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Fluid bearing
Fluid bearings are bearings in which the load is supported by a thin layer of rapidly moving
pressurized liquid or gas between the bearing surfaces.[1] Since there is no contact between the
moving parts, there is no sliding friction, allowing fluid bearings to have lower friction, wear and
vibration than many other types of bearings.[1]

They can be broadly classified into two types: fluid dynamic bearings (also known as
hydrodynamic bearings) and hydrostatic bearings. Hydrostatic bearings are externally
pressurized fluid bearings, where the fluid is usually oil, water or air, and the pressurization is
done by a pump. Hydrodynamic bearings rely on the high speed of the journal (the part of the
shaft resting on the fluid) to pressurize the fluid in a wedge between the faces. Fluid bearings are
frequently used in high load, high speed or high precision applications where ordinary ball
bearings would have short life or cause high noise and vibration. They are also used increasingly to
reduce cost. For example, hard disk drive motor fluid bearings are both quieter and cheaper than
the ball bearings they replace.

The fluid bearing may have been invented by French civil engineer L. D. Girard, who in 1852
proposed a system of railway propulsion incorporating water-fed hydraulic bearings.[2][1]

Contents
Operation
Hydrodynamic lubrication
Characteristics and principles[not discussed] of operation
Disadvantages
Some fluid bearings
Foil bearings
Journal bearings
Water-lubricated rubber bearings
Air bearings
Examples
Michell/Kingsbury tilting-pad fluid bearings
See also
References
External links

Operation
Fluid bearings are noncontact bearings that use a thin layer of rapidly moving pressurized liquid or
gas fluid between the moving bearing faces, typically sealed around or under the rotating shaft.[1]
The moving parts do not come into contact, so there is no sliding friction; the load force is
supported solely by the pressure of the moving fluid. There are two principal ways of getting the
fluid into the bearing:
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In fluid static, hydrostatic and many gas or air

bearings, the fluid is pumped in through an orifice or
through a porous material. Such bearings should be
equipped with the shaft position control system, which
adjusts the fluid pressure and consumption according to
the rotation speed and shaft load.[3]
In fluid-dynamic bearings, the bearing rotation sucks the
fluid on to the inner surface of the bearing, forming a
A hydrostatic bearing has two
lubricating wedge under or around the shaft.
surfaces which has a fluid forced,
Hydrostatic bearings rely on an external pump. The power via a restrictive orifice, in between
required by that pump contributes to system energy loss, just the surfaces so that it keeps them
as bearing friction otherwise would. Better seals can reduce apart. If the gap between the
surfaces reduces then the outflow
leak rates and pumping power, but may increase friction.
via the edges of the bearing is
reduced and the pressure goes up,
Hydrodynamic bearings rely on bearing motion to suck fluid forcing the surfaces apart again very
into the bearing, and may have high friction and short life at strongly, giving excellent control of
speeds lower than design, or during starts and stops. An the gap and giving low friction.
external pump or secondary bearing may be used for startup
and shutdown to prevent damage to the hydrodynamic
bearing. A secondary bearing may have high friction and short operating life, but good overall
service life if bearing starts and stops are infrequent.

Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic (HD) lubrication, also known as fluid-film lubrication has essential elements:

1. A lubricant, which must be a viscous fluid.

2. Hydrodynamic flow behavior of fluid between bearing and journal.
3. The surfaces between which the fluid films move must be convergent.
Hydrodynamic (full film) lubrication is obtained when two mating surfaces are completely
separated by a cohesive film of lubricant.

The thickness of the film thus exceeds the combined roughness of the surfaces. The coefficient of
friction is lower than with boundary-layer lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication prevents wear in
moving parts, and metal to metal contact is prevented.

Hydrodynamic lubrication requires thin, converging fluid films. These fluids can be liquid or gas,
so long as they exhibit viscosity. In computer fan and spinning device, like a hard disk drive, heads
are supported by hydrodynamic lubrication in which the fluid film is the atmosphere.

The scale of these films is on the order of micrometers. Their convergence creates pressures
normal to the surfaces they contact, forcing them apart.

Three types of bearings include:

Self-acting: Film exists due to relative motion. e.g. spiral groove bearings.
Squeeze film: Film exists due to relative normal motion.
Externally-pressurized: Film exists due to external pressurization.
Conceptually the bearings can be thought of as two major geometric classes: bearing-journal (anti-
friction), and plane-slider (friction).

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The Reynolds equations can be used to derive the governing principles for the fluids. Note that
when gases are used, their derivation is much more involved.

The thin films can be thought to have pressure and viscous forces acting on them. Because there is
a difference in velocity there will be a difference in the surface traction vectors. Because of mass
conservation we can also assume an increase in pressure, making the body forces different.

Hydrodynamic lubrication – characteristics:

1. Fluid film at the point of minimum thickness decreases in thickness as the load increases
2. Pressure within the fluid mass increases as the film thickness decreases due to load
3. Pressure within the fluid mass is greatest at some point approaching minimum clearance
and lowest at the point of maximum clearance (due to divergence)
4. Viscosity increases as pressure increases (more resistance to shear)
5. Film thickness at the point of minimum clearance increases with the use of more viscous
fluids
6. With same load, the pressure increases as the viscosity of fluid increases
7. With a given load and fluid, the thickness of the film will increase as speed is increased
8. Fluid friction increases as the viscosity of the lubricant becomes greater
Hydrodynamic condition – Fluid velocity:
1. Fluid velocity depends on velocity of the journal or rider
2. Increase in relative velocity tends towards a decrease in eccentricity of journal bearing
centers
3. This is accompanied by greater minimum film thickness
Hydrodynamic condition – load:
1. Increase in load decreases minimum film thickness
2. Also increases pressure within the film mass to provide a counteracting force
3. Pressure acts in all directions, hence it tends to squeeze the oil out of the ends of the
bearing
4. Increase in pressure increases fluid viscosity

Bearing characteristic number: Since viscosity, velocity, and load determine the characteristics of a
hydrodynamic condition, a bearing characteristic number was developed based on the effects of
these on film thickness.

Increase in velocity increases min. film thickness

Increase in viscosity increases min. film thickness
Increase in load decreases min. film thickness

Therefore,

Viscosity × velocity/unit load = a dimensionless number = C

C is known as the bearing characteristic number.

The value of C, to some extent, gives an indication of whether there will be hydrodynamic
lubrication or not

Characteristics and principles[not discussed] of operation

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Fluid bearings can be relatively cheap compared to other bearings with a similar load rating. The
bearing can be as simple as two smooth surfaces with seals to keep in the working fluid. In
contrast, a conventional rolling-element bearing may require many high-precision rollers with
complicated shapes. Hydrostatic and many gas bearings do have the complication and expense of
external pumps.

Most fluid bearings require little or no maintenance, and have almost unlimited life. Conventional
rolling-element bearings usually have shorter life and require regular maintenance. Pumped
hydrostatic and aerostatic (gas) bearing designs retain low friction down to zero speed and need
not suffer start/stop wear, provided the pump does not fail.

Fluid bearings generally have very low friction—far better than mechanical bearings. One source of
friction in a fluid bearing is the viscosity of the fluid. Hydrostatic gas bearings are among the
lowest friction bearings. However, lower fluid viscosity also typically means fluid leaks faster from
the bearing surfaces, thus requiring increased power for pumps or friction from seals.

When a roller or ball is heavily loaded, fluid bearings have clearances that change less under load
(are "stiffer") than mechanical bearings. It might seem that bearing stiffness, as with maximum
design load, would be a simple function of average fluid pressure and the bearing surface area. In
practice, when bearing surfaces are pressed together, the fluid outflow is constricted. This
significantly increases the pressure of the fluid between the bearing faces. As fluid bearing faces
can be comparatively larger than rolling surfaces, even small fluid pressure differences cause large
restoring forces, maintaining the gap.

However, in lightly loaded bearings, such as disk drives, the typical ball bearing stiffnesses are
~10^7 MN/m. Comparable fluid bearings have stiffness of ~10^6 MN/m. Because of this, some
fluid bearings, particularly hydrostatic bearings, are deliberately designed to pre-load the bearing
to increase the stiffness.

Fluid bearings often inherently add significant damping. This helps attenuate resonances at the
gyroscopic frequencies of journal bearings (sometimes called conical or rocking modes).

It is very difficult to make a mechanical bearing which is atomically smooth and round; and
mechanical bearings deform in high-speed operation due to centripetal force. In contrast, fluid
bearings self-correct for minor imperfections.

Fluid bearings are typically quieter and smoother (more consistent friction) than rolling-element
bearings. For example, hard disk drives manufactured with fluid bearings have noise ratings for
bearings/motors on the order of 20–24 dB, which is a little more than the background noise of a
quiet room. Drives based on rolling-element bearings are typically at least 4 dB noisier.

Fluid bearings can be made with a lower NRRO (non repeatable run out) than a ball or rolling
element bearing. This can be critical in modern hard disk drive and ultra precision spindles.

Tilting pad bearings are used as radial bearings for supporting and locating shafts in compressors.

Disadvantages
Overall power consumption is typically higher compared to ball bearings.
Power consumption and stiffness or damping greatly vary with temperature, which complicates
the design and operation of a fluid bearing in wide temperature range situations.

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Fluid bearings can catastrophically seize under shock situations. Ball bearings deteriorate
more gradually and provide acoustic symptoms.
Like cage frequency vibration in a ball bearing, the half frequency whirl is a bearing instability
that generates eccentric precession which can lead to poor performance and reduced life.
Fluid leakage; keeping fluid in the bearing can be a challenge.
Oil fluid bearings are impractical in environments where oil leakage can be destructive or
where maintenance is not economical.
Fluid bearing "pads" often have to be used in pairs or triples to avoid the bearing tilting and
losing the fluid from one side.
Unlike greaseless mechanical bearings, fluid bearings cannot operate at the extremely low
temperatures needed for some specialized scientific research applications.

Some fluid bearings

Foil bearings
Foil bearings are a type of fluid dynamic air bearing that were introduced in high speed turbine
applications in the 1960s by Garrett AiResearch. They use a gas as the working fluid, usually air,
and require no external pressurisation system.

Journal bearings
Journal bearings are lubricated with fluid. The working part of the bearing operates by carrying oil
at a low pressure and is compressed to allow the bearing to spin around the shaft without any
contact.[4]

Water-lubricated rubber bearings

Water-lubricated rubber bearings have long cylindrical metal shell that hosts multiple rubber
staves separated by axial grooves. The usage of the bearing has three major advantages: (i)
pumped water going through the bearing is conveniently used as a lubricant, which reduces pump
operation cost; (ii) water flow takes away heat and fine particles through the bearing grooves; and
(iii) the natural resilience of rubber gives the bearing good properties for shock and vibration
absorption and wear resistance. Water lubricated rubber bearings operate under the condition of
mixed-lubrication.[5]

Air bearings
Unlike contact-roller bearings, an air bearing (or air caster)
utilizes a thin film of pressurized air to provide an exceedingly
low friction load-bearing interface between surfaces. The two
surfaces don't touch. Being non-contact, air bearings avoid the
traditional bearing-related problems of friction, wear,
Air bearings on a drill spindle for
particulates, and lubricant handling, and offer distinct printed circuit boards
advantages in precision positioning, such as lacking backlash
and stiction, as well as in high-speed applications.

The fluid film of the bearing is air that flows through the bearing itself to the bearing surface. The
design of the air bearing is such that, although the air constantly escapes from the bearing gap, the
pressure between the faces of the bearing is enough to support the working loads.
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Air-lubricated bearings require highly finished surfaces and precise manufacturing, and can only
be operated in high-speed applications.

Examples
Air hockey is a game based on an aerostatic bearing which suspends the puck and players' paddles
to provide low friction and thus sustain high puck speeds. The bearing uses a flat plane with
periodic orifices which deliver air just over ambient pressure. The puck and paddles rest on air.

Another example of a fluid bearing is ice skating. Ice skates

form a hydrodynamic fluid bearing where the skate and ice are
separated by a layer of water caused by entropy (formerly
thought to be caused by pressure-induced melting; see ice
skating for details.)

Michell/Kingsbury tilting-pad fluid bearings Air bearings used to provide linear

Michell/Kingsbury fluid dynamic tilting-pad bearings were and rotational motion
invented independently and almost simultaneously by both
British-born Australian, Anthony George Maldon Michell and
American tribologist Albert Kingsbury. Both designs were near-identical except for differences in
the approach used for pivoting the pads. Michell mathematically derived the pressure distribution
where a span-wise line pivot was placed, allowing the load to act through the point of maximum
fluid pressure. The Kingsbury patent lacked this mathematical approach, and the pad's pivot point
was placed in the geometric centre of the bearing.[6] Michell's patent (in Britain and Australia) was
granted in 1905, while Kingsbury's first patent attempt was 1907. Kingsbury's U.S. patent was
eventually granted in 1911 after he demonstrated that he had been working on the concept for
many years. As stated by Sydney Walker, a long-time employee of Michell's, the granting of
Kingsbury's patent was "a blow which Michell found hard to accept".

The bearing has sectional shoes, or pads on pivots. When the bearing is in operation, the rotating
part of the bearing carries fresh oil in to the pad area through viscous drag. Fluid pressure causes
the pad to tilt slightly, creating a narrow constriction between the shoe and the other bearing
surface. A wedge of pressurised fluid builds behind this constriction, separating the moving parts.
The tilt of the pad adaptively changes with bearing load and speed. Various design details ensure
continued replenishment of the oil to avoid overheating and pad damage.

Michell/Kingsbury fluid bearings are used in a wider variety of heavy-duty rotating equipment,
including in hydroelectric plants to support turbines and generators weighing hundreds of tons.
They are also used in very heavy machinery, such as marine propeller shafts.

The first tilting pad bearing in service was probably built under A.G.M. Michell's guidance by
George Weymoth (Pty) Ltd, for a centrifugal pump at Cohuna on the Murray River, Victoria,
Australia, in 1907, just two years after Michell had published and patented his three-dimensional
solution to Reynold's equation. By 1913, the great merits of the tilting-pad bearing had been
recognised for marine applications. The first British ship to be fitted out with the bearing was the
cross-channel steamboat the Paris, but many naval vessels were similarly equipped during the
First World War. The practical results were spectacular – the troublesome thrust block became
dramatically smaller and lighter, significantly more efficient, and remarkably free from
maintenance troubles. It was estimated that the Royal Navy saved coal to a value of £500,000 in
1918 alone as a result of fitting Michell's tilting-pad bearings.
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According to the ASME (see reference link), the first Michell/Kingsbury fluid bearing in the US
was installed in the Holtwood Hydroelectric Power Plant (on the Susquehanna River, near
Lancaster, Pennsylvania, US) in 1912. The 2.25-tonne bearing supports a water turbine and
electric generator with a rotating mass of about 165 tonnes and water turbine pressure adding
another 40 tonnes. The bearing has been in nearly continuous service since 1912, with no parts
replaced. The ASME reported it was still in service as of 2000. As of 2002, the manufacturer
estimated the bearings at Holtwood should have a maintenance-free life of about 1,300 years.

See also
Plain bearing

References
1. Rowe, W. Brian (2012). Hydrostatic, Aerostatic and Hybrid Bearing Design (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=9EKsLj-nj7UC&pg=PA1). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 1–4.
ISBN 0123972396.
2. Girard, L. Dominique (1852). Hydraulique appliquée. Nouveau système de locomotion sur les
chemins de fer (Applied hydraulics. New locomotion system for railways) (https://books.google.
com/books?id=4CtWAAAAcAAJ). Ecole Polytechnique.
3. Il’ina T.E., Prodan N.V. (2015). "Element design for an inkjet system of hydrostatic gas bearing
control" (http://ntv.ifmo.ru/en/article/13909/proektirovanie_elementa_struynoy_sistemyupravlen
iya_gazostaticheskim_podshipnikom.htm). Scientific and Technical Journal of Information
Technologies, Mechanics and Optics. 15 (5): 921–929.
4. Ghosal, Arindam. "A Review of Fluid Film Bearing" (http://bsmeicte2012.iutoic-dhaka.edu/proc
eedings/13th-acfm-2010/contributed/fluidmechinery/1017.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20160304002041/http://bsmeicte2012.iutoic-dhaka.edu/proceedings/13th-acfm-2010/co
ntributed/fluidmechinery/1017.pdf) 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Bangladesh Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 2010. Retrieved 2013-07-11.
5. Liu, S. and Yang, B. (2015) "A new model of water-lubricated rubber bearings for vibration
analysis of flexible multistage rotor systems" (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2015.03.052),
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 349, pp. 230–258
6. Stachowiak, Gwidon; Batchelor, Andrew W. "Engineering Tribology pp 135–136" (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=SQ8p0x2S1dwC&pg=PA136#v=onepage&q&f=false), Butterworth–
Heinemann, London, 31 March 2011. Retrieved on 23 March 2013.

External links
ASME History Brochure about Kingsbury's Susquehanna Bearing (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20130512123807/http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5583.pd
f)
A 91-page 10.6MB NASA technical handbook Lubrication of Machine Elements, NASA-RP-
1126 by B.J.Hamrock, 1984 here (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19840
023570_1984023570.pdf).
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.
php) – Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell
University. Also includes an e-book library (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php) of
classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
[1] (http://www.specialtycomponents.com/intro_air_bearings.html) – A technical discussion
introducing air bearings and their many applications at Specialty Components Inc.
[2] (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=muAt8WrLZ7A) – A video demonstration of a spherical
air bearing.
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