R.V.S.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaipahari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 01

Name of the Experiment: - Introduction and use of measuring Instruments & circuit
elements (R, L, C)

Objective: -
a) To study the operation and use of measuring instruments used in the laboratory-
Voltmeter, Ammeter, Multimeter and oscilloscope.
b) To study the different types of resistors, inductors and capacitors that can be used in a
circuit.

Theory: -
1. Voltmeter
Definition- The instrument which measures the voltage or potential difference in volts
is known as the voltmeter.
Symbolic Representation of voltmeter
The voltmeter is represented by the alphabet V inside the circle along with the two
terminals.

Connection of Voltmeter
The voltmeter is constructed in such a manner that their internal resistance always
remains high. If it is connected in series with the circuit, it minimises the current which
flows because of the measured voltage. Thus, disturb the reading of the voltmeter.
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit so that the same voltage
drop occurs across it. The high resistance of the voltmeter combines with the impedance
of the element across which it is connected. Thus, no obstruction occurs in the circuit
because of the voltmeter, and the meter gives the correct reading.

Types of Voltmeter
The voltmeter is classified into three ways. The classification of the voltmeter is shown
in the figure below.
 On the basis of the construction, the voltmeter is of the following types.
PMMC Voltmeter
The PMMC voltmeter uses for DC measurement. The accuracy of the instrument is
very high and having low power consumption. The only disadvantage of the instrument
is that it is very costly. The range of the PMMC voltmeter increases by connecting the
resistance in series with it.
MI Voltmeter
The MI instrument means moving iron instrument. This instrument uses for the
measurement of both the AC and DC voltage. The moving iron instrument is classified
into two types.
 Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
 Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument
Electro-dynamometer Voltmeter
The electro-dynamometer voltmeter is used for measuring the voltage of both AC and
DC circuit. In this type of instruments, the calibration is same both for the AC and DC
measurement.
Rectifier voltmeter
Such type of instrument is used in AC circuits for voltage measurement. The rectifier
instrument converts the AC quantity into the DC quantity by the help of the
rectifier. And then the DC signal is measured by the PMMC instrument.
The following are the classification of instruments regarding the displays of output
reading.
Analogue Voltmeter
It displays the reading through the pointer which is fixed on the calibrated scale. The
deflection of the pointer depends on the torque acting on it. The magnitude of the
develops torque is directly proportional to the measuring voltage.
Digital Voltmeter
The voltmeter which displays the reading in the numeric form is known as the digital
voltmeter. The digital voltmeter gives the accurate result.

Voltmeter can also be classified based on the supply of the circuit to be measured. The
instrument which measures the direct current is known as the DC voltmeter, and the
AC voltmeter is used in the AC circuit for alternating voltage measurement.

2. Ammeter
Definition- The meter uses for measuring the current is known as the ammeter. The
current is the flow of electrons whose unit is ampere. Hence the instrument which
measures the flows of current in ampere is known as ampere meter or ammeter.
Symbolic Representation
The capital alphabet A represents the ammeter in the circuit.

Connection of Ammeter in Circuit

The ammeter is connected in series with the circuit so that the whole electrons of
measurand current passes through the ammeter. The power loss occurs in ammeter
because of the measurand current and their internal resistance. The ammeter circuit has
low resistance so that the small voltage drop occurs in the circuit.
 The resistance of the ammeter is kept low because of the two reasons.
 The whole measurand current passes through the ammeter.
 The low voltage drop occurs across the ammeter.

Types of Ammeter
Just like a voltmeter ammeter too can be classified in the following manner
1.Permanent moving coil ammeter.
2.Moving iron ammeter.
3.Electro-dynamometer ammeter.
4.Rectifier type ammeter.
By the current, the ammeter categorises into two types.
 AC ammeter
 DC ammeter

a. PMMC Ammeter – The PMMC ammeter used only for the measurement of the
direct current.
b. Moving Coil Ammeter (MI) – The MI ammeter measures both the alternating and
direct current.
c. Electro-dynamometer Ammeter – It is used for the measurement of both AC and
DC. The accuracy of the instrument is high as compared to the PMMC and MI
instrument. The calibration of the instrument is same both for AC and DC.
d. Rectifier Ammeter – It is used for measuring the alternating current. Such type of
instrument is used for measuring the current in the communication circuit.
The instrument which measures the DC is known as the DC ammeter and ammeter
which measures AC is known as the AC ammeter.

3. Multimeter
Definition - Multimeters as the name suggest the meters that we use to measure
multiple quantities with the same instrument. The most basic multimeter measures
voltage, current, and resistance.
Types
We can categorise the multimeters into two groups, namely analog multimeter and
digital multimeter.
 Analog Multimeter
A. Advantages of Analog Multimeter
 A sudden change in signal can detect by analog multimeter more swiftly than a digital
multimeter.
 All measurements are possible by using one meter only.
 Increase or decrease in signal levels can be observed.
B. Disadvantage of Analog Multimeter
 Analog meters are bulky in size.
 They are bulky and costly.
 The pointer movement is slow, can’t be used to measure voltages with frequencies
higher than 50 HZ.
 Inaccurate due to the effect of earth magnetic field.
 They are vulnerable to shock and vibration.

Digital Multimeter
Apart from the above discussed functions, digital multimeters perform many additional
measurements by using digital and logic technology. These may include temperature,
frequency, continuity, capacitance etc.
Parts of Digital Multimeter
A multimeter is a simple but useful device which has only three parts; Display screen,
selection knob, ports.

4. Oscilloscope
Definition - An oscilloscope is one of the major tools available for testing electronic
circuitry. The oscilloscope is able to display waveforms and as a result it gives a
particularly useful view of what is happening in an electronic circuit.
Types
Oscilloscopes fall into a variety of categories. The biggest distinction is whether they
are analog or digital.
The basic working of both the analog and digital oscilloscopes are somewhat the same.
The internal components used in either of the devices are the same as well. Even the
display used in both the devices maybe the same. So, if you ever thought of an upgrade
from an analogue oscilloscope to a digital one, you could easily cope up with it.
The main use of both the oscilloscopes is to measure time-based varying signals. Time,
being one of the parameters for analysing the waveform, the signal you obtain at a
certain time period will vary. This variation is measured using the oscilloscope and the
result is to find anomalies and anomalies and noises, along with the characteristics in
it.
 The difference between an analog oscilloscope and a digital oscilloscope is that in an
analog device the waveform is shown in the original form, while a digital oscilloscope
converts the original analog waveform by sampling it and converts them into digital
numbers and then stores them in digital format. This is done by an Analog-to-Digital
converter.

5. Circuit Elements
The common elements used in an electrical circuit are resistors, inductors and
capacitors.
a. Resistor - The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit
is to “resist” (hence the name Resistor), regulate or to set the flow of electrons
(current) through them by using the type of conductive material from which
they are composed. Resistors can also be connected together in various series
and parallel combinations.

Symbol of resistor

Types
There are different types of resistors available in the market with diverse rating
and sizes. Some of these are described below.
 Wire wound resistors- They have high power rating, high stability but also
their cost is also very high. They are not suitable for low cost limited space
application.
 Carbon composition resistor- They are of the following power ratings – 18,
¼, ½, 1 and 2 W and voltage ratings of 250 V, 350 V, and 500 V. They
produce electric noise and so are used where performance requirements are
not demanding
 Metal film resistors- These resistors can be obtained in a wide range of
resistance values (from a few ohms to millions of ohms) but are of low
wattage values. They have excellent tolerance and temperature coefficient
and ae highly reliable for high grade applications.
 Deposited carbon resistors- As compared to carbon composition resistor,
these resistors are a major improvement to in lower current noise and close
tolerance. These are being replaced by metal film and metal glaze resistors.
 High voltage ink film resistors- They are capable of withstanding high
voltages and find extensive use in cathode- ray circuits, in radar and medical
electronics. Their resistances range from 1kΩ to 100,000 MΩ with voltage
range upto 1000 kV.
 Metal glaze- The value of these resistance depends on the amount of metal
in the glass mixture. They may vary from 1Ω to many mega- ohms
 Cement or ceramic metal resistors- They have very accurate resistance
values and show high stability even under extreme temperature.

Resistor Colour Code Calculation

In the above 4 bands resistor:
The first digit or band indicates, first significant figure of component.
The second digit indicates, second significant figure of component.
The third digit indicates the decimal multiplier.
 The fourth digit indicates tolerance of value in percentage.
To calculate the colour code of the above 4 band resistor,
the 4-band resistors consist of colours: yellow, violet, orange, and silver.
Yellow-4, violet-7, orange-3, silver –10% based on BBRGBVGW
The colour code value of the above resistor is 47×103 =4.7Kilo Ohms, 10%.

5 Bands Resistor Colour Code Calculation

In the above 5 bands resistors, the first three colours indicate significant
values, and the fourth and fifth colours indicate multiplying and tolerance
values. To calculate the colour code of the above 5 band resistor, 5 band
resistors consist of colours: blue, grey, black, orange, and gold.
Blue- 6, Grey- 8, Black- 0, Orange- 3, Gold- 5%
The colour code value of the above resistor is 68×103 = 6.8Kilo Ohms, 5%.

b. Inductor
Definition- An inductor is used to store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
It consists of a wire, generally twisted into a coil. When current flows through
it, energy will be stored temporarily in the coil.

Symbol

Types
Inductor classification based on core construction are as follows
 Air cored inductor: This type of inductor is normally used for RF applications
where the level of inductance required is smaller.
 Iron cored inductor: Iron cores are normally used for high power and high
inductance types of inductor. They are generally not widely used.
 Ferrite cored inductor: Ferrite is one of the most widely used cores for a
variety of types of inductor.
  Iron power inductor: Like ferrite, this provides a considerable increase in the
permeability, thereby enabling much higher inductance coils or inductors to be
manufactured in a small space.

Based on mechanical construction inductors can be classified as

 Bobbin based inductor:
 Toroidal inductor:
 Multilayer ceramic inductor:
 Film inductor:
 Coupled Inductors
 Moulded Inductors

c. Capacitor
Definition- A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in
the form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of
two conducting plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.

Symbol-

Types
There are many different types of capacitor that can be used - most of the
major types are outlined below:
 Ceramic capacitor: The ceramic capacitor is a type of capacitor that is
used in many applications from audio to RF. Values range from a few
picofarads to around 0.1 microfarads.
 Electrolytic capacitor: Electrolytic capacitors are a type of capacitor that
is polarised. They are able to offer high capacitance values - typically above
1μF, and are most widely used for low frequency applications.
 Tantalum capacitor: Like electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors are
also polarised and offer a very high capacitance level for their volume.
 Silver Mica Capacitor: Silver mica capacitors are not as widely used these
days, but they still offer very high levels of stability, low loss and accuracy
where space is not an issue. They are primarily used for RF applications and
they are limited to maximum values of 1000 pF or so.
 Polystyrene Film Capacitor: Polystyrene capacitors are a relatively cheap
form of capacitor but offer a close tolerance capacitor where needed.
 Polyester Film Capacitor: Polyester film capacitors are used where cost is
a consideration as they do not offer a high tolerance. Many polyester film
capacitors have a tolerance of 5% or 10%, which is adequate for many
applications.
 Metallised Polyester Film Capacitor: The overall capacitor can be
contained within a relatively small package. The metallised polyester film
capacitors are generally only available as leaded electronics components.
  Polycarbonate capacitor: The polycarbonate capacitors has been used in
applications where reliability and performance are critical. However, the
manufacture of polycarbonate dielectric has ceased and their production is
now very limited.
 Polypropylene Capacitor: One of the advantages of the capacitor is that
there is very little change of capacitance with time and voltage applied. This
type of capacitor is also used for low frequencies, with 100 kHz or so being
the upper limit.
 Glass capacitors: Although expensive, these capacitors offer very high
levels or performance in terms of extremely low loss, high RF current
capability, no piezo-electric noise and other features making them ideal for
many performance RF applications.
 Supercap: Also known as a supercapacitor or ultracapacitor, as the name
implies these capacitors have very large values of capacitance, of up to
several thousand Farads.

Conclusion: -
Hence the different types of circuit elements and measuring instruments has been
observed and studied.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 02

Name of the Experiment: - Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem.

Objective: - To find the value of Thevenin’s Voltage & Thevenin’s

Resistance
for given circuit, to find load current IL.

Apparatus Required: -
Sl. Name of the Instruments
Specification Type Quantity
No. apparatus Sl. no.
1. Multimeter 0 - 50V Digital 01
(i) 350Ω, 1.1A Variable 01
2. Rheostat
(ii) 26 Ω, 4.1A Variable 03
Dual D.C.
3. Supply
0 - 64V Regulated 01
Connecting
4. wire
- - As required

Circuit Diagram: -

Figure 1.1
Theory: - A linear 2 terminals active d.c network N consisting of independent
and/or dependent voltage source and current source and resistance can be
replaced by a pair of terminals a-b by a simple equivalent network consisting of
a single voltage source VTH (Thevenin’s Voltage) in series with the single
resistance RTh (Thevenin’s Resistance).
The voltage source VTH is the voltage across the terminals a-b when they are open
circuited. This voltage is called the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage.
The equivalent Thevenin’s Resistance ‘RTH’ in the resistance between terminal a-
b looking backward with voltage source replaced with internal resistance
short/open circuited respectively and It has a value given by the ratio of the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current at the terminals a-b of the original
network N.

Procedure: -
(1) Remove RL (Load Resistance) and calculate Voc (open circuit voltage across
load terminals.
(2) Voltage source is short circuited and find resistance across open terminals
(load terminals).
(3) Connect the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit find IL (load current).

Observation:-
% Error =
Practical Theoretical
IL (Practical) - IL (Theoretical)
Sl.
No. Voc = Roc = IL Voc = Roc = IL= VTH/ (RTH IL (Theoretical)
Vth Rth Vth Rth + RL) x 100

Calculation: - Students must do their own.

Conclusion: - Hence, Thevenin’s theorem is verified and the error obtained is
……………….

Precaution: -
(1) Apparatus should be handled carefully.
(2) Connection should be made properly.
(3) Don’t on the supply before checked by your concern faculty/lab
technician.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 03

Name of the Experiment: - Verification of Superposition theorem.

Objective: - To find out the value of current through desired branch of the
network
by theoretical and experimental method, and find the error.

Apparatus Required: -

Sl. Name of the Instruments

Specification Type Quantity
No. apparatus Sl. no.
1. Multimeter 0 - 50V Digital 01
2. Rheostat 0 – 20 Ω Variable 03
Dual D.C.
3. 0 – 64V Regulated 01
Supply
0-300mA M.C 02
Ammeter
4. 0-150mA M.C 01
- As
5. Connecting wire - -
required

Circuit Diagram: -
 Fig 2.1 when both source V1 and V2 is active

Fig 2.2 When only source V1 is active

Fig 2. When only source V2 is active

Theory: - This theorem is applied when we must determine current in any

branch or in all branches of the network containing several voltage sources or
current source or both voltage and current source.
The theorem is stated as in a linear resistive network containing two or more
voltage source, current through any element may be determined by adding
together algebraically the current produced by each source acting alone when all
other voltage sources are replaced by their internal resistance. If a voltage source
has no internal resistance their terminal to which it was connected are joined
together.

Procedure: -
(1) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram
(2) Note down the current through desired branch.
 Observation: -
% Error =
Practical Theoretical I (Practical) - I (Theoretical)
Sl. No. IR1 IR2 IR3 IR1 IR2 IR3 I (Theoretical)
x 100
(Amps) (Amps) (Amps) (Amps) (Amps) (Amps)
Both
1. Source
Active
V1
2.
Active
V2
3.
Active

Calculation: - Students must do their own.

Conclusion: - Hence, Superposition theorem is verified, and the error is

……………….

Precaution: -
(1) Apparatus should be handled carefully.
(2) Connection should be made properly.
(3) Don’t on the supply before checked by your concern faculty/lab
technician.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 04 A

Name of the Experiment: - Measurement of current voltage and power in

R-L-C Series circuit excited by single – phase A.C supply.

Objective: - To draw Phasor diagram and to study phase relation between

current and voltage across each element of a series R-L-C circuit.

Apparatus Required: -

Sl. Instruments
Name of the apparatus Specification Type Quantity
No. Sl. no.
1. Voltmeter 0-75-150-300V M.I 03
2. Ammeter 0 – 3A M.I 01
0-75-150-600V
3. Wattmeter Analog 01
5/10Amps
4. Single – phase Variac 0 – 220V, 8A Variable 01
5. Rheostat 50Ω, 5A Variable 01
6. Inductance Coil 7.5 mH ---- 01
7. Capacitance 70µF, 140µF ---- 01

Circuit Diagram: -

Fig 4.1
Theory: -When an A.C. voltage (Rms) is applied to R-L-C series circuit, it
establishes RMS current I given by Equation.
I = V/Z
Where Z = [(R2 + (XL- XC) 2] ½

Here, Z – is the overall impedance of series combination.

In the above circuit diagram, the RMS value of supply voltage is equal to the
vector addition of the voltage across inductor (VL), voltage across resistance (VR)
& voltage across capacitor (VC). The phasor diagram for the circuit can be drawn
which shows the magnitude as well as the phase relationship between the various
voltages (VR, VL, VC, VS) & total current I. The phasor diagram will be of
different nature for the cases
XL > XC (inductive circuit)
X C > XL (capacitive circuit)
XL = XC is said to be condition of resonance & the circuit will be resistive only.

Procedure: -
(1) Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
(2) Adjust the rheostat for maximum resistance and the auto transformer to the
position of zero-output voltage and switch on the supply.
(3) Adjust the voltage across the circuit to about 70V and note I, VS, VL, VC,
VR& W.
(4) Adjust the rheostat for several settings and repeat step 3.
(5) Adjust the rheostat to the maximum setting and change the capacitance
to140µF and repeat step 4.
(6) Draw phasor diagram for each set of parameters and calculate cosθ and θ.
(7) Compare the values of phase angle as obtained from the meter readings and
from the phasor diagrams.

Observation Table -I: - (for 70 µF)

wattmeter
Actual Cosθ θ from θ from
VS I VR VL VC
Readi = meter phasor
(Vol (Amp Consta Power (Vol (Vol (Vol
ng W/(V readin diagra
t) s) t) t) t)
nt (K) (watt * S.I) g m
(watt)
K)
 Observation Table -II: - (for 140 µF)

wattmeter
Actual θ from θ from
VS I VR VL VC Cosθ =
Reading Constant Power meter phasor
(Volt) (Amps) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt) W/(VS.I)
reading diagram
(watt) (K) (watt
* K)

Calculation: - Students must do their own.

Graph: - Students must write their own.

Conclusion: - Students must write their own

Precaution: -
(1) Apparatus should be handled carefully.
(2) Connection should be made properly.
(3) Don’t on the supply before checked by your concern faculty/lab
technician.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 04 B

Name of the Experiment: - Determination of resonance in a series RLC

circuit

Objective: - To determine the circuit impedance and resonant frequency at the

time of resonance

Apparatus required: - Proto-board, 1 resistor, 1 capacitor, 1 inductor, digital

multi-meter, function generator, oscilloscope, and wire leads.

Circuit Diagram: -

Fig 4.2

Theory: -In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the
inductive reactance of the inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive
reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs
is called the Resonant Frequency point, (ƒr) of the circuit. In complex form, the
resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC
circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedances exist. This is
because at resonance they are cancelled out. So, the total impedance of the series
circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R.

Fig 4.3 Reactance (inductive an capacitive) vs circuit frequency

Fig 4.4 Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit

Fig 4.5 Series Circuit Current at Resonance

The current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage
divided by impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value,
(=R). Therefore, the circuit current at this frequency will be at its maximum value
of V/R.

Procedure: -
1. Connect the resistance, inductance and the capacitance as shown in the circuit
diagram (fig 4.2)
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the RLC Circuit
3. Vary the value of the variable capacitor gradually such that current becomes
maximum. Note the value of the capacitor

Observation table: -
SL Circuit Parameter values Circuit Current (I) (Amps)
NO
R (ohms) L (mH) C (micro F) Theoritical Practical

Calculation: - Practical value of resonant frequency (considering the value of

L and C at the moment of resonance, obtained in the last reading of the
observation table)

Theoretical value of resonant frequency- 50 Hz

𝒇𝒓𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
% Error = x 100
𝒇𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
Conclusion: -
A) In the first half of the experiment a series RLC circuit has been performed
and its impedance and phase angle has been computed both theoretically and
practically.
B) The experimental verification of series resonance has been successfully
completed with ----------- error in calculation of resonant frequency.

Precaution: -
(1) Apparatus should be handled carefully.
(2) Connection should be made properly.
(3) Don’t on the supply before checked by your concern faculty/lab
technician.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaipahari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 5

Name of the Experiment: - Study of a DC generator

Objective: - To study the constructional features of DC machine parts

Apparatus required: - Cut section model of DC machine

Theory: -
A D.C. machine is a device that converts Mechanical energy into Electrical
energy and vice-versa. When the device acts as a generator, the mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. On the other hand, when the device
acts as a motor, the electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. The
same DC machine can be either run as a generator or a motor.
The most basic two essential parts of a generator are
1. a magnetic field
2. conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
The following part describes the working principle of a DC generator.

Working Principle of a DC Generator:

In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is
generated in the armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given
by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes
whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an
armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward (as
shown in fig 5.1) When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of
motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the
 Figure 5.1

direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look

at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is
alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator,
connections of the armature conductors also get reversed when the current
reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals s
shown in figure 5.2.

Fig 5.2 Unidirectional voltage output in a DC generator

Constructional features:

Fig 5.3 Constructional features of a DC machine

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine.
A DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional
parts of a DC machine are described below.

I. Stator The stationary part of a DC machine is called the stator. It consists of

the following parts.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of
cast iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole
assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Field System: The field system consists of the field winding, the pole or
pole core, pol shoe
a. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the
help of bolts or welding. They carry field winding and pole
shoes are fastened to them. Both pole ore and pole shoes ae
laminated. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support
field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
b. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils
are former wound and placed on each pole and are connected
in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
3. Air gap: Radial spacing between main pole &surface of the armature is
called air-gap. The length of air gap may be set between 1mm & 5mm

Fig 5.4 Armature Core

II. Rotor The rotating part of the DC machine is called the rotor. It consists
of the following parts.
1.Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical
in shape with slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of
thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may
be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
Armature is keyed to the shaft.
2.Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests
in armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other
and also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one of
the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Its function is to generate
 the induced emf in a DC generator or carry the current supplied in case of
a DC motor.
3.Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding
is made through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a
commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in armature
conductors and also to convert the internally developed alternating e.m.f
into a unidirectional e.m.f. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator
helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator
consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other by
mica. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed
to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. The function
of brushes is to collect current from commutator or to draw current to
commutator. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments
when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.

Fig 5.5 Commutator

4.Bearings: Bearing is a device, which gives free & smooth rotation of

armature. Ball bearing is frequently employed due to their reliability,
though for heavy duties roller bearings are preferable.

Conclusion: - The study of the constructional features of a DC machine has

ben successfully completed.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 6

Name of the Experiment: - Open circuit test and Short circuit test on single –
Phase Transformer.

Objective: - To calculate circuit constant & to draw equivalent circuit diagram.

Specification of Major Machine: - (From Name plate of concerned machine)

Apparatus Required: -

Sl. Name of the Instruments

Specification Type Quantity
No. apparatus Sl. no.

1. Voltmeter 0-75-150-300V M.I 02

2. Ammeter 0-3A, 0 – 15A M.I 02

0-75-150-600V
3. Wattmeter Analog 01
5/10Amps
Single – phase
0 – 220V, 15A Variable 01
4. Variac
Current
6. 30: 5A --- 01
Transformer (C.T)
Circuit Diagram (for O.C Test): -

Fig 5.1 Circuit Diagram for Open circuit Test

Theory: - A transformer is a static device which transfers the electrical energy
from one circuit to another circuit with changes in voltages and current but
without any change in the frequency. The transformer works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction between two windings placed on a common magnetic
circuit. The two windings are electrically insulated from each other and also from
the core.
The losses in transformer are magnetic losses core or iron loss and ohmic losses
or copper losses. This can be determined by performing (a) open circuit test and
given transformer can be predetermined at any given load (b) Short circuit test
from the above test, the efficiency and voltage regulation of a given transformer
can be predetermined at any given load and p.f. the power consumed during these
tests is very small compared to that in a load test.
Open Circuit Test:
In the open circuit test, H.V. side is usually kept open and supply given to the
L.V. side, as shown in the figure; when rated voltage is applied to the L.V. side,
the ammeter reads the no – load current I0 which is 2 to 5% of full load current.
Hence the copper losses are the sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
W0 = V0 I0 cos0
Cos0 = W0/ V0 I0
Im = I0 sin0
Iw = I0 cos0
Rc or R0 = V0/ Iw
Xm = V0/ Im
Short Circuit Test:
This test is performed to determine the equivalent resistance and leakage
reactance of the transformer and copper losses at full load condition.
In this test, usually L.V. side is shorted and meters are connected on H.V. side to
flow rated current. A variable low voltage is applied to the H.V. winding with the
help of an auto – transformer. This voltage is varied till the rated current flows in
the H.V. side and L.V. side. The voltage is applied is 5 to 10% of rated voltage,
while the rated current flows in the windings. The wattmeter indicated the full
load copper losses and core losses at Vsc. But the core losses at this low voltage
are negligible as compared to the iron losses at the rated voltage.
Hence,
Wsc = Full load copper losses = I2 2 R02
Z02 = Vsc / Isc and X02 = 𝑍 +𝑅
Req2 and Xeq2 are referred to H.V. side.
R2 = R1” = R02/2
X2 = X1” = X02/2

Procedure (O.C Test):-

(1) This test is done to determine the Iron loss (watt) of the Transformer.
(2) The primary winding (P) is supplied with normal working voltage of the
transformer (i.e. its rated voltage).
(3) Ammeter (MI) and wattmeter of low range are connected in the primary
side of the transformer.
(4) Connect the transformer as per circuit diagram show above in fig.5.1
(5) Keep the secondary winding (s) open.
(6) Close the switch S1 to the a.c supply and see that the rated voltage (reading
of V0) is passing through the primary winding.
(7) Note down the reading of wattmeter, Ammeter and voltmeter (MI) and
enter them in table -1.
(8) The wattmeter reading multiplied by its constant will give the iron loss of
the transformer in watt.
(9) Switch off S1.
 Observation Table 1(for O.C Test): -

Current Wattmeter Wattmeter Actual Power (in Watt)

Voltage (V0)
(I0) (Reading) (Constant) Fe Loss of the Transformer

Circuit Diagram (for S.C Test): -

Fig 5.2 Circuit diagram for Short circuit Test

Procedure (S.C Test): -

1) This test is conducted to find the copper loss (Watt) of the Transformer.
2) The High voltage winding is connected through a single phase variac to
pass very low voltage (10-20V) through the high voltage winding.
3) Ammeter (MI) wattmeter of higher range and a voltmeter (MI) of lower
range are connected in the primary Side of the transformer.
4) Connect the transformer show above in fig. 5.2.
5) Keep the switch S1 (DPST) open and variac at zero output i.e. minimum
position.
6) Short the low voltage winding of the transformer with a thick copper wire.
7) Close the switch S1 to the single-phase a.c supply.
8) Increase the variac very slowly till the ammeter Isc Shows the rated current
of the transformer.
9) At this rated current, note down the reading of wattmeter and voltmeter
Vsc.
10) The reading of wattmeter multiplied by its constant will give the copper
loss of the transformer in watt.
11) Enter the readings of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter in Table2.
12) Decrease the variac to zero and switch off S1.

Observation Table 2(for S.C Test): -

Actual Power
Voltage Current Wattmeter Wattmeter C.T. (in Watt)
(Vsc) (Isc) (W.Reading) (Constant) Constant Cu Loss of the
Transformer

Calculation: - Determine the circuit parameters

Result: - Students must write their own.
Conclusion: - The open and short circuit test of a single-phase transformer has
been performed and the equivalent circuit has been drawn.

Precaution: -
(1) Apparatus should be handled carefully.
(2) Connection should be made properly.
(3) Don’t on the supply before checked by your concern faculty/lab
technician.
 R.V.S. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Edalbera Bhillaiphari N.H. - 33, Jamshedpur- 831012

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab.

EXPERIMENT – No. – 7

Name of the Experiment: - Study of LT Switchgear components

Objective: - To understand the operational characteristics and application of

different components of LT switchgear.

Theory: - Generally electrical switchgear rated upto 1KV is termed as low

voltage switchgear. The term LV Switchgear includes low voltage circuit
breakers, switches, electrical isolators, fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker,
miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc
i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system. The most common use
of LV switchgear is in LV distribution board.

Components of the LT switchgear are as follows:

1.Isolator- It separates a part of the system from rest for safe maintenance
works. So, it is said to be a manually operated mechanical switch which
separates a part of the electrical power. Isolators are used to open a circuit
under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit
from the other and is not intended to be opened while current is flowing
in the line.
2.Fuse- it is the simplest and cheapest device used for interrupting an
electrical circuit under fault conditions (like short circuit). The action or
operation of a fuse is based on the heating effect of electric current.
Under normal operating condition when current flowing through the
circuit is within safe limit the heat developed in the fuse element is easily
dissipated to the surrounding air. However, when short circuit occurs,
the current exceeds the rated value. The heat generated due to this high
current cannot be dissipated fast enough and melts the fuse element
thereby breaking or opening the circuit. Most LV fuse elements are made
of copper (Cu). Fuse elements of fast acting fuses and HV fuses are
primarily made of silver (Ag). Silver plated copper is also commonly
used
Advantages:
 Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit
 Fuse needs zero maintenance
 Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
 Fuse has the ability to interrupt enormous short circuit current
without producing noise, flame, gas or smoke
 The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than
operation of circuit breaker.
 Has inverse time current characteristic (i.e. larger the current
shorter is the time taken by the use to isolate the fault)
Disadvantage:
 During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing
of fuse takes time. During this period the circuit loses power or
is offline
 When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate
the fuse unless the fuse has significant size difference.
 Larger rating fuses are sometimes used to prevent tripping
during transients.
Types of Fuses: -
a. Round type fuse- This type of fuse is not used as common
fuses. One of the terminals remains always energized and
therefore for replacement of fuse either the worker will have to
touch the live mains or open the main switch.
b. Kit-Kat type or rewireable fuse- It consist of a porcelain base
carrying the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing
live or phase wires are connected and a porcelain fuse carrier
holding the fuse element. The fuse carrier is separate part and
can be taken out or inserted in the base without risk, even
without opening the main switch. If fuse holder or carrier gets
damaged during use, it may be replaced without replacing the
complete units. Replacement of fuse element is very simple and
devoid of any cost.
 Fig 7.1 Kit-Kat type fuse

Following are the disadvantages of kit Kat fuse

1.The fuse wire deteriorates, over a period, due to oxidation
through the continuous heating up of the element.
2. There is a renewable or possibility by the fuse wire of wrong
size.
3.Accurate calibration of the fuse wire is impossible as a longer
fuse operates earlier than one of shorter length.
4.Lacks discrimination
5.Its Breaking capacity is very low (4,000 A on 400V).
c. Cartridge type fuse- This is fully enclosed type fuse unit. It
essentially consists of an insulting container of tube or bulb
shape and sealed at its ends with metallic cap known as cartridge
enclosing the fuse element and filled up with granular or powder
materials known as filler. There are various types of materials
used as filler like sand, calcium carbonate, quartz etc.
The powder in the fuse cartridge condenses and cools the vapor
and quenches the arc there by interrupting the flow current.
Advantage
• Against fire risk. It provides complete security
• It’s totally enclosed units
• This is available up to 660 V and current rating up to 800 A.

Fig 7.2 Cartridge type fuse

d. HRC fuse-With very heavy generating capacities of the modem

power stations, in case of fault condition extremely heavy
currents would flow into the fault and the fuse clearing the fault
would be required to withstand extremely high stresses in this
process fuses commonly known as HRC fuses, designed and
developed after intensive research for use in medium and high
voltage installations, are used for such duties. Their rupturing
capacity is as high as 500MVA up to 66kv and above.
Advantage of HRC fuse
• They are cheap as compared with other type of circuit
interrupter of same breaking capacity.
• No maintenance is required
• The operation sure and quick.
• They do not deteriorate with time.
• Has inverse time current characteristics
• They are quite reliable and can be selected for proper
discrimination.
Disadvantage
 They are required to be replaced after each operation.
 Interlocking is not possible they lack relays in complete
discrimination.
 Cartridge type HRC fuse- HRC Fuse consists of highly heat
resistant material (such as ceramic) body having metal-end
caps, which is welded by silver current carrying element. The
fuse body internal space is completely packed with a filling
powder. The material, which has filled the insider space, may
be plaster of Paris, quartz, chalk, marble, dust and cooling
mediums etc. That’s why it carries normal current without
overheating. The heat being produced vaporizes the silver
melted element. Chemical reaction taking place between silver
vapor and filling powder results in high resistance substance,
which helps in quenching the arc in fuse.

Fig 7.3 HRC Cartridge type fuse

  Tetra Chloride type HRC Fuse- The liquid type HV
HRC fuse is mostly used in the high voltage circuit. It is
used for the transformer protection or for the circuit having
a rating higher than 400A.The fuse has the glass tube
which fills with carbon tetrachloride. The fuse element
places inside the glass tube. The one end of the tube is
sealed, and another fix at the end of the glass tube by the
help of the phosphorous bronze wire.

Fig 7.4 Tetra chloride HRC fuse

When the fault occurs, the short-circuit current passes

through the fuse element. The fuse element becomes melts
and breaks. The small quantity of gas generated at the time
of fusion. The liquid used in the fuse extinguish the arc.

3.Switch Fuse Unit- As Indian Electricity rule 50, a suitable linked switch
(a switch operating simultaneously on phase or line and neutral wires)
are to be provided immediately after the meter board. The rule also states
that suitable cutout must also be provided just after the linked switch to
protect the circuit against excessive current. The linked main switch and
the fuse unit may be provided as one unit or as separate units.
Double Pole Iron Clad or DPIC switch-It works as a main type of switch.
It is used as main switch for single phase AC/DC. A fuse is connected in
series with each line. It is used for controlling single phase 2-wire
circuits. The switch switches ON/OF the phase line and neutral line
simultaneously.
Three Pole Iron Clad or TPIC Switch- It works as a main switch for 3-
phase AC line. It is used for controlling a 3-phase power with 4-wire
 system. A fuse and a neutral link is connected in series with each line.
The switch switches ON/OFF all the three phase lines simultaneously.

Fig 7.5 Switch Fuse Unit

4.MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)- The thermal operation of

miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever
continuous over current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is
heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip
releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with
operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker
contacts. But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of current,
causes electromechanical displacement of plunger associated with
tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the
circuit breaker contacts. This was a simple explanation of miniature
circuit breaker working principle. Miniature circuit breaker construction
is very simple, robust and maintenance free. Generally, an MCB is not
repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when required.
The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.
i. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during abnormal
condition of the network means in over load condition as well as
faulty condition. The fuse does not sense but miniature circuit
breaker does it in more reliable way. MCB is much more sensitive
to over current than fuse.
ii. Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob comes at its
off position during tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit
can easily be identified. But in case of fuse, fuse wire should be
checked by opening fuse grip or cut out from fuse base, for
confirming the blow of fuse wire
 iii. Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse as
because fuses have to be rewireable or replaced for restoring the
supply. But in the case of MCB, quick restoration is possible by
just switching on operation.
iv. Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse.
Because of many advantages of MCB over fuse units, in modern low
voltage electrical network, miniature circuit breaker is mostly used
instead of backdated fuse unit.

Fig 7.6 MCB layout

5.MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)- The operation of MCCB is

same as that of a MCB. The main difference between the two is their
capacity, with the MCB rated under 100 amps with an interrupting rating
of under 18,000 amps. Consequently, their trip characteristics may not
be adjusted since they basically cater to low circuits. On the other hand,
an MCCB comes with an adjustable trip characteristic for the higher
models. Usually, this type of circuit breaker would provide amps as high
as 2,500 or as low as 10, depending on what is necessary. Their
interrupting rating ranges from around 10,000 amps to 200,000 amps.
Judging from their power capacities, the MCB is mainly used for low-
energy requirements, like home wiring or small electronic circuits. On
the other hand, the MCCB is more suited in providing energy for high-
power equipment. Although an MCCB has a higher capacity than an
MCB, both are classified under low voltage circuit breakers.
6.Earth Leakage circuit breaker- This device provides protection
against earth leakage. Under normal balanced condition the earth leakage
 current is zero. They are of two types namely current operated and
voltage operated

Conclusion: - The study of LT Switchgear has been successfully completed.