the structure of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
(b) How do we obtain demineralised water from hard water after passing it
from synthetic ion exchange resins ? Give reactions.

186 Chemistry Class XI

 21. (a) Mention two similarities in the behaviour of Be and Al to show that they
have diagonal relationship.
(b) What is the biological importance of Na in our body ?
22. What happens when :
(a) Boric acid is added to water.
(b) Al is treated with dil. NaOH.
(c) BF3 is treated with NH3.
23. Write the IUPAC names of the following :

(a)

(b)

(c)

Or

(a) Identify the reagent shown underlined as electrophile or nucleophile :
CH3COOH + → CH3COO– + H2O
(b) On complete combustion of 0.246 g of an organic compoundgave 0.198
ga of CO2 and 0.1014 g of H2O. Determine the percentage composition
of carbon and hydrogen in the compound.
24. Complete the following reactions :
(a) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr →

(b) C2H5—Cl + Na
Alc. KOH
(c)
∆

25. (a) Write the electronic configuration of Cr(Z = 24). Why is it differen from
the expected configuration ?
(b) The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg and its kinectic energy is
3 × 10–25 J. Calculate its wavelength.

Unsolved Paper 187

 (c) Which of the following orbitals is not possible and why ?
2d, 2s, 3p, 3s
Or
(a) Calculate the wavelength and frequency of limiting line of Lyman series
(Rydberg constant = 109677 cm–1).
(b) Give quantum numbers for electrons with highest energy in sodium atom
(Atomic number of sodium = 11).
(c) Which of the following sets of quantum number are not possible ? Give
reasons :
(i) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½
(ii) n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = 0
26. (a) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction ?
(b) Write the conjugate acids for the Bronsted base OH– and CH3COO–.
(c) Determine the pH of 10–8 M HCl solution taking into account the H+
produced by water also. (Given: log 11 = 1.0414)
Or
(a) At certain temperature and total pressure of 105 Pa, iodine vapour

contains 40% by volume of I atoms :

I2(g) 2I(g)
Calculate Kp for the equlibrium.
(b) What is the effect of :
(i) Addition of H2
(ii) Removal of CO

on the equilibrium : 2H2(g) + CO(g) CH3OH(g)

(c) Mention one application of solubility product.
27. (a) Propanal and pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis product of an alkene. What
is the structural formul of the alkene ?

188 Chemistry Class XI

 (b) Give the main products of the reactions :

(i) + CH3COCl

(ii)

(iii) + Cl2
Or
(a) An alkyl halide (A) of formula C6H13Cl on treatment with alcoholic
KOH give two isomeric alkenes (B) and (C) (C6H12). Both alkenes on
hydrogenation give 2, 3-Dimethylbutane. Predict the structure of A, B
and C.
(b) Why does benzene show electrophilic substitution easily ?
(c) Name the compound that will be required to obtain butane using Kolbe’s
electrolysis process.

Unsolved Paper 189

 Practice Paper-III
Subject : Chemistry (Theory)
Class : XI
Time : 3 Hrs. M.M. : 70

(i) All questions are compulsory.

(ii) Q. No. 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer Question carrying 1 mark each.
(iii) Q. No. 6 to 12 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 2 marks each.
(iv) Q. No. 13 to 24 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 3 marks each.
(v) Q. No. 25 to 27 are Long Answer Questions and carrying 5 marks each.
(vi)Use log tables, if necessary, Use of calculator is not allowed.

1. Define electron gain enthalpy.

2. In which orbital will the electrons enter first 3d or 4p?
3. Write I.U.P.A.C. name of the following compound:
CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – Cl
|
OH
4. Define standad enthalpy of formation.
5. Write electronic configuration of Cu2+ ion. (Atomic number of Cu = 29).
6. How does Heisenberg's uncertanity principle support concept of orbital?
7. Give the units of vander waal’s constants. Also point out their significance.
8. 0.3780 g of an organic chloro compound gave 0.5740 g of silver chloride in
carius estimation. Calculate the percentage of chlorine present in compound.
9. Write the short notes on:
(a) Wurtz Reaction (b) Freidal Craft’s Alkylation
10. Write the molecular shapes of :
(a) XeF4 (b) CIF3
11. Determine the emperical formula of an oxide of iron which has 69.9% iron
and 30.1% dioxygen by man. [Atomic mass: Fe = 55.85, O = 16.00]
12. The ionization enthalpy of lithium is 520 kJmol–1, calculate the amount of
energy required to convert 140 mg of lithium atoms in gaseous state into
Li+ ion.
13. Compelete the following reactions:
(a) CH 3 − CH = CH 2 + HBr peroxide
 →

190 Chemistry Class XI

 Dry
(b) CH 3 − Cl + Na Ehter
→

(c) CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH3 alc

. KOH
→
∆
|
Cl
14. Balance the following reaction in acidic medium:
MnO −4 (aq ) + SO 2 (g ) → Mn 2+ (aq ) + HSO −4 (aq )
15. The value of KC for the reaction:
2A  B + C is 2 × 10–3 at 500K. At given time, the composition of
reaction mixture is [A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10–4 M. Is the reaction mixture at
equilibrium? If not, what is the direction of net reaction?
16. (i) Write down the nature of below reaction with reason:
+ +
(a) NH 3 + H → NH 4
(b) BF3 + NH 3 → F3B ← NH3
(c) H 2SO 4→ H + + HSO −4
17. (i) Arrange the following carbocation in creasing order of their stability.
+ + + +
(CH 3 ) 2 CH , CH3CH 2 , (CH3 )3 C , CH3
18. How will you convert
(a) Propan-1-ol into propene
(b) 2-bromopropane into But-2-ene
(c) Ethyl amine into ethyl isocyanide
19. (i) Define eutrophication and penumocanosis.
(ii) Write difference in between photochemical and classical smog.
20. (i) Calculate the oxidation number of S in S2 O6−2 having (– O – O –)2–
linkage and C in CH3COOH.
(ii) Balance the equation in basic medium by half reaction method
−
P4(s) (S) → PH 3 (g ) + H 2 PO 2 ( Aq )
21. (a) Out of staggerd and eclipsed conformations of n-butane, which is more
stable and why?
(b) What causes the temporary and permanent hardness of water.
22. Write a breif note on the following environmental terms:
(a) Acid rains
(b) Eutrophication/Green House effect
(c) Green chemistry
23. (a) Define buffer solution.
(b) The solubility of Sr(OH)2 at 298 K is 19.23g/L of solution. Calculate the
concentration of strontium and hydroxyl ions and the pH of the solution.
Unsolved Paper 191
 24. Write any three main biological importance of Ca and Mg.
25. (i) The stability of peroxide and superoxide of alkali metals increases as
we go down the group. Explain giving reasons.
(ii) How to control photochemical smog.
OR
(i) Derive first law of thermodynamics.
(ii) Define enthalpy of neutralisation.
(iii) Calculate the ∆Hθ of the reaction.
H
|
H – C – Cl(g) → 1C + 3H + 1Cl
|
H
Bone enthalpies of C–H & C–Cl bond are 415 kJ mol–1 & 326 kJ mol–1
26. (a) Account for the following:
(i) Boron Halides do not dimerise like BH3.
(ii) Carbon shows catenation
(iii) PbCl4 is a good oxidising agent.
(b) Complete the following reactions:
(i) B2H6 + 3O2 →
(ii) 2BF3 + 6 NaH 450
 K
→
OR
(a) Write equation to justify amphoteric nature of Water.
(b) What is application of equilibrium constant.
(c) What are the full form of BOD?
27. (a) Is the entropy of the universe constant?
(b) If standard free energy change for a reaction is found to be zero, what
is its equilibrium constant.
(c) Define common ion effect.
OR
(a) Calculate the degree of ionisation of 0.1 mol/L solution of acetic acid,
given Ka for CH3COOH 1.8 × 10–5 mol/L
(b) Define the following terms :
(i) Solubility product
(ii) Buffer solution
(iii) Henderson equation

192 Chemistry Class XI

 Practice Paper-IV
Subject : Chemistry (Theory)
Class : XI
Time : 3 Hrs. M.M. : 70

(i) All questions are compulsory.

(ii) Q. No. 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer Question carrying 1 mark each.
(iii) Q. No. 6 to 12 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 2 marks each.
(iv) Q. No. 13 to 24 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 3 marks each.
(v) Q. No. 25 to 27 are Long Answer Questions and carrying 5 marks each.
(vi)Use log tables, if necessary, Use of calculator is not allowed.

1. Define critical temperature.

2. What is the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4?
3. Write the electronic configuration of Cr3+?
4. Write the IUPAC name of an element having atomic number 105?
5. State Boyle's law?
6. (a) What is redox reaction?
(b) Identify the substance reduced in the following reaction.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
7. Explain why?
(a) Cs is used in photoelectric cell.
(b) Potassium carbonate cannot be prepared by solvey process.
8. (a) State Pauli's exclusion principle.
(b) What is the lowest value of 'n' that allows 'g' orbital to exist.
9. (a) Find the [H+] ion concentration in 100 mL of 0.001 M NaOH solution.
(b) Write the nature of following solution.
(i) [OH–] = 10–5 (ii) [OH–] = 10–10

Unsolved Paper 193

 10. Write the name and number of the each type of the bonds in the following
compound.

11. Write balanced equations for the equation between.

(a) Na2O2 and water
(b) Na2O and CO2
12. (a) What type of isomerism is shown by pentane and 2-methylbutane?
(b) Write the name of isomerism among the following compound.
CH3–CH2–CHO and CH3–C–CH3
||
O
13. Write the name reactions:
(i) Wurtz reaction
(ii) Decarboxylation
(iii) Kolbe's Electrolysis
14. Compare the relative stabilities of O2– and N2+ and comment on their
magnetic behaviour.
15. (a) Find oxidation number of
(i) Mn in MnO4– (ii) O in H2O2
(b Balance the following equation by ion electron method in basic medium
MnO −4 + I − 
→ MnO 2 + IO3−

16. Give the reasons for the following:

(a) Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative that of chlorine.
(b) Anionic radius is always more than that of oxygen.
(c) Ionization ethlapy of nitrogen is more than that of oxygen.
17. A neon-dioxygen mixture contains 70.6g dioxygen and 167.5g neon. If
pressure of the mixture of gases in the cylinder is 25 bar. What is the partial
pressure of dioxygen and neon in the mixture.

194 Chemistry Class XI

 18. (i) XeF4 has AB4E2 type molecule draw the arrangement of electron pair.
(ii) Discus the shape (geomatry) of NH3 or H2O on the basis of hydridization.
19. (a) Explain electrophile and nucleaphile with one example each.
(b) Write the possible Tautomer of the acetone (CH3 CO CH3).
(c) Explain the Inductive effect.
20. (a) How is diborane prepared in the laboratory? Draw its structure.
(b) Explain why CO is a gas whereas SiO2 is a solid.
(c) Write the shape of PCl5.
21. Write the IUPAC names of the following :

(a)

NO2
(b)

(c)

22. (a) Identify the reagent shown underlined as electrophile or nucleophile :

CH3COOH + → CH3COO– + H2O
(b) On complete combustion of 0.246 g of an organic compound gave
0.198g of CO 2 and 0.1014 g of H 2O. Determine the percentage
composition of carbon and hydrogen in the compound.
23. (a) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of dioxygen and 4 g of
dihydrogen confined in a vessel of 1 dm3 at 27°C.
[Given R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1]
(b) Critical tempreature of CO2 and CH4 are 31.1°C and 81.9°C respectively.
Which of these has strongen intermolecular forces and why?
24. How can you apply green chemistry for the following:
(i) to control photochemical smog.

Unsolved Paper 195

 (ii) to reduce used of synthetic detergents.
(iii) to reduce the consumption of petrol and diesel.
25. (a) Explain the following with example
(i) Common ion effect
(ii) Buffer solution
(b) At a certain tempreature and total pressure of 105 pa, iodine vapour
contains 40% by volume of I atoms

I 2 (g ) 
 2 I(g )

Calculate Kp for the equilibrium.
OR
(a) Define Le-Chateler's principle.
(b) Define pH.
(c) Equilibrium constant for the reaction is 4.0. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction.
(d) Calculate the pH of 10–3M NaOH solution.
26. (a) Define Heisenberg's uncertainity principle. Write its Mathematical
exopression.
(b) Calculate the uncertainity in the velocity of a cricket ball of mass 150
g. If the uncertainity in its position is of the order of 1° A.
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 kg m2s–1)
OR
(a) Which of the following orbitals are not possible ? 1p, 2s, 2p, 3s
(b) Which of the following sets of quantum number are not possible? Give
reason:
(i) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0 ms = +½
(ii) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0 ms = –½

196 Chemistry Class XI

 (c) Electron are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when it is
expressed to radiation of wavelength 6800 Å. Calculate threshold frequency
(υ0) and work function (W0) of the metal.
27. (a) Define the following with example:
(i) Antimarkovnikev's addition
(ii) Morkovnikoff's Rule
(b) Give the main product of the reaction:
(i) Anhyd AlCl3
+ CH3 –Cl

(ii) + HNO3
conc H2SO4
∆

(ii) CH3 –C = CH2 + H2O ∆

|
CH3

OR
(a) How can you convert the following :
(i) Propane-1-ol to propan-2-o1
(ii) Ethyl chloride to n-Butane.
(b) Complete the following reaction:
Organic peroxide
(i) CH3 –CH = CH2 + HBr
Dry
(ii) CH3 –Cl + Na ether
alc KOH
(iii) CH3 –CH = CH2 –CH3 ∆
|
Cl

Unsolved Paper 197

 NOTE

198 Chemistry Class XI