ROOTS

DEMYSTIFIED

…change your gardening habits to help roots thrive

Robert Kourik

Metamorphic Press
 Copyright 2008 by Robert Kourik. All rights reserved.
Metamorphic Press
P. O. Box 412, Occidental, CA 95465
www.Robert-Kourik.com

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, including any mechanical means, including
storage and information retrieval systems, photocopying and any electronic means, without the
written consent of the author. The information in this book is true and complete to the best
of the author’s knowledge. All recommendations are made without guarantees on the part
of the author. The author and publisher disclaim any and all liability incurred because
of the use of the information contained in this book.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007902280

ISBN: 978-0-9615848-0-1

Distributed in North America by:

Chelsea Green Publishing
P.O. Box 428 85 N. Main St., Suite 120
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Orders: 800-639-4099, Phone: 802-295-6300, Fax:802-295-6444
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Front cover illustration is a view looking down on the

top six inches of the root system of a kidney bean plant.

The title page reveals the cross-section of the roots of a garden pea plant.
(Both grids are in one-foot squares.)

Front and back cover, title page, and template for the page layout designed by Sandy Farkas.

Printed in the United States of America, on 30% recycled paper.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ii
 Dedicated to:
My constant friend and supportive father, through thick-and-thin

John (Jack) Kourik

iii
 ddd Table
Table of Contents
of Contents
Acknowledgments dd d
Angie Albini and Virgil Marin (Sebastopol, CA) Dennis Hansen (Sausalito, CA) provided valuable
Both work at Harmony Farm Supply and provided assistance in the details of subsurface drip
CHAPTERSCHAPTERS
valuable assistance in making sure Figure #70 was irrigation.
accurate.1 1How RootsHow RootsGrow Grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. . 5
2 2HumusHumus & Mulch . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sherry
& Mulch . . . . .Havens
. . . . . (Santa
. . . . . Rosa,
. . . . CA) .for
. . . 13 . . her13
loving
Lynda (not misspelled!) Banks (Novato, CA) support during the production of this book.
thanks for 3Lawns
3 proving Lawns
. . . . . . overall
the attractive, . . . . . .design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 . . . 23
4 site4Weaver’s
for my Web (www.Robert-Kourik.com).
Weaver’s Lone Prairie,
Lone Prairie, or God’s Anne
Very Hiaring,
or God’s VeryLawn
Own Esq. (San
Own . . . .Anselmo,
Lawn . .CA)
. . . . . 31 . 31 who
provided simple-to-understand legal advice.
Kathleen5Barber 5Shrubs Shrubs . . . .produced
. . . . .MN)
(Underwood, . . . . . . .the
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 . . . 35
6 a keen
index with 6Vegetables
eye toVegetables . . . . .accesses
how.a. reader . . . . . . a. . . . .Amie
. . . .Hill
. . . (Graton,
. . . . . . CA)
. . . .has
. . been
. . . 39
.my. . steadfast
39
book’s information. editor over the years. She has added wit, style and
7 7Surface Surface Cultivation
Cultivation & No-Till & No-Till
Gardening Gardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65. . . 65
correct grammar to this book and many others.
J. Renee8Brooks8Fruit Fruit
Tree
(Western Tree Division,
Roots
Ecology Roots
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 . . . 73
U.S. EPA/NHEERL,
9 9Native Western
Native Ecology Division,
& Ornamental
& Ornamental Trees Trees. . . .Patty
. . . .Holden
. . . . . (Sebastopol,
. . . . . . . . . CA)
. . . .is83
. the
. . computer
83
Corvallis, OR) helped provide papers and advice wizard who helps Sandy and me through the
about 10 10The
hydraulic The
liftingGood
in Good
Fungus
Douglas fiFungus
Among Among
r (Pseudotsuga Us
. . . . . .world
Us . .tortuous . . . . of
. . InDesign
. . . . . . .computer
. . . 97
. . . graphics.
97
menziesii) 11Trees Water
11 forests. Trees Water Their Neighbors
Their Neighbors (and themselves)
(and themselves) . . . . . . . . . . 103
. . . . 103
Greg Jorgenson CIT, UC (Fresno, CA) helped
Dr. Efren 12Trees
12Cazares Trees
&
(Corvalis, & Hardscape
Hardscape
OR) . . . . . . . . .provide
for his. .insightful . . . . . data
. . . .about
. . . .the
. . effi
. . .ciency
. . . 107
. .of. .subsurface
107
review13 of the13 Trees“The
chapter: Trees
That ThatFungus
Belong
Good Belong
FarAmong Far Away
Away From From
drip(or In)(or
irrigation In)
Lawnsand Lawns . . . . .me
. .telling
for . 113
. that
. . . after
113a
Us.” number of years those pesky gophers finally found
14 14Selecting Selecting
Trees & Trees
Shrubs& Shrubs
. . . . . .and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
ate through his tubing.
. . . . 121
15 15
Todd Dawson Planting
(Dawson Planting
Trees
Lab, Life &TreesShrubs
Sciences & Shrubs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 . . . . 129
Building,
16UC16 Berkeley,
Planting CA)
Plantingwas kind
Root-Bound enough
Root-Bound Trees & Trees Robert
Shrubs .Kourik
& Shrubs . . . . . (Occidental,
. . . . . . . . .CA) . did
. . 135. . .all135
the layout
to send me dozens of papers about hydraulic based on the template provided by Sandy Farkas.
lifting and hydraulic redistribution, and review Any mistakes or odd layouts are my responsibility
my attempts at making this fascinating topic and not a reflection of the excellent work of Patty
APPENDICES
understandable.
APPENDICES Holden and Sandy Farkas.

Sandy Farkas 1Subsurface

1 (Forestville, Subsurface
CA)Drip Dripexpert
Irrigation
Irrigation
provided . . . . . . Krause
. . . . .Cornelia . . . . . (Sciences
. . . . . . . Fundamentals,
. . . 139
. . . . 139
2Legumes
graphics2assistance: Legumes to Improve
to Improve
designing Your
the template Your .Université
Soil
for the Soil
. . . . . . . du
. . Quebec
. . . . . . a. Chicoutimi,
. . . . . 147
. . . .Canada)
147 for
look and type faces for each page, the design of providing the research and illustrations of how to
3 3Searching
Searching for Tube-Grown
for Tube-Grown Plants. Plants.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
. . . . 149
the cover, and 20 of the pen-and-ink drawings. plant young seedling trees.
4 4A ShortA List
ShortofList of Shrubs.
Shrubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
. . . . 151
Dr. Charles
5 R. Hall (Professor,
5More University
More That
Trees Trees ofCanGrow
ThatAlso
Can Also Wendy
Grow
in Lawns Krupnick
. . . .(Santa
in Lawns . . . . .Rosa,
. . . .CA)
. . . provided
153 . 153 both
Tennessee Extension, Dept. of Agricultural much appreciated moral support and technical
Economics, 6Some Some
6 Knoxville, Trees Trees
TN) forand andonShrubs
the Shrubs
data Susceptible
Susceptible
the to Phytophthora
to Phytophthora
advice. . . . . 155
. . . . 155
amount of time it takes to mow a lawn.
Frederique Lavoipierre (Sebastopol, CA) and
other Sonoma State University reviewers helped
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .review
. . . . .the
. . complex
. . . . . . .and
. . .interesting
. . . . 157
. . . workings
. 157 of
INDEXINDEX
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
. . . . 161

iv
vii vii
how roots grow. And what exactly is mycorrhizal
association anyway? She helped explain.

Marshia (not misspelled!) Loar (Occidental, CA)

thanks for providing a beautiful, serene and quiet
place to live and work.

Richard Merrill (Scotts Valley, CA) helped edit

the chapters “How Roots Grow” and “Humus &
Mulch.”

Suzanne Nelson Ph.D. (Director of Conservation,

Native Seeds/SEARCH, Tucson, AZ) helped
estimate how far apart the Hopi Indians planted
their corn.

Marty Roberts (Sebastopol, CA). Thanks for

helping me organize, build, and manage my Web
site. (www.Robert-Kourik.com)

Laine Velinsky (Novato, CA) guided me through

the ups-and-downs of this self-publishing
adventure.

Michelle Vesser (Occidental, CA) and Richard

Molinar (Farm Advisor, Small Farm/Specialty
Crops, University of California Cooperative
Extension, Fresno, CA) for help unraveling the
confusion about symphylans.

Margie Wilson (Graton, CA) looked over the

manuscript with an eagle-eye’s attention to detail
of both the words and all the illustrations’ layout.
Any typos are because I overlooked her notations.

v
 d Table of Contents d

CHAPTERS
1 How Roots Grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Humus & Mulch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Lawns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Weaver’s Lone Prairie, or God’s Very Own Lawn . . . . . . . 31
5 Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6 Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7 Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8 Fruit Tree Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9 Native & Ornamental Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10 The Good Fungus Among Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11 Trees Water Their Neighbors (and themselves) . . . . . . . . . 103
12 Trees & Hardscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13 Trees That Belong Far Away From (or In) Lawns . . . . . . . 113
14 Selecting Trees & Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15 Planting Trees & Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16 Planting Root-Bound Trees & Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

APPENDICES
1 Subsurface Drip Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2 Legumes to Improve Your Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3 Searching for Tube-Grown Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4 A Short List of Shrubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5 More Trees That Can Also Grow in Lawns . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6 Some Trees and Shrubs Susceptible to Phytophthora . . . . 155

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

vii
Introduction

R
oots. When they’re part of your family a popular gardening book, I suddenly noticed
tree, you cherish them. In the context that the book’s illustrations of trees consistently
of plants, however, to paraphrase the showed each specimen’s roots as an upside-
cantankerous comedian Rodney Dangerfield, down mirror of its canopy. My dormant intuition
they don’t get no respect. This could be because suddenly started flashing warning signals. What?
they’re frequently ugly, mostly invisible, and A Christmas tree has deep pointy roots? An oak
practically nobody understands them. Even has a rounded root system like its top? Something
deprived of the appreciation they deserve, plant just didn’t seem right in that orderly little world.
roots perform some of the most vital functions
on our planet, providing, in myriad forms,
sustenance and support for most plants and, As a result of my gut feeling, I began to rummage
by extension, for much of our human life and around in agricultural libraries (there was no
activity. Internet then) in the hope of finding photos and
drawings that showed actual excavations of
actual root systems. What I discovered radically
As a fledgling landscaper in the 1970s, I began changed how I looked at roots. I learned, for
to get curious about how tree roots actually instance, that the area occupied underground by
grow. It wasn’t long before I was hooked on tree roots can be up to five times more, or greater,
collecting examples of excavated root systems than that of the foliage above ground, and that,
from bulldozed orchards and keeping an eye on frequently, one-half or more of a plant’s mass is
roadside cuts to spot the fascinating twists of located below the surface of the soil.
wood left behind there by deep soil erosion. In
many subsequent years of mucking around in
all manner of soils and surroundings, I dug up
a lot of roots. Even as I write, prize examples
T hat’s what this book is all about: the facts,
not the myths. Here are just a few examples
of what I discovered about roots and their hidden
from my extensive, eccentric and instructive and marvelous activities:
root collection hang naked and marionette-like
from tree limbs near my house, simultaneously
illustrating and exposing truths and myths about
this hidden and essential plant part. • Some roots pass water on to the nearby
roots of other plants.
In the early years of my landscaping career,
however, my powers of observation and intuition • Feeding roots often tend to grow up rather
must have been stymied by the then-common than down.
belief, frequently repeated by horticultural
“authorities” (who, I figured, knew much more
• At the end of its first year’s growth,
than I), that the roots of a plant extended only as
an apple tree can produce as many as
far and wide underground as its foliage.
17,000,000 root hairs with a total length of
well over a mile!
Then, one day in the early 1980s, as I was reading

Introduction 1
 • Roots can exude chemicals that dissolve showing you the root-growth patterns of each
minerals. plant I discuss, I’ll investigate the implications of
these patterns and describe how this knowledge
• Many trees do not have taproots (single can change your own gardening behavior in terms
roots that grow deeply into the earth). of protecting roots, nurturing the soil, ensuring
well-placed soil fertility measures, and the wise
use of water and mulch.
• While feeding near the surface, some
shrubs, like Artemisia tridentata, can send
their roots as deeply as 30 feet. In the chapter “How Roots Grow,” there’s a bit
of biology about the nature and construction of
roots and root hairs. (Depending on your own
• Some trees ((Juniperus monosperma, for nature, you may find this section fascinating
example) have been found with roots or boring, but it’s ultimately extremely useful.)
growing 200 feet deep. Then, I’ll pass along some stories about our good
friends “Humus and Mulch,” and show how the
• About 90% of a tree’s roots are to be found soil that supports and feeds roots is dependent
in the top 18 inches of the soil beneath and upon and enhanced by a healthy amount of these
around it. invaluable substances. Next comes a section on
“The Lawn”—the largest areas of root systems in
most of suburbia and many cities—followed by
• The common alfalfa, while not a very tall
an exploration of “Prairie Grass” and “Shrubs.”
or imposing plant aboveground, can vary
its root depth from slightly over one foot to
128 feet, depending on the soil.
O h, and you’ll be pleased to discover that the
following chapters get even juicier as we
root around in the subjects of edible and fruit-
• A measly turnip can produce roots that bearing plants.
explore 100 cubic feet of soil (enough “dirt”
to fill 20-25 wheelbarrows), and the roots of Enjoy!
the lowly lima-bean bush as much as 200 to
225 cubic feet. Robert Kourik
Occidental, CA
• A sprouting cucumber seed, in a good, loose
topsoil, can grow a taproot down to about
three feet, at the rate of one inch per day.

• The roots of a single rye plant can extend for

a total of 372 miles and have 6,123 miles of
roothairs.

T hese are all fascinating facts, but what do

they mean to a gardener? That’s the thrust
of this book—what can studying roots teach us
about cultivating and nurturing our own gardens
and landscapes? In these pages, in addition to

2 Introduction
Can you guess what plant has this root system?
(Each square is one-foot square.)
CHAPTER 1 [NOTE: The chapter that follows is fairly
technical and fact-filled. In addition to
providing necessary down-to-earth introductory

How Roots Grow information, it also functions as a solid source

to consult when the intriguing chapters that
appear further on whet your interest for detailed
information.]

N ext time you’re outside, take a good look

at the plants around you. Depending on
where you live, you may see trees, shrubs,
Birth of a Root

A root begins in the magic moment when a

lawns, field crops, cactus, gorgeous gardens, seed sprouts. The scientific description of this
beach-side grasses, prairie lands—all part of miraculous process is simple: the apical meristem
the vast aboveground range of plant life. Then (also called the primary meristem) that is present
take a moment to consider that most plants you in the embryo (seed) of a plant, stimulated by
see have a shadow self reaching underground to outside conditions of temperature, moisture, and
nourish and sustain it, an entirely invisible world soil chemistry, begins to grow. The meristem of a
of growth, a massive eco-drama going on under seed is (1) a general zone where undifferentiated
your feet—the complex and mysterious world of cells frequently divide, and (2) the locus for a
roots. group of actively dividing embryonic cells that
are specialized for the production of specific
According to eminent Russian microbiologist types of new cells. [Refer to Figure #1 for a
visual representation.] The leading growth cells
N. A. Krasilnikov, a single two-foot-tall alfalfa
of a root’s meristem are known as the apical
plant can produce up to 14.3 billion root hairs.
meristem because they’re located at the apex (tip)
Impressive as this statistic may sound, it’s just an
of a root.
example of business as usual in the opportunistic
underground world of roots, which invariably
move to their own best advantage, creating At the tip of each potential root is a thimble-
curious and changing patterns in the soil. Roots shaped mass of cells, called the root cap, which
and their root hairs are also unpredictable; a covers the apical meristem. The root cap consists
single species may differ wildly in form from of a loose grouping of cells held within a slimy
plant to plant and in varying soil conditions, substance called mucigel (a pectin exuded during
while faithfully preserving the same basic the growth process) that protects and lubricates
qualities, inclinations, and mechanisms. the root tip as it finds its way through the soil.

So how and why do roots do what they do? How

do they affect our soil and water and air, and, A n aboveground shoot, by the way, has an
apical (tip) bud, much like a root’s apical
meristem but without the root hairs or a root cap.
for that matter, most of the planet? And what
instincts and processes drive these vital lifelines Aboveground shoots differ from roots in that
inexorably through the earth, even against the their cells are specialized to photosynthesize.
greatest of odds? Photosynthesis is a plant’s way of combining

How Roots Grow 5

Figure #1: This is a schematic of the important parts of a growing root and root hairs. There are three
important “regions” to a young root—cell differentiation, cell elongation, and the region of maturation.
The root hairs, which absorb nutrients and usually live for only one day, are found exclusively in the
zone of maturation. Some root hairs do live to become white roots on which more root hairs can form.

6 How Roots Grow

carbon dioxide with the energy of light and tissue, not on solidified, woody root material.
water to make sugars (glucose). Fortunately for [Figure #16 in the discussion of cabbage and
us, this chemical reaction produces a “waste” cauliflower roots describes how to encourage
product—oxygen. The photosynthesis-produced lateral roots when growing vegetables. In the
sugars in stem tissues fuel the amount of energy case of trees the taproot is usually eliminated
required for movement (called active transport) upon planting, leading to more laterals. (See
of nutrients into the cells of root hairs. All this illustrations #9 and #35.) Lateral growth can
occurs at the molecular level. also be stimulated with judicious root pruning at
planting time.]

A nother example of the division between root

and stem tissues is the green “shoulders” of
carrots. These are actually stem tissue, since root
Once formed, root hair cells, which need moisture
in order to stay alive, obtain it via the process of
tissue can’t photosynthesize. The bulbs or tubers osmosis. Osmotic pressure occurs when a liquid
of crops such as garlic, onions, and potatoes, as (in this case, water molecules), passes through
well as ornamentals like daffodil, freesia, and a selectively permeable membrane, such as a
bearded iris are actually modified underground cell wall. In root hairs, this happens when the
stems. moisture content within the cells is lower than
that of the surrounding soil moisture. Water
Behind the protective root cap and the apical obtained by the root hairs is also required for
meristem (known as the region of cell division) the process of photosynthesis. Because there
is an area of cell differentiation known as the are more nutrients inside the root-hair cells
region of cell elongation, followed by a section than outside of the cell membrane, in order for
known as the region of maturation in which root nutrients—salts and sugars—outside the cells to
hairs are formed. The region of maturation (see enter the root hairs, the cells must expend energy
illustration) is the only part of the roots where to absorb the nutrients against osmotic pressure.
root hairs are found. Each root hair is composed
of only a single epidermal cell, which is usually
very short-lived and functions for only a short
Roots of a Different Color
while. (The productive life of most root hairs is
about one day, which is why new ones are always
forming.)
X ylem are the long tube-like plant cells that
conduct water from the root hairs (via the
lateral roots) up the length of a tree, shrub, or
Since they are the source of all nutrient exchange perennial plant. The root xylem form near the
between the plant and its surrounding soil, root zone of elongation, behind the region of cell
hairs have an enormous surface area for their size. division. There are two very important layers
And since each root hair’s lifespan is so short, of cells surrounding the xylem; the outer layer,
one goal of the gardener is to develop plants with called the endodermis, forms a thick corky barrier
a healthy lateral root system (in other words, one that forces water and nutrients drawn into the
in which the roots grow horizontally or obliquely xylem to stay there and prevents leakage out
from the “woody” downward-reaching portions of the lateral root. Inside the endodermis is the
of the root system). Encouraging lateral root pericycle, which still has the capacity for new
growth provides large areas in which root hairs growth by cell division. The pericycle is where
can arise, since they will only form on growing new branching lateral roots originate and where

How Roots Grow 7

thickening will occur if the lateral root survives and the numerous secondary roots take over,
and becomes woody. a fibrous root system results. Such a system
is characterized by the production of many
In woody plants, the functioning lateral roots major horizontal roots (laterals) and oblique
that generate root hairs for absorbing nutrients roots (growing downward at an angle from the
and water come in two forms: woody roots and surface of the soil), all originating at the base of
white roots. The woody lateral roots function as the trunk (also known as the crown of the root
a kind of “underground trunk” for a plant and system). Many trees, including most fruit trees,
are the roots that form the immediately visible have fibrous roots. [See Figure #2.] Many of
root system of a perennial plant, shrub, or tree. the larger roots tend to grow downward (there
White roots, on the other hand, act as “sites” for are some fascinating exceptions, as we’ll see in
the active growth of new root hairs. The white the chapters on native shrubs and trees); if the
roots are visible to the naked eye at the ends of lateral roots don’t grow very far down, due to
the brown, woody roots. As a white root ages, obstructions such a clay or hardpan layer, the root
its cortex dies and its endodermis (the barrier length may develop extensively near the surface.
layer) is exposed to the soil. At this point, the
white root turns brown and sometimes dies. Not
all brown-colored roots are dead, however. If the
root lives (a random process), new roots from the
M ost of a plant’s horizontal roots grow within
the top one to three feet of the soil (even
most trees), and there can also be numerous
pericycle may burst out through the old covering. vertical roots, called sinkers, which may descend
Occasionally, a formerly white root lives and anywhere along the length of the laterals.
thickens to become part of the woody lateral root
system that anchors the plant. The death of a root is like a deep composting
process. The various woody parts of the root
that have died are devoured (and their available
nutrients “liberated”) by the many types of
Maturing Roots
microbes found in the soil.

W here trees and shrubs are concerned, the

first root to form when a seed sprouts is
known as the primary root. From this primary
The metabolism of microorganisms (as well
as many chemical and biochemical processes,
root grow the secondary roots, or laterals. When and the transformations of various organic and
the primary root grows more rapidly than the mineral substances) is more intense in the root’s
secondary lateral roots, a taproot is formed, rhizosphere region, an area of microbial activity
growing straight down into the earth instead of in interaction with root exudates (see below),
outwards. Botanically speaking, fibrous roots which immediately surrounds each root hair. In
are those that arise from the stem tissues of the mysterious region of the rhizosphere, various
monocots. Examples of monocots (monocot is minerals, rocks, limestone, marble, and other raw
Latin for “single leaf”) include wheat, rye, palms, materials are decomposed at a faster rate. This
lilies, and all grasses. process is not only caused by root excretions
such as carbonic acid [carbon dioxide (CO2)
plus water (H2O) equals H2CO3 or carbonic acid]
When the taproot of a woody plant (or
and other acids, but also by the microflora of
perennial) grows slowly or ceases its growth,
the rhizosphere. The more intense the growth of

8 How Roots Grow

Figure #2: True fibrous roots are found on monocots (grasses are an example) that don’t have a tap-
root. Fibrous roots originate at the stem (base) of the grass. Many trees start to grow with a taproot, but
change after a few years to a well-spread fibrous root system with horizontal, oblique, and sinker roots
for stability. In the case of trees, the horizontal, oblique, and sinker roots are called fibrous roots.

How Roots Grow 9

microbes, the faster the decomposition process Active Roots
of the substances that come within reach of them.
Certain compounds, for instance, tricalcium
phosphate, are made available by the soil
microbes found in the rhizosphere. [For more on
W hen it comes to nutrients, however, roots
don’t just sit around waiting for some good
stuff to show up; they actively “mine” the soil,
the rhizosphere, see the next chapter.] producing a wide range of exudates (chemical
materials that ooze out of the root hairs).
One of the tasks of horticultural microbiology Sometimes aptly called “the cake and cookies for
is the enrichment of the root-hair region with soil bacteria and beneficial fungi,” the exudates
microbes, which help to transform non-soluble also make previously unavailable nutrients more
phosphorus and other nutrient compounds into useful to the plant, with the uptake of phosphorus
the soluble compounds available to the plant. A being one frequently cited example.
good gardener will focus on the enrichment of
the root’s rhizosphere with the microbes found in The presence of exudates was observed for the
compost and green manures (fertility obtained by first time in the middle of the 19th century. It
turning under green foliage). was established that, when in the presence of
acidic compounds in the root excretions of plants
Decayed roots also provide channels for such as barley, wheat, oats, foxtail, and other
earthworms to travel and convert woody tissue similar crops, lupine plants excreted substances
and other organic matter into highly nutritious of an acid nature that dissolved highly soluble
worm castings (feces). Likewise, plant and tree phosphates in their surrounding soil, transforming
roots take advantage of the wormholes as easy them into an easily assimilated form. It was
places to expand their growth. observed that other plants that are not able to
excrete substances of an acid nature cannot
dissolve mineral compounds.
W hen it comes to moisture, roots are lazy.
They won’t grow to a water source, but
will grow where there is moisture. Roots in dry
Now that we’ve covered the more technical
soil show very little growth, except in plants
aspects of root growth, we can now move on to
specially adapted to desert regions. At times
the tasty subject of compost, the backbone of any
when the soil is moist and the surface is warm,
healthy garden or orchard. Roots love compost,
roots near the surface show the most growth. If
sheet composting (layers of fresh green and
the soil dries out, lateral roots near the surface
dried plant and manures spread over the surface
will die and new roots will grow more deeply
of the ground, like a two-dimensional compost
into the soil. As a dry season progresses, the
pile), and mulch. Compost in particular is a fast
depth of active root growth moves progressively
way to enhance the populations of beneficial soil
further and further into the soil. With each rain
flora and fauna, but I’m not going to drone on
or irrigation, new lateral roots are produced near
about how to make it. Rodale Press alone has
the surface. These new lateral roots absorb water
probably published more books on the subject
and nutrients, but many will die as the soil dries
than you can shake a worm at. I’ll leave you
out again, or as they are replaced by new feeding
to wade through the many articles and books
lateral roots.
peddling their version of the “correct” way to
make compost. What I will stress is that compost

10 How Roots Grow

improves the tilth (consistency) of the soil and
raises its humus content…which leads us to the
next chapter.

Here are some more examples of excretions.

• Plant roots excrete organic compounds

(also called exudates) such as acetic,
formic, and oxalic acids, as well as
organic acids, sugars, aldehydes, ethyl
alcohol, and other compounds.

• Acidic compounds are found in the root

excretions of lupine, peas, buckwheat,
mustard, and rape (canola). The amount
of phosphorus that was made available
by these excretions was 14–34 % of all
the phosphoric acid absorbed by the
plant.

• When detected organic substances

were found in the root excretions of
lupine, beans, corn, barley, oats, and
buckwheat, the excretions reached
their maximum during the fourth week
of growth (although at a somewhat
earlier period in buckwheat). Upon the
ripening and aging of the plants, the
amount of root excretions decreases
and toward the end of the growth
period stops altogether.

• Nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous

organic compounds can be found in
the root excretions of corn. The amount
of nitrogenous substances in root
excretions decreases with the age of the
plant.

• More recent studies are looking at

the possible use of plant exudates
(mostly plants other than trees) for
phytoremediation—to remove or
neutralize polluted soil or water.
These projects target heavy metals,
metalloids, petroleum, hydrocarbons,
pesticides, explosives, chlorinated
solvents, and industrial by-products.
Removal or degradation of these
compounds is thought to occur in the
rhizosphere—the region of the soil
influenced by the presence of plant
roots, microbes, and other soil fauna.

How Roots Grow 11

CHAPTER 2 themselves differently when grouped
together, producing soil variations such
as loose and sandy, crumbly and light
Humus & Mulch (loamy), compacted into heavy clay, or
anywhere in between. This is because
of their textural difference. Clay, for
instance, is in the shape of flat crystals
(also known as “plates” or “flakes”),
which can pack together tightly and
squeeze out air, resulting in a dense,

H ere’s a quick description on the living

dynamics of healthy soil, and a close look at
two aspects of soil composition that affect every
compact, slick soil.

plant in your garden—humus and pore space. Simply put, over a period of geological time
rocks weather into sand, then into silt and finally
clay—texture. The gardener cannot reproduce
First, some useful definitions to dig into. this slow process of nature.
The good news here is that while texture is
predetermined, any gardener can improve
soil structure, either quickly or slowly, by • But while you’re pretty much stuck
using techniques such as careful spading and with soil texture, you can change the
cultivation, composting, cover cropping, green soil structure. Structure refers to the
manuring, mulching, and sheet composting (more way the mineral particles (sand, silt,
on these later). and clay) are arranged into aggregates
(groups of particles that are loosely
held together). Examples include small
• The texture of a soil refers to the crumbs, small to large blocks, tall
size of its mineral particles. Texture is skinny columns, etc. (mostly viewed
determined over geological time, and on a microscopic level, although you
can range from gritty sand to pasty, can sometimes see small pea-sized
silky clay. It is the relative proportion of aggregates on the soil surface). Soil
sand to silt to clay. Since a soil’s basic structure is a by-product of the decay
texture is the result of eons of natural, of organic material. The structure is
geological progression, gardeners are formed as small clods, depending
pretty much stuck with it. Another way on the way the microbial life of the
to approach the definition of texture soil binds together the three textural
is the relative surface area. Here’s a elements—sand, silt, and clay. An old
staggering comparison measurement: it guideline goes: “Change structure, not
takes 65 million clay particles to fill up texture, and do it with organic matter.”
the same amount of space as one grain
of sand. Thus, clay has a much higher
surface-to-volume ratio. Organic matter is biologically converted into
compost, which then breaks down into humus—
structure.
Mineral particles (sand, silt, and clay)
are shaped differently and arrange

Humus & Mulch 13

Good Humus, Pore Space Richard Merrill, Professor Emeritus, Department
of Horticulture, who taught organic gardening
Humus (pronounced “hyoo-mus,” and not to be and farming classes for 32 years at Cabrillo
confused with the popular Mediterranean dish Community College in Aptos, California, puts
made with garbanzo beans) is the end product of it this way: “…clay has more pore space but
organic decay which is constantly being formed drains slower because the pore spaces are large
beneath a surface layer of duff (plant material and not continuous with one another like they
that is still recognizable and not yet rotted or are in sand. The analogy I use is a bucket full of
decomposed) by the action of soil organisms and golf balls and one full of head pins. The former
other conditions. In The Nature and Properties has less pore space but drains better because the
of Soils, Buckman and Brady (page 142) define pore spaces are large and continuous, not more
humus as “…a complex and rather resistant abundant. The main advantage of improving
mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous and structure is that you can make a clay soil drain
colloidal substances that have been modified from well by [aggregating] the clay particles into
the original tissues or have been synthesized by grainy or crumb structures…under the influence
various soil organisms.” How’s that for scientific of the by-products of organic decay.” (Merrill,
lingo? personal communication.)

Take a patch of uncultivated or mulched ground An ideal mineral/humus/pore structure balance

and scrape off the surface duff. Just below this results in a crumbly soil that allows water to
undigested litter, you’ll find a dark layer of percolate down, harmful gases to vent, and
decomposed plant matter. This is some of the refreshing air to permeate the soil. Soil breathes
humus, created primarily by microbes and other 24/7 at a lumbering, beneficial rate we cannot
soil fauna—aerobic bacteria, microbes, fungi, hear. A soil with a healthy structure allows for
beetles, etc.—as they digest and excrete “raw” easy and deep root growth and will produce the
materials (fallen leaves, grass clippings, compost, best-looking lawn, garden, and tree growth.
etc.). With all these elements living, eating, being
eaten, excreting, rotting and dying, humus is
So, here’s another of life’s marvelous cycles:
constantly being formed into a fairly stable and
in ideal conditions, nature continually
complex compound that serves to hold the pore
renews organic matter with plant
structure open. (Yet, it’s unstable enough that it
growth, which in turn partially
constantly needs to be replenished, or else we
decomposes into humus. Now
would be up to “up to our necks” in humus.)
another vital ingredient comes
into play: the biological action
of certain organisms in the humus
Pore Space coats the surfaces of the soil’s minute
particles to form a colloidal matrix—a
The terms “pore space” and/or “pore structure” kind of gooey, slimy chain of molecules called
refer to the maze of minute continuous channels polysaccharides. This coating helps to maintain
found throughout the upper layers of most soils. a thin film of beneficial moisture from rain or
Organic matter improves pore space by helping irrigation and assists in keeping the pore spaces
make an aggregate of mineral particles form more open, thus creating an ideal medium for plants to
continuous channels. flourish.

14 Humus & Mulch

Most soils will contain more humus near the However, it’s not just the soil’s humus-clay-
ground surface, since the highest population of moisture complex that liberates nutrients. As
the soil organisms that decompose raw fiber into mentioned earlier, plant roots, stimulated by
humus tend to hang out in the most aerobic zone the action of organisms in the humus, aid in
of the soil, that is, in the duff or just under it. [See the nutrient-release process by exuding sugars,
Figure #3.] The upper horizon of the soil is also organic acids, and other compounds to stimulate
the place where the most nutrients are liberated. the microbial action in the rhizosphere. Thus,
Soil flora and fauna act as nature’s little fertilizing roots and humus essentially function as partners
machines, using the creation of humus, among in plant growing.
other processes, to liberate unavailable nutrients

P
into a soluble form that can be absorbed by tiny lants primarily absorb most of their nutrients
root hairs—a process known as “mineralization.” in a chemical process called “ion exchange.”
This is a process in which ions (an atom or a
One study estimates the number of the bacteria in a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric
gram of soil taken from upper layers of soil surfaces charge by gaining or losing one or more
as ranging from 58 million to as many as 3–4 electrons) are exchanged between a solution
billion. Dig and test just three feet lower, and the and an ion exchanger, i.e., an insoluble solid.
bacteria numbers drop to as few as 37,000 per gram. Two notable ion exchangers are clay and humus,
which are found suspended in the thin, moist

Figure #3: This illustration shows how dramatic the difference is between the surface-loving soil
life and soil life just a bit deeper. Tillage disrupts this natural layering until the various “crittters”
have a chance to repopulate the level of soil they prefer the most.

Humus & Mulch 15

coating of the soil’s structural aggregates. The and 45% sand.) Good soil is a natural
chemical and biological activity in this thin layer balancing act.
of moisture converts nutrients into a soluble form
that roots can absorb via ion exchange. Humus
binds the clay particles so that the clay forms the
aggregates that help maintain a more continuous
pore space. The perplexing nature of a healthy
D on’t walk on or till soil that is too wet. I
once advised some garden interns that the
soil they were double-digging was too wet. Still,
they proceeded to form a bed with soil raised
humus-clay structure is that it both holds onto and
2–6 inches above the path. By midsummer, the
releases many of the nutrients plants utilize.
clay structure had simply collapsed, and the
surface of the bed was below the level of the
Clinging to the soil’s clay and humus is a thin pathway! They had created the temporary look of
film of moisture. Too much water produces an a mounded, raised bed by “fluffing up” the soil,
unhealthy, anaerobic soil. Too much air in the but the action of the shovels actually compressed
pore space means that root hairs shrivel, die, and what little pore (air-holding) space was already
oxidize, as if in the slow burning of an invisible in the clay. As the soil settled, it sank below
fire. path level because the weight of the compressed
clay squeezed out the air between its plates and
Lack of pore space due to a deficiency of soil caused it to become even more anaerobic and flat.
aggregates and enough humus to form the desired (Potters knead and work their clay on purpose to
aggregates are factors which result in heavy clay exclude air and make the clay more dense and
soils. smooth.)

Sandy soil, on the other hand, contains far less

humus due to its lack of organic matter and, with d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
its excessive amount of physical pore space, can’t I have three words of advice for the
hold onto moisture and nutrients efficiently. Also, home gardener—compost, compost,
any humus that might try to form in a sandy soil and compost. Up to a point. The more
is oxidized by the high amount of oxygen, which organic matter you can incorporate into
permeates the sand. your soil, the more likely you’ll maintain

L
a healthy organic matter content of two
oam soils are created from the ideal mixture to eight percent. A good range for sandy
of sand, silt, and clay. Loams also maintain soils would be 2–4%. Loams at 3–6%.
reasonable drainage, due, in part, to their humus And, clay should be around 5–8%. A soil
content—the larger pore spaces allow for the test from a reputable horticultural lab will
penetration of water and the exchange of gases, reveal your garden’s organic matter level.
while the smaller pores retain moisture. The
wonderful structure of a crumbly, loamy soil Be sure the compost you apply to your
is due to a healthy amount of pore space held garden is thoroughly decomposed. A
together by a complex web of soil particles and “finished,” properly-aged compost is no
colloidal humus in various sizes of aggregates. longer hot and makes no “steam” when
(The Holy Grail of an ideal loam is 15% clay, turned or off-loaded from a commercial
40% silt—particles that are irregular in shape, supplier. The finished material should
fragmented in shapes unlike the plates of clay— have almost no recognizable pieces of the

16 Humus & Mulch

original compostable matter. It should also Compost” are seeing more and more of
have the sweet smell of a forest loam. To this horrible pest. It can now be found
achieve the goal of finished compost, you in the northeastern, north central, and
need to turn the pile two or three times western United States. Beware of applying
(maybe even more) to incorporate oxygen too much unsifted compost to your garden,
into all the raw, composting materials. especially in sandy loams. The addition
Then let the pile age, so that it develops of a layer of more than one to two inches
a large cross section of microbes and may be too much. Keep the organic matter
other beneficial soil flora and fauna. The between three and five percent. Check
process may take up to one year, so plan with a lab report.
in advance and always have a pile going
for the following garden season. (Using Maintaining fixed paths between beds
worms to compost kitchen scraps is like keeps the soil from needless compaction
a fast compost bin. The raw materials are and allows for the growth of the delicate
quickly converted to castings—manure— mycelium of beneficial mushrooms. [See
that both stabilizes and innoculates Mycorrhizae as discussed in the “The
organic matter better than unfinished Good Fungus Among Us” Chapter.] Plan
compost.) the width of vegetable and flower beds so
that all plants are within easy reach from
Commercial compost is often turned, but a path. I’ve found that keeping the width
because of the surface area required by of raised beds to three feet or less will
the large quantities made to meet high protect both the soil and the lower back
commercial demand, it is usually not cost- muscles—especially important for aging
effective to both properly turn and age the baby-boomers.
compost. Thus, commercial compost is
often sold in an unfinished state; beware I like to mulch a lot, mulch a lot,
if you have a load delivered, and it is still mulch a lot.
hot and steamy. Such compost should
be allow to “mellow” until it has a dark,
loamy feel, and it may require more
turning.
M etaphorically speaking, roots and mulch go
hand in hand. The pattern of root growth
influences how a gardener mulches and vice
versa. Ruth Stout, the diva of no-till gardening,
If too much unfinished compost or fresh says she didn’t invent deep mulching; rather
manure is added in great quantities, you “God invented it simply by deciding to have
risk the scourge of symphylans—nasty the leaves fall off the trees once a year.” [Ed.
little critters that thrive in sandy loam note: Even conifers and “non-deciduous” trees
soil, soils with a high level of organic will form a good layer of humus in the ground
matter and friable (crumbly) soil. beneath them; the needles and leaves fall over
Symphylans are 1/4-inch long and look much of the year, and are cast off in somewhat
like white centipedes. They eat the roots larger quantities in the autumn.] As Ms. Stout
of many vegetable plants and are nearly describes in How to Have a Green Thumb
impossible to banish by any organic Without an Aching Back, deep mulching can
method(s). However, a fallow period may be used as an alternative to tillage by layering
be one option. Compulsive “Captains of compostable materials over the garden surface

Humus & Mulch 17

(sheet composting), followed by mulching. This into holding lagoons at dairy farms), leaves,
builds the soil’s structure from the top down by leaf mold, grape pumice, newspaper, rolls of
mimicking the natural decomposition common to horticultural paper, hay, and straw. As you see,
forests and fields. the list of potential mulches is only limited by a
gardener’s creativity and the resources available.

R uth Stout devoutly followed a regimen of

applying deep layers of spoiled hay (rained
on and too moldy to use as feed) without turning
All mulches have limitations and unique
benefits, and the question of which to use will
the soil—even with asparagus. She maintained be determined by your climate, soil, planting
good yields, while suffering few pest problems, situation and other specific needs. For instance,
except for Japanese beetles. (Since the grub of I live on the edge of wine country in Northern
the beetle lives in the ground, often in lawns, California, and I can easily get lots of grape
she and her neighbors treated all their lawns pumice (the seeds, stems, and skins of wine
around the mid-1950s with DDT. Yikes! Not grapes after they’ve been pressed). Grape pumice
what Rachel Carson would recommend!) A is on the acidic side, which makes it a good
more environmentally sound way is to set up mulch for blueberry bushes and strawberry plants,
traps to catch the flying adult beetles and apply but it is fairly high in woody material and takes
milky spore disease and/or predatory nematodes a longer time to break down when tilled under.
((Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) to the lawn. Repeated application of tilled-in grape pumice
has worked well, however, for one garlic-raiser
I know. For him, it’s just a matter of waiting a
It must also be noted that Ruth had been few weeks or more before planting, so that the
gardening on the same spot and had added nitrogen in the pumice is no longer tied up by
numerous loads of manure for 14 years before the increased population of soil microbes that are
starting her deep mulch/no-till garden. So, busy “digesting” the carbon.
no-till was preceded by lots of tillage, a fair
compromise.

I should mention that throughout this book the I n humid summer areas, a mulch of white
sunlight-reflecting sand beneath and around
lavenders helps ward off mold and fungus
word “mulch” will appear to have a multitude
of different meanings and different uses. Some attacks, while at the same time increasing the
mulches, including plastic (polyethylene) sheets, volatile oil content of the plants. A gardener who
landscape fabrics, sand, large-sized wood once worked at the CIA brought home shredded
chips, and ornamental rocks, are used solely to documents and achieved an effect similar to
discourage weeds and/or conserve moisture. white sand. In other areas, with other plants
Most mulch materials, however, are meant not and conditions, a whole different approach to
only to conserve moisture and discourage weeds, mulching may be appropriate.
but also to improve the soil. The list of these
nutritional and texturizing mulches is extensive However, when I mention “mulch” in this book,
and includes small-sized chipped bark, shredded I’ll usually be referring to spoiled hay, straw,
tree trimmings, buckwheat and/or rice hulls, newspaper, and cardboard. Hay is the common
cocoa bean shells, compost, shredded cornstalks, term for various plants (such as alfalfa) grown
cottonseed hulls, grass clippings, washed cow and cut specifically for animal feed. The first
manure (the solids left after water is pumped cutting of hay in a season can contain a lot of

18 Humus & Mulch

seeds and create a weed problem, so try to get the reasons. Since the moisture is not widely
product of a second or even third cutting. Hay is a distributed on the surface, you frequently wind
lot more fertile than straw, but the trade-off is that up with large areas where no water reaches the
straw contains many fewer weed seeds. top of the mulch layer to assist in decomposing
it. When seasonal rains begin in the late fall,
Straw is the stem left behind after a grain—such the temperature drops and decomposition of the
as wheat, oats, rice, etc.—has been harvested. mulch slows down, which is why deep mulching
Wheat straw can contain some hitchhiking seeds takes longer to produce its beneficial effects on
and may have to be weeded occasionally or just soil fertility in the West. Good gardeners just
layered with more mulch. Where I live, it’s fairly learn to cultivate patience and work in the flow of
easy to get reasonably priced bales of rice straw seasons and at nature’s pace.
(rice is grown inland in the Central Valley north
of Sacramento) that contains virtually no seeds.
Rice straw is thus the preferred mulch for many Newspaper
gardeners around here.
In places other than pathways, wood-chipped
“patios” or ornamental trees, I mulch with
D eep mulching is a very effective way to
build fertility “from the top down,” but
many popular gardening books offered by East
another readily available resource: newspaper. If
I apply it carefully every year around perennials,
vegetables, and shrubs, I don’t have to worry
Coast publishers are inherently biased toward
about weeding until fall, at which time I simply
cold winters and warm summers with periodic
add another layer of newspaper and mulch.
rains and frequently high humidity. Under such
conditions, straw or hay mulch can easily rot
down each summer to add to soil fertility. It’s
a different story in the drier parts of the West,
because of their summer heat and aridity. In such
moisture-sparse climates, it can take two or more d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
years for deep mulching to provide the same The use of mulch can be a double-edged
benefits. Overhead sprinklers can compensate, but sword. It can be invaluable for conserving
in hot, dry climates these are counterproductive, moisture and for rotting down to create
since water loss from sprinklers can approach a rich, loamy soil. But, as mentioned,
50%, depending on the type of sprinkler and on mulches can harbor any number of
the wind speed, amount of sunlight, percentage of pests—mice, slugs, snails, and earwigs,
humidity, and air temperatures. to name just a few. No gardening method
is without its downside, but the benefits
of mulch are worth adapting to different

A nother reason for the difficulty of situations.

establishing deep mulching conditions in
western states is the well-deserved popularity of Some gardeners I know use the
drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is the best way to “scorched earth” approach—completely
conserve water in any garden and is extremely bare soil for four feet in all directions
popular in the west. Its ugly black tubing, which from their raised vegetable beds. Others
conveys water directly to individual plants or mulch with carefree abandon and deal
areas, is often hidden under a mulch for aesthetic with pests as they arise. Well-mulched

Humus & Mulch 19

 gardens usually work best when the Nowadays, most black-on-white newsprint is
propagation method used involves printed with soy-based inks and no longer carry
transplanting into the beds, rather than lead. (But, take those glossy ads to the recycling
seeding them directly. Of course, there center, as heaven knows what inks and chemicals
are a few exceptions: the leaves of garlic, are used in them.) Dunk the newspapers into the
potatoes, shallots, and onion bulbs will water and swish them around for a few seconds,
easily grow through a straw mulch. just enough to moisten them and not enough
to soak them to the point where they’re falling
apart. Moistening the paper prevents the wind
Organic mulches such as hay, straw,
from blowing it away before decorative mulch
and shredded leaves not only prevent
is applied as a second layer to conceal it. Don’t
moisture loss, but slowly break down
bother weeding unless the weeds are particularly
into a very mild fertilizer. To have any
high. If they are, cut them off at ground level
worthwhile effect in saving moisture, a
and leave the cuttings to decompose beneath the
mulch should be at least two inches thick.
newspaper.
(If your moisture-control layer is more
than four inches thick, you’re probably
wasting your time and money, except in
the case of exceptionally loose mulches,
like straw and spoiled hay.) Thicker
A pply a layer of the moist newspaper four
to five sheets thick around the plants (I bet
you can’t do this without stopping to read at least
mulches, however, are usually necessary one article you missed or forgot about), being
to suppress weeds. Keep the mulch six or sure to overlap them at least four to six inches
more inches away from the stem of each so that there are no in-between spaces for weeds
shrub or tree to ensure that the upper part to come crawling out. Don’t bring the newspaper
of the root system doesn’t rot. right up to the base or trunk of plants, especially
drought-tolerant species, as this might keep in too
much moisture and lead to the dreaded root rot
(
(Phytophthora spp.; see Appendix #6).

After the desired area is covered with newspapers

and looking totally trashy, it’s time to hide the
paper with an attractive mulch. I use old rotted
rice hulls or the pen sweepings (wood chips mixed
with poop) from a nearby turkey farm. Both are
weed-free and are not too expensive if you get a
big load delivered; one 15-cubic-yard truckload,
if the extra is kept under cover, may last you for
several years. Clippings from the lawn, if not
layered too deeply, are an excellent way to cover
the newspaper. Compost works OK but usually
Recipe for Newspaper Mulch contains seeds of its own, essentially defeating the
purpose, so if you’re adding compost, do so before
Fill a five-gallon bucket nearly full of water laying down the newsprint.
and grab several sections of newspaper.

20 Humus & Mulch

T he mulch should be applied just thickly
enough to cover the newspaper. Once this is
Torch Seedling Weeds
done, I don’t have to weed again for the whole
dry California summer. In places with summer
rains (which can mean floating weed seeds), I
T here is another way to deal with young
weeds—use a propane flame to kill young
seedlings. With this method you’re actually boil-
suspect you’ll have to weed (though less than ing the water out of the tissues; no need to fry
usual) or reapply the newsprint and mulch layer them to a crisp—just a quick pass of the flame
at least once. Eventually, the paper breaks down is all that’s required. This works especially well
and becomes another part of the humus. In my with monocotyledon seedlings. (Monocots, such
Northern California garden, where we get no as grasses, grow with parallel veins running along
summer rains and I don’t irrigate my xeric (dry) their leaves.) It’s also a very useful way to avoid
plantings, pieces of dried newsprint tend to sift using herbicides on unwanted seedlings that pop
to the top of the mulch layer by late summer. I up in cracked concrete walkways, patios, and
either pick up the pieces or add another layer of other hardscaped areas. In areas that receive sum-
newspaper over the scraps of newsprint and apply mer rains, you may want to try using a special
more mulch. propane torch to burn back the young sprouts.

Organic garden suppliers list products such as

the Red Dragon Weed Torch™, which features
Cardboard a one-inch opening for work in tight areas, like
near the edges of flower beds. You can also get a
C ardboard is especially useful for killing off
large areas of lawn or weeds before planting
and/or using the newspaper technique. Cardboard
larger model for a blast of flame that will whack
back intruding weeds in larger areas. Be sure all
torching is done after a rain or while the mulch
boxes used for shipping refrigerators and other is thoroughly soaked. You should have a hose
appliances are ideal for this as they cover so nearby and perhaps a friend to help stand watch
much area. As with the newspaper layers, be as you keep an eye on smoking embers. Be
sure to overlap the edges by at least six inches careful not to singe nearby plantings; again, just
to control wandering weeds. Use one sheet of make a quick pass over the young weeds to boil
heavy-duty corrugated cardboard per layer or the water out of the tissue—the mulch will
several if you’re working with thin cardboard. usually not catch on fire. See Figure #4 on the
Wet it down to hold it in place before covering next page for an “industrial-strength” weed
it with the decorative mulch. A friend of mine controller, which uses a heavy propane tank.
inherited a lawn composed of some grasses and Some gardeners prefer to use a small dolly to cart
“weeds” like dandelions. She covered the entire the tank around.
15’ by 30’ area with cardboard for two years and
completely eradicated all the growth. When she
cultivated the area, new seeds were brought to the
surface and sprouted. Since she loves to weed,
she didn’t follow up with newspapers, preferring
to pull the tiny seedlings up by hand.

Humus & Mulch 21

Figure #4: This larger propane-fired weed
controller is dangerous; use with caution. It is
very heavy and most gardeners use a small dolly
to move it around. It’s also very loud.

Some soil experts estimate that a gram of soil (equal

to the weight of a paperclip or the size of a cube of
sugar) contains 2.5 billion (yes, billion with a “B”)
bacteria—as many as 20,000 species of them, as
well as 400,000 fungi, 50,000 algae, and 30,000
protozoa. It’s been claimed that the typical microbial
population of a teaspoon of soil is greater in individual
numbers than the human population of the earth.

22
22 Humus & Mulch
CHAPTER 3 per year (32 weeks due to winter) per 100 square
feet.]

Lawns So, when you’re on your knees cussin’ up a storm

because you can’t get the lawn mower to start,
just remember that a lawn still takes less time
and effort to maintain than most other gardening
choices.

L awn. Rhymes with yawn. Perhaps not the

most thrilling way to start a chapter on the
subject of roots or anything else (except possibly
Know Your Roots…
a civilized game of croquet), but the fact remains
Growth-wise, lawn statistics are mind-bogglingly
that, at least in this country, turf rules. By some
impressive: It’s estimated that the root system
estimates, 14–27 million acres of lawn blanket
of a single one-year-old ryegrass plant includes
America. An area of cropped grass has no equal
372 miles of roots and 6,213 miles of root hairs.
when it comes to outdoor activities like football,
These roots may increase by as much as three
soccer, badminton, croquet, backyard campouts,
miles per day, and the root hairs can add another
laying down to watch for shooting stars, necking,
50 miles every 24 hours. Your lawn is hard at
and other time-honored pastimes both quiet and
work even when you’re kicked back in a recliner
boisterous.
with a mint julep.

Lawns actually have many advantages over other

forms of landscaping. One of the most important
of these is that they actually take less time per
square foot to care for than any other type of
maintained planting. Consider the following list,
based on hours of care needed per year for each
100 square feet of the plants in question:

ü Roses = 17 hours.

ü Annual bedding plants = 3 hours.

ü Wisteria = 4 hours.

ü Grasses (turf) = one hour or less.

[A study by the University of Tennessee

Cooperative Extension Service of .8 of an acre
public lawn showed that with a 42-inch wide
mower, all mowing, soil aeration and applications Figure #5: This core sampler tool will help you
of lawn chemicals (definitely not an organic lawn fathom your soil without your having to dig a
hole.
approach) took less than six or seven minutes

Lawns 23
 Figure #6: All turf roots are not equal. Yet, no matter how deep it grows, a majority of the
water and nutrients absorbed by the root system comes from the top 6–12 inches of the soil.

Know Your Soil . . . major components have settled out. (There will
probably be some plant stuff floating on the top of
the water; just ignore it.) At the end of that time,

A good lawn begins with healthy soil. Use

a trowel to gather samples from several
inches below the duff. Mix some of the soil
you’ll find three distinct layers: the sand will be
on the bottom, the silt (a mixture of particles of
sandy loam and clay that are light enough to be
from each location with water in a quart jar, easily carried by water, but not as slick as wet
shake the jar until all the soil is dissolved, and clay) will make up the next layer, topped by the
set it on a shelf for a week or more, until all the clay layer. The relative thickness of each will

24 Lawns
Figure #7: This drawing shows how widely water spreads in different soils over time. This pattern is
much like that produced by a drip irrigation emitter on similar soil.

give you a pretty good idea as to the mineral yourself how deeply the grass roots penetrate. If
composition of your soil. As mentioned earlier, you don’t want to deface an established lawn, you
the ideal mix is a loam composed of 45% sand, can purchase a 20.5-inch soil-core sampler. [See
40% silt, and 15% clay. Measure the layers in Figure #5, page 23.] This is a narrow metal tube
your jar and do the math. with a portion of the cylinder left open along its
length to allow you to see the different layers of
Another approach to soil exploration is to dig the soil in sequence from the top down. (They
two-foot-deep holes in several parts of the yard, can also be used to tell how deeply a clay layer
fill each hole with water, then time how quickly can be located.) Twist the tube clockwise into the
or slowly the soil drains. If a hole takes less ground. Twist counterclockwise just a bit and pull
than an hour to empty, you’ve got pretty good it out. With a little practice, you’ll learn to spot
drainage. If it takes longer than that, you might the depth of the roots as they penetrate the core-
consider amending the soil structure with organic sampler layers.
matter such as leaf mold and/or compost, or
planting on a mound. [See the chapter “Planting
Trees and Shrubs”, page 129.] O f course, all turf is not equal. Bermuda grass,
for instance, can grow roots up to eight feet
deep in sandy soil, but its greatest mat of roots

T wo variables that will determine factors such

as fertilization and irrigation needs are: (1)
the depth of the grass roots and (2) the soil type
will be in the first six inches and the majority of
them in the first foot down. (Be careful, however,
about seeding Bermuda grass if you’re not sure
in your lawn. To literally dig up this information that’s what you want; once it’s growing in your
(don’t be like a friend of mine who once said soil, it’s practically impossible to get rid of, as
“You know, I love nature. I just don’t want to get it will re-sprout from even the tiniest roots.)
any on me.”), make small trenches or holes in Bermuda grass is heat- and drought-tolerant and
several places around your yard and measure for often used in the “Sun Belt.” It is very rugged and

Lawns 25
quick to “repair” itself. St. Augustine, Bermuda, Turf Root Irrigation—How deep is
and zoysia are warm-season grasses with roots deep?
that grow quite deeply in summer and shallowly
in the spring and fall. Kentucky bluegrass,
perennial ryegrass, and tall fescue are cool-season Many gardeners assume or have been told that
grasses with deep root growth in spring and fall, the roots of lawn grasses grow three to four
shallow in summer. See Figure #6 for the relative inches deep. While this is often the case, grass
rooting depths for various types of turf. roots can grow as deeply as 17–18 inches, and, as
mentioned, Bermuda grass can grow to eight feet
deep in sandy soils. In most cases, however, you
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS only need to irrigate the top 6–12 inches of the
soil, as this is where most of the roots feed. [See
Before seeding or placing sod for a new Figure #6.]
lawn, be sure to amend the soil where
appropriate and necessary. Once the lawn
is growing, there’s no easy way to access
the soil for treatment or to improve the
O ne specialized way to get water to these
roots is with subsurface drip irrigation
(SDI). This is a system of drip-irrigation tubing
pore space.
that can be placed as much as ten inches below
the soil surface. Because of the depth required,
If you’re still cutting your lawn with an this is usually done during the creation of a new
ancient power mower inherited from your lawn or playing field, rather than as a retrofit
dad or grandfather, consider investing in to established stretches of turf. Small emitters
a new mulching mower. These up-to-date are built inside the tubing at regular intervals;
machines help convert grass clippings they may be 12, 18, 24, or 36 inches apart. The
to humus by shredding the cuttings and interval distance of the emitters along the line
blowing the “sliced-and-diced” leaves into of the tubing and the distance between the rows
the thatch (the lawn equivalent of duff), of tubing as they are laid down are generally the
where decomposition can reclaim some of same. These distances should be based on the
the nutrients and help develop good soil type of soil you’re working with. As an example,
structure near the surface. Occasionally, sandy soil requires the 12-inch spacing, while
if the soil in your yard starts to get too a heavy clay soil needs only 24-inch spacings.
compacted from heavy foot traffic or SDI is not the easiest watering system to install,
other use, you may want to rent a lawn- as in most settings the tubing must be buried at
plugging or aerating machine. You may least six to nine inches below the surface so that
also have to clear the thatch from the it is not punctured by plugging machines, which
lawn periodically if it accumulates faster are used (especially in heavy-traffic venues like
than decomposition can break it down. athletic fields) to perforate the ground for the
The necessity for this will depend on purpose of aerating compacted soil.
factors such as type of grass, frequency of
mowing, amount of moisture, temperature, d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
etc. You can choose to rent a de-thatching SDI does have its advantages for special
machine or take an old-fashioned rake in situations around the house. Buried in a
hand for some heavy-duty and productive strip between a sidewalk and the street,
aerobic exercise. or along the base of a building, it’s a

26 Lawns
 Figure #8: A brief overhead view of the main parts of a subsurface
drip irrigation system (SDI). The water is evenly distributed to the
soil and roots by placing the drip tubing at regular intervals. The only
hose to use is in-line pressure-compensating emitter tubing that has
the emitters built inside at even spacings. The emitters are designed
to keep roots out. This one way to design a SDI. Another approach is
described in Appendix #1, starting on page 139.

great way to irrigate flowers, shrubs, irrigate lawns and turf, and is especially
and trees without any unsightly tubing useful in dry climates (even though lawns
showing, while also reducing the chance in dry, desert-like climates are a horrible
of vandalism or accidental breakage. This way to landscape and a major mistake—
system can also be used under a grass just my opinion).
tennis court (if there are any left!), or in
any other setting where you don’t want to See Appendix #1 for more about installing
install fixed spray heads. (IMPORTANT a SDI system. Figure #8 shows the layout
NOTE: SDI will NOT work if your of a typical SDI system.
garden is infested with gophers or
squirrels—they’ll just eat through the
tubing to get at the water.)

SDI is the most water-efficient way to

Lawns 27
S ome of the water in an SDI system moves
upwards by capillary action, and some moves
laterally, but most will head downward, toward
one inch of water. (Or, just keep going and give
the lawn a good watering until you’ve collected
an inch of water per can.) If some cans get more
the main root systems of the grass. SDI has been water than others, you know you’ll need to adjust
found to be especially successful for irrigating the sprinkler head(s) for a more even distribution
stadium turf and has shown to be advantageous of moisture.
in some unusual situations For example, the frost
line in Prince George, Canada, is approximately You can also simply poke around to see how
10 feet deep, but Raymond Albers, of Advanced well the water is soaking in. Use a trowel or a
Irrigation Systems Inc., has maintained a soil probe to check just how deeply the water is
successful 15-year history of playable turf by penetrating, and then adjust your water use, if
using subsurface tubing buried eight to ten inches necessary, for the grass type and soil conditions.
deep in a football field. As an example, sturdy Bermuda grass should
be irrigated to the depth of one foot. Other turf
grasses don’t need such deep watering.
Watering

How frequently and deeply you irrigate will

d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
play a big role in your lawn’s root health. Most Aerobic Intermittent Irrigation
references advise watering about one inch per
As you’ve probably gathered by now,
week, depending on the weather. Others say a
there’s somewhat of an art to efficient
healthy lawn requires one to two inches of water
watering. If you simply turn on your
weekly, including rainfall. It may be best to
sprinkler system and walk away for an
water once every two to three days during hot,
hour or two (or run it on an automatic
dry weather, applying about 1/2 inch of water
timer), the upper portions of the soil may
each time. become flooded before the water sinks
into the three to twelve inches your sod

A nd right now you’re probably asking

yourself, How the heck do I know when
I’ve applied an inch of water? Well, an inch of
may require. Continuous flooding of
the pore spaces in the soil produces an
anaerobic condition that can kill the tiny
water-by-irrigation is equivalent to 62 gallons root hairs needed for rapid absorption of
per 100 square feet. An easy way to measure is moisture and nutrients. This is why the
to “calibrate” your sprinklers. (You can do this slow application of water by means of a
and check their efficiency at the same time.) First, drip-irrigation system is so productive—a
eat lots of tuna or moist cat food and save the much smaller area of the soil is anaerobic
cans. Collect a lot of them, remove the lids, and while you’re watering, which means more
place the empty cans randomly around the lawn. of the soil “breathes” and the roots are
(The bigger the lawn, the more tunafish salad happier. [See Figure #7 in this chapter.]
sandwiches; the results will be more accurate
with a large number of cans.) Turn on the Older and more knowledgeable gardeners
sprinkler(s) until you can measure 1/4” of water turn the sprinklers on for a short while,
in each can. Then multiply by 4 to get the length then shut them off for a few hours before
of time it takes your sprinkler(s) to distribute applying a bit more water with a second

28 Lawns
watering. You can also use an irrigation Free Lawn, The Newest Varieties and Techniques
timer that can be set to turn on and off to Grow Lush, Hardy Grass, by Warren Schultz
at intervals. This approach to watering (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1989).
intermittently gives the lawn the moisture
it needs while allowing the turf system to
“breathe” between intervals of irrigation,
which limits or eliminates runoff.

Another approach is simply to keep your

eyes open and your senses tuned, and pay
attention to your lawn. It’s time to water
the lawn when it begins to show signs
of wilt. Walk across its surface; if your
footprint remains depressed for several
minutes (known to lawnmeisters as the
“footprinting” effect), it’s time to irrigate.
Also, if your grass develops a blue-gray
or blue-green color, it’s very important
to begin irrigation to avoid permanent
wilting of the grass leaves. During periods
of extreme heat and drought, dormant
plants may be terminally stressed and die
if irrigation is not altered to reflect actual
need rather than watering by an artificial
timetable. There’s no substitute for getting
to know your lawn’s needs.

Watering is only a small portion of what a

lawn requires. You can get plenty of good
advice from a Master Gardener at your
local Cooperative Extension. Cooperative
Extension offices are usually listed under
the County pages of your phone book.
These state-subsidized organizations,
assisted by Master Gardener volunteers,
exist to address the needs of both home
gardeners and commercial growers.

Being basically bureaucracies, Cooperative

Extensions may know only the typical
(read chemical) way to start and care for a
lawn. If you want to banish all chemicals
and maintain an organic lawn, get a copy
of the classic on this topic: The Chemical-

Lawns 29
CHAPTER 4 of Plant Biology at the Carnegie Institution of
Washington. Together, they coauthored Plant
Ecology, Their book is the basis of this chapter
Weaver’s Lone on prairie flora. (Weaver also took a great interest
in commercial vegetable crops, but that’s in the
Prairie, or God’s Very vegetable chapter. No peeking!)
Own Lawn John Weaver literally went into the trenches to
excavate the root zones of plants. Working and
recording as carefully as the most compulsive
archaeologist uncovering a buried civilization,
he spent countless hours following and mapping
roots and the patterns they made beneath his feet.
B efore we proceed any further, it’s time to
introduce Professor John Ernest Weaver
(1884–1966), distinguished scholar and truly
The written and exquisitely drawn records of
this tedious but horticulturally important work
lay hidden in a dusty agricultural library at the
“hands-on” gentleman of the soil. Unbelievably
University of California at Berkeley until the
patient and almost inhumanly persistent, Weaver
early 1980s, when I happened to stumble upon
spent decades searching out, mapping, and
them. I sincerely wish that I could have met the
diagramming the root zones of plants ranging
man who spent so much of his time unraveling
from native prairie forbs (broad-leaved herbs that
and diagramming the growth patterns of plants
grow along with prairie grasses) to shrubs and
and their root systems. I often wonder if he
garden vegetables.
found a wife who could understand and share
his obsession with roots and the ecology of the
Weaver held the position of Professor of Plant prairie (or perhaps he courteously limited his
Ecology at the University of Nebraska for working hours from nine to five).
47 years. This close proximity to the great

I
American prairie seems to have stimulated t’s curious that this master of minutiae rarely
his already intense interest in the evolution of commented on how these root maps of the
its complex ecology. Much of his meticulous prairie and vegetable netherworlds might be
research was focused on discovering just how put to practical use or relate to actual gardening
the root zones of the intertwined matrix of practices. However, since the groundwork has
prairie flora commingle. One short quote by been so marvelously laid, so to speak, I’ve taken
Weaver says it all: “The prairie is an intricately it upon myself to extend the late professor’s
constructed community. The climax vegetation work by creating this book in “collaboration”
is the outcome of thousands of years of sorting with him, using as inspiration the drawings and
and modification of species and adaptations to commentary produced by his spirit, persistence,
soil and climate. Prairie is much more than land and labor.
covered with grass. It is a slowly evolved, highly
complex, organic entity, centuries old. Once
One of Weaver’s exhaustive studies involved
destroyed, it can never be replaced by man.”
buffalo grass ((Buchloe dactyloides) as a native
prairie grass habitat. This species originated as
Weaver worked closely with Frederic E. Clements a native plant and is still found from Texas up
(1877–1968), an ecologist with the Division through the great North American prairies.

Weaver’s Lone Prairie 31

 As Figure #10 shows, Weaver excavated the
roots of buffalo grass to a depth of seven feet.
It must be the extensive depth of the roots that
allows buffalo grass to withstand long periods of
drought, although 70% of the root mass is located
in the top six inches of the soil. Thus, as with
many turf grasses, irrigation in those six inches is
ideal for good-looking growth.

F igure #11 shows a cross section of mixed

prairie grasslands. According to Weaver,
“Bisects revealed the fact that (as with buffalo
grass) the short grasses grow in silt loam so
compact that surface runoff frequently causes
the loss of over one-third of the precipitation....in
sandy soils where the bluestem grows, practically
all of the rainfall is absorbed, the soil is moist to
depths of four to five feet, and to this depth it is
penetrated by the deep roots of the tall grasses
and other herbs,” ((Plant Ecology, 4).

d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS

Be aware that some lawn owners don’t
like buffalo grass at its most natural height
of five inches because it’s too long for
Figure #10: Buffalo grass can grow roots
as deep as seven feet to utilize deep walking or playing on. Lower cutting,
moisture. However, the most moisture however, may expose enough soil for
and nutrients, if available, will be weeds to invade. If your ideal lawn is
absorbed in the top 12 to 18 inches. short and putting-green velvety, you may
From: Relation of Hardpan to Root Penetration in the Great want to opt for a type of grass adapted to
Plains, J. E. Weaver & John W. Crist. Ecology (July 1922)
that look. Ask your local plant nursery for
Vol. 3, No3. Page 241. Grid equals one-square foot.
suggestions.

B uffalo grass has been “domesticated” as a To maintain its green turf, buffalo grass
substitute for lawns in dry areas or for any needs only .3 inches of water per week, as
place where water conservation is desirable. compared to .5 for Bermuda grass, .8 for
This hardy grass is well suited to the transition tall fescue, 1.2 for Kentucky bluegrass,
zones of the country, where it’s often too hot for and 1.5 for perennial ryegrass. Another
cool-season grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass, way to look at it is that buffalo grass can
perennial ryegrass, and tall fescue), and too last 21–45 days without irrigation, as
cold for warm-season species (St. Augustine, compared with St. Augustine grass, which
Bermuda, and zoysia grasses). needs watering every five days. Buffalo
grass spreads by runner roots to slowly fill

32 Weaver’s Lone Praire

 Figure #9: A bisect from west-central Kansas. Each
square is one foot. “Bg” is buffalo grass. “Ap” is wire
grass ((Aristida purpurea). “APS” is western ragweed
(
(Ambrosia spp.). The large shrub in the middle is a
legume ((Psoralea tenuiflora). This drawing is used with the permis-
sion of the McGraw-Hill Company, Inc. From Plant Ecology, by John Weaver &
Frederic Clements. 1938. Page 40. Grid equals one-square foot.

Figure #9, a fascinating drawing executed in silt loam [is] so compact that surface runoff
west-central Kansas, shows buffalo grass roots frequently causes the loss of over one-third of the
in their natural setting, mingled with other precipitation. Usually the [top] 12 to 18 inches
grasses and a lupine shrub. In its native habitat, of soil alone are moist, and absorption is largely
buffalo grass often must deal with competitive confined to this layer” ((Plant Ecology, 41).
plants. Weaver adds: “On the Great Plains, which
receive less than 17 inches annual rainfall…[the]

Weaver’s Lone Praire 33

Figure #11: Prairie plants from eastern Washington. From left to right: hawkweed ((Hieracium
spp.), June grass ((Koleria spp.), balsamroot ((Balsamorrhiza spp.), blue bunch grass ((Festuca
spp.), Geranium, a bluegrass ((Poa secunda), a composite ((Hoorebekia spp.), cinquefoil
(
(Potentilla spp.).
This drawing is used with the permission of the McGraw-Hill Company, Inc. From Plant Ecology, by John Weaver & Frederic Clements. 1938.
Page 289. Grid equals one-square foot.

in a yard; in its native Texas prairie, with consistent reliability) and check with
less than 20 inches of rain per year, it will your local Cooperative Extension as to its
form a nearly continuous cover. It seems appropriateness for your area.
to thrive in conditions where there are
fewer plants for competition. To gauge your watering needs, you can
use the original digital watering sensory
Prepare your soil well and as deeply as device—your finger. Stick that digit into
possible before planting plugs of (or the soil in various places (or use a trowel
seeding) buffalo grass. You won’t have to protect your manicure). In time, your
another chance to create conditions that touch and instincts will guide you as to
will allow rain to penetrate and avoid how long to irrigate buffalo grass for
losing precious moisture. Look for proper moisture levels.
the more recent selections of buffalo
grass strains (such as ‘Legacy®’ and
‘Prestige™’) that are available through
suppliers (these tend to have been
chosen for the easiest growth and most

Weaver’s Lone Praire 34

CHAPTER 5 Growing Shrubs

Although little has been done to study the root

Shrubs systems of even the more popular shrubs, there is
some fascinating shrub-related literature available
for native plant root systems of the Southwest.

I ronically, the most detailed information on all

root zones for grasses, forbs, native shrubs, and
trees is found in studies done for the Los Alamos

P ity the poor shrub—caught somewhere in

classification between lawns and trees, and its
history and outlook on life so neglected.
National Laboratory in New Mexico. The reason
can be found in the titles of two research papers:
“Rooting Depths of Plants on Low-Level Waste
Disposal Sites” (1984) (and they’re not talking
The definition of a shrub is a bit vague, soiled baby diapers!), by Teralene S. Foxx, et
depending upon your source. Here is the online al; and “Root Lengths of Plants on Los Alamos
site Wikipedia’s definition: “A shrub or bush is National Laboratory Lands” (1987) by Teralene
a woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its S. Foxx and Gail D. Tierney. Their concern in
multiple stems and lower height, usually less 1987 was, “…standards require operational
than 20 feet tall. A large number of plants can be procedures that will ban intrusion or disruption
either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing for at least 500 years without…the need for
conditions they experience.” The Society of monitoring and maintenance of the disposal site
American Foresters defines a shrub as: “a woody, after 100 years.”
perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in
its persistent and woody stem, and less definitely
from a tree in its lower stature (size) and the
general absence of a well-defined stem.” You get
I n the 1987 research, they were looking at “…a
substantial earth cover…to bury…low-level
nuclear waste”. However, the study wanted to
the idea. Or not.
investigate the one variable that might put a
stick in their spokes, that is, the depth of roots of
The problem is that some plants may grow as
native and introduced vegetation in the area. The
either trees or shrubs, depending on factors
1984 study showed that “deep-rooted plants may
such as soil type, climate, and site conditions.
provide a significant pathway for the release of
Species we might usually think of as shrubs
buried toxic materials into the biosphere.” The
can sometimes grow to tree size. Examples
1987 report also found that “…shrubs tend to
of these include: boxwoods ((Buxus spp.),
show the longest roots in relation to overstory
hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), holly (Ilex
( spp.),
size.”
bearberry manzanitass ((Arctostaphylos spp.), and
bearberry,
rhododendrons and azaleass ((Rhododendron spp.).

Some well-known shrubs include: barberry

T he two Los Alamos studies do contain
drawings of some roots, but I’ve condensed
the rooting-depth visuals into Figure #12.
(
(Berberis spp.), daphne ((Daphne spp.), forsythia
In a xeric ecosystem (with plants adapted to
(
(Forsythia sp), hydrangea ((Hydrangea spp.),
an extremely dry habitat), plants survive by
firethorn (Pyracantha
( spp.), currant (Ribes
(Ribes spp.),
sending very deep roots, resembling taproots, to
rose (Rosa
( spp.), and rosemary (Rosmarinus
(
extraordinary depths. (I’ve included trees because
spp.).

Shrubs 35
Figure #12: The rooting depths of shrubs and other plants as indicated in two studies at the Los Alamos
National Laboratory.
Shrubs, if carefully chosen, can require as
they have the mostly likely root systems to few hours as some lawn grasses in terms
penetrate a deep soil cap over radioactive waste.) of hours per year for each 100 square feet
per year. Examples include:

d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS Shrubs requiring one hour or less per year:
ü Camellia (Camellia japonica)
Don’t put a toxic waste disposal site in
your garden! ü Magnolia (Magnolia spp.) Not the
tree Magnolia grandifolia.
Use the same guidelines for buying
containerized plants mentioned in Chapter ü Oregon grape (Mahonia
#9, page 151, regarding native and aquifolium)
ornamental trees.

36 Shrubs
1–2 hours:
ü Boxwood (Buxus
( spp.)

ü Juniper (Juniperus spp.)

ü Azalea ((Rhododendron spp.)

Rabbiteye blueberry plant (Vaccinium spp.) roots
don’t seem to vary that much from cultivar to
ü Syzgium paniculatum cultivar. The roots of a 13-year-old bush can
reach as deep as 31 inches. However, 96% of the
ü Australian bush cherry dried roots were in the top 24 inches and 90% in
(Eugenia spp.) the top 16 inches. In a heavier soil, 84% of the
roots were found in the top four inches of the soil.
ü Rockrose (Cistus spp.)
The root of the shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella) in
In the chapter on lawns, we learned that Arizona is classified as having a “generalized” root
lawns need only six or seven minutes system, one that features both a taproot and well-
developed laterals. The taproot and other roots can
to one hour of care per 100 square feet penetrate up to 30 feet deep in fractured rock. At the
per year, depending on the species of same time, they have been found growing on soils
grass and the area. But, while it’s easier only six to ten inches deep. Whatever the depth of
and much cheaper to seed or roll out a the soil, the shrub live oak has a highly developed
lawn over large areas than it is to plant, surface root system which gives it one leg up on
mulch, and irrigate shrubs, especially grasses. The combination of shallow roots and deep
roots give shrub live oak two sources of water–rapid
in arid areas, it’s a waste of a precious flowing surface rains and deeper stored moisture.
resource to use drinking water for lawn
irrigation, as is done in many areas of
the Southwest. (Reclaimed wastewater Mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus)
usually becomes available only with has begun to show up in domesticated
the development of new houses or landscapes. The average rooting depth is 45
inches and the extremes run from 16–60 inches.
subdivisions near a wastewater treatment
plant.) Water use is becoming a large
issue, politically and environmentally,
so shrubs may soon necessarily replace
lawns as sensible landscaping choices in
dry areas. found in Appendix #4.

A list of some popular shrubs can be

Shrubs 37
CHAPTER 6 [Each square is one-foot square, as are most
of the rest of the illustrations in this chapter.]
Although asparagus roots can potentially occupy
over 500 cubic feet of underground space, their
Vegetables branching off is most abundant and active in the
top foot of soil.

When grown from seed, the asparagus naturally

develops a taproot a few inches long. This is
often removed by commercial growers to cause
ASPARAGUS the formation of thick, fleshy side roots, which
are often found on the one- or two-year-old bare-

B eing a perennial, asparagus has plenty of

opportunity to develop a massive root system
over time [See Figure #13], which helps it to live
root stock available in nurseries for transplanting.
Many gardening books recommend planting
one or two-year old asparagus bare-root stock
to be 50 years old or older. The example shown in a trench up to one foot deep, with soil and
here is six years old, with roots that extend nearly manures added each year until the trench has
eight feet wide and almost eleven feet deep. been filled back up to the surface. (Don’t harvest
any asparagus for two years so the roots can build
up some mass.) If situated in a good, deep, loamy
soil, asparagus roots can extend down as much as
three feet in the first year. As the plant grows over
time, some of the older fleshy roots are replaced
with new roots—a process called, by some,
“lifting of the plants.” This means that as the new
roots arise above the older roots, it’s as if the
crown of the plant had been “lifted.” Now, more
gardeners are planting the crowns of the bare-root
stock just deeply enough to be covered with soil.

T he productive plant in Figure #13 was

originally planted six inches below the soil’s
surface, but opinions as to ideal depth for new
asparagus plants differ. In Gardening Without
Work; for the Aging, the Busy and the Indolent,
Ruth Stout references J. A. Eliot, who preferred
to plant his asparagus right on top of the soil,
Figure #13: A six-year old emulating the plants that thrive naturally when
asparagus plant, with roots that birds have scattered their red berries. Keep in
extend nearly-eight feet wide and mind that this all takes place in the moist, humid
almost eleven feet deep. summers of New England, and the probability of
All the illustrations in this chapter are used with the
permission of The McGraw-Hill Company, From bird-spread asparagus is extremely low in arid
Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John areas.
Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. This illustration is
from Page 62. Grid equals one-square-foot boxes.

Vegetables 39
 asparagus plant, be sure to remember that
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
the diameter of the root zone can be six or
Asparagus is often considered a “heavy more feet on a mature plant.
feeder,” and some growers recommend
adding manure to asparagus beds each
fall. This advice, primarily found in
books published on the East Coast (and
particularly in New England), is no
doubt appropriate in places where the
ground freezes. However, in areas such as
Northern California, where it rains during
the winter but very little in the summer,
a fall application of manure can be a
waste—it’s likely to wash down below
the roots or off of the soil’s surface during
very heavy rains. In such climates a spring
application is best, ideally just before the
rainy season ends, a matter of guesswork
each year. Some gardeners maintain that
asparagus is hard to overfeed, but Weaver
has a different take on the subject: “When
old roots die and decay, they furnish the
soil a considerable amount of humus. The
amount of humus is so great the continued
use of manure as a source of humus is
sometimes apparently not beneficial.”
(Weaver, Root Development, 69).

Autumn mulching with straw in areas

where the ground freezes will help protect
asparagus roots from too much cold by
trapping the snow in an insulating layer.
Leaving the tree-like tops of the plants
to winterover similarly helps protect the
crowns of the root systems. Extreme care
should be taken when raking back the
mulch as spring approaches, as it’s easy
to damage the tender tasty shoots as they
begin to poke up from the soil. Once the
edible shoots are finished producing and
you’ve allowed some to grow up to form
feathery foliage, bring back the mulch.
In mild winter areas, mulch is not really
required except to prevent erosion.
When mulching and/or manuring an

40 Vegetables
CARROTS notice the dense horizontal roots in the top six
or so inches of the soil. Weaver comments,

W hen you pull a carrot out of the ground, “The greatest branching is in the surface two to
you’ll notice that it’s covered with four inches of soil, where a few laterals extend
numerous tiny fibrous root hairs that need to be horizontally eight to ten inches…About the
scrubbed or scraped off before eating or cooking. middle of August, maturing plants have well-
This might lead you to think of the carrot as formed “carrots” from which fine roots arise
having a very small, even shallow, root system. in great abundance. These furnish an excellent
Nope. A carrot is a root crop, and as Figure #14 surface-absorbing system near the plant” (Root
illustrates, a carrot plant can send its taproot as Developmen, 212.)
much as seven-and-a half-feet deep into a loamy
soil. The growth of the carrot root in the upper two
feet of the soil is somewhat similar to that
In this illustration of a carrot growing naturally, of beets except that the carrot grows such a
prominent taproot and produces numerous
horizontal roots that can reach downward many
feet.

d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS

It’s obvious that carrots prefer a deep
soil with good tilth and drainage, free of
rocks and obstructions that can produce
deformities. In less than ideal soils,
cultivate as deeply as possible before
seeding. Carrots are best grown in double-
dug beds, or in boxes raised 24 inches
above the soil line and constructed with
wire bottoms to deter gophers or other
underground gnawing pests.

When building garden boxes, line them

with one-half-inch aviary wire, which
comes in four-foot-wide rolls. One-inch
chicken wire, while less expensive,
may allow baby gophers to sneak inside
the box. The aviary wire also has more
galvanized metal and lasts longer in the
ground. Even with this protective barrier
Figure #14: When you pulled that in place, the taproot and many other roots
carrot from the soil, I’ll bet you didn’t will be eaten at the bottom edge of the
know how many roots you left behind. wire.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John
Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. Page 210. Grid equals one-
square-foot boxes.
The Cadillac version is to use one-quater-
inch hardware cloth because it doesn’t rust

Vegetables 41
 through ia quickly.

When preparing beds for planting, be sure

to work the soil with a flat-bottomed spade
so you don’t damage the wire.

When planting root vegetables, you can

choose between dense spacing, which
means maintaining lots of fertility, or
planting further apart, and watering and
fertilizing less frequently. As an example,
consider the work of Steve Solomon in his
book, Water-Wise Vegetables. Steve was
living fifty miles south of Lorane, Oregon,
and west of the Cascade Mountains when
he did his research with two plots in his
garden—one irrigated and the other “dry-
farmed.” His carrots (grown in a deep
fertile soil) were thinned one foot apart
in the row, with the between-row spacing
at five feet. The carrots received no water
whatsoever all summer. By season’s end,
the dry-farmed carrots had an average
diameter of five inches and weighed
over one pound each. In his experience,
“The roots are not quite as tender as the
Nantes types but are better than you’d
think. Something about accumulating
sunshine all summer makes the roots
incredibly sweet” (Solomon, 58.) He
has better results with the cultivars
‘Royal Chantenay,’ ‘Fakkel Mix’, and
‘Topweight’ than with the more common
Nantes varieties. Solomon’s experience
is that spacing plants eight times further
apart than the guidelines for intensive-bed
cultivation produces about one-half the
yields of plants spaced according to the
guidelines.

42 Vegetables
CAULIFLOWER & CABBAGE the first six to twelve inches of soil are to the
development of roots, and especially to those that
tend to form tiny root hairs. Figure #16 (here the

F igure #15 shows how massive a cauliflower scale is in inches, and the plant shown is cabbage)
root system can be, even when the plant is shows how early shallow cultivation can actually
oonly
nly eight weeks old. Cauliflower customarily promote branching of the surface roots. (The
grows a taproot, but transplanting usually greater the number of “rootlets,” the bigger the
removes it, causing the plant to form multiple surface area available to absorb nutrients will be.)
side shoots as shown. Here we see how important
L ater in the summer (June 28 in this study)
uncultivated soil beneath the leaves of the
cabbage plant had developed roots to within two
millimeters of the soil’s surface! Many vegetable
roots, and certainly those of cauliflower and other
brassicas, follow this same pattern.

By July 19, the structure of the cauliflower root

system has changed to that shown in Figure #17,
with more roots extending into the second foot
of the soil. Perhaps this expansion gives the roots
more soil to draw upon for the nutrients needed to
form the head of the cauliflower.
Figure #15: At only eight weeks old, the
root system of this cauliflower plant is
more than four feet wide and three feet
deep.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver
& William Bruner. 1927. Page 125. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.

Figure #17: The scale returns to one-foot

Figure #16: Shallow cultivation early in squares with this drawing of a mature
the season can produce more feeding roots cauliflower plant. Weaver says climate is
as seen in the lower roots of cabbage in this more important than soil when it comes to
illustration. The upper roots are from the extent of the rooting. He also states that
uncultivated soil. (Here the scale is in a constant supply of water is required.
inches.) From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver &
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. Page 108. Grid equals one-square-
William Bruner. 1927. Page 110. foot boxes.

Vegetables 43
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
Early in the season, hand-weeding or very,
very shallow cultivation, followed by
plenty of mulch, is the best way to protect
fine root hairs near the soil’s surface while
the plant is young. Weaver warns, “…In
the case of cabbage (and cauliflower),
late cultivation might do more harm than
good” (Weaver, Root Development 127).
This approach would’ve warmed the
cockles of Ruth Stout’s heart. Here is a
plant that really thrives on deep mulching.
Since the root system is a bit wider than
the average width of the cauliflower’s
foliage, you should be sure to mulch
beyond the area shaded by the edges of
the leaves.

It’s probably best to start with transplants

that are big enough to survive the
onslaught of root maggots, snail, slugs,
earwigs, cutworms, and aphids. If your
garden is full of some of these pests, it’s
best to leave the soil bare until the plants
are well established.

If you have cutworms, a collar made

from a waxed-paper cup helps. Cut off
the bottom and make a radial cut outward
from the hole. Turn the cup upside down
and insert it into the soil as far as two
inches. Or, use a tin can with both the top
and bottom removed.

To discourage root maggots, try adding

beneficial nematodes to the soil before
planting.

44 Vegetables
 CORN
As the [Cherokee] Indians sat about their fire, a cloud descended and from its midst a fair-haired
maiden, dressed in flowing green, appeared to them. She was so lovely that one of the braves
sprang forward to clasp her. She threw up her hands to repel him, and at the instant he touched
her she disappeared. In her place stood a tall maize-stalk, its leaves her green gown, its silk her
fair hair, its little roots her bare toes. A voice from the rustling leaves spoke to them:
“Clear the forest and plant the grain.”
From: Roots, Their Place in Life and Legend
Legend, by Vernon Quinn.

Figure #18: This beautiful diagram re-creates the pattern (seen from above) of corn
roots growing in the top six inches of soil.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. Pages 30-31. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.

T he roots of a mature sweet corn plant, when

viewed from above, reveal a magical sight,
a veritable living mandala. [See Figure #18.]
The exquisite detail of John Weaver’s drawings
(his working method is described in the first
paragraph of the “Prairie Grasses” chapter) is

Vegetables 45
revealed in this illustration, which depicts corn
roots found in the top six inches of soil.

T he corn plant illustrated here is one of a

crop planted on hills 42 inches apart with a
distribution of three to four seeds per hill. Weeds
were controlled by shallow cultivation (no deeper
than one-and-one-half inches, using a “mulching
fork,” a farm implement that works like a hoe).

It should be noted that all the vegetable Figure #19: Corn can grow quickly in a
illustrations here were done from plants grown good soil. This view is of an eight-week-
in a fine sandy-loam soil that had been manured old corn-root system.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver
for a number of years and had already been & William Bruner. 1927. Page 26. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.
used to grow vegetables. The soil was prepared

C
by plowing eight inches deep, then disked and orn plants produce a massive root system
harrowed to create a firm seedbed. (A disk is that consumes large amounts of moisture
a tractor-drawn arrangement of disk-shaped and nutrients. This root system forms quickly;
plowing pieces that is used to turn over the earth by the time a corn plant has sprouted just eight
in a field. A harrow is a tined implement that is leaves, it has produced 15 to 23 main roots with
dragged over previously disked land to crush a total of 8,000 to 10,000 lateral roots. A mature
clods of earth and level the soil.) The vegetables plant can generate roots that have “ramified”
were grown with summer rains alone—no (grown through) as much as 180 cubic feet of
irrigation. All the straight lines in the illustrations soil. Figure #19 shows a crosssection view of
form boxes that represent one square foot. an eight-week-old corn-root system. Notice the
substantial number of main and lateral roots at

Figure #20: A selection of tools to use for surface cultivation. From left to right: Henningson Circle
Hoe™, or scraper (Dutch hoe), a weed skimmer (hoe) and a Hula Hoe™. The Hula Hoe™ works when
pushed and/or pulled.

46 Vegetables
the level of one foot or less. As a rule of thumb, cultivating as deeply as with a regular
Weaver quotes other research that says: “Briefly, hoe (See Figure #20.) One is the use of a
sweet corn roots of corn extend laterally more so-called “Dutch Hoe,” which can scrape
than half as far as the stalk extends upward, and as deeply or shallowly as the gardener
the root depth is equal to the height of the stalk...” wishes and works by pushing the hoe
forward. Another option is the “Hula Hoe”
(also called the Action Hoe™), with which
Weaver also cautions against cultivating more
it’s possible to scrape down less than
than one to one-and-one-half inches deep around
one-and-one-half inches, and which has
corn plants for weed control because “Even
the advantage of being able to cultivate
shallow cultivation cuts many of the roots, and
in both directions. The Henningson’s
deep cultivation is very harmful and greatly
Circular Hoe™ makes it easy to keep
decreases the yield. During a period of eight
cultivation near the surface while aerating
years, the average yield of corn in a cultivation
the soil. All of these tools can be used
experiment in Illinois was 39.2 bushels [when]
without damaging the sensitive and vital
cultivated 3 times; 45.9 bushels where no
portion—the upper four inches—of the
cultivation was given but the weeds were kept
corn’s root layer. Deep mulching of corn
down by scraping with a hoe; and a mere 7.3
will suppress weeds, keep the soil cooler
bushels…where the weeds were allowed to
in hot summer areas, and allow the roots
grow.” Though I doubt that most gardeners plant
to grow upward to the very surface of the
corn by the acre, the relative impact is notable.
ground, perhaps even up into the mulch.

W eaver adds that corn roots absorb nitrates at

all levels of the root system. He cautions,
however, against adding manures to the “hill” (a WARNING: A Personal Sermon
practice where corn is planted on a small mound),
as it promotes early growth but provides little Corn needs lots of nitrogen, and
benefit at the time of the formation of the corn leguminous plants, as long as they’re not
ears. In his observation, those plants that were too crowded, can provide it with all the
fertilized at the hill had smaller root systems nitrogen required. In a “natural” garden,
and were more susceptible to drought damage the ultimate goal would be to eliminate
and reduced yields. Weaver thus deduces that all imported nutrients. Horse manure,
localized application of fertilizers also localizes cow manure, sacks of bone meal, blood
roots and prevents them from naturally ramifying meal, green sand, bat guano, phosphates,
a larger volume of soil. etc., all add additional fertility and qualify
as “natural,” but come with various
environmental costs attached, such as
mining, transportation, energy use, and
wasted bulk.
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
I see the corn-root system as a good
model for using a different set of tools— As an example of the energy invested in
implements more appropriate to gardening nitrogen for corn, consider blood meal.
than to farming—for surface cultivation. According to the Food and Agriculture
There are three effective ways to skim Organization’s regulations, blood is
the roots of weed seedlings without

Vegetables 47
 introduced into the (processing) tank as a earlier in Chapter 2.] Unnecessary water
coagulated mass, previously obtained by use, exploitation of limited resources and
a steam-action process. Ideally, as much wasted energy—all wrapped in a single
liquid as possible should be squeezed bag. Add to this the fact that there is a
from the coagulum. Heating is initiated limited supply of easily mined colloidal
at 82°C (180°F) and progressively raised phosphorus. It’s much like oil: will we
to 94°C (200°F) for about three hours, have enough in the future? Will we be
then elevated to 100°C (212°F) for 7 able to find enough new supplies if the
hours. (That’s a LOT of energy.) Drying is current mines are exhausted? Some say
complete when the final moisture level in the U.S. supply will be gone by 2035.
the dried product is about 12 percent.
Choosing to buy commercial colloidal
No matter what your source of imported phosphate and blood meal really means
nitrogen, whether for soil preparation or making a very important environmental
as a summer application for growth, it’s decision. This is especially clear when
most effective to spread it relatively far one compares the environmental cost
from the cornstalk itself in order to feed of imported amendments to the energy-
the massive width of the corn-root system efficiency of “growing” nitrogen and
most efficiently. One method of doing phosphorus at home by planting legumes
this would be to fertilize between the and tilling the young foliage into the
rows rather than on the rows themselves soil. Thus the gardener has two choices:
or at the base of each plant. If you plant (1) import nutrients, organic or not, to
intensively, be sure to add plenty of force an intensive yield, or (2) use wider
nutrients for this hungry crop. spacing when planting and/or rotate
crops to cut down on the competition
for available nutrients. Whichever you
Purplish strips at the edges of corn leaves choose, don’t grow corn in the same spot
indicate a deficiency in phosphorus. Some every year, as it will exhaust much of the
organic gardeners use colloidal phosphate nitrogen. Instead, alternate corn crops
as the solution to this deficiency, but with green manures—legumes tilled
consider this: colloidal phosphate is often into the soil to provide nitrogen from
strip-mined in Florida, washed with water the atmosphere and increase available
(and Florida has a big problem with phosphorus. See Figure #21 for more
supplies of fresh water), loaded on train on when to turn under a green manure
cars, and shipped to places as far away crop. [For more about green manures, see
as California and Washington, where Appendix #2.]
it’s sacked up and shipped to your local
garden-supply store. And the total amount
of phosphorus (P2O5) in the sack is only Consider the cultivation of corn in the
16 percent of all the bagged-up bulk, of arid southwest. The Hopi Indians, from
which a mere two percent is available centuries of experience, know that corn
the first gardening season since the roots are extensive and greedy. They
phosphorus is locked up in a mineralized plant hills of corn with multiple seeds,
form that requires the activity of soil but the hills are widely spaced to prevent
microbes, soil bacteria, and exudates. [The depletion of soil nutrients and conserve
action of root exudates was explained moisture. This is less of a problem in

48 Vegetables
humid, moist, temperate areas, where
nitrogen recycles faster, due to the
decomposition of plant matter that is
retained in the soil, and to greater rainfall.
The trade-off of intensive imported
fertilizers versus wider spacing still
applies.

These corn-root “maps” show how

extensive the roots can be and why the
thoughtful gardener makes a careful
choice between vertical (intensive) versus
horizontal (wider spacing) cultivation.
End of Sermon.

Figure #21: This illustration shows how important it is to turn under a fresh green
manure crop before there are many blossoms. A legume stores most of its nitrogen in
the roots and foliage before blooming—getting ready to move the nitrogen to the
developing seed. The more tender foliage provides a greater volume of nitrogen and it
more readily decomposes when compared to the more mature, “woody” plant with ripe
seeds.
From Designing And Maintaining Your Edible Landscape - Naturally. by Robert Kourik, Metamorphic
Press 1986. Reprinted in 2004 by Permanent Publication, UK.

Vegetables 49
LETTUCE Lettuce Proceed…

A s shown in Figure #22, lettuce has an

extensive root system. This is why it’s
L ettuces of all varieties have long been grown
and used together as ingredients of cut-
and-come-again salads. The older, more proper
possible to harvest multiple cuttings of this
name for this reckless mingling of lettuce and
classic and classy vegetable for salads, as long
other greens (which originated in France and
as a portion of its crown remains intact. The
Italy) is “mesclun,” meaning “mixture.” In the
roots of lettuce in your own garden may not be
words of Rosalind Creasy (author of Cooking
as extensive as those shown in the illustration,
from the Garden) the original forms of mesclun
which is of a two-month-old plant.
were, “…intended to use every part of the
tongue. European mesclun was, and is, meant
to be a combination of seasonal greens with
textures ranging from crispy to velvety and
flavors ranging from tangy to bitter.” Rosalind
is not enamored of the typical American salad.
“Americans do not eat a true salad. Our salads are
the ‘white bread’ of greens, based on pale iceberg
lettuce, and very limiting visually, flavor-wise,
and especially nutritionally.”

Mesclun—drug or food?
The greatest problem initially faced by U.S.
growers and markets in marketing “mesclun”
salad greens was a confusion of its name with
that of the illicit drug “mescaline.” [The two are
pronounced almost identically to the uneducated
ear.] As a result, the equivalent of mesclun we
often see in the supermarket is now usually called
a “spring mix,” which happens to show up nearly
every day of the year…go figure.

Figure #22: This is the plant used for

the “test” on page three in the introduc- A salad mix can contain numerous combinations,
tion—another example of how the small with the blend of greens constantly changing,
foliage of lettuce above ground misleads often to reflect the changes of the season. Mark
one about what grows beneath. Musick, who worked at Pragtree Farms (a notable
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver
& William Bruner. 1927. Page 324. Grid equals one-square-foot producer of salad mix) near Arlington, WA,
boxes. estimates that, “By 1985, we used over a hundred
varieties of greens and 25 or more types of edible
flowers [in our salad mixes] in the space of a
year.”

50 Vegetables
 sprinkle it lightly with quarry dust, which
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
costs only $9 per ton and provides valuable
A quick, simple, and efficient mesclun trace minerals. For each 100 square feet
crop-for-harvest requires broadcast of bed, we apply two wheelbarrow-loads
(scattered by handfuls as opposed to of compost and one wheelbarrow-load of
individually placed) seeding and frequent aged dairy manure. Next, we single-dig
cutting. Some seed catalogs offer ready- the bed [Ed. note: The soil at the OAEC
to-plant mesclun/spring-salad seed blends; has been double-dug for over 15 years
however, if you plant all the salad-green with soil amendments such as compost and
varieties, including lettuces, together, manures, and, in some places, no longer
you’ll only be able to harvest everything needs double-digging], and then tilth
a few times, at best. This is because each (break up) the surface clods as we shape
type of seedling grows at a different the beds.” The final step before seeding is,
rate, and each type reaches its optimum in Gosling’s words, “to ‘massaging’ the
harvesting stage at a slightly different beds, using our hands to crumble all the
time. small clods.” With a droll, yet heartfelt
look in his eyes, he’s quick to add, “This
certainly keeps us in touch with the earth!”

T he alternative is planting each

ingredient for the mix separately.
Choose the varieties of greens you want to The easiest way to plant the seed is to
grow, then buy and plant separate amounts lightly broadcast it, with the goal in mind
of seed for each. Planting small areas with of winding up with plants on two-inch
only one type of green means that you centers. Next, water the beds immediately
can cut and re-cut many more times than and then once a day, depending upon
with an area planted to a mixture of seeds, the weather, with the idea of keeping the
because you can suit the harvest time to soil moist, but not soaked, until the seeds
each green’s requirements. germinate. Thereafter, again depending
on the weather, you should only need to
water them once a week. The beds usually
Other than a variety of colorful and tasty need only one weeding while the seedlings
lettuces, some of the greens that can be are young and one thinning to achieve the
harvested up to six or eight times include: desired spacing. Naturally, any thinnings
arugula (Eruca vesicaria); ‘Mizuna’ can go into that week’s salad mix.
((Brassica rapa var. nipposinica) or
Japanese mustard ((Brassica japonica);
Russian red kale ((Brassica oleracea, When cutting for use, carefully work your
Acephala Group); white mustard way through each patch of foliage, using
(Brassica hirta); and garden cress a pair of lightweight kitchen scissors to
(Lepidium sativum). cut each leaf. Be sure to leave one or two
inches of foliage, as well as the apical (top
center) bud, and several small, immature
Doug Gosling, who for over 25 years leaves surrounding it. By sparing these,
has tended the garden at what is now you’ll insure a repeat harvest in just a
the Occidental Arts and Ecology Center week’s time.
(OAEC) in Northern California, says,
“Our approach to soil cultivation is
simple: before each bed is planted, we

Vegetables 51
 Gosling explains it, “We’re often growing
the wilder end of the salad spectrum, which
makes the plants hardier and innately
resistant to bugs.” No garden passes
through all its seasons, however, without
the trespass of an occasional pesty insect.
The very process of harvesting allows the
gardener to be selective and cut only those
leaves that aren’t infested. Or, as Doug
Gosling says, “We just switch to harvesting
different parts of the plants. If the leaves
of mustard are attacked by aphids, we wait
and harvest the tasty spicy young flower
buds.”

I n the OAEC garden, located in the

coastal environment 60 miles north
of San Francisco, the insect pests of
significance are flea beetles, root maggot,
and, occasionally the diabrotica (or
spotted cucumber) beetle, also known in
garden slang as the “diabolical” beetle.
Gosling’s first line of defense is “to plant
the most resistant varieties, which for flea
beetles are: Russian red kale ((Brassica
oleracea, Acephala Group); orach (Atriplex
hortensis); lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium
album); purslane (Portulaca oleracea);
quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa); grain
amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus);
and sheep’s sorrel (Rumex acetosella).”
Since the flea and diabrotica beetles do the
most damage to summer-grown brassicas,
these crops become part of the mix only
during the cooler times of the year and
throughout the winter.

52 Vegetables
ONIONS

T he Southern white globe onion ((Allium

cepa), as shown in Figure #23 displays
roots that grow less extensively than those of
corn and further down from the soil’s surface.
John Weaver sums it up quite succinctly: “The
relatively meager root system [of onions] and
corresponding limited extent of above-ground
parts explains why they can endure crowding
better than most vegetable crops.” In the case of
onions, cultivation deeper than one-and-one-half
inches once a week produced greater yields than
the technique of scraping surface weeds—the
reverse of the most efficient type of cultivation
for corn. According to Weaver, the space of 14
inches between rows “…is quite ample for full
root development with little or no competition
between adjacent rows. In fact, the bulb crops are
about the only vegetable crops for which this is
true.”

S ome of the other root crops which display

growth patterns similar to that of the onion
are garlic, turnips, and beets (which, Weaver Figure #23: This root “map” of a Southern
white globe onion is similar to that of other
found, often maintained a root radius of 2.5
root crops such as garlic, turnips, and beets.
feet and a working depth of up to five feet, so From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver &
William Bruner. 1927. Page 42. Grid equals one-square-
that the first four to six inches of soil were not foot boxes.
as important in terms of receiving water and
nutrients). Radishes don’t fit into this category,
despite some of their roots growing as deep as
feeder roots and can be used in a side-to-
two to four feet, as “Most of the absorbing area
side sweeping motion to cultivate between
lies in the surface two to eight inches of soil.”
rows. All three hoes can be used for the
shallow elimination of weeds—or to form
a “dust mulch” when needed.
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
The Hula Hoe™ and Dutch Hoe can be Since phosphorus helps increase the
used with these root crops a little more growth of roots and is essential to seed
deeply than with corn. Another good tool formation, it follows that root crops
is a long-handed Henningson Circle Hoe™. need adequate supplies of it. Here again,
[See Figure #20.] The Circle Hoe not only as mentioned in the section on corn,
cuts off weed seedlings but is designed to gardeners must make a decision between
aerate the soil at the same time. The arch importing phosphorus or growing
of the blade is shaped to cut away from their own. Once established, nitrogen-

Vegetables 53
 producing legume plants [see Appendix
#2] also provide available phosphorus,
and the young legumes can also be tilled
into the soil for the release of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and other nutrients—a
process called green manuring. According
to E. W. Russell (Professor of Soil
Science at the University at Reading, UK;
in his book Soil Conditions and Plant
Growth, 10th Edition, pages 278-279):
“Green manures [grown] during wet off-
seasons…often utilize less available forms
of phosphate…hence an increase in the
availability of [phosphate] for the crop.”

Legumes usually make available enough

phosphorus to sustain healthy crops.
(You don’t need the extra phosphorus
if legumes already grow well in your
garden’s soil.) The various legumes can be
tilled in once or twice, and then you may
be able to return to surface cultivation
if you desire. If corn plants show the
purple discoloration denoting phosphorus
deficiency, that will affect your onion
crop as well, and you’ll need to use green
manuring again until the symptoms are
gone.

54 Vegetables
PEAS & BEANS they decompose. This can release as much as 40
to 250+ pounds of nitrogen, depending upon the

G arden pea ((Pisum sativum) roots are pictured

here in Figure #24. In the drawing, you’ll
notice a very prominent taproot growing to about
variety of legume. The grazing (if not too severe)
and mowing allow the plants to grow and be
cut again to continue the fertility cycle. Weaver
two-and-one-half feet, while the lateral growth of observed that with garden crops such as peas, the
the main root goes down further than the taproot nodules are most often found in the top eight to
and explores a diameter of nearly four feet. Most sixteen inches of the soil. They can also be found
of the branching occurs in the top six inches of “…irregularly distributed over the root system at
the soil. depths of several feet.”

To produce large nodules, field peas and other

legumes need to be grown within a range of
specific soil temperatures. The roots prefer an
environment of 540 to 750F. In temperatures above
800F and up to 860F, the formation of nodules
actually decreases. A soil that is too dry will also
reduce nodule formation. If the soil already has
plenty of nitrogen, the nodules may not form at all
since there is already enough present to nourish
the roots.

The kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is

remarkably similar to the pea. Figure #25 is an
aerial view of the top 6 inches of soil showing a
Figure #24: The common garden pea kidney bean’s root system, which resembles the
makes nitrogen-fixing nodules on this very
extensive root system. fascinating mandala formed by the roots of a corn
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver plant. The kidney bean rapidly forms a taproot
& William Bruner. 1927. Page 177. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.
when young. Before a young plant begins to
mature, it produces a profuse number of roots in
the top 10 inches of the soil, and the taproot grows
The pea is a legume, which, like all legumes,
to a depth of up to 24 inches. By the time the pods
forms nodules, or lumpy growths, along its roots.
are forming beans, the taproot has increased its
This is due to a magnificent symbiotic relationship
depth to three feet, with a working level of about
between rhizobia bacteria and legumes roots.
20 inches. The roots ramify the soil in a two-foot
The roots provide some nutrition to the rhizobia
radius and three feet deep. While similar to a pea’s
bacteria. At the same time, the bacteria convert
root system, the kidney bean’s roots grow more
nitrogen gas into a solid form of nitrogen in the
deeply and are more extensive beneath the plant.
nodules. Thus it is said that these nodules “fix
nitrogen from the air” and hold on to it for the
plant’s use. When the plant is grazed, mowed,
or dies, the nitrogen becomes available to other
F igure #26 shows how a mere lima bean plant
can ramify 200 square feet of soil, with a
majority of the roots growing and feeding in the
plants. The grazing, mowing, and death of the
top two feet of the soil.
plant (perhaps due to drought) “shocks” the
plant, and the stress causes some of the nodules
to shed from the roots and release nitrogen as

Vegetables 55
 Figure #25: Another fantastic aerial view by John Weaver. This shows the top six inches of
the root system of a kidney bean. (As seen on the cover of this book.)
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. Page 186. Grid equals one-square-foot boxes.

56 Vegetables
 supply of nitrogen and will tie up the
available nitrogen for a while until things
settle down.

When you’re ready to mulch, quickly dip

a few sections of newspaper into a bucket
of water; if you remember, this keeps
the wind from blowing the paper around
before the mulch is added. Lay down
about four to six sheets of the newspaper
with a four- to six-inch overlap to keep
pesty vining weeds from sneaking around
your newspaper. [This won’t always work
with weeds like sheep sorrel ((Rhumex
Figure #26 shows the nearly mature root
system of a lima bean. acetosella).] Poke holes through the
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver & newspaper at the interval recommended
William Bruner. 1927. Page 194. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes. on the seed packet. Use your finger or a
“dibble”—a tool used in Europe to plant
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS seeds, transplants and bulbs. [See Figure
#27, next page.] Insert the seed and cover
Mulch, of course. In cool spring weather, with soil. Add a thin layer of straw mulch
however, wait to do so until after the soil (or any other seed-free mulch you like)
has begun to warm up, and make sure to to conserve moisture. Cocoa bean hulls
mulch when the upper soil temperature are the Porsche/Lamborghini of mulches
approaches 800F. Mulch at least one foot in cost, but heavenly when sprinkled
away from the base of the plant in order to from above, filling the garden air with
cover the entire root system. In a “no-till” the aroma of chocolate. This is not a
garden with a continuous cover of mulch, good mulch to use with drip irrigation;
all will be well with the roots and their since the drip system is under the mulch,
tiny root hairs. the surface stays dry and you’ll miss out
on the water-activated hedonism of the
Beans and peas are good crops with chocolate aroma. If you have a dog, be
which to practice using newspaper as sure they don’t eat any of the cocoa bean
a weed barrier, followed with a better- hull mulch, as chocolate tends to make
looking mulch of straw to hold down dogs sick.
and hide the newspaper. [See Chapter
#3, page 20, “Humus & Mulch” for To help avoid greedy critters like snails,
general instructions on mulching with slugs, and earwigs, it may be best to start
newspapers.] After amending your soil pea or bean seedlings in a pest-free area or
or digging a young cover crop under, buy at a local nursery and then transplant
smooth the soil. If you’re digging a cover them. You may have to pull the mulch
crop under, wait two to four weeks before away from newly transplanted seedlings
planting and mulching for the soil to until they’re hardy enough to deal with the
decompose some of the raw plant matter. ravages of insect terrorism.
The soil’s decomposers thrive on the new

Vegetables 57
 Figure #27: Europeans have been using
“dibbles’’ for hundreds of years to plant seeds,
seedlings, and bulbs.

58 Vegetables
PEPPERS

F igure #28 shows bell pepper roots as they

looked when the plant was six weeks old.
[Note: the scale on this drawing is six inches
per side.] Figure #29—with a scale of one-
foot squares—is a pepper plant shown when
nearly full-grown. The striking observation
here is how many of the younger plant’s fine
roots are growing in the top foot of the soil,
near the surface. This plant’s root hairs are
quickly absorbing a vast amount of nutrients Figure #29: Here is the same pepper plant
in preparation for the cycle of blooming and at near maturity. The scale is back to one
fruiting. Pepper plants are usually started in square foot per square. The roots are now
a sheltered place and then transplanted. Their as deep as four feet, compared to two feet
normal tendency is to grow a taproot, but much when the plant was only six weeks old.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver &
of this large single root is usually destroyed upon William Bruner. 1927. Page 271. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.
transplanting. The plant responds by growing,
from the remainder of the taproot, very numerous,
profusely branched lateral roots. As the plant
matures, its roots utilize deeper soils. d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
As with tomatoes, use seedling trays
that air-prune the taproot to form a more
fibrous root system. [See page 63.] At the
early stages of growth, a very shallow
surface cultivation will encourage even
more roots and root hairs as the pruning of
the roots causes more branching, resulting
in more root hairs in the upper levels of
the soil.

Figure #28: The scale here is six-inch

squares. At only six weeks old, an amazing
number of feeding roots of this bell pepper
seedling are growing in the top six inches
of the soil.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver &
William Bruner. 1927. Page 270. Grid equals one-square-
foot boxes.

Vegetables 59
RHUBARB

O h, did I love my great-aunt’s rhubarb pie!

Slightly tart, not too much sugar, and cut into
generous slices you could really sink your teeth
into. When rhubarb and strawberry pie appeared
on the table, it was official: spring was in full
swing.

The old rhubarb plants in my aunt’s garden were

enormous, and so was their appetite for manure.
Looking at Figure #30, one can see why; as this
drawing demonstrates, rhubarb can generate a
massive root system, spreading as much as eight
feet wide, with a depth of eight feet or more. It’s
easy to see why this plant needs a deep loamy soil
to contain and support its large and hungry mass
of roots and rootlets. Figure #30: It takes a lot of roots to make
rhubarb for one of my favorite pies!
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver &
With rhubarb, as with most plants, the most active William Bruner. 1927. Page 71. Grid equals one-square-
feeding areas are the root hairs at the ends of foot boxes.
new growth. According to Weaver, “The thicker
portions of the main laterals were nearly always d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
poorly branched with only scattered young When fertilizing rhubarb, apply your
rootlets densely covered by root hairs” (Weaver, manure or other nitrogen-rich fertilizer
Root Development 71). This means that the older away from the base of the stalks and
roots at the base of the stem were less important beyond the perimeter of the foliage,
in absorbing nutrients than the newer shoots in the widening the diameter of coverage as the
other areas of the root system. Providing nutrients plant grows older. The most important
in the area beyond the foliage [unlike the huge area to fertilize is the zone of new root
specimen in Figure #30, most rhubarb plants hairs near the outer edge of the foliage
seldom reach eight feet across], helps encourage and beyond. The fertilizing and mulching
new roots and helps these roots explore and feed should continue to expand with growth
in new soil. The more wide-ranging the roots, the into an area perhaps half again as wide
more fertilizer the plant will need. To investigate as the diameter of the foliage. In cold
your rhubarb’s root system, you can probe around winter areas where the ground freezes, a
with a trowel, using Weaver’s map as a starting deep mulch over the entire root system,
point. especially over the “crown” of the plant,
is a good idea. This will help to protect
the plant from freezing too deeply and
provide warmer soil in the early spring
for earlier root growth (especially if the
mulch is pulled away to take advantage of
warm spring days).

60 Vegetables
When watering, follow the same
guidelines as for mulching; to encourage
the roots to ramify more cubic footage
of soil, irrigate away from the crown of
the plant and concentrate more on the
perimeter.

Vegetables 61
TOMATOES

Figure #32: This is a drawing of a tomato transplant after only five

weeks. The mature plant can grow roots up to 5.5 feet wide and
nearly five feet deep.
From Root Development of Vegetable Crops, by John Weaver & William Bruner. 1927. Page 246.
Grid equals one-square-foot boxes.

A h, yes, tomatoes—one of the hoped-for

star attractions of every summer garden. In
Weaver’s experience, a tomato seed planted in
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
Tomatoes respond to transplanting from
ideal outdoor soil, with no transplanting involved, seedling trays to a larger, perhaps four-
can grow a taproot to the depth of 22 inches, inch, pot, and yet again to a one-gallon
at a rate of one inch per day. The tomato is yet “can.” The best seedling trays are the ones
another vegetable that prefers to grow a taproot, that come in the form of connected rows
which is often damaged during transplanting. [See of upside-down planting cones, each with
Figure #32.] This is why young tomato seedlings a hole in the bottom—such as a Speedling
transplanted several times into increasingly Tray™ [See Figure #33.] As the seedling
large pots before their final move into the garden taproot hits the small hole in the bottom of
will probably end up with a root system more the tray, it is “air-pruned,” causing more
fibrous than that of tomatoes planted by seed in side shoots and a larger number of root
the garden. However, transplanting a tomato- hairs. This prepares a vigorous fibrous
plant stem deep into the soil will produce many root system and a long stem for planting
adventitious roots along the length of the stem below the soil surface to form those
below the first leaves, creating a great root system adventitious roots.
early in the life of the plant. This is specific to
tomatoes. Not many other tranplants should be There are all kinds of ways to start plants
planted deeper than they are in the growing pot. well ahead of the time when it’s safe to
transplant them into the garden. These
include cloches (bell-like glass coverings),

62 Vegetables
 plastic-tubing walls filled with water to
catch and hold the sun’s heat, and sunny
windowsills or greenhouses. It’s my
observation, however, that large plants
started well ahead of transplant time may
not produce tomatoes any sooner than
small seedlings planted in warm soil well
after any threat of frost. (You can rake
back mulches to allow the soil to warm
more quickly.)

Onward to Surface Cultivation!

Figure #33: A Speedling Tray™, or one of the other brands of molded seedling trays with holes in the
bottom of each funnel-shaped cavity, helps air-prune the taproot. This leads to more lateral,
fibrous roots for healthier transplanting. The long pyramidal shape of a Speedling Tray compartment
makes it easy to pull each plug of roots from the tray.

63
CHAPTER 7 which slows the absorption of moisture by the
soil. Worms under plots with no tillage, however

Surface Cultivation
[in this study, managed with herbicides], formed
“a network of vertical burrows, due to night

& No-Till Gardening

crawlers, and depressions, due to common
earthworms, [which] tends to funnel water rapidly
downward through [and into] soil layers.”

According to Linden, who cares for his own

garden with layers of organic mulch and compost
made from his household food waste, using no-
B y now, you’ve probably caught on to my not-
so-hidden agenda of encouraging vegetable
gardeners to experiment with surface cultivation
till methods “means the soil absorbs water faster
and encourages keeping water in the soil as a
reservoir. This stored moisture in the soil provides
or no-till gardening. No-till means never even
another measure of drought resistance during dry
disturbing the soil, while surface cultivation
spells.”
involves slicing the roots of weeds off just under
the soil’s surface—say two to four inches. As
you’ve read in previous chapters, these methods
certainly control weeds while encouraging root Advocates of surface cultivation are also
growth, healthy plants, and good yields. enthusiastic, but few of them can come up with
any real numbers or studies to compare with the
yields produced by other methods.
Remember, however, that gardening guru Ruth
Stout stoutly tilled her garden plot for 14 years
Max Alth, a gardener in New York state, claims in
before switching to her till-free technique, which
his book How to Farm Your Backyard the Mulch-
involved applying a deep mulch of spoiled hay.
Organic Way, that it takes him only 20 minutes
So, go ahead and till your soil—even double-
per year to grow 100 pounds of vegetables. He
dig it—if the ground is clayey, has a hardpan
grew his garden (“farm”) much the way Ruth
barrier near the surface, or in any situation where
Stout did.
a few more years or seasons of dig-and-till will
contribute to a soil condition that requires less
frequent tillage while maintaining good yields.
I n my search for this information, however,
I also uncovered some measured surface-
cultivation yields in articles written by a man with
There are plenty of advocates for no-till the delightful name of Ben Easy. Easy’s original
gardening. Many say it mimics nature’s way of work was published in the January 1952 and
improving soil from the top down, while others October 1954 issues of the British publication
maintain that they’re relying on earthworms to do Mother Earth, and cites an informal seven-year
the “tillage” at the speed of nature. An interesting study done by J. H. L. Chase in England. The
fact is that artificial tillage can actually impede comparison of yields in this study was between
the storage of moisture in the soil. Research the produce from a single-dug plot and that of a
by Dennis Linden, soil scientist at the USDA surface-cultivated plot. As Figure #34 [next page]
Agricultural Research Station in St. Paul, MN, reveals, some surface-cultivated crops—such as
found that the common earthworm ((Aporrectodea cabbages and cucumbers—actually out performed
tuberculata) working under tilled soil forms a deeply cultivated crops in both the highest
“less desirable pattern (of) meandering tunnels” yields and the average yield, even producing a

Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening 65

 Figure #34: It’s very hard to find data backing up the claims of no-till gardening. Cer-
tainly Ruth Stout never kept records of her days tilling the garden versus her days of
no-till, deep-straw beds. The above is one of two examples I know of that provides data
about surface cultivation.

2% greater yield the first year. Over time, you’ll adapted to the home garden.
notice that total yields drop to only 70% of those

T
of the cultivated (single dug) “control” plot. This his anecdotal evidence was collected from
simply means you again have the choice between an organic market garden in England with
vertical or horizontal gardening. You can always 12 years of experience in surface cultivation.
add more nutrients via single digging to restart the This garden was not only successful, but “sales
low-till process or spread out your planting area to were on a competitive basis.” More amazingly,
compensate for reduced yields. the garden was maintained without the use of
any manures. The book about this remarkable
market garden is entitled—at great length—
A Successful Market Farm Using Intensive Gardening, Using Dutch Lights, Surface
Surface Cultivation Cultivation and Composting for the Commercial
Production of Crops, and Introducing a Motion-

W hile most readers will not be growing

a market garden, I did discover a fine
example of the efficient use of surface cultivation
Study Routine, 1956 by Rosa Dalziel O’Brien.

in a commercial setting, which indicates that Here are some highlights from the book, which
it can, in fact, be adapted to a larger scale of help to illustrate how this market garden was put
planting. Most of the following techniques can be together:

66 Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening

Compost, compost, and more compost. The
composting area consisted of “bins” made of bales
of straw stacked in the shape of the letter “E,”
O ’Brien also stressed how important it was to
use a compost inoculant called Quick Return
(Q. R.), made of a special blend of herbs. Each
with two “Es” connected in a row to create four compost pile is pierced by six vertical holes made
bins. The bales of straw were the only significant with a crowbar or broom handle. The diluted
imported resource. The compost was made with inoculant mixture is drained into these holes, after
layers of soil, grass clippings, legumes (such which the pile is capped with two inches of soil.
as fava beans or vetch, cut and recut from beds There are five detailed pages devoted to making
not planted in vegetables), and garden waste. the piles, and the text refers frequently to the Q.
The clippings came from grass that was planted R. solution as an essential part of the process.
in access roads and between rows of plots and The solution eliminates the need to turn the piles
mowed when long enough to produce clippings and can generate finished compost in six to eight
of about three-and-one-half inches. (Be informed weeks in the spring, summer, and fall, or eight to
that many English gardeners in mild-winter areas ten weeks in the winter (England). Even though
mow their grasses all year long.) the book was published in 1956, the same (Q.
R.) powder is available (as of 2007, when this
book was written) from Biocontrol Network in
Brentwood, Tennessee or Harmony Farm Supply

E ach compost pile, in its straw-bale “bin,”

consisted of a mass about six feet square and
up to five feet high. Every pile began with a small
in Graton, California and other sources.

layer of charcoaled wood (a small import or made Other “imports” into this garden included the one-
by burning wood on the property). The purpose time purchase of so-called “Dutch lights.” These
of this layer was to “…absorb the impurities are panels of glass built to a standardized form
from the pile; [it will] serve several successive and set up like cold frames or small greenhouses.
ones before fresh pieces are needed.” [This is an This was a crucial aspect of the market farm, as
unusual approach, which I’d never encountered the Dutch lights allowed for an earlier harvest and
before finding this book.] Rosa O’Brien describes extended the harvest time beyond that of crops
a very specific technique for layering of grass grown in an open field. They wouldn’t be needed
clippings, old straw from previous “bin walls,” in a home garden if the gardener didn’t want to
garden waste (thinnings and trimmings, etc.), thin push the natural growth cycle of the vegetable.
layers of soil, and a very fine dusting of lime— Also imported, as needed for certain crops, were
another import, albeit a small one. some seaweed, old domestic soot (from coal-fired
The role of the lime in O’Brien’s composting chimneys), granite dust, and silver sand.
recipe was to make the pile slightly alkaline,
in order to enhance existing populations of the
free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Azotobacter
croccoceum. O’Brien explains: “Our compost
T he main tool for this approach (in addition to
hand-pulling weeds or vegetable plants), is a
“scrapper,” a version of the onion hoe mentioned
heaps include sufficient lime to keep the material earlier in this book. [See Figure #20, page 46,
alkaline, so that we gain, by bacterial action, in the discussion of corn.] The market gardeners
about 25% more combined nitrogen than went in firmly state that: “…preparation for the following
with the plant residues, and when we spread the crop is one operation with the [scrapper], with
compost on the surface of the soil, the bacteria the occasional use of a rake, and it should not
go on working…[the resulting bacterial action] is penetrate the soil more than three-and-one-half
quite enough for the crops we grow” (19). inches to four inches for any purpose.” The
rationale is that, “True aeration of the soil is

Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening 67

achieved in undisturbed soil…The scrapper [ED. earthworms; root canals help rainwater soak into
Known as a scraper, or Dutch hoe, in the US.] is deeper areas; and root exudates create a microbial
always pulled toward the gardener at a 45-degree “soup” (the rhizosphere) that helps to liberate all
angle to the path. The tool is used only to pull, not manner of nutrients.
push soil” (42, 46).

O’Brien mentions that it took about three years for

S pring apparently causes an unusual hormonal
flush in many gardeners, an itch that seems
to activate the irresistible impulse to get outdoors
the new market garden to make the transition from
harboring obnoxious weeds like docks ((Rumex and cultivate, cultivate, cultivate. As daytime
spp.), thistles and dandelions to less noxious temperatures rise and the earth warms, beginners
weeds such as nettle, groundsel [a European weed and gardening veterans alike can’t wait to dig
(Senecio vulgaris) with small yellow flowers], in and gently turn over that first delicious rich-
and chamomile (probably the low-growing weed smelling spadeful of dark, crumbly loam—a
(Matricaria recutita) not the kind used for tea garden’s black gold. But wait! Before you
((Anthemis nobilus). It took about the same amount reach for that shovel or spade, consider whether
of time for the compost and surface cultivation cultivation is actually “natural,” or even good for
to enrich the soil, increase its population of the planet.
beneficial bacteria, and enhance its aeration in a
natural way. Our planet’s soil contributes ten times more
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than all of
With its limited number of imported items humankind’s activity; that’s 60 billion tons of
and its calculated non-use of manures because carbon dioxide per year, folks. This odorless gas
the gardeners were vegans [“…(no) animal is produced by the earthy lifestyle of the myriad
products or by-products, even egg shells, were of creatures that inhabit the soil—microbes, bugs,
included.”]—the fact that this market garden was worms, fungi, and algae—as they breathe, “pass
profitable is truly astonishing. gas,” and expire.

Tillage, according to Professor of Biology

No-Till Gardening in the Home Garden Tyler Volk of New York University, is a large
contributor to the surplus of carbon dioxide and

N ature builds soil from the top down with all

the decomposition of carbonaceous materials
such as fallen leaves and decaying grasses,
thus to global warming. When soil is stripped of
its living cover in order to grow crops, up to one-
fourth of its carbon is released, since the carbon
as well as various forms of feces. In addition, dioxide and most of the carbon in the surface
there’s a lot going on, root-wise, beneath the layer is seldom replaced. The warming of the bare
surface of the soil that helps it improve without soil in the sunlight also speeds up the activity and
cultivation: the activities of roots loosen the soil; death of soil microorganisms, thus increasing the
the roots of nitrogen-fixing plants add nitrogen; outgassing.
“compost” is created as roots rot at all levels to

G
create decomposed organic matter for the use of ardeners can, in Volk’s words, “compensate,
other plants and microbes; nutrients cycle from by adding compost, plant matter, and
root systems to the foliage of plants (and back to manure.” But, in reality, most of these sources
the earth again as leaf, stem, branch, and trunk are really just stored carbon borrowed from other
litter); roots develop tunnels for the movement of places. Most organic gardeners import large

68 Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening

quantities of organic matter and till it into their relatively the same position they occupy in nature.
garden plots or flowerbeds. This well-intentioned Soil is moved laterally in such a way that the
tillage, however, contributes, in a minute way, upper horizons of the soil stay relatively in the
to speeding up the release of carbon dioxide at a same zone as before the digging. The goal is the
time when the planet, is perhaps less capable of development of good soil structure through deep
reabsorbing the carbon. The rise of one degree (F) soil preparation. Double-digging is used until this
or more, already measured in this century may occurs. Afterwards two-inch surface cultivation
have resulted in part from an extra billion tons with a Hula Hoe is recommended.
of carbon dioxide pumped from the soil into the
atmosphere. Currently, the global carbon cycle (in The growing of compost crops to maximize
which the rapidly-diminishing rain forests play a precious biomass resources and add root material
big role) may be able to absorb that billion tons, to the soil, and the use of compost are also
but there’s no telling how long it can continue to important parts of the GB method.
do so. In your own tiny way, you can minimize
the loss of carbon dioxide from your garden, you
Most people, when cultivating, are likely to turn
may want to experiment with no-tillage methods.
the soil, placing the upper soil layers extra deep,
accelerating the release of carbon dioxide due to
So much of what is called organic or the death of soil life that is buried at a deeper level
environmentally-sound gardening is supposedly than where it prefers to live. In the purest form of
based on natural models. For the practice double-digging, there is no willy-nilly tossing and
of soil cultivation, the true natural model is, churning of the soil to two shovels’ depth.
believe it or not, a landslide. Horticulturist John
Jeavons maintains that, “Two thousand years
This method is done entirely within the soil,
ago, the Greeks noticed that plant life thrives in
resulting in raised beds (due to increased air space
landslides.” Jeavons is famous for promoting a in the soil and the incorporation of compost) with
method known as “Grow Biointensive®” (GB) a sloping sides. It does not in any way resemble the
type of raised-bed gardening introduced by the above-ground wooden bins filled with the same
English horticulturist Alan Chadwick who called soil mixture throughout that is sometimes referred
it “biodynamic/French intensive gardening.” to as a “raised bed.”

While the aerated soil heaped up at the bottom

of a slide may produce lusher crops [where Sheet Composting
the bigger particles are found lower in the

S
slide (alluvial fan) and the size of the particles heet composting offers an easy way to
graduates to smallest at the top—it is thought improve the garden’s soil without strenuous
that aeration and good drainage favor the growth digging. The technique is akin to Ruth Stout’s
on the lower portions of the slide], however, deep-mulching practices. Sheet composting
landslides just don’t happen conveniently in your has nothing to do with woven percale or thread
garden. counts, but refers to the use of thin layers of
compostable material laid out over the soil like a
The GB method is best known for its use of thick mulch. By layering high-carbon wastes with
“double digging,” a method of cultivation in nitrogenous plant refuse, you essentially construct
which, ideally, all the soil layers, i.e., the natural a thin, wide, two-dimensional compost pile. Use
strata of soil and microorganisms, are kept in a blend of dry brown leaves or woody stems

Surface Cultivation & No-Till Gardening 69

(chipped, chopped, or not); fresh grass clippings; • Add an inch-thick layer of blood meal or
green-manure crops such as buckwheat, vetch, several inches of fresh manure to the top
bell beans, and clover; wet kitchen garbage or
scraps (no meat scraps, as they’ll tend to attract (in this case, the exposed end grain) of the
hungry animals and/or smell badly); and green bales.
weeds from the garden before their seeds ripen.
• Add four or more inches of soil to cap
Experiment with a ratio of four parts green matter off the top of the bales. (All right, I know
to one to two parts dry dead matter. Water the this requires some digging. But, it’s only
dry materials as you’re layering. At each planting a one-time effort to start off a remarkable
location, make a large planting pocket in the process.)
native soil to receive the roots. NOTE: sheet
composting doesn’t generate enough heat to • Water all the layers again.
kill weed seeds, diseases, or pathogens, so after
planting, water everything again, then cover the • Plant potatoes with plenty of loose straw
area with five to ten sheets of newspaper, and the on top—six inches or more.
newspaper with a weed-free mulch; this should
take care of the nasties. The sheet composting • Keep the potatoes and bales moist.
slowly helps improve soils from the top down
while allowing the gardener to quickly dispose Et voilá! The bales will grow potatoes above the
of large quantities of compostable materials and ground where no gophers can get to them.
avoid unnatural tillage. The sheet-composted area
may require more irrigation during the first year After one season of planting and harvest, the bales
or two if perennials, shrubs, and trees are grown will have rotted down quite a bit. Plant them with
in the uncultivated soil. bush beans, fava beans, other types of beans, or
potatoes again.

After the second crop is finished, you may find

Hay-Bale Culture
that the soil is incredibly rich, as the moisture
beneath the bales has allowed gophers to till
G rowing annual vegetables on hay bales is
a way to rapidly add lots of compostable
organic matter to the soil’s surface in a short
the soil without eating the crop—at least for
the first year. The moisture also attracts worms
period of time. Here’s the recipe: in dry-summer areas, and promotes the growth
and health of many helpful microbes, bacteria,
• Place four or more bales of hay (which nitrogen-fixing algae, etc. After several years of
has lots of fresh, green nutrients) or straw straw-baling crops, you’ll be left with a loamy
(with more carbon than green nutrients) soil and can use any remaining straw to mulch
in a cluster. Place the bales on their sides, the next crop and add top-down nutrition. Then
with the end grain facing up, and leave the you may be able to use Ruth Stout’s methods to
strings or wire on them. maintain the soil for vegetable growing, or plant
perennials, shrubs, or trees and continue with deep
• Thoroughly soak the cluster of bales. mulching or sheet composting.

70
Mighty-Good Garden Mounds Make the soil cap at least four inches thick—the
thicker, the better. (Again a one-time use of

H eaping piles of garden “waste” will provide

a rich area in which to grow beautiful
ornamentals and/or vegetables. This mounding
digging.) I usually try to dig this soil from the
ground adjacent to the mound and to curve the
dug-out area like a small, serpentine stream bed,
approach is like building a very large, low-heat so that as I add soil to the top of the mound, the
compost pile where you plant directly into a safe, swale (drainage area) gets deeper at the same
neutral “cap” of topsoil. Mounds can also be time. This doubles the depth of the swale as
compared to big heaps of “sheet compost.” the mound is built, providing better drainage
during heavy rains. Using native soil gathered
Start with fresh chunky wood chips mixed with from around the garden will usually ensure good
green leaves and twigs from local tree-trimming drainage, a normal soil temperature, and good
services. The best wood chips come from initial growth. The combination of materials used
hardwoods (and avoid any shredded material that in the mound acts like a slow-heating compost
might easily resprout—willows, alders, or various pile. The root hairs of mound-planted specimens
vines). Also avoid plants with foliage that tends will follow right behind the warm decomposition
to stunt or kill the growth of other plants growing and won’t grow into areas in the core of the pile
nearby; examples include black walnut ((Juglans that are too hot due to hot composting activity.
nigra),
), sagebrush ((Artemisia californica), and The plants also get some additional benefit from
mesquite ((Prosopis glandulosa torreyana). the heat the mound generates, much like bottom-
heated greenhouse flats.
If you can’t get a fresh load of green chippings,
get mixed sizes of woody chips. Because the chips
are so high in carbon, layer or mix them with I use the mounds to plant perennials, herbs,
sub-shrubs like lavender, and other shrubs and
trees. If I plant in the fall (just as the rains begin
some manure. Put the chunkiest, largest-sized
pieces at the base of the mound to keep the bottom in my Mediterranean climate), the roots grow all
of the pile from settling too much. For all of the winter and no irrigation is needed in the summer
subsequent layers, use a blend of smaller chips from that point on. Be reminded that I live in a
(1/2” or longer), and materials like: fresh grass relatively cool, coastal environment. In hotter
clippings; green-manure crops such as buckwheat, summer areas with cold winters, spring planting
vetch, bell beans, and clover; wet kitchen garbage and some periodic irrigation may be required.
or scraps (no meat); and green weeds from the
garden. Experiment with a ratio of at least four Eventually, the whole mound settles to a lower
parts green matter to one part wood chips. The level, the chips fully decompose, the shrubs
more nitrogen (green material) you add, the faster root into the native soil, and you’re left with a
the mound will decompose and the greater the wonderful, curvilinear feature in the landscape.
nitrogen supply for the growing plants will be. Mounded plantings then just need a seasonal
Pile this mixture of high-carbon and nitrogen-rich weeding and perhaps an occasional application of
materials at least 1/3 higher than your projected newspaper layered with weed-free mulch.
final soil level. Depending upon the types of
materials used, the mound may settle as much as
30–50 percent.

71
CHAPTER 8 If the apple tree were more than metaphorical,
however, you can be sure that while Eve and
her hubby were sampling forbidden fruit and
Fruit Tree Roots getting in trouble with the Boss, its roots went
on serenely hunting for food, water, and healthy
aerobic soil.

The best book on the topic of fruit tree roots is

The Root System of Fruit Plants compiled by a

W hile Eve was picking that juicy apple, she

probably wasn’t thinking about tree roots.
Russian named V. A. Kolesnikov. (As with most
scientific papers, only initials are used for all

Figure #35: This is Kolesnikov’s view of the basic components of a typical fruit tree. Notice that there
is no true taproot. The root system is fibrous with horizontal and vertical roots. #1 = vertical roots,
2 = horizontal roots, 3 = root collar, 4 = trunk, 5 = stem, 6 = central leader, 7 = main branches and 8 =
laterals. Why this illustration doesn’t show a root zone significantly wider than the foliage is beyond my
comprehension.

All illustrations in this chapter used by permission of The University Press of the Pacific. From: The Root System of Fruit
Trees, V. A. Kolsnikov, the 2003 version of the original 1971 edition. (Unless another source is indicated.)

Fruit Tree Roots 73

Figure #36: 1 = the root cap, 2 = cell division Figure #37: The fibrous roots of an apple tree.
and cell elongation, 3 = absorption zone, 1 = growing or axial roots, 2 = absorbing or
4 = conducting zone. active roots, 3 = intermediate roots,
4 = conducting roots.

but the surname.) Kolesnikov’s scientific papers forced from a hose, or even more than simple
appeared from 1924 until 1968, indicating that washing of the roots. In his book, Kolesnikov
the USSR regime certainly valued his distinctive goes into excruciating detail about how to
research. excavate and document the entire root system
of a fruit tree. The process seems so tedious and

K olesnikov’s primary modus operandi for backbreaking that it’s a wonder anyone even tried
studying roots was one he called “The it. In spite of this, Kolesnikov mentions seven
Skeleton Method.” As with Professor Weaver’s other researchers who also used the Skeleton
studies, this method entailed precise excavation Method.
of the roots. In imitation of archaeological
techniques, shovels were used first, followed by Thanks to Kolesnikov’s work we have some
scoops, and eventually, brushes. This approach amazing drawings of how a fruit tree’s roots
preserved more fine root hairs during excavation really grow; not surprisingly, these look much
than the most common practice of using water

74 Fruit Tree Roots

like Weaver’s illustrations of native root systems process root shedding and notes that it happens
from Chapter 4. throughout the root system when parts of the
root mass die naturally and leave behind organic

K olesnikov begins his book by categorizing material for the soil’s flora and fauna to digest.
the main elements of a tree [See Figure #35], In that sense, the roots are developing their own
and spends some time explaining the importance form of humus.
of roots. He remarks, for example, that shoots of
a tobacco plant grafted onto the roots of a tomato
plant do not produce foul-smelling addictive
smoking material, but rather, normal-looking
W hile it was a scientist with the pleasant-
sounding name of Du Hamel du Monceau
who (in 1758) was the first to write about the
nicotine-free leaves. Conversely, grafting tomato “self-thinning” of roots (that is, the process of
cuttings (scions) onto the roots of a tobacco new absorbing rootlets forming after a small
plant produces tomato leaves with four percent root’s demise), it was Kolesnikov who did the
nicotine. In another example, albino sunflowers most extensive work on this subject. He found
were grafted to green sunflowers and produced that the death of absorbing roots equaled two
only green sunflowers. Both of these examples tons per two-and-one-half acres of a 25-year-
seem to indicate that the roots of a plant play a old spruce ((Picea spp.) forest. In many trees, he
role in the formation of chlorophyll and other discovered, the roots provide as much as two tons
substances in the leaves. of compostable material for every two-and-one-
half acres and are therefore responsible for the
increase of humus in all layers of the soil.
What Kolesnikov calls the absorbing or feeding
Cultivation increases the formation of laterals in
roots are those where the root hairs are found.
the upper soil horizon where the most feeding
[See Figures #36 and #37 to see the parts of
roots are found.
the feeding roots as drawn in his book.] The
absorbing roots are very active; at the peak of
a tree’s root growth they account for more than d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
90% of all its roots. Thus, Kolesnikov’s comment Roots find conditions the most cushy and
in the introduction of the book that, “at the end convenient near the surface of the soil
of the first year’s growth, an apple tree can and will do almost anything to live there.
incorporate 17,000,000 root hairs, with a total Since they can find their way through
length of 6,562 feet.” The root hairs can increase openings in hardpan or less fertile soil,
a tree root’s “feeding” area by two to ten times! there’s no real reason to try to break up a
hardpan if there is a reasonable amount
Kolesnikov proposes that growing roots are of soil above it. If the drainage is poor
responsible for the amounts of humus, microbes, and water is likely to flood the roots,
and worms that accumulate in the soil around and if there is some decent soil beneath
each tree. Other scientists have adopted the the hardpan, then breaking through will
theory that roots are opportunistic and follow probably be required. You might prefer
the holes left by burrowing worms to feed on the to plant your tree on a mound, so that the
humus. It’s indisputable that dying root hairs on crown of the root system doesn’t get root
the roots growing up into the duff provide lots rot. [See Chapter 15.] Remember that the
of compostable material. Kolesnikov calls this best place for water, fertilizer, compost,
and mulch is beyond the foliar drip line.

Fruit Tree Roots 75

 Figure #39: This shows how far a 45-year-old
apple tree’s roots spread beyond the dripline,
Figure #38: This apple tree’s roots ex- represented by the the arc in the upper left side
tend far beyond the circle representing of the illustration. (The scale is shown in square
the canopy of the tree and avoid the feet.)
compacted soil of the roadway. (Scale
is in meters.)

Some tree roots tend to avoid each other. In type of fruit tree maintains a slightly different
Figure #38 the circular lines represent the canopy ratio of root mass to canopy.
of the trees. Here we see that the apple tree’s root

T
system tends to grow away or head downwards he relationship of the width of a tree’s
as it approaches that of another apple tree. (A root-mass to the amount of moisture it
puzzling observation since apple trees seem to should receive is critical. As I’ve written in
thrive in orchards.) The roots also naturally avoid previous chapters, applying water near the
compacted soil as found on the nearby road. trunk is wasteful in any climate. In a climate
Figure #39 also shows the ratio of the root to the that routinely experiences short droughts of a
canopy for a 45-year-old apple tree. month or so up to six months (as in parts of the
Southwest), drip irrigation is the most efficient

K olesnikov’s conclusion is that fruit-tree roots

grow one-and-one-half to two and even three
times the width of the foliage above them. More
way to distribute water to an entire root system.

The climate, however, need not be arid for trees

amazingly, he states that this ratio is maintained to benefit from drip irrigation. In a study of
throughout the life of the tree, regardless of the established pecan trees in humid Georgia (USA),
rootstock, species, and soil (my emphasis added). trees with added drip irrigation showed a 51%
This is clearly seen in the apple trees depicted in increase in yields.
Figures #39 and #40. As Figure #41 shows, each

76 Fruit Tree Roots

Figure #40: The full root system of a ten-year-
old apple tree. (The scale is in one-foot squares.)

Paul Vossen, the University of California

Cooperative Extension tree-crops farm advisor Figure #41: All trees are not created equal.
for Sonoma County, simultaneously tested many This illustration, in one-meter squares,
shows how different root systems spread.
possible kinds of irrigation systems for fruit trees
(including drip irrigation). He has evaluated
the systems’ performances for both home and
commercial plantings, and demonstrated to both on ornamental trees when appropriate irrigation
home gardeners and farmers how various types of is used.)
hardware might work for them. The drip-irrigated
trees at the Germone Demonstration Orchard
showed some impressive results. Paul’s records In my orchard, I prefer frequent watering with
over six years show that, “With some of our small amounts of water, sort of like “topping off
peach trees, we’re getting 14 tons per acre in the the tank.” After the Northern California winter
third year, while local growers are only getting rains are over and the soil has reached an ideal
seven tons, and on three-year-old apple trees moisture level, not too wet and not too dry, my
we’re getting 20 tons per acre, while established, goal is to replace, as often as daily, exactly the
unirrigated, and mature apple orchards are only amount of moisture lost due to evaporation from
getting 13 tons per acre.” (These impressive the soil and transpiration from the plant’s leaves
increases in yields translate to an increase in (called the evapotranspiration rate, or ET), plus
abundant foliage and plentiful bloom produced an amount that represents enough extra water for

Fruit Tree Roots 77

gorgeous growth. Arboriculture (by Richard W. shrubs.) I’m a proponent of in-line drip
Harris, James R. Clark, and Nelca P. Matheny), tubing, in which the emitters are built
the preeminent text on growing and caring for inside the tubing at regular intervals—
trees, also recommends frequent irrigation: “In nothing to break off! [See Appendix #1
contrast to other systems, drip irrigation must be for more details.] With the regular and
frequent; waterings should occur daily or every appropriate placing of emitters, you can
two days during the main growing season… the irrigate an entire root zone some four to
amount of water applied should equal water lost 12 inches below the surface of the soil.
through evapotranspiration.” The dry spots on the soil surface are
deceptive, since the underground bulging
of the wet zone provides continuous
irrigation below ground [See Figure #43.]
As a tree grows, you can add lengths of
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
in-line tubing to keep the new roots happy.
Where should you water your fruit trees? Or, consider laying the in-line tubing over
Throughout the entire root zone! See the whole zone before you plant, as shown
Figure #42 for some ideas for laying out in Figure #44. Another option is laying
a drip line beneath and around trees and out the tubing around existing trees and

Figure #42: Several options for drip irrigations for your garden: parallel lines work for
closely-planted shrubs and for the vegetable garden. Circles of tubing can be placed be-
neath the dripline of each tree. The underground wet spot will spread beyond the dripline
of the tree’s foliage. (From: Drip Irrigation, For Every Landscape and All Climates.)

78 Fruit Tree Roots

Figure #43: While there are dry areas on the surface of the ground, the moist areas watered
by the drip emitter will merge together beneath the surface of the soil to irrigate the full root
zone. This only works if you use the right spacing, based upon your soil. Sandy soil requires
12-inch spacings and heavy clay might be 24-inch spacings.
(From: Drip Irrigation, For Every Landscape and All Climates.)

Figure #44: An example of rows of tubing placed prior to plant-

ing to irrigate the entire root zone of the prospective fruit trees and
shrubs. (From: Drip Irrigation, For Every Landscape and All Climates.)

Fruit Tree Roots 79

 Figure #45: This is Kolesnikov’s illustration of what fertilizer, manure in this case, can do to influ-
ence the yields of a ‘Golden Winter Parmen’ apple tree. The roots are not much wider than the drip-
line on the manured side of the tree. This is perhaps because placing the manure under the foliage
concentrates the roots at the source of the fertility. The best place for irrigation is at the dripline in
this example.

shrubbery, as shown in Figure #42. Figure day is measured by its evapotranspiration

#45 shows how important it can be to rate, or ET. The chart in Figure #46 shows
irrigate and fertilize. how to translate inches per month into
gallons per day (GPD). Call your local
How much water should you use? As Cooperative Extension to get the average
mentioned above, the loss of water each ET rate for each month in which irrigation

80 Fruit Tree Roots

Figure #46: This evapotranspiration (ET) chart will help you calculate how much water to apply
as determined by your local climate. An ET of 10 inches is something like that of Palm Springs in
the summer. To be accurate, contact your local Cooperative Extension agent for the ET rate for the
seasonal or monthly average. If they don’t know what you’re asking for, fire them.
(From: Drip Irrigation, For Every Landscape and All Climates.)

is needed. Use the chart to figure out to run the system about one-half hour per
how many GPD are need to replenish the day. (100 sq. ft. = 12.5 gallons divided
water lost via evapotranspiration. You by 25 one-gallon-per-hour emitters = one
can replace this on a daily basis or at a half-hour.) or about three-and-one-half
weekly interval—just multiple the daily hours per week.
amount by seven. Knowing how many
emitters you have in a planting zone will
allow you to do the math to tell how long
to leave a drip system on. For example: if
you have 100 square feet of planting and
25 one-gallon-per hour emitters and the
ET rate is six inches per month, you need

Fruit Tree Roots 81

CHAPTER 9 away from the tree would I have to trace them
before they would dwindle to spindly rootlets?

Native & Ornamental While it didn’t do much for my love life, this
Trees stormy episode renewed my curiosity about
root-growth patterns. So, back I went (once the
road was clear) to the University of California
Agricultural Libraries at Berkeley and Davis, for
more research on the subject.

O n February 14, 1986, I was forced to stand

up my Valentine’s Day date, having been
effectively trapped on my property by trees
Root Types

As described before, many of the trees we grow

blown over by 90-mile-per-hour winds. More in our yards (and most fruit trees) have roots that
than a dozen three-foot-diameter Douglas fir trees are fibrous in the sense that after their taproot—if
((Pseudotsuga menziesii) lay across the road that it had one—fades away, the rest of the roots
separated me from my loved one. While this was originate from a small area at the base of the
both socially and environmentally unfortunate, I trunk, sometimes called the crown of the root
did learn a lot, watching in horrified fascination system. Many trees grow major horizontal roots
as the winds slowly rocked these stately and called laterals (not to be confused with the very
enormous trees to the ground. My first revelation, small lateral roots that comprise the root hairs)
on venturing out after the storm, was that, in most of which will be found within the top one
spite of my assumption that Douglas firs grew to three feet of the soil. Numerous vertical roots,
a taproot, the roots revealed on these toppled called sinkers, will descend anywhere along the
trees were relatively shallow and wide. To my length of the laterals. Some roots also grow more
amazement, most of the 50- to 100-foot-long at an oblique angle than a vertical one; it’s these
trees lying around in the carnage had generated roots that can extend to reach further than the
their roots only in the upper two feet of the soil. perimeter of the dripline.
Moreover, in the area of their root mass where
one would expect a taproot, I could find only a What allows a native tree to stand up to
clump of large roots splayed out like some kind formidable winds is the width of the laterals and
of flattened brown octopus. the anchorage of its root system. This may be
composed of several factors: deep penetration
The pattern of the Douglas firs’ secondary roots, (up to three to four feet), coupled with the roots
the laterals, was equally fascinating. How, I asked “holding onto” rocks by growing tightly around
myself, did these trees stand up in such a shallow them; an extensive surface root system; root
soil above a barrier of clay and stone? Part of grafting (where roots cross and are fused together
the story was revealed in the mass of roots that as their diameters expand); and the sheer strength
popped out of the ground as the trees fell. As of the oblique and vertical sinker roots that can
much as eight to ten feet away from the trunk, ramify so much soil that the weight of the soil
some of the torn and shattered roots were a husky with roots below ground can be six to sixteen
two to six inches in diameter. How much further times the weight of the tree aboveground. Some

Native & Ornamental Trees 83

say this root mass can equal eight to twelve times don’t make much headway through it, perhaps
the total weight of the tree. If you don’t believe only one-half the width of the dripline. In
the power of a sinker root, find a tree that has Figure #48, you’ll notice that the canopy of
blown over and try to pull even a one- to two- this walnut tree measures about ten to fiteen
inch sinker root out of the ground. It will put up a feet in diameter, yet its primarily shallow roots
surprising fight. (most of its lateral roots grow in the top one to
two feet of the soil) extended for fifty-one feet
before the researchers finally gave up—and the
The Root of the Matter root still measured one-half inch in diameter.
(Those fainthearts obviously never met Professor

I soon discovered that in a good soil, a tree’s

roots will often grow to occupy an underground
area wider than its dripline. If led by available
Weaver!)

Some more examples include:

moisture and nutrition, a tree may tunnel its roots
through soil space ranging from an area one-half ü Poplar ((Populus generosa) can ramify
wider than the dripline to as much as three times 77% of its roots beyond the dripline.
further. In special cases, tree roots may ramify
much more than anyone would imagine [See ü Another study found that 35% of poplar
Figure #47.] If you add a subsoil barrier such as trees grew roots greater than two times the
rock, bedrock, or caliche (hardpan), a tree’s roots distance from the trunk to the edge of the
will wander even further beyond the canopy area foliage.
in search of food. A deep sandy soil offers little
resistance to growing roots and allows for root ü Colorado blue spruce ((Picea pungens
exploration of three or more times the width of ‘Glauca’) grow 60% of their feeding roots
the tree. And, like a gardener struggling to dig beyond the dripline.
heavy clay soil, roots don’t like clay either and

Figure #47: Trees’ roots commonly grow one-half wider than the dripline (canopy), and
occasionally to as much as three to five times further.

84 Native & Ornamental Trees

 Figure #48: Because this walnut grew above a hardpan some three to six feet deep,
there is no clear taproot. As with most trees, the majority of the roots are in the upper
eighteen inches of the soil.

ü White green ash ((Fraxinus pennsylvanica) deciduous trees. I’m always being reminded that
grew roots which were 1.68 times the nature doesn’t always follow the “rules” or read
radius of the dripline. my books.

ü In one study, the glorious magnolia

(Magnolia grandiflora), had grown roots
3.77 times wider than the dripline.

ü Sugar maples ((Acer saccharum) produced

roots that have been found spreading
underground 30 feet beyond branch tips.

ü The roots of honey locusts (Gleditsia

triacanthos) can reach nearly three times
beyond the dripline of the foliage.

A nother approach to root study is to figure

the ratio of the height of a tree relative
to its extent of rooting. Figure #49 shows that
young trees grow a proportionally wider spread
(1.4 times the height) as compared to older and
mature trees with roots only 40% wider than
the height of the tree. This study ((Natural Root
Forms of Western Conifers, by S. Eis, in the
1978 proceedings of the Root Form of Planted Figure #49: This is a formal chart based on
Trees Symposium) was done with Douglas fir the height and age of the tree shown. As the
tree gets older, the proportion of root width
trees ((Pseudotsuga menziesii), which grow in a to height gets narrower.
taller, more pyramidal shape than oaks or other

Native & Ornamental Trees 85

T he point about my presenting these root
drawings of trees is that the water, fertilizer,
and mulch you apply should extend at least out
smaller. The base area, say up to several feet,
depending on the age of the tree, can be kept
clean of weeds with a bit of surface cultivation,
to the dripline of a tree, bush, shrub, etc.—and mulch, or hand weeding.
preferably further. A doughnut-shaped area of
moisture and amendments created beyond the As mentioned several times in this book, growing
dripline will conserve mulch, fertilizer and labor, trees from seed provides them with the healthiest
as well as encouraging the roots to grow away root system. The roots will find their natural place
from the trunk. This lateral growth, combined in the soil. Patience furthers!
with “sinker” (vertical and oblique) roots, helps
protect the tree from toppling by wind. In fact, Another item to consider is the use of herbicides
with established trees there is absolutely no need and soil-injected insecticides. With roots growing
for water, fertilizer or mulch at the base of the so far from the tree’s foliage, it’s possible that the
tree. (In a British study done using radioactive use of soil-altering substances in your own yard
isotopes, the roots four-and one-half feet away could accidentally harm or otherwise affect trees
from the trunk of a ten-year-old apple tree belonging to the folks next door.
absorbed slightly less than 10% of the water and
nutrients absorbed by the entire root system.)
With younger trees, the absorbing zone will be
Some More Root Factoids:
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
This section of the book contains perhaps
some of the most important information I nterestingly, some trees, such as many
Californian and western oak trees, begin
growing with a taproot, which then naturally
for readers, since it illustrates that most
gardeners put their water, compost, mulch atrophies. When the young seedling of a blue
and fertilizers in all the wrong places. oak is a mere three inches high, the taproot may
Many other plants grow in the root-to- already extend forty inches into the soil. After
canopy ratios detailed above, yet many a number of years, the taproot withers, to be
gardeners apply most of their fertilizer replaced by heart roots (which angle down from
and mulch right around the base or trunk the base of the tree) and many laterals, with
of their trees, shrubs, or even herbaceous sinker roots. In spruce ((Picea spp.), hemlock
plants. (Mulch at the base of a tree in a (Tsuga spp.), and cedar (Cedrus spp.) trees, in
lawn is helpful in preventing “mower less than eight years, the lateral and oblique roots
burn,” which is a result of skimming the take over the role of support and the taproot
ground too close to the upper roots at the declines. After the taproot atrophies, the new root
root crown, but mulch that is piled high system grows more horizontal and oblique roots
around a trunk may encourage root rot or and resembles a fibrous root system.
crown rot.) At least some commercial
fertilizers, such as Ross Fertilizer Stakes®,
recommend placing their product at the
dripline of a tree—further would be better.
W hile one rule of limb has been that a
tree’s roots are one-and-one-half to three
times wider than the foliage, other investigators
(Even after all these years, I have to estimate an irregular root pattern four to seven
remind myself to pee at or beyond a tree’s times the crown area; and, still other researchers
dripline, rather than at its trunk—unless I maintain that the root extension can be four to
need the tree to hide behind!) eight times wider than the dripline of the tree, but

86 Native & Ornamental Trees

only under certain conditions. Seedling Trees

Whatever the details, the point is that roots travel

much farther beyond the dripline than most
M uch of the research on growing native
trees has been done by timber companies
trying to figure out how to replace clear-cut areas
gardeners expect.
with trees that will grow quickly, with straight
trunks and resistance to wind and snow loads. For
A study of Sitka spruce tree roots ((Picea example, a study by Annie Plourde, at Cornelia
sitchensis) growing on a layer of two types of Krause Université du Québec à Chicoutimi,
peaty soils in England produced a number of Département des Sciences Fondamentales, states:
interesting conclusions: “…It has been shown that the current methods of
seedling production and planting cause significant
ü Lateral root spread increased with deeper deformations of root systems of Jack pine, such
soil when going from waterlogged soil to as winding of the roots, poor distribution, no
drier soil. taproot and shallow rooting, and these defects
may affect more than 90% of planted Jack pine.
ü The spruces’ root depth was between 12 In contrast, these types of deformation and the
to 18 inches. The mean depth of the roots development of poor root systems are not known
was 16.5 inches. [in the case of] naturally regenerated [from seed]
Jack pines.” See Figure #50 for the comparison of
ü The rooting depth decreased as the young saplings.
diameter of the root “plate” (their term
for what I referred to as a flattened brown
octopus) increased.

ü Roots did not grow more or larger on the

side of the tree receiving the most wind.

ü The trees in shallow soils showed root

grafting that linked two or more trees
together. This is a little-understood
phenomenon. Some studies show that
little or no transfer of nutrients occurs
between the trees, while others show a
small migration of nutrients between
trees. Most studies suggest that the roots
happened to grow over each other and
fused as they grew in diameter. The one
common observation is that a single tree
in a grove of trees connected by root
grafts is less likely to blow over. Figure #50: Unlike
the other two seedlings
shown, the upper seed-
ling was planted without
the use of a reforestation
tool.

Native & Ornamental Trees 87

 desert trees, shrubs, and perennials grow taproots
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
for survival. Other examples of taprooted trees
Big surprise: trees don’t naturally grow include many oaks (Quercus spp., especially
in pots in the woods. If planted as seeds, Eastern U.S. oaks), redbud (Cercis spp.),
they will naturally create a healthy wide- Douglas fir ((Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir
ranging root system without anybody’s ((Abies grandis), and incense cedar ((Libocedrus
help. As gardeners, we tend to want it decurrens).
all—now. Sadly, the size of a plant in a
container—rather than the condition of its A great deal of research has centered on designing
root system—is often the reason it gets containers that air-prune the roots of tree stock.
purchased by people who are uninformed Again, most of this research has been done by the
about how trees actually develop. Large forestry industry, because many of the seedlings
container plants offered commercially valued for reforestation and lumber “plantations”
in ordinary plastic pots for transplanting are varieties that primarily grow taproots, rather
into a yard or garden will frequently have than fibrous root systems. The industry’s goal
developed overgrown roots in an attempt
has been to stimulate a fibrous root system
to support the abundant visible growth.
(which is contrary to the plants’ nature), in order
With larger plants, this usually means
to lessen transplant death. To reduce the effort
that the cramped root system is “pot-
of transplanting in wild and rough terrain, the
bound”—the roots have circled dizzily
forestry industry is interested in making seedling
inside the container in search of space and
containers as small and as lightweight as possible.
nourishment and have tangled themselves
Following these guidelines, they have developed
into a near-solid mass. Avoid these plants
a variety of tube-shaped containers—generally
like the plague. Demand that your nursery
long, narrow, lightweight, and with one or more
acquire plants with a young, healthy root
air-pruning holes (referred to in industry jargon
system.
as “root egress openings”) in the bottom. [See
Figure #51.]
Goin’ Tubular
The best way to reduce circling and stimulate
fibrous-root growth in a tree is to prune its roots,
W hen you buy any normally taproot-growing
plant that is potted or in any another
commercial plant-buying option, you’ve basically
and an effective way to do this without pulling
the tree out of its container is “air pruning.” Once
a new root-tip hits the air at the bottom of the
kissed the taproot goodbye. Patience favors those
tube, it dries up and dies, and this stimulates side-
that want the most fully-rooted plants (whether
shoots further up on the root. In pursuit of the
for a long-term windbreak or as a present to the
perfect small lightweight container that will air-
great-grandchildren), because seed-grown trees
prune nursery tree stock, researchers have
are the only plants that will produce a healthy,
developed a variety of tube-like shapes. The
unhindered root system. Once seed-grown
criteria for a good tube container include: easy
babies start taking off, they can actually outgrow
removal of the seedling; solid walls so roots don’t
trees transplanted from containers. Examples of
grow from one container to another; ribbed sides
taprooted trees include most nut trees, such as
to prevent circling and to direct roots downward;
walnut, pecan, hickory, and butternut. (Neither
sufficient soil volume to support healthy tree-root
almond trees, which belong to the stone-fruit
growth; and an opening at the bottom to air-prune
family, nor hazelnut trees grow a taproot.) Many

88 Native & Ornamental Trees

taproots. Richard Tinus and Stephen McDonald,
in their paper How to Grow Tree Seedlings in
Containers in Greenhouses, recommend that the
ratio of a tube’s depth to its diameter be as much
as ten to one. Other researchers recommend that
tube containers should be no more than six inches
deep.

A tube-grown tree is usually quite short when

you buy it—an advantage, not a handicap. I have
been very enthusiastic about tube-grown trees
and shrubs since the mid-1980s, especially after
experiences like the following; back then, some
clients of mine showed me several very root-
bound Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa)
trees, which they had originally purchased in
15-gallon cans. (“Only $95; what a great deal!
And they’re over six feet tall!”) These trees-in-
bondage had been held for another several years
in the cans and then planted (not by me!) on the
most sheltered side of the house. Nevertheless, Figure #51: A simple device, but it really helps
winds were soon toppling the 15-gallon produce more lateral rootlets for less
“bargains.” Even posts, ropes, and cables couldn’t transplant shock. This is one of many shapes.
keep the trees upright, so my clients cut the tops
out at six to seven feet, leaving some truly ugly (The availability of tube-grown stock is still a
trees that provided neither shelter nor privacy. problem—see “Searching for Sources of Tube-
Grown Plants” in Appendix #3. Also ask your

A long the windiest side of the house (up local Farm Advisor or Department of Forestry
to 90–mph blasts in the worst winters), about tree seedlings grown for revegetation
I planted a rambling hedgerow of temporary projects.)
“nurse” plants, using a shrub called myoporum
(Myoporum laetum). [I wanted to plant tube-
grown Monterey cypress seedlings, but none were
obtainable.] Instead, I obtained some smallish
I n summary, according to Richard Harris,
professor of Environmental Horticulture at
the University of California at Davis, “…The
cypress plants (eight to twelve inches tall) in one- smaller the plant when transplanted into the
gallon cans. These were planted in and around landscape, the better will be its relationship to the
the myoporums so the wind was buffered and environment.”
no staking was required. In my experience, trees
staked at transplanting can run the risk of not
outgrowing the stake. Within four years these Roots, Grow Up!
unstaked seedlings had reached eight–ten feet

S
—taller than the $95 “specials.” I’m convinced urprisingly, many of a tree’s feeding roots
that four eight-inch-tall tube-grown trees, at one- grow up, not down. In a paper published in
fourth of the cost, would have done even better. The Landscape Below Ground, Professor Thomas

Native & Ornamental Trees 89

O. Perry states, “Most of a tree’s feeder roots This is also the favorite soil zone for any plant in
range in diameter [from that] of a lead pencil a humid climate with periodic rains. [Information
to the size of a hair. These smaller roots…grow on the effects of drought on trees comes a bit
upward into the surface inches of soil and the later.] Take away that top two inches by planting
litter [duff] layer” They’re looking for moisture it to lawn, raking the duff up for “a cleaner look”,
and nutrients. or allowing so much foot traffic that the roots are
exposed, and you have a horticultural disaster in
The significance of the importance of the most the making.
aerobic layers of the soil and duff can be seen
in a simple study using potted tree seedlings. In
Figure #52, you can see the dramatic difference in
growth between roots ramifying three soil depths.
A bout 90% of the total fine-root biomass of
Pacific Northwest forest trees may grow
in the upper one-and-one-half feet of the soil.
Whether you’re talking native or ornamental, the Figure #3, in the chapter on Humus & Mulch,
top two inches of soil are vital to a tree’s health. reveals how and why those top few inches are so

Figure #52: I think this is the most revealing illustration in this book as it shows how influential the
shallow zones of soil are to the feeding roots of a young tree. The seedlings in the pot on the left are
growing in soil gathered from the top two inches of forest soil in a specific growing area. The middle pot
contains soil gathered from a zone two to four inches deep in the same patch of ground. The seedlings
on the right are growing in subsoil gathered from beneath the topsoil. The pot on the left outperformed
all other seedlings by more than 50%.

90 Native & Ornamental Trees

 Figure #53: Alfalfa can grow roots to dozens of feet deep. Yet, like the taller
peach tree, shown here, most of the water absorbed comes from the top foot of
soil. With water, nutrients follow.

important. The aerobic-loving soil life needs to to do such research with noneconomic or merely
breathe. The deeper you go, the less aerobic you ornamental trees. I am making an unsubstantiated
get, and the number of beneficial soil flora will assumption that ornamental trees will have
rapidly diminish. similar absorption patterns as fruit trees because
they are planted in about the same way, which
means that the taproot is usually destroyed in the
S tudies done with agricultural plants provide
a lot of useful information. Alfalfa and peach
trees get most of their moisture (along with
process.

nutrients) from the top one to two feet of the soil. In some special cases, roots will grow back
[See Figure #53.] Figure #54 details the depth at up from rather deep placement in the soil to
which various plants and trees “gather” most of range within two inches of the surface. Figure
their water. Figure #55 shows the nutrient levels #56 shows a small 30-year-old mesquite tree
of absorption for a black walnut tree, two alfalfa ((Prosopis glandulosa), 25 inches tall and 35
plants, and Taiwan hardwoods. inches wide, growing in southern New Mexico,
its roots penetrating more than 18 feet into the
Figures #53, #54, and #55 are of economic soil. The researchers concluded that, along
crops—fruit trees, alfalfa, cotton, and corn. I have with generating deep roots to gather moisture
been unable to find similar data for the depth at from heavy rains seeping far underground,
which native trees absorb moisture, except for the mesquite roots “grow…upward, to utilize minor
30-year-old mesquite tree example in Figure #56. precipitation events that only wet the soil to a
[See page 93.] There seems to be little incentive depth of a few centimeters (about three-quarters

Native & Ornamental Trees 91

 Figure #54: The height of a plant does not represent the depth of the root system. (The
relative width of the root system isn’t shown in this illustration.) Again, the top one to
two feet of the soil is where most of the moisture is absorbed.

of an inch).” Basically, roots can adapt to just how widely and laterally the roots of trees
about any environment. growing in shallow soils must range in order to
gather sufficient moisture and nutrients.
Need more info? More proof? Take a look at
Figure #57 [See page 94]. A young spruce tree in
northern Finland maintains just over 64 percent
of its feeding roots in the rotting duff, not even in
the soil. What the tree wants, the roots go after.

B ut, trees still need “dirt.” In his writings,

Professor Thomas Perry makes it clear that
trees on soils as little as five inches thick produce
only poor tree and shrub growth, You can get fair
growth with a ten-inch depth, good growth at 16
inches, and excellent growth with 20–30 inches
of topsoil. (Remarkably, according to Perry, tree
vigor is likely to gradually decrease with soil
deeper than 30 inches.) One can then imagine

92 Native & Ornamental Trees

Figure #55: Here are the nutrient levels of absorption for a black walnut tree, two alfalfa plants, and Taiwan

Figure #56: This mesquite has

shallow roots to gather moisture
from shallow soils after flash floods.
The deep roots gather moisture that
has had a chance to sink in after a
gradual rainfall.
hardwoods.

Native & Ornamental Trees 93

 Figure #57: This amazing illustration shows how roots can grow
up to feed in the duff in order to absorb nutrients that are as
“fresh”as possible.

94 Native & Ornamental Trees

d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
Here we go again: mulch, mulch, mulch.
Replicate the duff that forms in a natural For scientific references, see: Zimmerman, M. H.,
forest. Establish as many permanent and C. L. Brown. Trees, Structure and Function,
pathways as possible. Try to let the New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971; Perry T. O., The
pathways “breathe”—allow the air to Ecology of Tree Roots and the Practical Significance
Thereof, J. Arboriculture 8 (1982):197-211; Sillick,
Thereof
flow into the roots and the carbon dioxide J. M., and W. R. Jacobi Healthy Roots and Healthy
to be expelled. You can use chipped Trees, Fort Collins, CO: The Cooperative Extension
bark, chipped tree trimmings, gravel, or Resource Center, Colorado State University, 2003;
whatever local material suits you. There Wray, Paul, and Amy Kuehl, Tree Growth, F-
are paver blocks available in open cut- 308/ Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension.
out hole patterns; these can carry nearly revised 1999; and Kopinga, J. Research of Street
Planting Practice in the Netherlands. Proceedings
as much weight on top as a solid paver of the Fifth Conference of the Metropolitan
but look more attractive, as they add Tree Improvement Alliance. Pennsylvania
interesting texture, and grasses or ground State University, University Park, PA: 1985.
covers can be planted to grow through
the holes. Such pathways are great for
wheelbarrows, working boots, and dress
shoes with sensible heels (no spikes,
please, unless the walker is willing to ruin
a pair of high heels to help you aerate the
soil).

95
CHAPTER 10 cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
etc.)

The Good Fungus All mycorrhizal associations are beneficial and

are characterized by the movement of plant-
Among Us produced carbon to the fungi and fungal-acquired
nutrients to the plant. Rather than a parasitic
relationship, it is a mutualism in which both
life-forms benefit. In general, most plants are
dependent upon this union, as it is estimated that
about 80% of all plant species in the world are
mycorrhizal symbionts.
A ccording to experts on the subject, the
intriguing life-forms known as fungi
comprise about 52% to 55% of a forest’s biomass.
In general, mycorrhizal plants are well-fitted to
endure environmental stress. Nutrient-poor or
Since a whopping 95% of all green plants depend
moisture-deficient soils show improved capacity
on at least one fungal relationship in order to
for supporting plant growth and reproduction
survive, it’s appropriate here to discuss the
when mycorrhizal fungi are present. As if to
magical relationship of beneficial fungi with the
return the favor, the plant allows the mycorrhizal
roots of trees as well as with a range of annual,
fungi to extract sugars, starches, proteins, and
herbaceous, and woody plants. This relationship
lipids from its lateral roots. (We’ll go into more
is known as mycorrhiza, or fungus root, from the
detail a few paragraphs down.) Mycorrhizal fungi
Greek: mykes [mushroom] and rhiza [root]. The
may also improve water absorption, increase
plural is mycorrhizae.
drought resistance, and exude substances that
reduce infections caused by some soil pathogens.
Fungi, in general, form masses of tiny
filaments known as mycelia, which frequently
interact with plant roots. There are two major
kinds of mycorrhizae: ectomycorrhiza and
P hosphorus is the most common nutrient
transferred via VAM association into the
root system of a plant, especially if it is growing
endomycorrhiza. In ectomycorrhiza (usually
in soil that is low in this essential nutrient. All
abbreviated as “EM”), these filaments remain
trees need phosphorus but are not always able to
outside of the plant, living on the cells of the
absorb soluble phosphorus efficiently; they are
root hairs. With endomycorrhiza, these filaments
thus dependent upon the mycorrhizal relationship.
actually live between and inside of the cells of
The mycorrhizal fungi produce phosphatase
the feeding roots. There are numerous kinds
enzymes that breakdown phosphorus compounds.
of tongue-twisting endomycorrhizae: arbutoid,
(The absorption of micronutrients such as zinc
monotropoid, ericoid, orchidioid, and vesicular-
and copper is also improved by mycorrhizal
arbuscular or arbuscular mycorrhiza, all of
association.) The extensive mass of a fungal
which interact with plants in different ways. The
mycelium produces a huge surface area that
most important and widely distributed type of
allows the fungi to “mine” a much greater amount
mycorrhiza is the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza
of soil and duff than the root hairs of the tree are
or arbuscular mycorrhiza (abbreviated as “VAM”
capable of exploiting on their own.
or “AM”.) (Some plants utilize neither EM nor
VAM; examples of plants with no mycorrhizal
association include all the species of brassicas— As an example, the mycorrhizae can increase
the absorbing surface area of pine seedlings

The Good Fungus Among Us 97

Figure #58: An illustration of both vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) and ectomycorrhizae (EM)
and how each differs from the other with respect to “colonizing” tree and shrub roots. The VAM fungi
penetrates the root’s cell walls, while the EM sends its mycelium in-between root cells. An “infection,”
albeit a beneficial one, then produces a colony of mycorrhizae to bring nutrients into the tree’s roots.

98 The Good Fungus Among Us

by 80%. Some horticulturists maintain that the absorption by maize and wheat roots but did
absorption surface area of a tree can be increased not reduce phosphorus absorption by two
by 700-1000% by mycorrhizal fungi. Fortunately, nonmycorrhizal crops, spinach and canola.
there are plenty of these helpful organisms to The authors concluded that under nutrient-
go around. One scientist in Europe documented limited conditions, the ability of seedlings with
101 species of mycorrhiza fungi associated with mycorrhizal association to release phosphorus
a single tree species—Norway spruce ((Picea may be very helpful for crop establishment.”
abies)—and 117 mycorrhizal species associated
with Scotch Pine ((Pinus sylvestris). As mentioned earlier, nitrogen is also transferred
from the soil to the plant via the mycorrhizal

A s mentioned above, the tree provides life-

supporting sugars, starches, proteins, and
lipids to the mycorrhizal fungi from its lateral
association. Both VAM and EM help in the
breakdown of nitrogen into a soluble form plants
can absorb, especially in locations where plant
roots. According to David Sylvia at Pennsylvania litter is rich in lignin (the cells that make trees
State University, “As much as 20% of the total woody and sturdy) and tannins (astringent plant
carbon assimilated by plants may be transferred products). Only a few mycorrhizal fungi can
to the fungal partner.” This transfer of carbon mobilize nutrients from these primary sources.
to the fungus has sometimes been considered a However, VAM and EM fungi can obtain nitrogen
drain on the host, a plus for the mycorrhizal fungi and other nutrients from sources of organic matter
and a small minus for the tree. However, the such as the biomass left in the soil from dead
host plant may increase photosynthetic activity microbes and decayed roots, thus mycorrhizae
following mycorrhizal colonization, thereby may play an important role in nitrogen cycling in
compensating eventually for carbon “lost” to the acidic and highly organic soils.
soil. In the long term, a mutualistic mycorrhizal
relationship is a winner for both the tree and the On the astonishing side, according to Plant
fungi. (A parasitic situation would exist if the tree Roots: The Hidden Half, by Yoav Waisel: “It is
received less benefit from the association than the generally believed that…a large number of plant
fungi or vice-versa). Occasionally, plant growth species are interconnected…by a relatively small
suppression has been attributed to mycorrhizal number of fungal species.” So, the forest really is
colonization, but usually this occurs only under all one living entity. This is the web of life at its
low-light or high-phosphorus conditions.” In a best.
study done with the sweet gum tree ((Liquidambar
styraciflua), Sylvia states the VAM fungi “might
be used to alleviate” the problems of compacted
soil.
Y ou can spot this wonderful interdependence
with your own eyes; many ectomycorrhizal
fungi produce fruit bodies near trees when the
temperature and moisture conditions are suitable.
Here’s my favorite example. David Sylvia Thousands of plant species have a relationship
refers to M. H. Miller and coworkers from with EM fungi, as they tend to be specific to
the University of Guelph, Canada, “[they] certain plants. VAM fungi are generalists, and
documented an interesting case in which the species with which they interact number only
disturbance of an arable, no-till soil resulted in in the hundreds (perhaps as few as 150 separate
reduced VAM development and subsequently fungi), but they form associations with more
less absorption of phosphorus by seedlings of plants and trees since they are not specific to one
maize in the field. Disturbance reduced both host.
mycorrhizal colonization and phosphorus

The Good Fungus Among Us 99

The fungi that form ectomycorrhizae are many
common forest mushrooms. Well-known fungal
d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
genera are: Amanita, Boletus, Cantharellus, Mycorrhizal inoculation with commercial
Cortinarius, Hebeloma, Laccaria, Lactarius, products are not always necessary.
Pisolithus, Ramaria, Rhizopogon, Russula, We can assume that most garden soils
Scleroderma, Suillus, and Tricholoma. Ask your have mycorrhizal fungi in them since
local Mushroom Society to help you identify most plant species are mycorrhizal
these mushrooms. hosts. However, the use of fertilizers,
herbicides, and fungicides could diminish

H ere’s an example as to how remarkably fungi the mycorrhizal fungal populations.

can influence plant growth, from an article
by David Sylvia in Mycorrhiza Information If your property was bulldozed down to
Exchange: “In 1955, soil from under pine stands poor soil, if you’re bringing in a lot of
in North Carolina was transported to Puerto Rico, topsoil, if you’ve bought sterilized potting
where it was incorporated as inoculum into soil soil in a bag, if you live on a beach, if
around one-year-old “scrawny” pine seedlings. you have fertilizer or pH problems, soils
Thirty-two seedlings were inoculated, and an low in organic matter, or are trying to
equal number were monitored as noninoculated plant in any highly disturbed site, then
control plants. Within one year, inoculated plants inoculating the soil with mycorrhizal
had abundant mycorrhizal colonization and had fungi is important. Acidic soils low in
achieved heights of up to 1.5 m, while most of the phosphorus and zinc—and sometimes
noninoculated plants had died. Further trials with nitrogen, copper, potassium, and sulfur—
mixtures of surface soil containing mycorrhizal often support good levels of mycorrhizae.
fungi and with pure inocula, consisting of fungi However, well-fertilized soil does not
growing in a peat-based medium, confirmed support prolific mycorrhizal activity as
that inoculated seedlings were consistently more the plants are getting enough fertility on
vigorous and larger than nonmycorrhizal ones. their own.
Subsequent surveys more than 15 years after
inoculation indicated that the inoculated fungi Some garden suppliers now offer
continued to grow and [make spores] in the pine beneficial microbial and fungal inoculants
plantations.” to “boost” the soil’s fertility, to be added
routinely as one would any fertilizer. I
called soil scientist Dr. Phillip J. Craul,
Senior Lecturer at the Graduate School
of Design at Harvard University, with the
question, “What do the new packaged
microbial and fungal products offer
gardeners?” His immediate response:
“I’m going to be frank; most of the
time the home gardener doesn’t need to
fuss with [inoculants]. Such products
are only helpful in special cases where
you’re working with sterile material; …
most of the biological analyses show
enough organisms are usually present…to

100 The Good Fungus Among Us

repopulate the soil—even in urban areas.”
Furthermore, the inoculant you add
probably wouldn’t survive, as the soil’s
vast complex of biota tends to defend Trees such as alders (Alnus spp.), willows (Salix spp.),
its own territory from “invading” poplars (Populus spp.),
spp. and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
microorganisms. According to Martin spp. can have both VAM and EM associations on
Alexander in Introduction to Soil the same tree, while other trees, such as redwoods
(Sequoia spp.) have a mostly VAM association.
Microbiology: “Microorganisms
inoculated into non-sterile soil lead to
poor growth, and often the seeded species
is eliminated in a period of days or weeks
[due to] a rivalry for limited nutrients; the
release by one species of products is toxic
to its neighbor, and [results in] direct
feeding of one organism upon a second.”

If you want to inoculate seedlings

before planting them in containers with
a sterile soil mix, you might try one
of the inoculants on the market such
as “Power Organics Mycorrhizal Root
Booster” from Fungi Perfecti® LLC, at
www.fungi.com/mycogrow/ or order
“Mycorrhizal Root Inoculant” from
www.harmonyfarm.com. [Available as
of 2007 when this book was written.] A
Google™ search will reveal many other
suppliers. Try the key words: mycorrhizae
inoculants, mycorrhizal fungi inoculants,
and commercial mycorrhizal fungi.

The Good Fungus Among Us 101

CHAPTER 11 stopped, since water was then readily available to
roots growing in the surface soil.)

Trees Water Their Additional study with sugar maples revealed

that when HLW is combined with moisture
Neighbors provided by rainwater, understory plants (those
growing beneath and around tree foliage) may
(and themselves) utilize as much as twelve percent HLW. Thus,
in areas where the soil’s moisture level remains
low, plants growing closest to the maple may
have a natural competitive advantage over plants
growing further from the tree. In fact, Dawson
found that the closer-growing plants used from
three to sixty percent of the HLW provided by the
H ere’s a fact that amazed me when I first
became aware of it: trees in summer-dry
areas (or during a drought in normally moist
sugar maple.

climates) can “harvest” naturally occurring In one study that concentrated on large trees, the
groundwater from soils six or more feet below amount of water “lifted” from the groundwater to
the surface and “bank” the moisture in the drier the surface soils each night measured an amazing
surface soil for use during the following day. nine to eighteen gallons. It’s also been noted
Lucky plants growing near the tree can also take that trees utilizing HLW demonstrate enhanced
advantage of this unusual source of moisture. growth of both roots and leafy shoots. This may
be due to the fact that the HLW facilitates the
One of the first studies on this topic, using the microbial process that helps the roots liberate
sugar maple ((Acer saccharum), was done in nutrients from the soil, thus more nutrients are
the early 1990s by Todd Dawson at Cornell released and made available to roots growing
University in upstate New York. The term in the upper levels. As of 2005, according to
“hydraulic lift” (HL), now the most commonly Dawson, over sixty species of shrubs and trees,
used designation for this moisture-banking in tropical, moist, and dry climates, have been
phenomenon, was coined by horticulturists James documented as exhibiting HLW activity.
Richards and Martyn Caldwell, during their work
with Great Basin sagebrush in the late 1980s.
They referred to the water that the sagebrush
lifted as “hydraulically-lifted water” or “HLW.”
I n a paper published in 2000, Stephen Burgess
and his colleagues, using the Australian plant
Banksia prionotes as an example, revealed that
The process is thought to be a passive one, moisture can, as needed, also move downwards
meaning that it occurs when the surface soil water within the tree, laterally from moist surface soils
content is lower than the water contained in the to drier soils, or upward through the roots to
xylem of a root growing in that soil. [Xylem are surrounding drier soils. This system gave rise to
the root’s water-conducting cells.] Water obeys its their term “hydraulic redistribution,” (HR) which
natural tendency to flow from an area of higher includes the passive transport of soil moisture
concentration to one of lower concentration, in across different soil layers by plant roots. See
this case through the process of osmosis through Figure #59, based on an illustration by Todd
the xylem walls to the soil. (Dawson’s HLW Dawson, et al.
study was conducted during a dry spell; once
it rained, he noted, the HL cycling of moisture Even in moist Pacific Northwest forest, the

Trees Water Their Neighbors (and Themseleves) 103

impact can be amazing. One study conducted si- In the drier portion of the southeastern USA
multaneously by J. Renee Brooks, et al., in a dry sandhills, researchers studied longleaf pine ((Pinus
ponderosa pine ((Pinus ponderosa) forest and in a palustris) and the turkey oak (Quercus laevis).
moist Douglas-fir ((Pseudotsuga menziesii) for- One conclusion they came to “… suggests that
est, revealed that, “A wide variety of understory tree roots can potentially contribute significantly
plants use water redistributed from the overstory to the rewetting of the topsoil.”
trees as far as 5m [16 feet] away from the tree.”

A
The study also found that, in the dry period of bit later in the research paper by J. F.
August, young (20-year-old) Douglas fir trees re- Espeleta, et. al., they comment “Because
ceived up to 28% moisture, on a daily basis, from tree and grass species are all mining the coarse
the upper 2m [6.5 feet] of soil solely from water sands of the topsoil, hydraulic-lifted water
redistribution at night; with old-growth ponderosa may significantly ameliorate the frequency and
pines it was 35%. After 60 days of drought, intensity of surface drought.”
hydraulic redistribution allows 21 days’ worth of
stored water in the upper soil horizons to be avail- And, it’s not just water that’s moving around.
able to plants, near ponderosa pines, and 16 days Other researchers (R. L. McCulley, et al.) found,
near Douglas-fir stands, significantly reducing the in the arid and semi-arid southwestern USA, that
drought impact on shallowly rooted understory “…Hydraulic redistribution of shallow surface
species” although the effect was “patchy.” water to deep soil layers by roots may be the
mechanism through which deep soil nutrients

I nterestingly enough, the effects of HR change

over time. In July, the scientists noted,
ponderosa pine tree roots that were six-and-one-
are mobilized and taken up by plants.” Later
they add “…[the] nightly partial recharge in the
upper portion of the soil profile and the resulting
half feet deep or deeper and contributed 60% to delay in soil drying are consistent with a role of
the daily flow of leaf evaporation. In September, hydraulic redistribution in maintaining nutrient
however, the flow was down to 25% and the uptake by, and microbial activity around, fine
moisture was being lifted from the six-and-one- roots.”
half-foot level to the soil four feet below the
forest floor. Averaged over the summer, the water And, you thought trees were just napping at night.
from the upper twentyfour inches of soil provided Hah!
the daily movement of water through the canopy
at about 12–14%.

In more current studies, Brooks et al., state: d PRACTICAL TIPS FOR GARDENERS
“Since 90% of the roots are in the upper 20 According to Brooks: “Any deep-rooted
inches of soil, HR is extremely important for plant is capable of HR. Encouraging deep
maintaining root function during droughts, and roots or interplanting deep-rooted crops
likely increasing surface root lifespan. This is can help supply small amounts of water
particularly important for small understory plants to surface roots. This could be useful
and seedlings where 100% of their roots occur for keeping shallow-rooted plants viable
in these dry surface soils.” In addition, these during drought in times when irrigation is
scientists found that the mycorrhiza benefit from not possible.”
HR and also contribute to transporting HR water
to smaller plants. These surface roots and fungus It’s good to know trees and shrubs do
are extremely important for nutrient uptake. work together just as mycorrhizae helps
the forest.

104 Trees Water Their Neighbors (and Themseleves)

Figure #59: Trees can make moisture available to
surrounding plants even as they store moisture at night in
the upper soil levels for use the next day.
(Based on an illustration in: Hydraulic Lift: Consequences of Water Efflux from the
Roots of Plants. Caldwell, Martin H, Todd E. Dawson, and K. James H. Richards.
page 152.)

Trees Water Their Neighbors (and Themseleves) 105

CHAPTER 12 expansion joints in driveways, sidewalks,
or patios near your trees. Expansion joints
compensate for the contraction and expansion
Trees & Hardscape of the concrete in hot and cold temperatures;
they are frequently used on public sidewalks,
and are usually made of fiber, sponge rubber,
plastic, or cork materials. They are typically dark-
colored and look like dense roofing paper. They
must be highly resilient and must not protrude
[Given that the basics of root growth have been
above the concrete when contracting or become
covered, the remaining chapters of the book are
brittle in cold weather. They must also absorb
devoted primarily to gardening tips, suggestions,
the expansion of the two adjacent concrete slabs
and ruminations.]
during hot weather. Look in the phone book for
suppliers under the listing “Concrete Products,”
Trees with shallow roots. or check out places that sell ornamental rock
and cement for tips and products. They can tell
you how to use the material and how thick the
H ere are some general guidelines to allow
adequate space for root growth [there are
always exceptions]:
concrete needs to be in your area for an adequate
paved surface.

• It’s best not to plant trees between paved

areas that are less than three feet apart.
I f roots should end up heaving parts of the
hardscape, the use of expansion joints will limit
the necessity for potential hardscape replacements
to just a few sections instead of involving large
• When there are only three to four feet areas. You might also be able to reduce heaving
between paved areas (such as between a by shaping sidewalk sections near trees into a
sidewalk and the street), plant trees that more narrow, curved pattern to accommodate root
mature at a height of less than thirty feet tall. growth. Laying a bed of coarse gravel beneath
pavements can be effective at slowing, or even
stopping, the heaving action, because the tree
• If there is a space of five to six feet between
roots will tend to grow downward into the earth,
paved areas, you can plant trees that will
rather than up into the drying air pockets of the
grow to as much as fifty feet at maturity*.
gravel. As mentioned earlier in the book, you can
[Recommendations for minimum planting
also make paths using lawn pavers with holes
widths between hardscapes or foundations,
in the middle; these are easy to handle and will
when noted with asterisks (*), have been allow roots more “stretching room.”
provided by the city of Chico, CA, based on
the performance of each tree as a street tree.]

Sidewalk-Friendly Trees
• When planting trees higher than fifty feet,
you’ll need at least eight feet between paved
Here are some recommendations for street trees
areas. that require minimum planting-area width.
[Again, recommendations from the city of Chico,
You might also want to consider installing
Y CA, are marked with an asterisk (*); other lists of

Trees & Hardscape 107

acceptable street trees are from St. Helena, CA; American hornbeam, Carpinus caroliniana.
St. Louis, MO; the state of Iowa, and Seattle, When first planted, the shape of the hornbeam’s
WA.] These trees, while they are considered canopy is pyramidal; as it grows older, it becomes
“sidewalk-friendly,” can still cause problems if more rounded. A good tree for smaller spaces,
planted too close to paved surfaces such as patios, as it needs only four feet as a minimum planting
concrete or brick pathways, and foundations. area.* The bark has an interesting shaggy look.
The trees allowed in street-side plantings may be Sensitive to salt. Zones 4–9, 35’x 35’.
very different from area to area and in different
growing zones; check with your local planning Cornelian cherry, Cornus mas. Oval, rounded
department for appropriate trees and regulations canopy of dark-green leaves that turn a muted
concerning street-side planting. Be certain of purple-red in the fall. One of the first trees or
the mature height, spread, and cold- and heat- shrubs to bloom in the spring, as early as March,
tolerance of trees before planting. Check to make with bright-yellow blossoms. In mid-summer its
sure the mature tree won’t interfere with phone red fruits are eaten by birds. No serious pests.
and power lines, or encroach on your neighbors’ Tolerates alkaline soil. Zones 4–8, 25’x 20’.
space. Ask your neighbors what hasn’t worked
and talk to local Cooperative Extension people. Green ash red ash, Fraxinus pennyslvanica (F.
lanceolata). Tolerates high pH, wet soils, dry
soils, and hot, arid winds. Used as a windbreak
and very commonly as a large street tree. Yellow
Trees for the Area Between the Street fall color. Needs a minimum of seven feet of
and the Sidewalk or Near Paved Areas width for a healthy root system.* Do not plant
(Hardscape) Taken from the various street tree both a male and female tree, as the resultant seed
approval lists mentioned above. pods will be abundant and cause quite a bit of
litter. Zones 3–9, 55’x 40’
Common name, Latin name, cultivar (if any) .
followed by comments, Zones (using the USDA Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba ‘Fastigiata’ and ‘Autumn
hardiness zone map), and H x W. [All trees are Gold’. An ancient tree, literally a living fossil,
deciduous unless otherwise noted.] with “roots” that go back some 150-200 million
years. Each fall provides a glorious display of
European Hornbeam, Carpinus betulus hot-yellow fan-shaped leaves. Be sure to buy a
‘Fastigiata’. Although the name ‘Fastigiata’ male tree such as ‘Fastigiata’ to avoid the female
usually indicates a columnar shape, this tree tree’s smelly and messy fruit. ‘Autumn Gold’
matures to an oval-vase shape, with deep green is a male tree with spreading canopy. Ginkgos
leaves and smooth silver-gray bark. This sturdy are pest- and disease-resistant, and are good city
tree with strong branch attachment prefers a trees as they tolerate ozone and sulfur-dioxide
seven-foot area between hardscapes.* Susceptible pollutants. Ginkgos are resistant to oak root
to scales. [Scales are insects that resemble fungus but have only medium tolerance for salt
stationary bumps on twigs, sometimes on leaves. used in winter de-icing. Prefers at least seven feet
They suck enough plant juices that the leaves
of width for its root zone.* Zones 4–9, 60’ x 40’.
may turn yellow and fall prematurely, and can
cause twigs to die.] Zones 4–7(8), 50’x 40’.
Thornless common honey locust, Gleditsia
triacanthos var. intermis ‘Shademaster’. A street

108 Trees & Hardscape

tree with bright green foliage. Prefers seven feet Persian parrotia, Parrotia persica. One of the
of root width.* After the leaves fall, this tree’s top ten trees for fall color, with its showy yellows,
many long, twisted fruit pods can create a mess oranges, and scarlet reds. The new leaves even
as they fall from the tree later on in the season. display nice shades of red-purple before turning
Good yellow fall color and medium sensitivity to to a glossy green, and trunk and limbs are
salt from winter de-icing. When first planted, bark covered in a fascinating brown shaggy bark.
on new trees is tender and tends to get sunburned With a well-drained soil and a bit of moisture,
on the southwest side unless it’s painted with this tree is virtually free of pests and diseases.
white latex paint. Zones 4–9, 25’x 16’. Prefers slightly acidic soil, but will tolerate some
alkalinity. Zones 4–8, 30’x 20’.
Rocky Mountain juniper, Juniperus
scopulorum. ‘Skyrocket’. Evergreen with blue-
Chinese pistache, Pistacia chinensis. This is
gray foliage. The species is pyramidal but rather
wide, although ‘Skyrocket’ is narrower than not the tree that produces pistachio nuts but in
most junipers. Can be used in a classic landscape the same genus; the nut-producing species is
design with parallel rows along a driveway or Pistacia vera. The Chinese pistache is a popular
walkway to create an allée, or around a pool. ornamental street tree in the west and produces
Zone 3–7(9), 15’x 2’. fantastic fall colors in a mix of hot, almost Day-
glo™ oranges and reds. Be sure to buy a male
tree if you don’t want red berries to drop onto
Eastern red cedar, Juniperus virginiana. your patio. Takes drought well and is relatively
Evergreen. Grows well under many conditions free of pests, as well as resistant to oak-root
where other trees fade. Can be pruned to form a
fungus. If overwatered in a lawn area, it may
handsome hedge. Female trees produce berries
develop verticillium wilt. Zones, 9–10, 40’x 40’.
that birds love to eat. Zones 2–9, 50’x 20’.

Goldenrain tree, Koelreuteria paniculata Willow oak, Quercus phellos. Needs at least
‘‘Fastigiata’. This wonderful tree blooms with six feet between hardscapes to grow well.*
bright-yellow flowers from June through late July. Considered to have the most graceful foliage of
Also makes interesting pale-green seed pods that all the oaks. Brown leaves may hang on the tree
turn brown and look a bit frayed. Blooms three though the winter. Established trees are drought-
to four years after planting and makes a great resistant. Zones, 6–9, 50’x 35’.
tree for the patio or street—low to medium salt
tolerance. Zones 5–9, 25’ x 3’’. Scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea. Q. rubra and
Q. palustris are often confused with this tree,
but the coccinea species has a more glorious red
Crab apple, Malus spp. Comes in many sizes,
fall color (which may last up to one month) than
colors (with yellow-red fall foliage), and shapes. either. Most large oaks need at least a 7’ wide
Some varieties are disease-resistant. Medium to distance from hardscape.* Give each of these
high tolerance to salt. Birds are attracted to the oaks plenty of room. Zones 4–8(9), 70’x 45’.
fruit. Many crab apples need five feet of width
for a planter area.* Zones 4–9. To learn about
individual types and possible choices, consult Pin oak, also known as swamp oak, Quercus
palustris. A very popular street tree, with red-gold
with your local nursery.
fall leaves, which in milder climates turn brown

Trees & Hardscape 109

and hang onto the tree for most of the winter. One Norway maple, Acer platanoides ‘Superform’.
of the better oaks for growing in a lawn. Zones Tolerates dry summer soils. Yellow fall color.
4–7, 50’x 30’. Considered to be an invasive tree in Virginia.
Ask your local Cooperative Extension Master
English oak, Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’. It’s said Gardener about how it performs in your climate.
by many that this one of the best-looking oaks Zones 3–7, 50’x 40’.
if you want a more columnar tree. The species
form is very grand and noble-looking—up to 60’ Red maple, Acer rubrum ‘Franksred’. Vigorous
tall and 35’ wide. Most large oaks need at least growing tree, very invasive. Intense shades of
a 7’-wide planting area.* Has high resistance to orange-to-red fall color. Prefers moist areas.
salt, but this cultivar and the species are prone to Some sources rate this tree as satisfactory for
mildew. Cultivars ‘Rose Hill’ and ‘Skyrocket’ are planting in confined spaces, while others maintain
more resistant to mildew. ‘Fastigiata’ is 60’x15’. it needs at least six feet of planter width. Zones
All grow in Zones 3–7. 3–9, 45’x 35’.

American arborvitae, Thuja occidentalis. Silver maple, Acer saccharinum, The fastest-
Evergreen, and a common tree in home growing of all the maples but easily damaged in
landscapes—because of its “well-behaved” rain- and ice-storms. Well-known for ability to
roots, it is often planted near houses. This very buckle concrete. The roots are also invasive and
sturdy tree can be sheared to form a low hedge clog drainpipes. Yellow to rich red in the fall.
or windbreak. Crisp, rich green in the spring and Zones 3–9, 60’x 40’.
summer, fading to a brownish-green color in the
winter. Hardy to –40 F. Takes all kinds of soils. Sugar maple, Acer saccharum. Fall color reveals
Zones 2–7, 50’x15’. brilliant shades of yellows, oranges, and reds. Its
small greenish-yellow spring flowers are followed
Little leaf linden, Tilia cordata. Prefers a cool by medium- to dark-green leaves. Needs lots of
climate, can’t take heat. Used as a common street room to grow. Zones 3–8, 70’x 45’.
tree in zones where it thrives. Is prone to pests
and diseases, especially Japanese beetles, and European beech, Fagus sylvatica. A large tree
aphids with their subsequent sooty mold. Zones with large roots, often seen planted in big lawns
3–7, 60’x45’. as a shade tree. An attractive, smooth, gray bark
is revealed after the golden-brown leaves fall in
autumn. Zones (4) 5–7, 55’x 40’.
Trees Incompatible With Paved Areas:
White ash, Fraxinus americana. Grows best in
deep, moist soils and needs plenty of room for its
Common name, Latin Name, Cultivar,
roots. Fall color changes from reddish-purple at
followed by comments, Zones and Height
the outer, upper portion of the canopy to almost
x Width. (This information is provided for
yellow in lower and middle canopy areas.
placement in woodland plantings or in large
Zones 3–9, 60’x 60’.
lawns—as per the earlier discussion of roots and
lawns.)
Tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera. A handsome
specimen tree with stature and good yellow fall
color. It is susceptible to drought, and not a

110 Trees & Hardscape

practical tree to plant near walkways, patios or Lombardy Poplar, Populus nigra ‘Italica’.
house foundations. Zones 4–9, 80’x40’. Used to a riparian habitat, the roots of this tree
grow near the surface, and it should be kept
Sweet gum or liquidambar, Liquidambar away from patios or other paved surfaces. The
styraciflua. Nice fall color, with actual color surfacing roots can create a problem, as they tend
depending upon the cultivar. The cultivar to be scalped by lawn mowers. Used in Europe
‘Rotundiloba’ is fruitless, thus avoiding the to create a stately allée in which trees line both
obnoxious prickly “sweet gum balls.” Well- sides of a carriageway or driveway (with plenty
known for having invasive roots. Prefers moist of room for the roots), creating a spectacular
soils. Zones 5–9, 70’x 45’. approach to a residence. However, it suckers
profusely. Zones 3–9, 80’x 12’.
Southern magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora and
Magnolia ‘Little Gem’. Evergreen. The Magnolia Weeping willow, Salix babylonica. Not used
is a native tree with gorgeous waxy-white spp. as a street tree, as its limbs cascade down to the
flowers, the diameter of which of which may ground. Its roots probably won’t crack pavement,
reach 15”. Blooms in late spring and sometimes but this tree grows more vigorously and looks
off and on during the summer. The species is more in its element when planted near a pond or
enormous, as are its roots. (‘Little Gem’ is a other water feature. In a lawn, the shallow roots
compact tree, 20’x 8’ with three- to four-inch will surface, vulnerable to scalping by a lawn
flowers; it grows well in narrow places or near mower. Zones 6–8, 30’x 40’.
patios, but is shallow-rooted.) Both Zones 6–9,
M. grandiflora 60’x 50’.
V isit old cemeteries or your nearest arboretum
to see how large some of these trees will
grow in your climate and zone.
London planetree, Platanus x acerifolia. Bark
is a fascinating mottled brown, tan and pale-
green. Has been listed as an approved street tree
in some communities. If planted in a narrow
space between two paved areas, will often heave
concrete walkways and curbs. Zones 4–8(9), 80’x
70’.

American sycamore, Platanus occidentalis.

( . x hispanica) Native throughout the Eastern
(P
and Midwestern parts of this country, where it
evolved as a riparian tree (growing along rivers
and streams). Needs at least eight feet between
hardscape surfaces or away from a single
hardscape like a patio. (It also drops many large
leaves in the fall, a drag with a patio below.) Best
planted in deep, moist soil or in a well-watered
lawn with deep soil. Zones 4–9, 80’x 80’.

111
CHAPTER 13 maples), shares its traits, especially the tendency
to produce surface-oriented roots, with most
other maples. This tree evolved on flood plains
Trees That Belong Far and “bottom land,” and thus will tolerate periodic
flooding. Its roots tend to grow up into the more
Away From (or In) aerobic upper levels of the soil and can be so
Lawns invasive that the silver maple must be planted
far from lawns, septic tanks, or foundations.
Deciduous.

American sweet gum or liquidambar

(Liquidambar styraciflua), is famous for heaving
pavement. It is also best kept away from your
S ome trees just aren’t very compatible with
lawns. If you simply must include in your
landscape one or more of the trees mentioned
lawn, as the surface-growing roots are easily
scalped during mowing. likes moisture. Older
trees produce hundreds of pounds of spiny
below, they belong in their own section, perhaps
fruiting balls each fall; this can be a nuisance over
in a miniature woodland with compatible shrubs,
pavement and, if the tree is planted in a lawn,
ground covers, grasses and herbaceous plants,
requires power-mowing with a bag to suck up the
and in the further reaches of the yard, assuming
fallen fruiting bodies. The cultivar ‘Cherokee’
that you have enough room.
produces few or no seedpods. Deciduous;

This list can also be read as a list of trees and

shrubs to avoid planting anywhere near a paved
surface or foundation, as their aggressive roots
L ondon planetree, Platanus x acerfolia. There
is some dispute about this tree’s rooting
pattern. In some settings the roots don’t surface
may heave and break up rock paving, concrete,
to cause problems, yet many cities have had to
and bricks. These species mentioned here are
deal with sidewalks heaved by older and larger
generally suitable only for large yards with plenty
planetree roots. The difference may be in the
of room so their roots can almost literally “run
watering strategy, and it may be that too-shallow
free.” There are exceptions to these guidelines
irrigation leads to surfacing roots and sidewalk
(mostly because trees can’t read), and most any
damage. This tree tolerates almost any soil. An
tree, including those listed below, can be found
English study revealed that 50% of the damage to
growing compatibly with a lawn somewhere.
buildings from the roots of species of the London
The goal here is to try to place trees properly
planetree in shrinkable clay soils occurred within
for the highest healthy growth potential. Ask
the first 18 feet from the trunk, and the roots often
your neighbors about what did and did not work
extended in a 50-foot radius. Since the London
for them, and contact your local Cooperative
planetree originated in riparian (near flowing
Extension for fact sheets on this topic.
water) habitats, the roots will surface to suck up
as much water and nutrients as you can throw
at them. While this tree can be grown in a lawn
Examples of Trees Best Kept Away with some success, it does drop plenty of fuzzy
From Lawns: fruit. The dust from the fruit and underside of the
leaves is irritating to some people. Deciduous.
The Silver maple (Acer saccharum and Acer spp.

Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns 113

Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra ‘Italica’), Juneberry ((Amelanchier arborea, a shrub);
is famous for lining estate borders or entrance Eastern dogwood (Cornus florida); American
drives, but be very careful when considering beech (Fagus grandifolia); white ash (Fraxinus
planting this tree, as its roots can sucker easily, americana); and common witch hazel
especially if the soil is cultivated. The Lombardy (Hamamelis virginiana, a shrub).
poplar does provide a dramatic vertical line for a
large property but must be kept well away from
all hardscape and cultivated plants. Deciduous.
Trees Among the Turf
Willows (Salix spp.). All species of this genus
evolved on floodplains or along riparian habitats,
and tolerate periodic flooding. Willow roots T here’s a real trick to choosing the proper tree
to grow in a lawn or yard. Tree and lawn
roots are often incompatible for four important
naturally gather near the soil’s surface to “grab”
any water they can get. Deciduous. reasons:

The common bald cypress (Taxodium 1. Turf grasses choke off the natural
distichulm), when planted in very wet soils or exchange of gases between the soil and
standing water, will produce the famous cypress the atmosphere; this can lead to a slight
“knees” (knobby root forms that protrude above dwarfing or stunting of the tree.
the soil or water). The cypress is certainly
inappropriate for a lawn because it requires much
more water. This deciduous conifer, with its well- 2. The forest floor in its natural state is a
behaved columnar or pyramidal shape, can be deep litter of decomposing leaves, twigs,
planted in groves in moist areas where few other logs, and critters both microscopic and
trees will thrive. large; it provides a welcome place for
roots to forage for nutrients. Taking away
…and a shrub to avoid planting in your lawn: this beneficial natural mulch or duff and
replacing it with lawn can harm the tree
by leaving the roots exposed. Under
B loodtwig dogwood (Cornus sericea) can be
a large, floppy spreading shrub, but some
pruning will give it a better form. The fall color
these conditions, tree roots often appear
to “surface,” only to be scalped when
is not remarkable; its beauty lies in the dramatic the lawn is mowed; this is a source of
deciduous stem color during the winter, when the potentially debilitating wounds for the tree
stems from the previous year’s growth are truly and a bumpy ride for weekend warriors on
blood-red. their riding lawn mowers.

Other moist-area trees and shrubs that tend 3. Some trees are simply programmed by
to produce lawn-troubling surface roots or their genes to produce many large surface
suckers include: red maple (Acer rubrum); roots. Many of these trees are native to the
Christmas berry (Ilex verticillata, a shrub or banks of streams or rivers, while others
small tree); pin oak; swamp oak (Quercus grow more inland and in moist areas.
palustris); huckleberry (Vaccinium pallidum, Attempts to control these root systems
a shrub); sugar maple (Acer saccharum); with fertilization techniques, irrigation, or
serviceberry (Amelanchier spp., a shrub); root barriers usually yield poor results.

114 Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns

 4. The fertility and irrigation required to Farmers in England have used knowledge of this
keep a lawn happy are often more than a phenomenon to their advantage for hundreds
tree needs, and subsequent tree pest and of years. Long before there were dwarfing
disease problems follow. rootstocks for cherry trees, English orchardists
seeded their cherry orchards with a grass cover
Choosing the best tree to be surrounded by turf (called a “sward” in the UK) to dwarf the trees
requires addressing the above concerns. Here’s a slightly while encouraging them to bear earlier
detailed look at each problem or dilemma. in their lives. Some grasses, such as ryegrass,
actually produce a mild root excretion that acts to
stunt the growth of nearby plants. [This is called
allelopathy by scientists.] Ryegrass lawns can do
1: A Thatched Roof on the Lawn Soil the same thing to your trees. While the effect is
mild, the ryegrass “works” around the clock.

T he turf selected for most American lawns

is a far cry from the meadow or prairie
grasses found in many states or counties. Natural 2: Replicating the Forest’s Natural Duff
grasslands or meadows tend to be composed

A
mostly of “bunch” grasses. Bunch grasses, as s mentioned in earlier chapters, any tree,
their name suggests, don’t form a consistent even one with a taproot, will still produce
mat of shoots but instead emerge as clusters of most of its feeding roots near the soil surface; in a
root crowns in randomly spaced clumps. [See natural forest, it will usually do so within one foot
the discussion of buffalo grass earlier in the of the surface. The surface of a forest is defined
book, page 32.] Thus there is space between as the top of the duff (undigested, undecomposed
these bunches for dead, grass stems and leaves leaf and twig litter), not the top of the soil.
to decompose and gases to pass back and forth Remember Figure #57 [page 94], showing studies
between the air and soil. in Finland that revealed that a young spruce
tree ((Picea spp.) grew an amazing 64.1% of its
All roots and soil microbes expel small amounts roots above the soil, feeding in and on the still-
of slightly toxic or harmful gases like tiny decomposing litter? The same spruce tree, even
“farts” in the soil. Dying root hairs and soil when mature, maintained 45.1% of its roots on
microbes give off carbon dioxide as part of top of the soil and laced through the forest duff.
their “last gasps.” Even this natural production

B
of CO2, however, if it accumulates in the soil, y planting a lawn beneath a tree, you’re
is detrimental to living young root hairs, which removing the natural thick duff and replacing
require certain levels of oxygen to prosper. As it with a thin layer of turf and thatch. Many trees
discussed earlier, a well-textured soil contains have roots that are genetically programmed to
an enormous labyrinth of minute soil pore grow into the duff; therefore, these roots naturally
aggregates; these allow the debilitating gases show up on top of the soil amidst the turf, ready
to pass out of the earth and the revitalizing to be mangled by lawn-mower blades.
air to seep into the soil. The buildup of thatch
(undecomposed grass leaves and roots) in a lawn The solution to the problem of emerging roots,
retards this important exchange of gases. As with as well as that of grasses retarding the growth of
humans, fresh air is preferable to farts any day. trees, lies not only in knowing what tree to plant,

Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns 115

but in knowing how to care for it after planting. There are some trees whose roots will tolerate
The best compromise for combining forest trees being near the soil surface or even thrive there.
with lawn is a “skirt” of loose mulch extending Many of these trees originated in riparian
as far from the tree trunk as is practical within habitats. Examples not mentioned earlier in
the confines of your landscape or yard. In one this chapter include: alders ((Alnus spp.), tupelo
study, grass growing right up to a tree reduced the ((Nyssa sylvatica), and birches ((Betula spp.).
growth of a “normal” tree to 58% of its normal Along the bank of a stream, the roots of these
height, while the growth of another tree with sod trees are frequently exposed by bank erosion
two feet away from its trunk was limited to 89% or may actually grow out into the water. Such
of its natural height. In order to have no effect trees are likely to produce noticeable surface
on growth, the lawn-free area had to extend 20 roots when irrigation is too shallow, but even
feet away from a tree’s trunk. Replacing sod deeper irrigations won’t completely override their
with rough-and-tumble mulch will make your genetic tendency toward surface roots. These are
planting look more like a natural forest floor also some of the trees to avoid growing in a lawn.
and permit the soil to breathe. The lack of thatch
and of compaction produced by foot traffic and Other trees with surface roots, but not necessarily
lawn mowing (since the “doughnut” of mulch from riparian habitats, are: Siberian elms (Ulmus
will reduce the area that needs mowing) will spp.); Tree-of-Heaven ((Ailanthus
Ailanthus altissima
altissima—if
—if
encourage the soil’s natural flora and fauna to you’re not already stuck with it, do not plant this
keep the soil crumbly and well-aerated. scourge under any circumstances—anywhere—as
it’s extremely invasive!); mulberry (Morus spp.);

T he depth of soil also shapes the root system ashes ((Fraxinus spp.); coastal redwood (Sequoia
of a tree, regardless of its genetic tendencies. sempervirens);); and sumac ((Rhus spp.).
If your yard has only six inches of good loamy
soil on top of a heavy clay soil or a rock-hard
caliche (calcium-based hardpan), then the tree’s
entire root system will be in the upper six inches.
F or more information about specific trees with
surface roots that heave sidewalks and patios,
see Chapter #12.
This will force more roots to extend above the
soil into the path of the mower’s blade.
4: Water for Lawns and Trees,
In many climates, the wind will bring in weed A Side Trip About Watering
seed to infiltrate your mulch. This can be a pain
to deal with, but there are a handful of solutions:
pull out by hand (a good choice if you stay on top
of it and know a good chiropractor); dump more
W hile trees occupy far more foliage per
square foot of lawn/garden space than
grasses, they have a much more extensive
mulch on the pesky invader; place newspaper (though not necessarily deeper) root system.
over the weeds and add more mulch; use a
propane blowtorch [See Figure #4.] to kill the
seedlings as they first appear (NOT a choice in For this example, in Pasadena, CA for the month
areas with rain-free summers!) of July, the ET rate for grass is 7.1 inches per
month. Compare the requirements of each tree in
Figure #60 with that rate to get an idea of where
the tree belongs in the water-use/ET spectrum.
3: Genetic Root Control Ask your local Master Gardener for the monthly
ET rates for your climate. Or, try nearby weather

116 Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns

station, a local television station’s meteorologist, conserve water for your lawn by lowering the
local fire department, local Junior College, or irrigation rate even more, the tree or shrub may
nearby University. Most trees can survive quite grow more slowly and bear fewer flowers or less
well with irrigation or rainfall that totals less than fruit. It is always possible to irrigate at a rate
the optimal ET for lawn grass in the local climate. greater than the ET; if the soil is very well
You don’t really have to worry about the specific drained; you may even get improved growth
numbers, just remember they are good relative without disease and pest problems.
index of; drought-hardiness the lower the number
is below the average monthly ET, the less the It quickly becomes apparent that the water needs
plant needs water or supplemental irrigation. of a gorgeous green lawn are often not compatible
with that of many trees. Too much water on
tree roots can cause crown rot of the upper root
Some Minimum Irrigation Rates Based
system and stimulate disease and pests. If you’re
Upon the Evapotranspiration Rate for planting a tree in the middle of a lawn, always
Trees in Pasadena, CA choose a species with a water requirement similar
to that of your turf.

T hese numbers, from the WUCOLS List

(Water Use Classification of Landscape
Species) produced by the State of California Fertility for Lawns and Trees
Cooperative Extension, allow for a reasonably

M
good-looking landscape that doesn’t appear any lawn grasses are so domesticated that
drought-stressed. Each number represents the they don’t grow well or look their best
lowest average number of inches per month of without consistent fertilizing. Most species of
irrigation as compared to the standard 7.1 inches trees grow in a wide range of fertility, often
based on cool-season turf. Up to a point, more thriving without any supplemental nutrients. If
water favors more growth. properly chosen for your soil type and climate, no
tree in your yard (except perhaps in the rare case
Figure #60 shows that you can water most trees of some fruit trees) should need added fertilizer
at much less than the ET rate that a lawn requires or nutritious mulch, although you may want to
and they will still remain healthy. If you want to use just enough woody mulch to conserve some

Common Name Latin Name Low Med. High.

.7-2.1" 2.8-4.2" 4.9-6.3"

Black alder Alnus glutinosa 5.6"

Common hackberry Celtis occidentalis 3.5"

Eastern redbud Cercis canadensis 3.5"

Gingko, maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba 3.5"

Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos 1.4"

Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns 117

Jacaranda Jacaranda mimosifolia 3.5"

Goldenrain tree Koelreuteria paniculata 3.5"

Crab apple Malus ‘Profusion’ 3.5"

Oleander Nerium oleander 1.4"

Ornamental/Chinese pistache Pistachia chinensis 3.5"

Pin oak, swamp oak Quercus palustris 3.5"

Red oak, Northern red oak Quercus rubra 3.5"

Willow Salix spp. 5.6"

Coastal redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5.6"

Chinese scholar or Japanese pagoda tree

Sophora japonica ‘Violacea’ 3.5"

Yucca Yucca spp. 1.4"

Sawleaf zelkova Zelkova serrata 3.5"

Figure #60: This chart (pages 117 and 118) illustrates the lower limit at which trees can be
irrigated while still appearing in good condition. A sub-shrub like lavender ((Lavandula spp.) can still
look good with only 25% of the water as listed in the California WUCOLS List (Water Use
Classification of Landscape Species).
moisture and keep the soil cooler during hot
nitrogen application be doubled to two pounds
summers.
per 1000 square feet.
Under a moderate scheme of fertilization, most
lawn grasses require a total yearly application of When you feed your lawn, however, the tree
one to four pounds of actual nitrogen per 1000 roots just below the surface will certainly grab as
square feet; many people, however, use far more many nutrients as they can. Thus, trees in or near
fertilizer than they need to. Most landscape- lawns may grow tall and spindly due to absorbing
contractor guidelines call for only one pound more nitrogen than they require. This makes them
of actual nitrogen per 1000 square feet when prone to more diseases, pests, and damage from
planting trees. Only if a tree’s leaves, especially wind- or ice-storms.
the older ones, turn yellow-green (which often
indicates nitrogen deficiency), should the rate of

118 Trees That Belong Far Away From Lawns

N onetheless, with turf that needs little
irrigation or fertilizer and the right tree,
you can certainly plant shade trees within a
lawn. (Be sure to seed or sod the lawn with
shade-tolerant varieties of grass.) The trick is to
choose those trees that are somewhat genetically
“programmed” to produce deeper lateral roots and
not as many surface roots. Look at established
yards in your neighborhood for some good
candidates for your own lawn and landscape.

Here are some trees and shrubs to consider (as

with life, there are trade-offs):

Native buckeye (Aesculus pavia) prefers some

light shade but tolerates moisture. Prefers good
drainage. Deciduous.

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) requires deep, well-

drained soils with even moisture. It is difficult
to transplant because of its true taproot nature.
Deciduous.

Column juniper (Juniperus chinensis

‘Columnaris’) tolerates high levels of moisture in
a well-drained soil, but make sure the roots don’t
get overly wet as a result of being planted too
close to a sprinkler nozzle. Evergreen.

Star magnolia (Magnolia stellata, Magnolia

kobus var. stellata), like most magnolias, prefers
an acidic soil high in organic matter. An even rate
of moisture is important. Deciduous.

See the previous Chapter (#12) for a more

comprehensive list, as trees that don’t heave
sidewalks often have deeper roots.

119
CHAPTER 14 Containers for All Seasons

Container plants provide the luxury of planting

Selecting Trees & almost anytime during the growing season.

Shrubs The main advantage for the nursery in using

containers is that they provide a more or less
stable environment that allows plants to hang
around for weeks on end; this gives “flexibility”
to inventory management. While containers allow
for the widest possible selection of plants, there
are some drawbacks; unsold plants may grow
Selecting Shrubs and Trees at the root-bound and unhealthy, thus, the customer
Nursery must be doubly careful to avoid getting stuck
with root-bound remainders.

L ocal nurseries here in Sonoma County just

love to see me drive up —“Here comes
Kourik to buy more of our undersized plants!”
Healthy, properly grown container plants,
however, can be easily transplanted with little
they chortle. Meanwhile, I go laughing all the trauma. One reason for this is that in a container
way to my garden, knowing that, within six to the plant and surrounding soil have grown
twelve months, these so-called “undersized” together and can be moved as a unit, so that
specimens will usually have grown to be bigger the trauma of adapting to a new environment
than those big “good deal” plants, often bigger is cushioned by this integrity of the root mass.
than if I’d bought the next-largest (and more Field-grown plants, on the other hand, usually
costly) container plant. suffer during transplanting, with many roots
disturbed and severed.
The process of choosing nursery stock starts with
checking the roots, including the size and type
of container or root-ball. With containers, ask
the nursery staff if you can slip the root-and-soil
A nother benefit of container plants is that all
the young root hairs that are responsible for
the plant’s uptake of water and nutrients, are held
mass slightly out of the container to check for within the container, not left behind in the field
root-bound plants. If the plant won’t give with as frequently happens with balled-in-burlap [also
a very gentle tug, then you already know it’s called b-in-b, or B&B—I’ll use b-in-b] and bare-
probably root-bound (also called pot-bound). root stock. With container plants, the root hairs
Next, I assess the relative proportion of the top are in place, immediately ready to absorb water
(or foliage) to the extent of the root system. I and nutrients so as to prevent transplant shock,
also look for a sturdy trunk and an undamaged while field-grown stock must re-grow these vital
graft (if it’s a grafted plant), evaluate the branch root segments. Some containers [see below]
pattern and canopy volume, and judge the color actually make transplanting even safer and less
and look of the foliage. This set of criteria traumatic, by stimulating the growth of many
ensures that I’m getting plants that are able to fibrous root hairs for quicker water and nutrient
handle transplanting, with healthy undamaged uptake.
roots for vigorous growth and, where trees are
concerned, the formation of sturdy anchors for
wind resistance.

Selecting Trees & Shrubs 121

The Importance of Fibrous circling roots are likely to grow more poorly after
Root-Tips transplanting, because the roots usually continue
to circle the planting hole. At a retail nursery,

T he more root-tips there are, the less shock always ask for permission to pull a plant from
there will be at transplanting, because the its container to check its roots; any plant that has
newly sited plant can immediately begin to circling roots at the bottom of the root-ball should
absorb needed water and nutrients. The goal of a be avoided like the plague.
good nurserykeeper is to produce as much root-
tip growth as possible, in order to ease transplant One helpful anti-circling design modification is
shock and maximize the growth of the plant in the introduction of cans with vertically ribbed
its new location. Research done with Japanese walls. The ribs, which protrude inside the can,
black pine seedlings by Robert Hathaway and help to guide the roots down to the bottom
Carl Whitcomb at Oklahoma State University without any circling in the upper zones of the
showed that, “Seedlings grown in container… container. However, if any plant is left in its can
were larger after three months than two-year-old for too long, even in a ribbed container, its roots
bed-grown (field-grown) plants, and continued will begin to circle.
to outgrow the bed-grown seedlings after one

S
full year following transplanting.” Whitcomb ome progressive nurseries are now offering
surmised, after further studies, that the response four-inch pots. These have the great
may have been due to the container’s influence in advantage of being far less expensive than one-
stimulating maximum root branching. Whenever gallon cans, but you still have to watch out for
a root hits the bottom of a container, it will either root-bound plants. With the smaller size, it’s
stop growing or circle around the can’s bottom. much easier to slip out the plant to inspect the
If the root-tip stops growing, or if its growth is roots.
delayed, more side-shoots form—thus giving rise
to more root hairs.

Balled-in-Burlap, for the Sake of

The Basic Nursery “Can” Tradition

Across the country, containers come in more For much of the country, b-in-b stock has been
shapes and sizes than Baskin-Robbins™ has the norm for shrubs and trees. When a field-
flavors. The most commonly used style, at least grown tree is dug up for transplanting, a lump
out west, is the tapered plastic “can,” shaped for (“root”) of soil is wrapped in a binding of burlap
easy removal of the plant and for easy stacking that serves as a temporary container to hold the
and re-use. These “cans” are size-rated according soil together. (When large trees are involved,
to their approximate liquid capacity, and range a wire basket may also be used to contain the
from one to three to five to fifteen “gallons.” burlap and soil.) B-in-b plants are dug in the early
spring near the end of the dormant season. This
allows the plant to be held in the retail nursery
The roots of a plant left in a pot too long are even after it leafs out and through the summer.
inclined to grow out to the sides of the can, down (Plants sold in a dormant state, without soil
to the bottom, and then begin to circle the pot around the roots, are called bare-root stock and
as they continue growing. Plants which have cost much less because the labor of wrapping the
been kept in a container long enough to develop ball of soil has been avoided.)

122 Selecting Trees & Shrubs

With b-in-b, the digging procedure removes up to naked roots. Since a bare-root plant has no
98% of the tree’s or shrub’s roots, a considerable protective soil around its roots, it must be sold
setback for any plant. The ball of soil needs to and planted before its first leaves begin to show.
remain more or less intact to protect what few In California, bare-root season begins in mid
roots remain. In order to ensure an intact ball, December and runs through early March and is a
the stock is grown in very heavy soils, so the soil time of great savings for the organized gardener.
clings to the root mass. This means that b-in-b is Throughout the country, bare-root trees show up
always considerably heavier than container stock in the local nurseries only during the months that
of the same size, which is an important factor immediately precede spring bloom and leafing-
when it comes to ease of handling and preventing out. If you’ve planned your garden or yard in
lower-back pain. advance of winter and know what you want, you
can purchase bare-root trees and save a lot of

I ’ve never purchased a b-in-b plant, since money compared to container or b-in-b stock.
container plants are the norm in the nurseries
where I shop. To learn more about the pluses and
minuses of b-in-b stock, I turned to professional-
landscaper friends on the East Coast. Earl
B are-root stock is dug out while fully dormant
from mass growing-fields in the late winter.
The process is, depending upon your disposition,
Barnhart and Helga Maingay work in the Cape either amazing or frightening to watch. An
Cod area and were formerly associates of the enormous strange contraption that looks like a
New Alchemy Institute. They, like I, much prefer cross between a tank, a tractor, and a science-
container plants to b-in-b stock. “Container fiction moon-walking machine straddles the row
plants,” according to Earl, “are more stable; we of trees in the wholesale growing grounds, cuts
can leave them sitting around much longer than the roots below the ground, and lifts the tree and
b-in-b plants. They give us much more flexibility an attached section of root system from the earth.
between the time we buy stock and the time we In order to allow the machine to clear the treetops
plant it.” For the home gardener, this translates in the rows, another machine is used to lop off the
into the convenience of buying unusual or special trees at four to five feet above the ground prior to
stock when it’s available and being able to hold the passage of the digging monster. On a visit to
it until there’s time to plant. Earl says he prefers Dave Wilson Nursery in Hickman, CA, Robert
b-in-b “for trees more than six feet tall and all Woolley, estimated that, when a digging machine
evergreen plants and shrubs.” is used: “With pecans, one-half of the roots, and
with other stock, perhaps 15 percent of the tree’s
When I visited horticultural writer Lewis Hill roots are left in the ground.” Woolley estimates
some 10 years ago; proprietor of Hillcrest that “In order to maintain a high quality of stock,
Nursery in Greensboro, VT, notes that the and to compensate for trees that are damaged in
availability of b-in-b stock is fading: “Most of our the digging process, we grow 10 percent more
stock is [now sold] in containers, the exceptions trees than we plan to sell.”
being evergreens such as conifers, spruces,
arborvitae, cypress, and pines.”
O nce the trees have been dug out, they are
“heeled-in;” that is, the trees are tagged for
identification and lined up very close together in
Bare-root Plants, for the More
long rows by named variety, then their roots are
Organized Gardener covered with moist soil, sand, or sawdust. The
moist medium keeps the roots from dehydrating.
“Bare-root stock” simply means plants with (Some trees are stored in large warehouses

Selecting Trees & Shrubs 123

without any moist medium but are sprayed with Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs
water frequently enough to maintain moist, and Vines. I asked Harris for his observations
healthy roots.) Once delivered to a retail nursery, on smaller versus larger stock. “The general
the bareroot trees are again heeled-in so as observation,” replied Harris, “is that smaller-size
to keep the roots moist. All of this is critical plants often outgrow larger plants, especially if
because, even though the tree is dormant, its roots the larger plant has been transplanted into several
can dry out enough that it will either grow poorly increasingly larger containers. In field trials in
or die altogether. the late 70s here at Davis, we found that several
species of trees grown from seed planted in an
Bare-root trees are cheaper than b-in-b because unirrigated field were larger after three years
the expense of balling the roots is bypassed. The than trees seeded into flats, transplanted into
weight of the ball is also eliminated in transport liners [these are like tube containers] and potted
and mail-order shipping, and the nursery only up into one- and then three-gallon containers,
has to hold the trees in stock for a few months. [even if they] were well-watered. I would say
Bare-root stock is also cheaper than container that the most important concept is that, except
stock because the expense of potting up the plant in the event of vandalism or animal damage,
is avoided. Bare-root is the only way mail-order the smaller the plant when transplanted into the
companies can afford to ship most dormant landscape, the better will be its relationship to the
decidous trees and shrubs. environment.”

T he reduced cost of this form of stock to the

customer is an obvious advantage, but the S o, how to choose the right-sized plant? An
important guideline is the plant’s growth
habit. When I buy lavenders ((Lavandula spp.)
buyer should beware of bare-root stock that is
potted up into containers at the end of the ideal in one-gallon containers, the top’s height above
bare-root season, i.e., after the weather is warm the soil mix is often close to half the height of
enough to cause budding and leafing to begin. the container, or even smaller. With an herb like
I’ve found that if bare-root stock is forced into a chives ((Allium schoenoprasum), the tops may be
container and held for any length of time, the tree, taller than the one-gallon container, but I choose
especially in the case of fruit trees, just doesn’t plants that don’t have too many shoot divisions—
seem to respond well to transplanting. If I were to this indicates fairly recent introduction to the
purchase a containerized bare-root fruit tree after container. While many people buy trees in
mid summer, plant it, and then wait and plant a fifteen-gallon cans with eight- to twelve-foot
new bare-root tree the following spring, the new tops, I opt for specimens six feet tall or smaller.
bare-root tree would, after no more than two to Since top-growth characteristics vary so much
three years of growth, be as big, or bigger, than from variety to variety, the best buyer’s strategy,
the older, containerized bare-root tree. until you become very familiar with individual
species’ growth rates, is to make sure the plant
was transplanted into the container fairly recently.
The ethos of “small is beautiful” has long been
Harris recommends that the buyer “check to make
my guideline for selecting container plants, yet
sure the tree appears healthy and vigorous and
I found no scientific literature to back up my
that it can stand without the support of a stake....”
years of experience. For help on this, I turned
to Richard Harris, professor of Environmental
Horticulture at the University of California at New, healthy white, pink, or tan-colored root
Davis and coauthor of Arboriculture: Integrated growth and a root mass that hasn’t completely
filled the soil-mix volume also indicate a recently

124
potted, non-root-bound container plant. Dark- source of the plant’s sustenance and its literal
brown or black root tips may be dead, and the foundation—the roots. Sadly enough, there are
presence of a lot of them may mean the tree may plenty of methods retail nurseries can and do use
not transplant well. When in doubt, go for a non- to keep plants looking good in spite of damaged,
root-bound plant in a smaller container. weakened, or defective root systems. The picture
changes rapidly, however, when these plants
are brought home to your garden. Many plants
with crippled or misshapened root systems either
Balled-in-Burlap Trees
fail to survive transplanting, or, having barely
weathered severe transplant shock, limp along for
I f you decide on b-in-b deciduous trees, early
spring planting is the preferred and optimal
timing. When buying, make sure none of a plant’s
years as miserable examples of their potential.
Many of these poorly growing specimens are
then allowed to remain in the landscape or garden
buds have swollen or opened; the initiation of bud
because it’s human nature to hold stubbornly
break also produces a hormone that initiates new
to the opinion that, “I paid good money for that
root growth at the cut ends of large roots in the
plant, and I’m not about to tear it out!”
ball. You want the buds to break after the tree has
been planted, so that the new root hairs come into
immediate contact with moist soil.

Top-to-Root Ratios: Think Small

With the soil-ball as its only protection, the

health of a b-in-b tree or shrub is dependent on
the amount of soil around its roots while it’s held
in the nursery. Wondering how a smart shopper
could judge if the ball was large enough to sustain
the tree, I again consulted one of my favorite
books, Arboriculture: Integrated Management
of Landscape Trees, Shrubs and Vines. A chart
provided by the American National Standards
Institute describes nursery standards for the ratio
of trunk diameter (caliper) to the root-ball’s
diameter. [See Figure #61. Figure #62 gives the
healthy ratio of the trunk’s diameter to its height.]

G ood shoppers take pride in getting their

money’s worth. When it comes to purchasing
healthy, high-quality nursery stock, however,
many people are led astray by first impressions.
All too often I’ve seen retail nursery customers
pounce on a plant with cries of “It’s so big! What
a great deal!” They rave over the size of trunk,
branches, foliage, flowers, while ignoring the

125
 Figure #61: Use this chart to make sure you’re not buying a b-in-b, tree
(sometimes called B&B) that has overgrown its balled roots or has a trunk which
is too small relative to its height. Fast- and slow-growing shade trees are
covered by the chart on the left. Measure the diameter of the trunk (the caliper)
six to twelve inches above the ball’s surface. Find the caliper on the chart and
read to the right to find the minimum diameter of the ball—bigger is better. Use
the right-hand chart for small upright and small spreading trees. Measure the
height of your prospective purchase. The chart shows the minimum size of the
ball for survival and growth. For example, a 4.5’ tall tree should have at least a
14” diameter ball. The bigger ball has more roots and may transplant with less
shock and better growth.

126
Figure #62: Whether b-in-b or container-grown, here is the ratio of the diameter
of various types of trees to their average or maximum height. Measure the caliper
at six inches (unless the caliper is greater than four inches—then measure tweleve
inches above the soil). Read up the dotted line to find the tree’s caliper, then read
over to find the recommended average and maximum heights.

127
 The Four Categories of Trees Illustrated in Figures #61 and #62

Type 1–Shade Trees Type 3 –Small Upright Trees

Botanical Name Common Name Botanical Name Common Name
Acer rubrum Red Maple Acer campestre Hedge Maple
Acer saccharinum Sugar Maple Acer circinatum Vine Maple
Betula spp. Birch Cercis spp. Redbud
Fraxinus americana White Ash Halesia spp. Silver Bell
F. pennsylvanica Green/Red Ash Malus spp. most Crab Apples
Gingko biloba Maidenhair Tree Prunus caerasifera ‘Thundercloud’
Gleditsia triancanthos Honey Locust Prunus spp. Ornamental Plum
Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip Tree Styrax spp. Snowbell
Platanus spp. Sycamore Syringa amurensis ‘Japonica’ Lilac
Populus spp. Poplar, Cottonwood
Quercus macrocarpa Bur Oak
Quercus palustris Pin Oak
Salix spp. Willow Type 4 –Small Spreading Trees
Tilia americana Linden Acer palmatum Japanese Maple
Ulmus americana American Elm Acer griseum Paperbark Maple
Cornus spp. Dogwood
Lagerstromia indica Crape Myrtle
Magnolia soulangeana Saucer Magnolia
Type 2 –Shade Trees, Slower Growing Magnolia stellata Star Magnolia
Aesculus spp. Horse Chestnut
Malus sargentii Sargent Crab Apple
Celtis spp. Hackberry
Cladrastis lutea Yellow Wood
Fagus sylvatica European Beech
Koelreuteria spp. Goldenrain Tree
Laburnum spp. Golden Chain Tree
Nyssas sylvatica Tupelo
Quercus alba White Oak
Sorbus spp. Mountain Ash
Tilia cordata Little Leaf Linden
Tilia euchlora Crimean Linden

128
CHAPTER 15 and susceptible plants, see Appendix #6.)
Observant horticulturists have noticed that the
trees that survived this disease were either planted
Planting Trees in well-drained soil or established on mounds
to protect the upper part of the root system. The
& Shrubs mounds act as a preventative measure, especially
in climates where it rains during the summer,
because the crown-rot fungus thrives in damp and
warm soil.

So many people are suspicious of the mounding

T he upper horizons of the soil are so critical to

plant growth. Remember Figure #52 [page
90] in the chapter “Native & Ornamental Trees,”
method, (even though I’ve used it successfully
with ornamentals and edibles for nearly 20
years) that I decided to call on my two favorite
which I described as one of the most important authorities on trees: Carl Whitcomb, formerly of
illustrations in this book? This drawing illustrates the Oklahoma State University at Stillwater, who
clearly the importance of even the top two pioneered the research on reducing the use of
inches of a forest’s floor, and why the goal when soil and fertilizer amendments, and Alex Shigo,
planting a tree or shrub should be to preserve the formerly with the USDA Forest Service, the man
integrity of the upper zones of the soil as much as who taught the world how to prune properly and
possible. who certainly knows his roots. (This was before
his untimely death on October 6, 2006.)
I like to plant trees and shrubs on constructed
soil mounds as opposed to planting them in
flat ground. If you’re working with slightly
heavy clay/loam soils, the mounding is
W hen I asked Whitcomb if he’d had any
experience with planting on mounds, he
replied: “Yes! At Oklahoma State University
especially critical to preventing root or crown [Stillwater], we planted out some sycamores
rot ((Phytophthora spp.—a fungal disease of the seven to eight years ago right on the ground, with
upper portion of the roots, near the soil surface). no planting hole or depression. We just poured
Many ornamental and fruiting tree and shrubs die a large cone of topsoil over the roots, to create
of crown rot without the gardener ever suspecting a steep angle. They needed more water the first
the culprit. The fungus damages the sapwood, several months during dry spells, but they rooted
either killing individual limbs or the entire plant. out well and one of them remains [the others were
Once the symptoms (pale-yellow, wilted leaves) removed purposely] and has a five-inch caliper.
appear, it’s too late to do anything about it. One It hasn’t received any supplemental watering for
clear indicator of Phytophthora in soil is the seven to eight years.”
health of rosemary plants growing in it: if you see
one or more rosemary “limbs” turn yellow, then Shigo’s reply was: “I’m all for it. The best
you’re dealing with root rot. There is no chemical botanical gardens in England and Australia
way to kill the pathogen, and there are only three plant all their trees on small mounds. It’s easier
effective ways to deal with it: (1) remove dead to regulate watering from a position of dryness
and dying plants and replant with plants resistant than from wetness.” When I asked him why the
to Phytophthora spp., (2) avoid overwatering, and mounding technique hasn’t caught on in America,
(3) plant on mounds. (For a list of both resistant he answered: “Our pioneering spirit still prevails.

Planting Trees & Shrubs 129

It’s easier to treat trees as expendable than to of the unamended soil that lies beyond the hole.
show them the respect they deserve. Now that (And, nobody can amend the area of an entire
we’ve run out of land and we’re trying to plant in mature root system, since it will extend much
tougher settings like prairies [where trees don’t further underground than the dripline.) Often the
naturally occur in great abundance], we’re finding roots fail to make it out of the well-amended hole
out how important techniques like this one are.” and wind up circling around in the loose planting
medium, making the trees extremely likely to
blow over during a storm. Remember, the trees
most tolerant to wind are those with the widest
No Amendments Is Good Amendments root systems.

A mendments—materials such as sand, peat

moss, compost, and rice hulls—are often
added to planting holes in a well-meaning
In sandy soil, planting holes can tolerate the
addition of more amendments because the
contrast with the surrounding soil before and
attempt to improve drainage and keep the soil after amendment isn’t so different. But, since
loose and friable. Fertilizers, such as blood meal, the fiber of the amendments will absorb plenty
cottonseed meal, greensand, and wood ashes are of water, adding a lot of them to drought-prone
frequently also added, out of a desire to provide sandy soils will, again, concentrate the roots in
nutrients. Some amendments, such as compost, the more moist, amended area, and leave the tree
are thought to both increase drainage and act as vulnerable to wind damage.
mild fertilizers.

One of the best studies on the effect of adding No Fertilizer Is Good Fertilization
amendments to planting sites for fertility was

R
done at Oklahoma State University at Stillwater oots are relatively lazy; they feed where it’s
by Joseph Schulte and Carl Whitcomb. They easiest. Fertilizers encourage the tree’s roots
planted 108 silver maple trees ((Acer saccharum), to stay in the planting hole. Compost, especially
using 11 different soil treatments and a control in large amounts, turns out to be one of the worst
(an untreated planting hole). One of their additions when planting trees because it acts as
conclusions was: “No benefit was derived from both a “sponge” and a fertilizer. If you feel you
the use of soil amendments either with a good must fertilize, add the materials as a top-dressing
clay loam soil or a very poor silt loam subsoil.” beyond the planting hole to encourage the roots to
They found that the control plantings with no spread into the native, unamended soils.
additional amendments generally outperformed
plantings to which drainage and fertility
amendments had been added.
Step-by-Step Mound Planting
Under hard rains or heavy irrigation, the loose
soil of the amendments in a traditional planting
hole turn into something like an underground
swimming pool, drowning the tiny root hairs
I t should be noted that this technique assumes
the gardener has chosen the right rootstock for
the soil. For example, plum trees can handle some
that are so important for absorbing nutrients. clay soils, peach trees can’t.
Adding a lot of amendments to a planting hole
also leaves the roots unprepared for the shock When planting a bare-root tree or shrub on a 6-,

130 Planting Trees & Shrubs

12-, or 24-inch-high planting mound, an actual Use a spading fork to work the soil in order to
planting hole isn’t even required. (With some keep from “slicking” the sides of the planting
shrubs the mound can be shorter, proportional hole, and work with a motion that is more like
to the size of the plant.) Draw up or figure out just heaving, cracking, and breaking open the
planting formations in advance so you can get native soil within the entire circle. [See Figure
as many of your desired plants as possible in #63.] Save your sweat and dig only as much as is
the form of bare-root deciduous tree stock. This necessary to fit the root system of your transplant.
keeps the price down and ensures virtually no Remember, with this method, a planting mound
transplant shock. For early-spring planting, it’s is more important than the actual planting hole,
always better to plant bare-root trees rather than which should only be as deep as those roots that
container or b-in-b plants, because, as mentioned won’t be covered by the mound. Now, scrape up
before they’re cheaper. The same techniques I’m
giving you here may work when the tree is in full
leaf, but there is a great risk of transplant shock
and losing the tree or shrub. In warm winter
areas, plant evergreens early in the spring or late
in the fall to avoid the unknown extremes of
summer.

S o, here’s the ideal mound-planting technique:

soak your bare-root tree in water while
making the mound; this rehydrates the tissue
and washes off debris clinging to the roots.
Next, remove all the grass and weeds from the
two- to four-foot diameter of the mound-to-be.

Figure #64: A small cone of soil is helpful when

spreading the roots of a bare-root tree.

good soil from the surrounding area (after the

weeds have been skimmed off) and make a small
cone of soil in the center of the circle. [See Figure
#64.] Then spread the roots of the bare-root tree
over the top of this cone of soil.

M ake sure some of the exposed roots

are tucked into the native soil that was
previously fractured open with the spading fork.
After the roots of the trees are spread evenly
out on the cone of soil, gather plenty of topsoil
to make the rest of the mound. Make the final
Figure #63: Heaving open the soil beneath the mound twice as wide as it is tall, as it will often
soon-to-be mound helps fracture the earth and
make it easier for the roots to quickly penetrate shrink up to half its size as the soil settles. (Pile
the soil. that dirt at least 12 to 24 inches high to achieve

Planting Trees & Shrubs 131

a final height of 6 to 12 inches.) Cover the bare- After planting, soak the entire mound once or
root tree’s trunk to the same depth as it was in the twice. Then mulch the mound and beyond about
growing grounds; this can be detected by noting four inches deep, making sure that the mulch
a marked change in color on the trunk. Tamp the stays at least six to twelve inches away from the
soil with your shoes to eliminate air pockets that newly planted trunk. From that point on, water
can desiccate young roots. (The soil in the mound outside of the mound by placing drip-irrigation
can be amended for better drainage so long as tubing in a loop around; this causes the roots to
some of the tree’s roots are placed in unamended “explore” the surrounding native soil. A few days
soil.) Rake the finished mound to look like a or weeks after transplanting, depending on the
gentle knoll. weather, arrange the loop to circle the base of the
mound even more widely. Figure #65 summarizes

I n areas where the summers are dry, make your

planting mounds in the fall; then all you have
to do in early spring after the trees arrive is open
the basics of a properly planted tree or shrub.

the winter-moist soil enough to place the root and

cover it with native soil. In areas where it rains in Planting from Tube Containers
the summer, wait until the soil drains after a rain
so that it’s moist, not wet. Form a snake-like coil
of soil with your hands; if it holds together, it’s
still too wet. If it crumbles damply, it’s just moist
T rees and shrubs grown in variously shaped
tubes or deep containers are especially useful
when planting hedges, windbreaks, trees intended
enough. to last a long time, or large woodland-like
plantings, and the cost is often lower than that of
other containerized plants.

Tube-grown seedlings should come with a few

air-pruned roots and plenty of lateral roots. A
Note: If you live in an area populated by gophers,
mound may not be required if the soil is well
a bigger hole will be needed (as opposed to just
fracturing the soil) to allow for inclusion of a drained or matched to the rootstock. Mounding
protective hardware cloth basket. The bigger won’t hurt, but takes extra time.
the basket, the more roots you’ll protect from
these hungry little devils. Be sure that the upper
To plant, turn the tube upside down and jostle or
edge of the basket protrudes at least six inches
above the soil and mulch to keep nocturnally tug the seedling out. Shake off as much of the
wandering gophers from slipping inside your potting soil as possible. Spread or fan out the
secured perimeter. To place a wire basket, roots. With a spading fork, heave open a crack
simply dig a hole two to three feet deep and in the soil and place the seedling’s trunk in the
wide, put the basket in, and fill the hole again. ground at the same level it was in the tube. To
close the planting hole, lift the fork out, place it
4–6 inches away from the seedling and parallel
to the previous insertion, and press the handle
toward the seedling to compress the soil around
the roots. Water thoroughly and add a ring of
mulch, leaving the trunk uncovered.

132
 Figure #65: This is a detailed illustration of how one might plant a shrub or tree on a mound. It
also illustrates how to irrigate on the day of planting by using a moat of water. Shortly thereafter,
the moat is filled in and drip irrigation at the dripline begins, to be followed by wider and wider
lines or loops of in-line emitter tubing.
(From: Drip Irrigation, For Every Landscape and All Climates.)

Sunburn

P ainting new trees, especially bare-root trees,

protects trees from sunburn, which can lead to
dead tissue and the invasion of fungi. Use a white
leads to tender bark), due to the close proximity of
other plants in the nursery area.

or very pale beige indoor or outdoor latex paint.

(It must be latex, not oil-based.) Paint from the
very bottom of the trunk (pull the soil back a little
when painting the bottom to make sure the lower
part of the trunk is covered with paint; replace the
soil when the paint has dried), and continue up to
the first lower branch. The paint will disappear
in several years, by which time the bark will be
strong enough to take the sunlight. Painting can
benefit all new trees, as they are usually grown
initially in heavily shaded areas (a situation which

133
CHAPTER 16 the potting soil used in the sale pot, try to remove
as much of the original potting soil as is possible
without letting the root mass fall apart. You
Planting don’t want to turn the plant into a totally bare-
root plant, so leave some roots and soil bound
Root-Bound together.
Trees & Shrubs Next, spread the roots apart as well as you
can. This is an attempt to get a pot-bound tree
or shrub to grow some healthy laterals, rather
than just producing roots that continue to circle
underground once the tree has been planted
(spreading the roots may or may not work, but is

S ad but true: the mass-plant-bargain-buy certainly worth trying). Construct a small planting
industry appeals to inexperienced gardeners’ mound as recommended in Chapter 15 [page
very understandable desire to get the biggest 133], and distribute the spread-out roots radially
plant for their money. This is why your chances and evenly over the mound. You may have to
of coming home from a home-center nursery or prune off some of the twisted circling roots as
other retail outlet with a pot-bound container you do this.
plant are fairly high. Few people realize,
however, that a smaller plant purchased with non- Cover the roots with native soil. Press firmly with
crowded roots may outgrow a bigger root-bound your hands or feet to exclude any air pockets.
plant in as little as one season. [See Chapter #14, Water thoroughly. No vitamin B1 (sometimes
page 121, “Selecting Trees and Shrubs.”] recommended in garden manuals) is required, as
studies show it doesn’t really help. If you can’t
If you do wind up with a big root-bound resist, it doesn’t hurt the roots and doesn’t cost
“bargain,” your only choice is to rid the plant much.
of excess roots. Begin by tearing apart the root
mass. This will cause less damage if the root
system has been well-watered, so soak the roots
for up to an hour to make sure the entire root
N ext, prune back the foliage. Try to prune
off no more than the same percentage of
roots that you remove. Some disagree with this
mass is saturated. Use your hands to gently (the approach, but I’ve found that it works for me. If
operative word) separate and tear open the root your transplant comes with ideal roots that don’t
mass, starting at the bottom and carefully working need pruning, then leaving all the apical (tip)
your way up. If the plant is severely root-bound, buds of the foliage is the best way to go, as they
you may need to use a knife or pruning shears to help send hormones to the root-tips to encourage
cut several lines down the side of the root mass growth.
before you begin to tear it open. As you separate
the roots, try to leave the pinkish-white ones,
as they are still capable of actively absorbing Thinning the Top
nutrients and moisture, but you can discard any
brittle brown ones, as they are no longer viable. When selecting trees, the ideal is to avoid those
with canopies out of proportion to their trunks.
If the soil you’re planting into is any heavier than However, the selection at many nurseries may

Planting Root-Bound Trees & Shrubs 135

(almost inevitably) be less than ideal in that thinning will help reduce the “sail” effect and
respect. Thinning out a top-heavy tree is one way allow for a better proportion between roots and
to alter the “sail” effect of an overlarge canopy the top.
on a weak stem. (The canopy acts like a ship’s
sail, catching the wind and making the tree more Ideally, planting and thinning of deciduous plants
likely to be easily bent or blown over.) should take place during the dormant season,
since pruning at this time will stimulate more

H orticulturalist Richard Harris suggests that shoots and foliage. If you want to thin the canopy
transplants that are allowed to grow with without encouraging new growth, do it in mid-
little or no pruning will grow better than those to late summer. In this case, be sure to monitor
that are severely pruned, but he also mentions that your soil-moisture level carefully, because the
up to one-fourth of the canopy can be removed unpruned top will transpire plenty of water before
without severely affecting the tree. As a matter it’s time to thin.
of fact, if drought is anticipated, severe pruning
of the treetop can actually be helpful in reducing
transpiration. On poorly grown, spindly trees
on which the top is disproportionately taller and
I f it’s necessary to stake a new skinny-trunked
transplant to keep it from flopping, the lower
you tie the tree to the stake(s), the more the trunk
bigger than the root-ball, you can thin the treetop will be able to flex and strengthen in the wind.
selectively by up to 25 percent after planting. The To determine the best height for tying (a height

Figure #66: By simply bending a spindly tree, you can determine the
best place to locate the stakes and tree ties. Allowing the tree to move as
much as possible in the wind builds up more trunk girth. Trees that have
been gently buffeted by the winds can be released from the stake. Trees
tied so the wind can blow the canopy around can be untied earlier than
ones tied up too high.

136 Planting Root-Bound Trees & Shrubs

which will allow flexing but not flopping), grab
the trunk with your right hand near the top and
gently bend the top over with your left hand.
You’ll notice that the tree is able to return to an
upright position. Move your right hand down the
trunk and continue bending and releasing the top
with your left hand. At a certain point, the top
will stay flopped over and not regain its upright
position. Tie the tree to the stakes at a point six
inches higher than the last position of your right
hand.

Figure #67: Use a tree tie from your local

nursery to make the two figure-eight ties.
Or, use a length of old hose with braided-
wire sticking out both ends to twist
together the two strands.

Planting Root-Bound Trees & Shrubs 137

 Appendix #1
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)—Putting it all Together

D uring geopolitical upheavals, going

“underground” can be an important means
of survival. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI)
connection to the water supply [See Figure #68.]
The first gizmo is a brass vacuum breaker.
Essential to protect the purity of your drinking
is primed to take its place in the upcoming water, it keeps dirt, manure, mulch or chemicals
geopolitical issue of water rights and distribution from siphoning back into your home’s water
and will no doubt have more and more influence system. Backflow preventers can be installed at
on how we water our lawns, shrubs, trees, each separate faucet, or a single one at a central
or plantings in narrow spots. The future is location for all exterior water use.
subterranean. Out of sight!

I n order to work, most backflow preventers

(such as the inexpensive brass atmospheric
vacuum breaker) must be installed at least 12
Start With a Back-Flow Preventer inches higher than all other parts of the drip
system; this is no problem when the tubing is
SDI can start at the faucet or any other plumbed buried four to eight inches below a lawn which is

Figure #68: The main assembly must include an anti-siphon

device, a filter and a pressure regulator. This basic main assembly
is built onto an existing hose-bib which stands at least 12 inches
above the ground-level tubing. This makes it easy to clean the
filter during the irrigation season by using the ball valve on the
filter cartridge.

Subsurface Drip Irrigation 139

level and below the faucet. A brass atmospheric In-Line Emitters
vacuum breaker costs around $6 to $15,
depending upon the model. In-line emitters are one of the least known
drip-irrigation technologies, but offer (as
The safest anti-siphon device (and the only I’ve discovered in my 25 years of gardening
backflow preventer that can be installed below and landscaping experience) the best mix of
the level of the drip tubing) is a brass-bodied efficiency, ease of installation, and resistance
double check valve, a special backflow preventer to clogging and leaking. The tubing is nearly
that costs $150 to $200. Be aware: the double
check valve can only be installed by a certified
landscape irrigation contractor. Consult with the
local building code department as to what model
is approved for your area.

The Filter

W ithout proper filtration, any emitter can

clog. [Clogging is much less likely with
the in-line emitters, which I’ll cover a bit further
on.] With most municipal water supplies, the
filter needs only a 150-mesh metal screen, while
well water requires a 200-mesh metal screen
to handle fine sediment. (The higher the mesh
number, the smaller the openings.) GEOFLOW™,
a manufacturer of in-line emitter drip tubing,
recommends a 300-mesh screen with their one-
half-gallon-per-hour (gph) emitters and a 150-
mesh screen with all one-gph emitters.

Y-filters with a ball valve are the best filters

because the ball valve on the filter cartridge
allows the gardener to flush sediment and sand
from its screen with a twist of the discharge
valve and without having to unscrew anything.
Agrifim™ makes an excellent, sturdy Y-filter
made of “filled polypropylene” (a soft non-brittle
plastic) that withstands water pressure up to 150
pounds per square inch (psi).
Figure #69: The beauty
of an in-line emitter is that
there is nothing to break
off and it’s clog resistant.

140 Subsurface Drip Irrigation

one-half-inch in diameter (16mm, as opposed to and clayey soils, depending upon how long the
18mm for “regular” one-half-inch solid drip hose) system is left on.
and comes with an emitter preinstalled inside
the tubing at regular intervals. These internal The benefits of in-line pressure-compensating
emitters utilize what is known as a “tortuous emitters are many: they are very easy to install,
path” [See Figure #43], in which the water must suffer less clogging than porous tubing and
pass through a labyrinth of right-angled channels some punched-in emitters, work at the greatest
inside the emitter before exiting via a hole much range of pressures (7–25 psi), provide consistent
larger than that of a typical punched-in emitter. rates of irrigation on slopes totaling up to 10
The tortuous path causes the water to form a feet high, and have no external parts to snap off.
continuous vortex, a kind of horizontal tornado Their connectors or fittings don’t leak. And the
that keeps any water borne sediment, sand or silt connectors, whether compression fittings or Spin
in suspension so it won’t settle out and clog the Loc™ fittings, seal better than metal hose clamps
emitter. with porous hose.

I n-line emitter tubing moistens the soil the

entire length of the line and slightly below
the surface, where the bulbous-shaped wet spots
There are two main producers of in-line drip
irrigation tubing in the USA. Both are in
California, but market to distributors all over
come together to form one nearly continuous the country. They are: GEOFLOW™, which
moist zone. [See Figure #7, page 25 in the main features Treflan®- impregnated emitters, [more
text.] The emitters come pre-installed in tubing on this later] and Netafim™. Both have pressure-
with 12-, 18-, 24-, and 36-inch spacings. The and non-pressure-compensating emitters. Use
types of in-line tubing most commonly sold the pressure-compensating ones if your total
to gardeners are those with 12-inch or 24-inch elevation change, both up and down, is greater
intervals, but you can usually special-order tubing than five feet or if you want to make sure your
with emitters at 18-inch intervals. The emitters garden or lawn gets reliable, even distribution of
inside the hose are rated to dispense either one- water. I always use the pressure-compensating
half or one gallon per hour (actually .6 and .92 emitter tubing.
gph). The emitters in early versions of in-line
tubing were non-pressure compensating, which
meant that the flow rate at the end of the line
might be lower than that near the main assembly. T he single most important aspect of this
type of watering system is the proper
placement of the in-line drip tubing. Consistent
Newer versions include tubing with pressure-
irrigation of the entire root system is a must
compensating emitters at the same intervals as
to ensure even, healthy turf or perennial plant
in the non-compensating in-line tubing and with
growth and to prevent roots from invading
one-half- or one-gph flow rates.
the buried emitters. Two important horizontal
criteria are the distance between emitters along
I’ve used in-line emitters for over 20 years, and the tubing and the measurement between the
even with well water full of soluble iron oxide, laterals (lengths of tubing). Usually, these two
(notorious for clogging regular punched-in distances are the same. Generalized spacing
emitters), I’ve found only a few clogged emitters guidelines vary considerably, depending on the
in nearly a thousand feet of tubing. I always use tubing manufacturer or designer. For example,
the kind with one-half gph emitters on 12-inch GEOFLOW recommends equal lateral and emitter
centers because they will irrigate both sandy spacings, with a 12- to 18-inch spacing in sandy

Subsurface Drip Irrigation 141

soils, 18-inch intervals in clayey soils, and 24
inches for clay-loams. The apparent anomaly • Run the water for another half hour.
of the narrower interval for clayey soils is due
to the inherent mechanical resistance of clay to • Repeat digging the trench to follow the range
horizontal water movement. In clay soils, the of the wet spots. Shave away at the sides of the
lines and emitters must be closer so that not too trench to see how wide the moist spot is getting.
much water is lost downwards to gravity beneath
the root zone before the water begins to bulge This will give you an idea of the appropriate
sideways. interval along the length of the tubing needed for
emitters to maintain efficient irrigation, that is (as
At the Center for Irrigation Technology, at the mentioned above), to create bulbous underground
California State University at Fresno, Field moist spots that converge beneath the surface of
Research Manager Greg Jorgensen has installed the soil.
GEOFLOW non-compensating one-half gph
tubing on an 18-inch-lateral-distance-by-15-inch-
emitter-interval on one acre of the University’s Tubing Depth
high-traffic lawn. (GEOFLOW no longer makes
the 15-inch interval tubing but sells it with 12-,
18- and 24-inch emitter intervals.) T his is a project for a new lawn and can’t be
done with existing residential lawns. For
lawns, the depth at which the emitter tubing is
Netafim’s recommendations are 18-by-18-inch placed is a very important factor. Regardless
emitter spacings in clay, 12-inch-by-18-inch of the choice of spacing between emitters, the
spacing in loam and 12-by-12-inch intervals tubing in the best lawn drip systems is laid out at
in sand. Dennis Hansen, a landscape architect a level six to ten inches below the soil surface.
located in Sausalito, CA, has accumulated over According to GEOFLOW, a six-inch depth is best
30 years experience with subsurface irrigation. for lawns, shrubs and trees in home landscapes.
He generally keeps his line and emitter spacings Dennis Hansen has found that four inches deep—
at 18 inches for lawns. plus or minus one inch—is best. NOTE: If you
use a lawn aerator, be sure to set the tubing below
the level of the aerator’s piercing spikes.
The Tubing Layout

S ince the soil texture ultimately determines

these important measurements, you’ll have to
test your soil in various areas. To do so:
Not for Gophers!

If your garden is plagued by gophers, do not use

• Lay out some in-line emitter tubing next to the buried irrigation as the pesty rodents will just
tubing in an area that seems to represent your chew through the tubing to get a free drink of
yard’s typical soil, connect it to a water source, water. However, in the over 20 years I’ve placed
and run water through it for a half hour. the tubing on the soil’s surface and then heavily
mulched the area, gophers have not eaten any of
• Dig a shallow trench to see how deep and wide my tubing—cross my fingers! At the Center for
some of the wet spots have spread beneath each Irrigation Technology, tubing was buried five
of several emitters. inches deep (+/-) and suffered no gopher damage.

142 Subsurface Drip Irrigation

BUT, when they installed the SDI 16–18 inches The Air Vacuum Relief Valve
deep in a new vineyard where alfalfa had been

O
grown, they “had significant damage.” Also, if nce your tubing is in place, there are,
squirrels live in your neighborhood, you might according to the manufacturers, two more
want to try a small test plot to see if they dig very important gizmos to assist the emitters in
down to chew on the tubing. remaining unclogged. An air vacuum relief valve
is a must for a successful subsurface drip system
[see Figure #70]. This simple and inexpensive
part is placed at the highest point of the tubing

Figure #70: Subsurface drip irrigation demands careful placement of the in-line tubing—the distance
between emitters along the laterals (lengths of tubing) and the measurement between the laterals—to
ensure even irrigation. Soil texture determines these important measurements. Guidelines vary, from
24-inch-by-24-inch emitter spacing in clay, 12-inch emitter and 18-inch lateral spacing in loam and 12-
inch-by-12-inch intervals in sand. A tubing depth of six- to 10-inches is the common recommendation.
A double check valve is required when any of the tubing in the landscape is 12 inches or more above
the source of the water so siphoning of the irrigation water doesn’t contaminate the home’s water. The
double check valve must be installed only by a licensed contractor. (This is a schematic of an
installation. The actual parts and specific adapters will vary with each installation. Read the in-line
tubing manufacturer’s on-line installation manual carefully or hire a landscape irrigation contractor .)

Subsurface Drip Irrigation 143

in each zone (also called a subassembly) growing season to flush the above-ground main
attached to one valve. When the water comes assembly [as seen in Figure #68, page139], drain
on, the pressure quickly shuts this valve—it acts it and store it in the garage or basement. Remove
much like a check-valve. An air vacuum relief the line-flushing cap and drain the drip hosing.
valve must be placed at every high point in an There are also fittings available that allow small
undulating or bermed landscape (a berm is a air compressors to purge the drip hose before
bank of earth often used as a retaining wall or winter. Or, simply open the valve at the lowest
hilly landscape feature). On the other hand, in point of the system to drain out any remaining
talking with Dennis Hansen, he finds no need for water. (This same valve is used to flush the lines
this component as long as the system is on level in the spring and as needed through the growing
ground and there’s a flushing mechanism at the season.)
end of each subassembly. “The designers of air
release valves,” he cautions, “have not figured
out how to keep out earwigs and other insects,
which can clog the device.” He notes that a new How Much Water?
in-line product from Netafim™ has anti-backflow
emitters built into the tubing, and is well adapted
to slopes.
I t’s nice to know, according to literature
provided by Toro Company (the manufacturer
and distributor of lawn mowers, lawn equipment,
T he importance of the air vacuum relief valve
becomes evident when the system shuts off;
as the pressure drops, the valve opens and air
and irrigation products) that SDI systems make
a “46% larger wetted volume of soil than a
surface drip system. This decreases the saturation
rushes into the tubing, helping to dry it out while point of the soil, which not only leaves room for
also relieving the pressure on water draining out more air…[but] decreases the water lost to deep
at the end of the line. The drier the inside of the percolation.”
tubing is between irrigations, the harder it is for
searching root hairs to find a way inside, and the
bloom of emitter-clogging algae is also reduced. The best way to time the watering of your lawn
The air vacuum relief valve should be 6–12 is to use a chart based upon your climate’s
inches higher than the tubing, or at least 6 inches evapotranspiration rate, instead of guessing or
above the soil surface, whichever is higher. For using an arbitrary rule of thumb. Your local
its protection, this valve is usually placed inside a Cooperative Extension office or Water District’s
standard circular valve box. Water Conservation Department should be able to
tell you each month’s average ET rate in inches.
Or, use a line flushing valve [as seen in Figure #8, The chart entitled Daily Water Use in Figure #46
page 27] at the lowest point of the system. This [page 81] converts the monthly ET rate from
gizmo is also prone to failure do to insects and inches-per-month into gallons-per-day for one-
other critters. Check both the air vacuum relief square foot of lawn or garden space up to one full
valve and the line flushing valve often for “bugs” acre.
clogging the valve(s).
Watering to equal the ET rate is a good starting
point. In a well-drained soil, you can, if desired,
apply more water than the suggested ET rate to
Winterize
encourage more growth. Or, if your water supply
is limited, back off from the amount suggested
In really cold climates, it’s safer at the end of the

144 Subsurface Drip Irrigation

by the ET rate. As an example, in the coastal plus years and acts as a growth inhibitor by
zone of Northern California near San Francisco, arresting cell division (it stops the apical root
where I live, lavender can do well with only 25% bud from dividing). Applied in a granular form,
of the water listed on the chart. (Actually, I plant Treflan® can control the sprouting of annual
lavenders in the fall and never irrigate them again seeds. According to DowElanco, Treflan®, doesn’t
and they do fine.) dissolve in water and doesn’t leach into the soil
because it adheres to the clay.

Timing is Everything

S ubsurface lawn systems require short,

frequent daily irrigations. One irrigation cycle
per day is the minimum interval at the Center for
Irrigation Technology, but multiple start times are
preferred. Landscaper Dennis Hansen suggests
Studies by the Center for Irrigation Technology
“unlimited very brief start times, actually up confirm the effectiveness of the root-excluding
to 40 times per day, run by a controller with properties of GEOFLOW’s emitters imbedded
independent stations (programs) to have control with Treflan®. According to CIT Field
over separate zones. Research Manager Greg Jorgensen, “In 1990,
after three years of use with tall fescue grass,
GEOFLOW™ recommends a single daily there was a root-free sphere the size of a
golf ball around each emitter.” Later studies
watering, but, because it’s impregnated with found large, malformed roots alongside the
a substance they call Rootguard (the chemical emitter, but no intrusion. All this would
Treflan®; see the following footnote), every-other- seem to indicate that the Treflan does, in fact
day irrigations will work, with no root intrusion. dissolve a bit. It does not, however, translocate
into plant stems, leaves, fruits, or flowers.
The duration of each application is calculated
The compound has a low LD50 (a controversial
by dividing by the number of start times per day way to rank chemical toxicity) of 10,000 mg/
into the total length of irrigation needed each day. kg—the smaller the number, the more toxic
The length of each of Hansen’s irrigation cycles, the compound; the LD50 of very strong organic
however, is based upon achieving “no dry zones pesticide such as nicotine sulfate is 50-91 mg/
beneath the surface; I run the drip system until kg. Testing in 1977–78 showed Treflan-related
there is a solid, thin blanket of water across the patacellular carcinoma (cancer) in female mice,
but the Treflan formula used was contaminated
surface.” No long run times are required because by nitrosamines, which are now kept, according
the feeding root hairs of lawns, trees and shrubs to DowElanco, “well below 0.5 ppm.” According
occupy only the upper 12 to 24 inches of soil. to a DowElanco spokesperson, out of eight
subsequent tests, only one, at the relatively high
rate of >4000 ppm dermal exposure for rats,
“showed a possible cancer potential for people.”
In-
Treflan®, Not for Organic Gardeners

Treflan® is a relatively benign, but by no means

“organic,” chemical that’s been around for 30-

Subsurface Drip Irrigation 145

Line Drip Hose Resources:

You may have to look around for a supplier of

in-line tubing. Check in the Yellow Pages under
Irrigation Systems and Equipment. Or, contact the
following manufacturers:

The Techline™ in-line emitter tubing (pressure

compensating, without Treflan®, my personal
choice) is distributed to the trade by: Netafim™,
3025 East Hamilton, Fresno, CA 93721;
1-(800) 777-6541. Call to find out the distributor
closest to you, who will probably tell you of local
retail outlets. Or, check out their Web site:
http://netafimusa.com. Click “Landscape & Turf”
under the header “Divisions.” Scroll down to the
“Support & Services” box and click on “Where
to Buy.” Type in your zip code, and you’ll get
a list of local retail and wholesale suppliers.
(www.netafim.com is the international site for
access to Netafim™ products anywhere in the
world.)

GEOFLOW™ Dripline with Rootguard® (pressure

compensating, with Treflan®) is distributed to the
trade by: GEOFLOW, 200 Gate 5 Road, #103,
Sausalito, CA 94966; 1-(800) 828-3388, or (415)
927-6000, (http://geoflow.com) Call to find out
about distributors, and, if you’re nervous about
installing the tubing yourself, how to contact
SDI irrigation contractors in your area. There
also is a technical PDF download about design,
installation, and maintenance

Toro Company (http://www.toroag.com ) sells

their pressure-compensating in-line tubing
with Rootguard® (Treflan®) to landscapers
as “DL2000”. They also have a line called
Drip In® Classic (with Rootguard®, Treflan®),
which is marketed to farmers but will work for
homeowners, Toro Company doesn’t offer tubing
with a 12-inch emitter spacing, only 18 inches
and up. You can get a detailed design “manual”
for SDI by going to http://www.toroag.com and
print the PDF file.

146
 Appendix #2
Legumes to Improve Your Soil

I f you have less than desirable soil for a no-till

garden, green manuring for a number of years
can really improve the soil. Green manuring is
At least once each spring, plant a cover crop—
which is to become a green manure—and wait
until it is about four- to six-inches high. Then,
a term used to subscribe the practice of digging till it under with a garden fork or rototill. Or
or turning fresh green plants into the soil to better yet, sow and till under several crops of
improve its quality, fertility, and structure, a time- green manures in one season to really give your
honored cultivating “tool.” If your soil is too garden’s soil a boost. You can use the list below
clayey, green manures can improve it, both by the to choose a crop to plant in the fall for tilling
soil-loosening action of the living plants’ roots under in the spring—although the tops may have
and then by the addition of the tilled-in foliage. to be cut in order to have only enough stubble to
Green manures can also add fiber and nutrients make the crop easy to till under. (The tops go off
to a sandy soil, increasing its ability to hold onto to the compost pile or an area already under no-
moisture and nutrients. till practices.)

If you choose to till or dig your garden in your

usual way, planting some of the garden with
a green manure crop—usually composed of a
T he optimal time to till under a green manure
crop of nitrogen-fixing legumes (for a
subsequent crop) is just before the blooms appear.
mixture of grasses, grains, and legumes—will The conscientious green manurer must “sacrifice”
help provide nitrogen, phosphorus, and many beautiful blossoms for the optimal amount of
micronutrients to the soil. Rotate where you nitrogen.
plant the green manure crop so the entire garden
will get the advantage of the nutrients and the I was visiting a friend one year when almost one
additional fiber—sort of like a buried compost third of their front yard had crimson clover in
pile. However you use green manure, it’s close full, glorious hot-red bloom. I timidly mentioned
to free fertilizer—not counting the cost of a few that the best effect for nitrogen occurs prior to
seeds and plenty of elbow grease. bloom, or up to 20 percent of bloom. “Yes,” he
replied, “I won’t get as much nitrogen, but look
If the plant matter is turned into the soil when how absolutely gorgeous the bloom is! I don’t
the plants are fresh, green, and high in nitrogen, mind giving up a bit of the nitrogen for the floral
then the soil bacteria can easily and readily display. Besides, Crimson Clover has a decent
decompose the plant tissues. One of the premier amount of nitrogen to spare, and my soil isn’t in
virtues of green manures is that the plant matter horrible shape.” Good choice.
decomposes so quickly that you can plant soon

I
after tilling it into the soil. Usually, the prudent f you already have a healthy crop of
gardener need only wait two to four weeks in leguminous plants or vegetables, you can skip
warm weather after tilling under a green manure the addition of any type of phosphorus. Once
before transplanting or seeding. legumes begin to grow, they accumulate plenty
of phosphorus themselves and don’t require

Legumes to Improve Your Soil 147

supplemental phosphorus fertilizer. If you keep
tilling your legumes under, the phosphorus ü Field Peas: Spring sowing in cold
content of the soil will also increase. climates, fall planting in warm winter
zones.

M ost legumes prefer not to grow in an acid

soil. Take a soil test and adjust the pH to
6.5 to 7.
ü Lupines: Thrive on acid soil low in
fertility.

Most legume seeds will thrive even more if ü White Clover: Very hardy. Fall plantings
they are inoculated with the correct rhizobium winter over. Don’t let this one go to seed
bacteria. Ask your supplier what inoculant is as it will become invasive. Like alfalfa,
best for the legume(s) you have chosen. Some it’s a perennial and spreads. Best left in
seeds come already coated with a thin layer of pathways and mowed on a regular basis.
inoculant. As with alfalfa, cut any spreading roots
off with a straight-back garden spade.
Here are some legumes to consider: ü Vetch, Hairy: Not winter hardy in severe
climates. Till under before seed forms or
ü Alfalfa: Has very deep roots—six or more it will become a “pest.” It twines around
feet deep—to gather micronutrients. Don’t anything it can find, including trellises
let this perennial legume get established and fences.
as it can become a perennial “weed;” till
it under before bloom so it can’t set seed.
If you want to keep this perennial, it’s best
left in pathways and mowed on a regular
basis. Watch for spreading roots, and cut
the roots off between the pathways and all
planted areas with a straight-back garden
spade on a regular basis.

ü Beans: Mung, soy, and velvet. Good for

warm soils. Plant late spring or early
summer.

ü Bur Clover: A good plant to seed in the

fall in warm winter climates. One of the
best legumes for mild climates.

ü Crimson Clover: Will grow well in

slightly acid soils. Not winter hardy north
of New Jersey. Can be planted in the fall
elsewhere.

ü Cow Pea: Withstands drought and will

tolerate some shade. Must be planted after
the soils have warmed up.

148
 Appendix #3
Searching for Tube-Grown Plants

T ube-grown plants are very hard to find from

mail-order companies. One of the best local
resources may be nurseries that grow trees and
is 500 pages and lists thousands of plants; some
common, but mostly unique or rare. Tube-grown
plants are available for many of the selections.
shrubs for revegetation programs or habitat Catalog is free.
restoration. Ask your local native plant society for
any leads for revegetation nurseries. (Of course, Greer Gardens
you’ll only get native plants; however, they are 1280 Goodpasture Island Road
the ones best suited to your microclimates.) Eugene, OR 97401
In some areas, the forest service sells small 1-(800)-548-0111
seedlings for replanting logged forests and to help www.greergardens.com
homeowners establish a native forest. Here are a In an e-mail from the nursery: “While most of the
few resources. If you can’t find tube stock locally plants we sell are gallon-size or larger, we also
or through the mail, go for 4” pots whose roots supply some plants in small containers, mostly
aren’t “pot-bound.” 4”. We ship very little that is true bare-root,
though we do take most of the plants out of
Digging Dog Nursery containers and put them in plastic bags to save
P.O. Box 471 weight and space.”
Albion, CA 95410
Phone (707) 937-1130 Itasca Greenhouse
Fax (707) 937-2480 P.O. Box 273
www.diggingdog.com Cohasset, MN 55721
They carry a wide selection of hard-to-find 1-(800)-538-TREE
perennials. But, they also have some unusual (218) 328-6261
trees—such as the Dove Tree ((Davidia igtrees@northernnet.com
involucrata). Catalog is $4. Sells both native and exotic species of trees
and shrubs by mail in 2.3 cubic in. and 3.7
Forest Farm, Ray and Peg Prag cubic in. soil “plugs” (like tubes) and various
990 Tetherow Rd. other small containers. Prices vary according to
Williams, OR 97544-9599 volume. Also lists a good set of supplies to assist
(541) 846-9230 your purchases’ growth, including mycorrhizal
From their Web site (www.forestfarm.com) inoculants. Catalog is free.
“Tubes for most woody plants are as deep as a
gallon can (6”) but approx. 2”x 2” wide, making Plants of the Wild
them much lighter (about less than a pound) P.O. Box 866
to ship. Tubes for some perennials and many Tekoa, WA 99033
woodland trees (if they’re surface-rooted) are Phone (509) 284-2848
only 4–5” deep and some tubes are plastic, rather Fax (509) 284-6464
than paper. The plant tops can vary between 3” plants@eznet.com
and 3’, but are generally 6–18”.” Their catalog

Searching for Tube-Grown Plants 149

www.plantsofthewild.com

Offers a wide selection of trees and shrubs

native to the country in 4 cubic in. or 10 cubic
in. “plugs” (like tubes) and 3 in. pots. Also lists
wildflowers and bunchgrasses. Catalog is free.

150 Searching for Tube-Grown Plants

 Appendix #4
A Short List of Shrubs

T hose marked * can also develop into tree

form. Most have more than one species
and/or variety. So I skipped using the “spp.” so it
won’t be boring.
• Ephedra (Ephedra)
• Abelia (Abelia) • Erica (Heath)
• Arctostaphylos (Manzanita) * • Eriobotrya (Loquat) *
• Aronia (Chokeberry) • Escallonia (Escallonia)
• Artemisia (Sagebrush) • Eucryphia (Eucryphia) *
• Berberis (Barberry) • Euonymus (Spindle) *
• Buddleja (Butterfly Bush) • Forsythia (Forsythia)
• Buxus (Box) * • Franklinia (Franklinia) *
• Callistemon (Bottlebrush) * • Fremontodendron (Flannel bush)
• Calluna (Heather) • Fuchsia (Fuchsia) *
• Calycanthus (Spice bush) • Garrya (Silk-tassel) *
• Camellia (Camellia) * • Gaultheria (Salal)
• Caragana (Pea tree) * • Grevillea (Grevillea)*
• Carpenteria (Carpenteria) • Hamamelis (Witch hazel) *
• Caryopteris (Bluebird) • Hebe (Hebe)
• Ceanothus (Ceanothus) * • Helianthemum (Rockrose)
• Ceratostigma (Plumbago) • Hibiscus (Hibiscus) *
• Cercocarpus (Mountain mahogany) * • Hippophae (Sea buckthorn) *
• Chaenomeles (Japanese quince) • Hoheria (Lacebark) *
• Chionanthus (Fringe tree) * • Hydrangea (Hydrangea)
• Choisya (Mexican-orange Blossom) * • Hypericum (Rose of Sharon)
• Cistus (Rockrose) • Ilex (Holly) *
• Clethra (Summersweet, Sweet Pepperbush) * • Jasminum (Jasmine)
• Cornus (Dogwood) * • Juniperus (Juniper) *
• Corylopsis (Winter hazel) * • Kalmia (Mountain laurel)
• Cotinus (Smoketree) * • Kolkwitzia (Beautybush)
• Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster) * • Lagerstroemia (Crape myrtle) *
• Crataegus (Hawthorn) * • Lavandula (Lavender) a sub-shrub
• Crinodendron (Crinodendron) * • Lavatera (Tree Mallow)
• Daboecia (Irish heath) • Lespedeza (Bush Clover) *
• Daphne (Daphne) • Leptospermum (Manuka) *
• Dendromecon (Bush Poppy) • Ligustrum (Privet) *
• Deutzia (Deutzia) • Lindera (Spicebush) *
• Elaeagnus (Elaeagnus) * • Linnaea (Twinflower)
• Embothrium (Chilean fire bush) * • Lupinus ( Lupine)

A Short List of Shrubs 151

• Lycium (Boxthorn)
• Magnolia (Magnolia)*
• Mahonia (Mahonia)
• Myrica (Bayberry) *
• Myricaria (Myricaria)
• Myrtus and allied genera (Myrtle) *
• Osmanthus (Osmanthus)
• Pachysandra (Pachysandra)
• Perovskia (Russian Sage)
• Philadelphus (Mock-orange) *
• Phlomis (Jerusalem Sage)
• Photinia (Photinia)
• Pieris (Pieris)
• Pittosporum (Pittosporum)
• Potentilla (Cinquefoil)
• Pyracantha (Firethorn)
• Rhamnus (Buckthorn) *
• Rhododendron (Rhododendron, Azalea) *
• Ribes (Currant)
• Romneya (Tree poppy)
• Rosa (Rose)
• Rosmarinus (Rosemary)
• Rubus (Bramble)
• Sambucus (Elderberry)
Elderberry) *
Elder
• Santolina (Lavender cotton)
• Senecio (Senecio)
• Sophora (Mescalbean) *
• Spiraea (Spiraea) *
• Symphoricarpos (Snowberry)
• Syringa (Lilac) *
• Vaccinium (Bilberry,huckle
Bilberry
Bilberry,huckleberry, foxberry)
berry
• Viburnum (Viburnum) *

152
 Appendix #5
More Trees That Can Also Grow in Lawns
Common Name Latin Name

Trident Maple Acer buergeranum

Box Elder Acer negundo

Red Buckeye Aesculus pavia

Australian Flame Tree Brachychiton acerifolius

Common Hackberry Celtis occidentalis

Eastern Redbud Cercis canadensis

Deodar Cedar Cedrus deodara

Brush Cherry Eugenia spp.

Ash Fraxinus americana

‘Autumn’ Purple’ (seedless)

Gingko, Maiden Hair Tree Ginkgo bilboa

Goldenrain Tree Koelreuteria paniculata

Crape Myrtle (one of the new mildew-resistant cultivars) Lagerstroemia spp.

Crab Apple Malus x ‘Robinson’

Flowering Crab Apple Malus floribunda

Ornamental/Chinese Pistache Pistachia chinensis

Fern Pine Podocarpus gracilior

Flowering Cherry Prunus ‘Okame’

English Laurel Prunus laurocerasus

More Trees Which Can Also Grow in Lawns 153

Holly Oak Quercus ilex

Red Oak, Northern Red Oak Quercus rubra

Chinese Scholar or Japanese Pagoda Tree Sophora japonica

Oriental Arborvitae Thuja orientalis

154 More Trees Which Can Also Grow in Lawns

 Appendix #6
Some Trees and Shrubs Susceptible to
Phytophthora cinnamoni and P. lateralis
Reprinted with permission of The Scotts Company, LLC

Abies spp. – Fir. Larix spp.– Larch

Acacia spp. – Acacia Laurus noblis – Sweet bay

Arctostaphylos spp. – Manzanita Myrtus communis – Myrtle

Calluna vulgaris – Scotch heather Olea europea – Olive

Camellia japonica – Camellia Picea spp. – Spruce

Castanea spp. – Chestnut Pieris spp. – Andromeda

Casuarina spp. – Beefwood, She oak Pinus spp. – Pine

Ceanothus spp. – Wild lilac, Tick brush Pittosporum spp. – Mock orange

Cedrus spp. – Cedar Platanus spp. – Sycamore

Chamaecpyaris spp. – False cypress Pseudotsuga menziesii – Douglas fir

Daphne spp. – Daphne Quercus spp. – Oak

Erica spp. – Heath Rhododendron spp. – Rhododendron, Azalea

Eucalyptus spp. – Eucalyptus Salix spp. – Willow

Fastia japonica – Japanese aralia Sequoia sempervirens – Coastal redwood

Hibiscus spp. – Hibiscus Taxodium distichum – Bald cypress

Hypericum spp. – St. John’s Wort Taxus spp. – Yew

Juglans spp. – Walnut Thuja spp. – Arborvitae

Juniperus spp. – Juniper Viburnum spp. – Viburnum

Some Trees and Shrubs Susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamoni and P. lateralis 155
Fruit Trees Susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamoni and P. lateralis
Apricot

Avocado

Blueberry, Highbush (Rabbiteye is resistant)

Cherry

Citrus

Peach

Pear

Resistant Trees and Shrubs:

Camellia sasanqua – Camellia

Chamaecyparis nootkatensis – Alaska cypress

Chamaecyparis pisifera var. filifera – Sawara

Chamaecyparis thyoides – White cedar

Daphne cneorum – Rock daphne

Juniperus chinensis ‘Pfitzerana’ – Pftizer’s juniper

Juniperus sabina – Savin juniper

Juniperus squamata ‘Meyeri’ – Meyer juniper

Pinus mugo var. mugo – Mugo pine

Rhododendron obtusum – Hiryus azalea

Thuja occidentalis – Arborvitea

156 Some Trees and Shrubs Susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamoni and P. lateralis
 d Bibliography d

Alexander, Martin. Introduction to Soil Microbiology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961.

Alth, Max. How to Farm Your Backyard the Mulch-Organic Way. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1977.

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Bibliography 159
 organisms (biota) clay, 13, 14, 15, 16, 142
bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), Clements, Frederic E., 31
d INDEX d 14 clover, 148
b-in-b (balled-in-burlap or sometimes Coastal redwood (Sequoia
Note: Page numbers in italic indicate called B&B) nursery stock, 122- sempervirens), 118, 155
an illustration. 123, 125, 126, 127 cocoa bean hulls, 57
A Banksia priionotes, 103 colloidal phosphate, 48
Acer (maple) bare-root nursery stock, 123–124 Colorado blue spruce ((Picea pungens
A. platanoides ‘Superform’ (Norway beans, 11, 55–57, 148 ‘Glauca’), 84
maple), 110 beets, 53 Column juniper ((Juniperus chinensis
A. rubrum ‘Franksred’ (Red maple), Bermuda grass, 24, 25–26, 33 ‘Columnaris’), 119
110 biodynamic/French intensive (BFI) Common hackberry (Celtis
A. saccharinum (Silver maple), 110, gardening, 69 occidentalis), 117
113, 130 biota. See soil organisms (biota) compost
A. saccharum (Sugar maple), 85, Black alder ((Alnus glutinosa), 117 finished v. unfinished, 16–17
103, 110, 114 blood meal, 47–48 importance of, 10–11
actinomycetes, soil populations of, 15 bloodtwig dogwood (Cornus sericea), mounds, 70–71
active transport, 7 114 Quick Return inoculant, 67
aerobic intermittent irrigation, 28–29 Brady, Nyle, 14 sheet composting, 69–70
Aesculus pavia (Native buckeye), 119 Brooks, J. Renee, 104 straw-bale bins, 67
aggregates, 13 Buchloe dactyloides (buffalo grass), symphylans in, 17
air-pruning, 62, 88–89 31–34, 32 container-grown plants, 88–90, 121
Albers, Raymond, 28 Buckman, Harry, 14 122, 127
Alexander, Martin, 101 buffalo grass ((Buchloe dactyloides), corn, 11, 45, 45–49, 46
alfalfa, 2, 5, 91, 91, 93, 148 31–34, 32 Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), 108
algae, soil populations of, 15, 22 bulbs, 7 Cornus
allelopathy, 115 bur clover, 148 C. mas (Cornelian cherry), 108
Allium cepa (onion), 53, 53–54 Burgess, Stephen, 103 C. sericea (bloodtwig dogwood),
alluvial fan, 69 buying trees and shrubs. See nursery 114
Alnus glutinosa (Black alder), 117 stock cow pea, 148
American arborvitae (Thuja crab apple (Malus spp.), 109, 118
occidentalis), 110 C Craul, Phillip J., 100
American hornbeam (Ostrya cabbage, 7, 43, 43–44 Creasy, Rosalind, 50
virginiana), 109 carbon dioxide, 68 crimson clover, 147, 148
American sycamore ((Platanus cardboard mulch, 21 crown of the root system, 8, 9
occidentalis), 111 Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’ crown rot and root rot ((Phytophthora
anti-siphon devices (backflow (European hornbeam), 108 spp.), 20, 129, 155–156
preventers), 139, 139–140 carrots, 41, 41–42 cucumbers, 2
apical meristem (primary meristem), Carya illinoensis (pecan), 119 cultivation
5, 6 cauliflower, 7, 43, 43–44 hoes, 46, 47, 53, 67
apical (tip) bud, 5 Cedrus spp. (cedar), 86 root crops, 53
Arboriculture: (Harris, Clark, Celtis occidentalis (Common surface cultivation, 46, 47, 65–68 66
Matheny), 78, 124, 125 hackberry), 117 as unnatural, 68–69
Artemisia tridentata, 2 Cercis canadensis (Eastern redbud), Cupressus macrocarpa (Monterey
ash. See Fraxinus 117 cypress), 89
asparagus, 39, 39–40 Cercocarpus montanus (Mountain cutworms, 44
Azotobacter croccoceum (nitrogen- mahogany), 37
fixing bacteria), 67 Chadwick, Alan, 69 D
Chase, J. H. L., 65, 66 Dave Wilson Nursery (Hickman, CA),
B Chinese pistache ((Pistacia chinensis), 123
backflow preventers (anti-siphon 109, 118 Dawson, Todd, 103, 105
devices), 139, 139–140, 143 Chinese scholar tree (Sophora DDT, 18
bacteria, 15, 15, 22. See also soil japonica ‘Violacea’), 118 diabrotica (spotted cucumber) beetle,
Clark, James R., 78 52

Index 161
dibble, 57, 58 F. pennsylvanica (White green ash), Henningson Circle Hoe, 46, 47, 53
double digging, 69 85 Hill, Lewis, 123
Douglas fir ((Pseudotsuga menziessii), fruit trees hoes, 46, 47, 53, 67–68
83, 85, 85, 104 basic components, 73, 73–75, 74
drainage, 25 buying (See nursery stock) Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos),
driveways. See hardscape irrigation, 76–78, 78, 79, 80–81, 81 85, 108, 117
duff, 14, 90, 95, 115–116 effects of fertilizer, 80 horizontal roots. See lateral root
dust mulch, 53 painting tree trunks, 133 systems
Dutch Hoe, 47, 53 planting, 129–133 How to Farm Your Backyard the
Dutch lights, 67 pruning newly planted, 135–136 Mulch-Organic Way (Alth), 65
root hairs, 74, 75 How to Grow Tree Seedlings in
E staking, 136, 136–137, 137 Containers in Greenhouses (Tinus,
earthworms, 10, 65 susceptibility to crown or root rot, McDonald), 89
Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), 156 How to Have a Green Thumb Without
117 width of root mass, 76, 76, 77 an Aching Back (Stout), 17–18
Eastern red cedar ((Juniperus fungi, soil populations of, 15, 22. See Hula Hoe, 46, 46, 47, 3
virginiana), 109 also mycorrhizae humus, 14–16
Easy, Ben, 65 hydraulically-lifted water (HLW),
ectomycorrhiza (EM), 97, 98, 99 G 103–105
Eis, S., 85 Gardening Without Work; for the
endodermis, 6, 7, 8 Aging, the Busy and the Indolent I
endomycorrhiza, 97, 98 (Stout), 39 imported nutrients, 47–49
English oak (Quercus robur garlic, 53 Intensive Gardening (O’Brien), 66–68
‘Fastigiata’), 109–110 GB, see Grow Biointensive®, 69 Introduction to Soil Microbiology
Espeleta, J. F., 104 Germone Demonstration Orchard, 77 (Alexander), 101
European beech ((Fagus sylvatica), 110 Ginkgo biloba, 108, 117 ion exchange, 15
European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus Gleditsia triacanthos (Honey locust), irrigation. See also subsurface drip
‘Fastigiata’), 108 85, 108, 117 irrigation (SDI)
evapotranspiration (ET) rates, 77–78, Golden rain tree ((Koelreuteria aerobic intermittent, 28–29
80–81, 81, 116–118, 144–145 paniculata), 109, 118 amounts based on evapotranspiration
exudates (excretions), 8, 10, 11 gophers, 27, 132, 142 (ET) rates, 77–78, 80–81, 81,
Gosling, Doug, 51–52 116–118, 144–145
F grape pumice, 18 beyond the dripline, 85–86
Fagus sylvatica (European beech), 110 grasses. See lawns drip irrigation for fruit trees, 76–78,
fertilizing and fertilizers. See also Great Basin sagebrush, 103 78, 79, 80
compost; mulches Green ash ((Fraxinus pennsylvanica), lawns, 25, 25–29, 33–34
beyond the dripline/foliage 86 108 lawns with trees, 116–118
perimeter, 60, 85–86 green manures, 48, 49, 54, 147–148 measuring, 28
effect on fruit trees, 80 Grow Biointensive®, 69 mulch and, 19
green manures, 48, 54, 147–148 soil structure and, 25
imported nutrients, 47–49 H water absorption, 91, 91–93, 94
lawns with trees, 118–119 hairy vetch, 148
phosphorus, 10, 48, 53–54, 97, Hansen, Dennis, 142, 145 J
147–148 hardscape Jacaranda mimosifolia, 118
at planting time, 130, 131, 132 expansion joints, 107 Jack pine, 87
fibrous roots, 8, 9 trees compatible with paved areas, Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora
field pea, 148 107–110 japonica ‘Violacea’), 118
flea beetles, 52 trees incompatible with paved areas, Japanese zelkova (Zelkova serrata),
footprinting effect, 29 110–111, 113–116 118
Foxx, Teralene S., 35 Harris, Richard W., 78, 89, 124, 136 Jeavons, John, 69
Fraxinus (ash) hay and straw mulches, 18–19 Jorgensen, Greg, 142, 145
F. americana (White ash), 110 hay-bale culture, 70 Juniperus
F. pennsylvanica (Green ash), 108 heaving, 107 J. chinensis ‘Columnaris’ (Column
hemlock (Tsuga spp.), 86 juniper), 119

162 Index
 J. monosperma, 2 M ‘Superform’), 110
J. scopulorum ‘Skyrocket’ (Rocky Magnolia no-till gardening, 65, 68–71
Mountain juniper), 108–109 M. grandiflora (Southern magnolia), nursery stock
85, 111 Balled-in-Burlap (B&B), 122–124,
J. virginiana (Eastern red cedar ), M. ‘Little Gem’, 111 125, 126, 127
109 M. stellata (Star magnolia), 119 bare-root, 123–124
Maingay, Helga, 123 container-grown, 88–90, 121–122,
K Malus (crab apple), 109, 118 27
kidney bean ((Phaseolus vulgaris), 55, maple. See Acer spp. pot-bound (root-bound), 88, 121,
56 Matheny, Nelca P., 78 135–137
Koelreuteria paniculata (Golden rain McCulley, R. L., 104 selection criteria, 121
tree), 109, 118 McDonald, Stephen, 89 size of, 88, 124–125, 126, 127
Kolesnikov, V. A., 73–75, 76 meristem, 5, 6 tap roots and conventional
Krasilnikov, N. A., 5 Merrill, Richard, 14 containers, 86–88
mesclun, 50, 51–52 tube-shaped containers, 88–90, 89
L mesquite tree ((Prosopis glandulos), nutrient-release process, 15
The Landscape Below Ground (Perry), 91, 93
89-90 microbes, soil. See soil organisms O
landslides, 69 (biota) oak. See Quercus spp.
lateral root systems, 7–8, 9, 10, 83, Miller, M. H., 99 oblique roots, 8, 9, 83
86, 87 mineral particles, 13, 14 O’Brien, Rosa Dalziel, 66–68
lavender, 24, 118 monocots, 8, 21 Occidental Arts and Ecology Center
lawns, 23–29 Monterey cypress (Cupressus (OAEC), 51, 52
buffalo grass for, 32–34 macrocarpa), 89 oleander ((Nerium oleander), 118
fertilizing, 118–119 mound planting, 70–71, 129–130, onion ((Allium cepa), 53, 53–54
irrigation, 25, 25–29, 116–118 130–132, 131, 133 onion hoe (“scrapper”), 46, 53, 67–68
[See also subsurface drip irrigation Mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus organic matter, 13–14. See also
(SDI)] montanus), 37 compost; duff; mulches
maintenance needed, 23 mulches, 17–21. See also specific osmotic pressure, 7
mowing, aerating, de-thatching, 26 plants Ostrya virginiana (American
organic, 29 beyond the dripline, 86 hornbeam), 109
soil structure and, 24–25 cardboard mulch, 21
trees incompatible with, 113–116, cocoa bean hulls, 57 P
turf grass roots, 23, 24, 25–26 grape pumice, 18 painting tree trunks, 133
zoysia grass, 24, 26 newspaper, 19, 20–21, 57 Parrotia persica (Persian parrotia),
legumes, 49, 54, 55, 147–148 mulching mowers, 26 109
lettuce, 50, 50–52 mucigel, 5 paths, 17, 95
lima bean, 55, 57 mutualism, 97 patios. See hardscape
Linden, Dennis, 65 mycorrhizae, 97–101 pea ((Pisum sativum), 11, 55, 55–57
Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweet gum), Mycorrhiza Information Exchange pecan (Carya illinoensis), 119
99, 110–111, 113 (Sylvia), 100 peppers, 59, 59
Liriodendron tulipifera (Tulip tree), perennial ryegrass, 24, 26, 115
110 N pericycle, 6, 7
Little leaf linden (Tilia cordata), 110 Native buckeye ((Aesculus pavia), 119 Perry, Thomas O., 92, 89–90.
loam soils, 16 Natural Root Forms of Western Persian parrotia ((Parrotia persica),
Lombardy poplar ((Populus nigra Conifers (Eis), 85 109
‘Italica’), 114 The Nature and Properties of Soils pests
London planetree (Platanus × (Buckman, Brady), 14 cutworms, 44
acerifolia), 111, 113–114 Nerium oleander (oleander), 118 diabrotica (spotted cucumber)
Los Alamos National Laboratory newspaper mulch, 19, 20–21, 57 beetle, 52
research papers, 35–36, 37 nitrogen, 47–48 flea beetles, 52
lupine, 10, 11, 148 nitrogen-fixing bacteria ((Azotobacter gophers, 27, 132, 142
croccoceum), 67 mulching and, 17, 19
Norway maple ((Acer platanoides root and crown maggots, 44, 52

Index 163
 symphylans in compost, 17 Q width of root mass, 76, 76, 77
phosphate, 47, 48, 54 Quercus spp. (oak) width vs. depth, 92
phosphorus, 48, 53–54, 97, 147–148 Q. coccinea (Scarlet oak), 109 The Root System of Fruit Trees
photosynthesis, 5, 7 Q. palustris (Pin oak), 109, 118 Kolesnikov), 73
Q. phellos (Willow oak), 109 Russell, E. W., 54
Phytophthora spp. (root rot, crown rye, 2, 23
rot), 20, 129, 155–156 Q. robur ‘Fastigiata’ (English oak), ryegrass, 23, 24, 26, 115
phytoremediation, 11 109–110
Picea (spruce), 87, 94, 115 Q. rubra (Red oak), 118 S
P. pungens ‘Glauca’ (Colorado blue Q. turbinella (shrub live oak), 37 salad mixes, 50, 51
spruce), 84 Quick Return compost activator Salix spp., 114, 118
P. sitchensis (Sitka spruce), 87 (QR.), 67 S. babylonica (Weeping willow), 111
Pin oak (Quercus palustris), 109, 118 sand, 13, 16
Pinus (pine) R Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), 109
Jack pine, 87, 87 rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), Schulte, Joseph, 130
P. ponderosa (Ponderosa pine), 104 37 “scrapper” (onion hoe), 46, 53, 67–68
Pistacia chinensis (Chinese pistache), raised beds, 17, 69 SDI. See subsurface drip irrigation
109, 118 Red maple ((Acer rubrum ‘Franksred’), (SDI)
Pisum sativum (pea), 55, 55–57 110 secondary roots, 8.See also lateral
Plant Ecology (Weaver, Clements), 31 Red oak (Quercus rubra), 118 roots
planting trees and shrubs, 129–133 region of cell division, 6, 7 seedlings, 5, 59, 62, 63
effects of amendments, 130 region of elongation, 6, 7 Sequoia sempervirens (Coastal
mound planting, 70–71, 129– region of maturation, 6, 7 redwood), 118
30,130–132, 131, 133 rhizosphere region, 8, 10, 11 sheet composting, 18, 69–70
root-bound, 135–137 rhubarb, 60, 60–61 Shigo, Alex, 129–130
from tube containers, 132 Richards, James, 103 shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella),
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half Rocky Mountain juniper ((Juniperus 37
(Waisel), 99 scopulorum ‘Skyrocket’), 108–109 shrubs, 35–37. See also nursery stock
Platanus spp. Rodale Press, 10 definition, 35
P. × acerifolia (London planetree), root-bound (pot-bound) nursery stock, incompatible with lawns, 114
111, 113–114 8, 121, 135–137 list of, 151–152
P. occidentalis (American root cap, 5, 6 maintenance requirements, 36–37
sycamore), 111 root grafting, 83, 87 planting, 129–133
pollution, root exudates and, 11 root hairs, 6, 7, 8, 75 resistance to crown or root rot, 156
polysaccharides, 14 root maggots, 44, 52 root systems, 35–36, 37
Populus spp. (poplar), 84, 111 root rot and crown rot ((Phytophthora sidewalks. See hardscape
P. generosa, 84 spp.), 20, 129, 155–156 silt, 13
P. n. ‘Italica’ (Lombardy poplar), roots, 1–2. See also specific plants Silver maple ((Acer saccharinum), 110,
14 air pruning, 88–89 113, 130
pore space (pore structure), 14, 16, 28 dead and decaying, 10, 68, 75 sinkers, 8, 9, 83–84
pot-bound (root-bound) nursery stock, exudates (excretions), 8, 10, 11 Sitka spruce ((Picea sitchensis), 87
88, 121, 135–137 feeding and water absorption depths, Skeleton Method of root research, 74
prairie fauna and ecology, 31–34 90–93, 90–94 soil
primary meristem (apical meristem), and formation of chlorophyll and aeration, 14, 28–29, 67–68, 95
5, 6 other leaf substances, 75 building from top down, 18, 68
primary roots, 8 importance of air, 14, 28–29, 95 compaction, 16, 17, 95
propane torches, 21–22, 22 laterals, 7–8, 9, 10, 83, 86, 87 drainage, 25
Prosopis glandulos (mesquite tree oblique, 8, 9, 83 duff layer, 14, 90 90, 95, 115–116
91, 93 parts of, 5–7, 6 green manures, 48, 54, 147–148
protozoa, 22 pests of, 17 innoculating with mycorrhizal fungi,
Pseudotsuga menziessii (Douglas fir), sinkers, 8, 9, 83–84 100–101
83, 85, 85, 88, 104 as support, 83–84 nutrients and shallow soil zones, 90,
taproots, 8, 59, 63, 87–89 90–91
types of, 7–8, 9, 83–84 structure, 13–16, 24–25

164 Index
 texture, 13 Thuja occidentalis (American W
tilling, 65, 68–69 arborvitae), 110 Waisel, Yoav, 99
soil-core sampler tool, 23, 25 Tierne, Gail D., 35 walnut, 85, 85
soil organisms (biota), 13, 14–15, Tilia cordata (Littleleaf linden), 110 watering. See irrigation
15, 22 Tinus, Richard, 89
Solomon, Steve, 42 tomatoes, 62, 62–63 Water Use Classification of Landscape
Sphora japonica ‘Violacea’ (Chinese Trees, native and ornamental, 83–95 Species (WUCOLS List), 117–118
scholar tree, Japanese pagoda tree), See also fruit trees Water-Wise Vegetables (Solomon), 42
118 buying (See nursery stock) Weaver, John, 31–34, 40, 41, 43, 44,
Southern magnolia (Magnolia compatible with lawns, 114–119 45–46, 47, 53, 55–57, 59, 60, 62
grandiflora), 111 compatible with paved areas, 107– weeds
Speedling Tray™, 62, 63 110 mulches, 18, 20, 21
spotted cucumber (diabrotica) beetle, contribution to topsoil moisture, propane torches, 21–22, 22
52 103–105 surface cultivation, 67–68
spruce. See Picea spp. incompatible with lawns, 113–114, Weeping willow (Salix babylonica),
St. Augustine grass, 24, 26 116 111
Star magnolia (Magnolia stellata), 119 incompatible with paved areas, Whitcomb, Carl, 122, 129, 130
Stout, Ruth, 17–18, 39, 65 110–111 White ash ((Fraxinus americana), 110
straw and hay mulches, 18–19 and lawn fertilizers, 118–119 white clover, 148
straw-bale compost bins, 67 mulching, 115–116 White green ash ((Fraxinus
straw-bale food cultivation, 70 nutrients and water absorption and pennsylvanica), 85
subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), 26, shallow soil zones, 90–93, 90–93 white roots, 8
28, 27, 139–146 painting tree trunks, 133 willow. See Salix spp.
air vacuum relief valves, 27, 143–144 planting, 129–133, 133 Willow oak (Quercus phellos), 109
backflow preventers (anti-siphon pruning newly planted, 135–136 woody roots, 8
devices), 139, 139–140, 143 resistance to crown or root rot, 156 Woolley, Robert, 123
emitters with Treflan™, 145, 146 staking, 136, 136–137, 137
filters, 140 suitable for lawns, 153–154 X
horizontal placement, 141–142 susceptibility to crown or root rot, xylem, 6, 7
in-line emitters, 140, 140–141 155
line-flushing valve, 143, 144 watering, fertilizing and Y
main assembly, 139 mulching, 86, 95, 116–118 Yucca spp., 118
pressure- and non-pressure width of root systems, 83–85, 84,
compensating emitters, 141 85, 86, 92 Z
resources, 146 Treflan® emitters, 145, 146 Zelkova serrata (Sawleaf Zelkova),
tubing depth, 142 Tricalcium phosphate, 8 118
tubing layout, 142, 143 Tsuga spp. (hemlock), 86 zoysia grass, 24, 26
water amounts and timing, 144–145 tube-grown plants, sources, 149–150
Sugar maple ((Acer saccharum), 85, tubers, 7
103, 110, 114 tube-shaped containers, 88, 89, 132
sunburn, 133 Tulip tree ((Liriodendron tulipifera),
surface cultivation, 46, 47, 65–68 110
Sweet gum ((Liquidambar styraciflua), turf grasses, 23, 24, 25–26, 115
99, 110–111, 113 turnips, 2, 53
Sylvia, David, 99, 100
symphylans, 17 V
Vaccinium spp. (blueberry), 37
T vegan (no manure gardening), 68
taproots, 8, 59, 62, 87–90 vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza
Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), (VAM), 97, 98, 99
114 vetch, 67, 69,148
Thornless common honey locust Volk, Tyler, 68
(Gleditsia triacanthos Vossen, Paul, 77
‘Shademaster’), 108

Index 165