Jarvis Whole Thesis PDF
Jarvis Whole Thesis PDF
2
3
Introduction
Montaigne
maintains
that
the
thirst
for
new
experience
is
a
sign
of
vigour
in
life.1
To
rest
content
with
what
one
already
knows
and
understands,
to
remain
only
within
what
one
has
experienced
before,
is
a
sign
of
exhaustion
or
decline:
it
is
to
be
only
half
alive.2
The
pursuit
of
experience
is
boundless:
‘its
food
is
wonder,
the
chase,
ambiguity’.
Apollo,
he
says,
revealed
this
clearly
by
speaking
obscurely:
we
have
to
be
kept
interested!
What
is
most
exciting
is
not
to
be
confirmed
in
what
one
knows,
but
to
have
what
one
knows
contradicted,
to
have
new
and
unexpected
directions
suggested.
To
have
what
one
knows
contradicted
not
only
leads
us
to
understand
better,
but
it
also
teaches
us
of
the
fallibility
of
our
judgement,
which
is
the
more
important
lesson:
‘When
I
find
myself
convicted
of
a
false
opinion
by
another
man’s
reasoning,
I
do
not
so
much
learn
what
new
thing
he
has
told
me
and
this
particular
bit
of
ignorance
–
that
would
be
small
gain
–
as
I
learn
my
weakness
in
general,
and
the
treachery
of
my
understanding.’3
I
have
begun
with
Montaigne,
but
all
of
the
foregoing
could,
without
misrepresentation,
be
attributed
to
Gadamer,
his
fellow
humanist.
For
Gadamer,
our
understanding
of
things
is
always
in
danger
of
becoming
too
settled,
too
comfortable
with
itself
–
and
the
risk
is
that
it
will
then
simply
exclude
what
is
other
to
itself.
To
really
seek
to
understand
is
to
seek
contradiction
and
provocation.
In
the
following,
I
present
an
analysis
and
critique
of
the
concept
of
experience
that
is
central
to
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
In
the
foreword
to
the
second
edition
of
Truth
and
Method,
he
tells
us
he
has
used
the
term
hermeneutics
to
mean
‘a
theory
of
the
real
experience
that
thinking
is’
(TM
xxxiii);4
and
that
the
chapter
on
experience
(i.e.
TM
II.3
B)
‘takes
on
a
systematic
and
key
position
in
[Gadamer’s]
investigations’
(TM
xxxii).
He
tells
us
that
his
inquiry
‘asks
(to
put
it
in
Kantian
terms):
how
is
understanding
possible?’,
and
it
asks
it
‘of
all
human
1
Michel
de
Montaigne,
‘Of
Experience’
in
The
Complete
Works,
trans.
Donald
Frame
(Everyman’s
Library,
2003).
2
‘Of
Experience’,
p.
996.
3
‘Of
Experience’,
pp.
1001-‐2.
4
For
abbreviations
of
frequently
cited
works,
see
the
Bibliography.
4
experience
of
the
world
and
human
living’;
the
term
‘hermeneutics’
is
used
to
denote
‘the
basic
being-‐in-‐motion
of
Dasein
that
constitutes
its
finitude
and
historicity,
and
hence
embraces
the
whole
of
its
experience
of
the
world’
(TM
xxvii).
What
I
will
show
in
the
following
is
that
the
concept
of
experience
is
central
to
understanding
not
only
the
function
of
‘prejudices’,
but
also
the
connection
between
‘understanding’
and
‘genuine
experience’,
and
what
the
‘truth
event’
is
and
why
Gadamer’s
account
of
truth
cannot
be
understood
simply
as
correspondence,
coherence
or
adequatio
rei
et
intellectus.
Further,
a
particular
kind
of
picture
of
Gadamer
emerges
by
putting
his
concept
of
experience
in
the
foreground:
not
the
ponderous
Gadamer
some
commentators
paint,
who
overrides
difference
in
his
insistence
on
agreement,
but
a
Gadamer
enamoured
of
the
startling
and
the
different.
But
what
is
his
concept
of
experience,
and
what
is
its
structure?
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience
is
not
unitary,
but
tri-‐partite.
The
first
to
surface
in
Truth
and
Method
is
‘Erlebnis’,
which
is
what
I
will
call
‘heightened’
experience.
This
Gadamer
opposes
to
‘Erfahrung’,
which
he
terms
‘genuine’
experience.
(‘Hermeneutical’
experience,
as
we
will
see,
is
a
sub-‐species
of
genuine
experience.)
Finally,
there
is
a
kind
of
experience
which
remains
largely
unthematised
through
Truth
and
Method,
but
which
is
presupposed
by
the
other
two
kinds,
which
we
can
term
‘ordinary’
experience,
and
it
is
with
this
that
we
will
begin.
A
few
words,
first,
about
my
approach
and
method.
In
the
following,
I
am
not
seeking
to
produce
a
primarily
doxographical
work,
one
that
sets
out,
clarifies
and
perhaps
defends
Gadamer’s
position
against
objections.
While
this
is
part
of
my
project,
my
real
goal
lies
elsewhere.
I
am
engaged
in
what
we
can
call
a
strong
reading,
by
which
I
mean
a
reading
in
which
I
attempt
to
wrest
what
I
take
to
be
Gadamer’s
central
and
most
interesting
insight
from
his
text,
and
to
develop
and
criticise
it.
As
Heidegger
says,
'one
must
not
only
attach
oneself
to
theses
which
can
be
grasped
doxographically;
one
must
also
derive
one's
orientation
from
the
objective
tendency
of
the
problematic'
(BT
131).
The
problematic,
or
central
insight,
with
which
I
am
concerned
is
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience,
particularly
the
concept
of
Erfahrung.
I
say
this
insight
must
be
‘wrested’
from
5
the
text
because
Gadamer,
like
every
other
human
being,
is
not
always
entirely
consistent,
and
not
always
consistent
with
his
basic
insights.
Gadamer
is
not
always
true
to
the
insight
he
has
had;
and
at
times,
because
his
interests
were
directed
in
one
way
or
another,
he
neglects
or
even
passes
over
in
silence
certain
crucial
issues
regarding
this
insight.
What
I
am
attempting
to
do,
then,
is
to
lay
hold
of
this
insight
and
then
develop
it,
in
the
process
sometimes
needing
to
defend
it
from
Gadamer
himself.
But
this
is
too
strong
a
way
of
putting
it.
While
I
certainly
aim
to
develop
what
Heidegger
calls
‘the
objective
tendency
of
the
problematic’,
I
do
not
have
Heidegger’s
confidence
that
an
immanent
development
would
follow
a
necessary
path.
There
is,
in
other
words,
an
idiosyncratic
element,
expressed
well
by
Anne
Carson
in
the
‘Note
on
Method’
at
the
beginning
of
her
Economy
of
the
Unlost.5
She
writes:
‘There
is
too
much
self
in
my
writing.
[...]
I
do
not
want
to
be
a
windowless
monad
–
my
training
and
trainers
opposed
subjectivity
strongly,
I
have
struggled
since
the
beginning
to
drive
my
thought
out
into
the
landscape
of
science
and
fact
where
other
people
converse
logically
and
exchange
judgements
–
but
I
go
blind
out
there.
So
writing
involves
some
dashing
back
and
forth
between
that
darkening
landscape
where
facticity
is
strewn
and
a
windowless
room
cleared
of
everything
I
do
not
know.’
This
is
where
a
kind
of
idiosyncratic
production
can
take
place:
‘thought
finds
itself
in
this
room
in
its
best
moments
–
locked
inside
its
own
pressures,
fishing
up
facts
of
the
landscape
from
notes
or
memory
as
well
as
it
may’.
The
result
for
Carson,
as
anyone
who
has
read
Economy
of
the
Unlost
can
attest,
is
marvellous;
but
it
will
not
quite
suit
me
for
the
present
task,
since
(as
she
notes)
‘it
would
be
a
gesture
of
false
consciousness
to
say
academic
writing
can
take
place
there
[sc.
in
the
windowless
monad]’.
Nonetheless,
Adorno
notes
that
idiosyncrasy
need
not
be
the
enemy
of
objective
validity
(which
a
dissertation
such
as
this
one
must
claim).
The
interpretations
worked
out
in
an
essay,
he
says,
are,
from
the
sober
doxagraphical
perspective,
‘over-‐interpretations’:
But
letting
oneself
be
terrorised
by
the
prohibition
against
saying
more
than
was
meant
right
then
and
there
means
complying
with
the
5
Anne
Carson,
Economy
of
the
Unlost
(Princeton,
1999),
pp.
vii-‐viii.
6
false
conceptions
that
people
and
things
harbour
concerning
themselves.
Interpretation
then
becomes
nothing
but
removing
an
outer
shell
to
find
what
the
author
wanted
to
say,
or
possibly
the
individual
psychological
impulses
to
which
the
phenomenon
points.
But
since
it
is
scarcely
possible
to
determine
what
someone
may
have
thought
or
felt
at
any
particular
point,
nothing
essential
is
to
be
gained
through
such
insights.
[...]
In
order
to
be
disclosed
[...],
the
objective
wealth
of
meanings
encapsulated
in
every
intellectual
phenomenon
demands
of
the
recipient
the
same
spontaneity
of
subjective
fantasy
that
is
castigated
in
the
name
of
objective
discipline.
Nothing
can
be
interpreted
out
of
something
that
is
not
interpreted
into
it
at
the
same
time.
The
criteria
for
such
interpretation
are
its
compatibility
with
the
text
and
with
itself,
and
its
power
to
give
voice
to
the
elements
of
the
object
in
conjunction
with
each
other.6
The
present
dissertation
is,
then,
an
essay
in
this
sense.
I
have
endeavoured
to
pull
elements
of
Gadamer’s
thought
into
a
productive
constellation,
and
to
develop
the
consequences.
At
times,
I
have
endeavoured
to
bring
elements
of
his
thought
into
better
focus
by
bringing
them
into
proximity
with
the
thoughts
of
someone
else
–
as
Carson
claims
for
her
project
of
reading
Paul
Celan
with
Simonides
of
Keos,
‘each
is
placed
like
a
surface
on
which
the
other
may
come
into
focus.
Sometimes
you
can
see
a
celestial
object
better
by
looking
at
something
else,
with
it,
in
the
sky.’7
Which
‘something
else’
one
brings
in
is
not
a
matter
of
strict
necessity,
but
is
guided
by
the
anticipation
that
its
proximity
will
be
productive.
One
may
get
a
variety
of
results,
depending
on
this
‘something
else’.8
So
I
have
often
found
that
the
best
way
to
explicate
Gadamer
is
to
situate
him
in
a
context
of
rival
positions.
This
allows
me
to
illuminate
what
he
has
in
6
‘The
Essay
as
Form’,
in
Adorno,
Notes
to
Literature,
two
volumes,
trans.
Shierry
Weber
Gadamer
and
method,
which
closes
with
a
consideration
of
‘some
unsuspected
affinities
of
[Gadamer’s]
hermeneutics
with
mathematical
logic’
(p.
x).
The
result
is
that
Weinsheimer
develops
some
of
the
potentials
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
in
a
certain
direction;
but
there
is
no
immanent
necessity
to
this
development
–
it
depends
on
situating
Gadamer
in
a
particular
hermeneutical
context,
which
brings
certain
elements
into
focus
and
suggests
certain
developments.
7
common
with
other
thinkers,
as
well
as
to
show
how
he
is
distinct
from
them,
and
what
is
at
stake
in
these
distinctions.
Thus,
throughout
the
following
I
make
regular
reference
to
such
figures
as
Montaigne
and
Samuel
Beckett,
Heidegger
and
Aquinas,
Hegel
and
Aristotle,
Adorno
and
Benjamin,
Alasdair
MacIntyre
and
Terry
Eagleton,
Charles
Taylor
and
Bernard
Williams,
Borges
and
Raymond
Geuss.
Final
sanction
for
this
approach
comes
from
Gadamer
himself.
‘The
horizon
of
understanding
cannot
be
limited
[…]
by
what
the
writer
originally
had
in
mind,’
he
says
(TM
396).
In
his
discussion
of
interpretation
early
in
the
third
part
of
Truth
and
Method,
he
notes
that
the
task
of
the
translator
requires
them
to
emphasise
some
parts
while
letting
others
fade
into
the
background:
‘this
is
precisely
the
activity
that
we
call
interpretation.
Translation,
like
all
interpretation,
is
a
highlighting’
(TM
388).
He
repeats
this
point,
turning
it
into
a
kind
of
mantra,
when
discussing
the
performance
of
a
literary
work:
‘every
performance
[...]
has
its
own
emphasis.
[...]
All
performance
is
interpretation.
All
interpretation
is
highlighting’
(TM
401).
This
is
not
at
all
far
from
Adorno’s
famous
claim:
‘All
thinking
is
exaggeration,
in
so
far
as
every
thought
that
is
one
at
all
goes
beyond
its
confirmation
by
the
given
facts.’9
For
Gadamer,
a
text
is
a
kind
of
underdetermined
substance
with
a
range
of
potentialities
that
are
realised
through
application:
he
notes,
for
instance,
that
‘performative
interpretation
is
accidental
in
a
fundamental
sense’
(TM
401).10
Which
potentialities
are
realised
depends
on
the
hermeneutical
context
in
which
application
takes
place;
and
thus,
by
placing
Gadamer
in
the
context
of
a
particular
set
of
concerns,
and
interpreting
him
by
proximity
and
contrast
with
a
set
of
particular
others,
certain
potentialities
are
realised.
In
the
following,
I
am
engaging
in
three
distinct
projects.
The
first
two
projects
have
been
touched
on
in
the
preceding.
First
of
all,
I
am
attempting,
through
a
close
reading,
to
excavate
how
Gadamer
himself
presents
his
concept
of
experience,
and
to
show
its
complex
internal
relations
to
his
hermeneutical
9
‘Opinion
Delusion
Society’,
collected
in
Adorno,
Critical
Models:
Interventions
and
Catchwords,
ed.
and
trans.
H.
W.
Pickford
(Columbia,
1998),
p.
108.
Raymond
Geuss
suspects
this
claim
is
itself
an
exaggeration:
Outside
Ethics
(Princeton,
2005),
p.
53
n32.
Cf.
Adorno,
Minima
Moralia,
trans.
E.
F.
N.
Jephcott
(Verso,
2006),
p.
49:
‘In
psychoanalysis,
nothing
is
true
except
the
exaggerations.’
10
We
will
see
that
this
point
is
important
for
his
ontology
as
a
whole.
8
philosophy
as
a
whole.
Second,
I
am
engaged
in
a
strong
reading,
which
means
that
I
am
trying
to
bring
his
concepts
alive,
to
get
them
moving
again,
and
to
develop
them
beyond
Gadamer’s
intention.
Finally,
I
attempt
to
show
how,
if
we
draw
the
consequences
of
these
concepts,
they
burst
the
carefully
constructed
system
Gadamer
has
created
for
them.
One
such
point
is
his
concept
of
prejudice,
which
is
too
narrow
–
and
once
expanded,
it
undermines
his
concept
of
the
‘experienced
person’.
Another
point
is
his
concept
of
genuine
experience,
which
is
far
more
radical
and
disruptive
than
he
allows
for
–
and
which
also
serves
to
undermine
his
concept
of
the
experienced
person.
Any
serious
study
in
the
human
sciences
is
both
descriptive
and
normative.
It
is
descriptive
insofar
as
it
attempts
to
lay
bare
some
aspect
of
human
society,
human
experience,
or
human
existence;
and
it
is
normative
insofar
as
it
cannot
pretend
that
this
aspect
is
not
of
some
importance
for
some
reason
–
perhaps
because
neglecting
some
element
of
our
experience
is
a
loss,
or
perhaps
because
some
aspect
of
our
society
systematically
works
against
the
possibility
of
a
full
life.
There
is
no
virtue
in
descriptive
neutrality,
such
as
calling
torture
‘enhanced
interrogation’,
as
though
one
could
describe
the
phenomenon
independently
of
evaluating
it.
In
Gadamer’s
case,
he
is
attempting
to
draw
out
and
call
attention
to
a
dimension
of
our
experience
that
is
obscured
by
a
technological
rationality
–
a
kind
of
rationality
that
takes
understanding
to
consist
in
the
application
of
the
adequate
application
of
techniques
or
methods
that
have
been
conceived
of
prior
to
and
independently
of
the
object
in
question.
The
experience
he
calls
attention
to
he
calls
‘genuine
experience’
[Erfahrung],
and
it
is
the
experience
of
the
thing
under
consideration
–
the
Sache
–
speaking
to
me
and
transforming
my
understanding
of
it.
This
kind
of
experience,
Gadamer
thinks,
is
in
serious
danger
of
becoming
obscured
entirely;
and
this
would
be
a
serious
loss,
since
it
is
only
by
conscious
reflection
on
this
kind
of
experience
that
we
can
make
it
productive
for
us.
If
we
do
not
realise
that
this
is
how
understanding
works,
then
our
thoughtless
presuppositions
rule
us
unchecked.
Having
uncovered
this
dimension
of
experience,
Gadamer
proceeds
to
work
out
its
place
in
human
life.
It
is
productive,
Gadamer
thinks,
of
a
certain
kind
of
9
character
–
a
character
that
is
‘radically
undogmatic’,
since
the
experienced
person
is
well
aware
of
the
contingency
of
all
points
of
view,
most
especially
their
own.
They
become
open
to
dialogue.
As
we
will
see,
attending
to
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience
and
his
discussion
of
the
radically
undogmatic
man
calls
into
question
–
if
it
does
not
totally
undermine
–
the
reading
of
Gadamer
that
treats
him
as
a
totalising
traditionalist
who
has
forgotten
about
the
existence
of
the
finite
subject.
This
normative
dimension
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutical
philosophy
–
which
treats
open
dialogue
as
the
highest
form
of
human
activity
–
is
central
to
my
critique
of
him;
I
will
argue
that
what
he
presents
us
with
is
an
idealisation
of
a
certain
kind
of
liberal
character,
and
that
he
neglects
to
think
through
the
role
of
commitment
(which
is,
ironically,
a
kind
of
prejudice)
in
understanding.
This
is
connected
with
his
failure
to
treat
failure
as
anything
other
than
ultimately
beneficial.
The
result
is
that
Gadamer
winds
up
uncritically
affirming
genuine
experience,
and
I
will
argue
that
we
should
treat
it
far
more
ambivalently.
In
focusing
my
critique
on
the
element
of
Gadamer’s
thought
that
seems
so
inoffensive
(who
could
be
opposed
to
the
idea
that
experience
opens
one
up
and
makes
one
less
dogmatic?),
I
aim
to
provide
the
kind
of
provocation
that
Gadamer
associates
with
all
genuine
research.11
The
argument
will
proceed
as
follows.
We
will
begin
(Ch.
1)
with
Gadamer’s
account
of
what
we
will
call
‘ordinary
experience’,
which
is
the
way
in
which
we
experience
the
world
in
an
everyday
way.
The
crucial
thing
about
everyday
experience,
for
Gadamer,
is
that
it
always
already
makes
sense
to
us;
we
find
ourselves
in
a
world
that
is
open
to
our
understanding
of
it.
This
has
two
aspects.
The
first
is
that
we
have
a
set
of
expectations,
which
Gadamer
calls
‘prejudices’,
that
more
or
less
conform
to
the
world;
the
world
by
and
large
makes
sense
to
us
because
it
typically
conforms
with
our
expectations.
The
second
is
that
the
world
we
experience
is
one
that
is
partially
constituted
by
language.
Being
linguistic
animals
means
that
we
experience
not
bare
objects
possessing
only
extension,
mass,
etc.,
but
a
world
of
people
and
things
rich
with
signification,
things
that
11
Gadamer,
‘Truth
in
the
Human
Sciences’,
trans.
Wachterhauser,
collected
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.), Hermeneutics and Truth (Northwestern University Press, 1994), p. 29.
10
relate
to
other
things,
that
signify,
that
recall
events,
people,
and
other
things.
Language,
as
we
will
see,
takes
up
and
transforms
the
bare
world
that
would
exist
without
beings
to
make
sense
of
it.
Against
the
idea
of
ordinary
experience,
in
which
things
conform
to
our
expectations,
Gadamer
opposes
two
different
kinds
of
experience.
The
first
of
these
is
what
we
will
call
‘heightened
experience’
(Ch.
2),
which
is
an
experience
that
stands
out
from
the
humdrum
tedium
of
things
going
as
one
expects,
but
without
thereby
calling
one’s
expectations
into
question.
Gadamer
worries
that
‘aesthetic’
experience
often
falls
into
this
category,
thereby
reducing
the
aesthetic
to
something
that
we
take
pleasure
in,
and
which
stands
out,
but
that
does
not
thereby
lead
us
to
reflect
on
what
we
had
taken
for
granted
or
to
change
ourselves
in
any
way.
For
this
reason,
Gadamer
takes
merely
‘heightened
experience’
to
be
defective.
The
second
kind
of
experience
Gadamer
opposes
to
ordinary
experience
is
‘genuine
experience’
(Ch.
3).
A
genuine
experience
is
one
in
which
one’s
expectations
are
defied,
and
which
thus
leads
one
to
change
one’s
expectations.
The
important
thing
about
genuine
experience,
however,
is
not
so
much
that
it
corrects
one’s
understanding
of
some
particular
thing
(although
this
is
also
valuable),
but
that
having
one’s
expectations
defied
is
formative
for
one’s
character,
teaching
one
about
one’s
own
limits.
The
desirable
outcome
of
genuine
experience,
for
Gadamer,
is
that
one
becomes
more
open
to
future
experience,
and
less
dogmatic
in
one’s
present
convictions.
One
also
becomes
better
able
to
suspend
judgement,
and
better
able
to
attend
to
something
by
holding
one’s
anticipations
at
bay.
This
capacity
Gadamer
calls
phronesis,
after
Aristotle’s
virtue
of
being
about
to
see
the
right
thing
to
do
in
a
given
situation.
We
will
then
round
out
the
discussion
of
genuine
experience
by
considering
Gadamer’s
reading
of
Paul
Celan’s
poems,
which
reading
helps
to
flesh
out
the
relation
between
genuine
experience
and
language
–
but
which
will
also
show
a
peculiarity
and
limitation
in
the
way
Gadamer
conceives
of
dialogue:
one’s
dialogue
partner
offers
provocations
and
leads
one
to
re-‐evaluate
one’s
own
position,
but
never
emerges
from
this
role
to
become
a
particular
person
in
their
own
right,
whom
one
might
come
to
know.
11
One
of
the
central
characteristics
of
a
genuine
experience
is
that
it
disrupts
one’s
expectations
and
allows
the
truth
of
the
thing
to
shine
through,
so
we
will
follow
the
chapter
on
genuine
experience
with
a
chapter
on
truth
(Ch.
4).
Gadamer’s
conception
of
truth
is
controversial,
not
least
because
he
does
not
set
it
out
in
systematic
terms;
its
interpretation
is
also
bound
up
with
that
of
his
ontology
of
language.
In
this
chapter,
I
attempt
to
mediate
between
a
number
of
competing
positions
by
showing
that
we
need
to
distinguish
between
four
different
aspects
of
Gadamer’s
conception
of
truth:
truth
as
that
which
shines
through
and
disrupts
our
expectations;
truth
as
that
which
is
fitting
in
an
interpretation;
truth
as
aletheia,
as
the
disclosure
of
something
as
what
it
is;
and
truth
as
adequatio,
as
conforming
to
what
something
is.
Unpacking
these
four
aspects
and
their
interrelation
will
involve
us
in
questions
concerning
the
relation
between
hermeneutics
and
phenomenology
in
Gadamer’s
work,
as
well
as
the
relationship
between
understanding
and
interpretation.
Finally,
I
will
set
out
a
critical
interpretation
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience
(Ch.
5).
As
we
will
see,
Gadamer’s
conception
of
the
development
of
character
through
experience
takes
too
uncritical
a
stance
towards
what
having
one’s
convictions
shaken
can
do
to
one’s
character.
Without
denying
the
value
of
openness
to
new
experience,
one
can
wonder
whether
all
genuine
experience
will
necessary
lead
to
the
building
of
one’s
character
–
some
experiences
may
exercise
a
destructive
power
instead.
Gadamer’s
ideal
character
is
someone
who
is
open
to
every
challenge
to
their
convictions,
and
once
we
see
that
not
all
challenges
to
our
convictions
are
desirable,
the
desirability
of
this
kind
of
character
as
an
ideal
comes
into
question.
We
will
see
that,
when
hermeneutics
becomes
ethics,
it
tends
to
take
for
granted
its
own
position
in
a
life
well
lived
–
rather
than
seeing
that
the
hermeneutical
desire
to
have
one’s
convictions
challenged
is
only
one
good
among
others.
The
chapter
concludes
with
some
considerations
of
what
it
might
be
to
take
the
failure
of
one’s
expectations
seriously.
12
I
–
Ordinary
Experience
We
will
begin
our
discussion
with
ordinary
experience,
since
the
two
other
kinds
of
experience
only
make
sense
against
its
background.
Unfortunately,
Gadamer
does
not
explicitly
thematise
this
kind
of
experience
at
any
point;
it
gets
discussed,
but
not
systematically
set
out.
This
is
no
doubt
largely
because
Gadamer’s
primary
concern
is
with
setting
out
an
account
of
the
human
sciences,
not
with
human
experience
in
general.
Nonetheless,
since
a
central
part
of
his
account
of
the
human
sciences
is
that
their
activities
need
to
be
made
continuous
with
the
lifeworld,
his
reflections
are
more
broadly
applicable.
So
we
will
have
to
excavate
them.
We
will
begin
with
a
general
discussion
of
the
kind
of
experience
that
Gadamer
is
interested
in,
and
then
move
on
to
an
analysis
of
his
account.
The
kind
of
experience
Gadamer
is
interested
in
is
temporally
distended,
and
it
is
a
unity.
This
is
evident
in
his
discussion
of
Erlebnis,
in
which
he
tells
us
that
the
concept
of
Erlebnis
arose
in
order
to
resist
scientific
abstractions
and
to
place
the
emphasis
on
lived
experience,
a
meaningful
unity
(see
TM
57
in
particular);
and
this,
of
course,
dovetails
with
his
own
project.
What
will
also
become
evident
later,
but
which
I
will
simply
leave
as
an
assertion
here,
is
that
the
kinds
of
experiences
Gadamer
is
interested
in
unfold;
they
have
a
kind
of
narrative;
and
we
cannot
make
sense
of
his
account
of
experience
if
we
see
experience
as
consisting
of
discrete
moments.12
Lived
experience
in
this
sense
is
not
a
torrent
of
unmediated
and
meaningless
sense
data,
but
rather
is
always
already
meaningful
and
organised
in
some
way.13
This
is
the
case
for
two
aspects
of
experience
between
which
we
can
distinguish:
first,
we
have
experiences
of
particular
things
in
our
environment;
second,
we
have
a
more
general
experience
of
our
environment,
a
sense
of
how
it
is.
With
regard
to
the
first
kind
of
experience,
our
experiences
of
things
often
do
12
On
the
temporal
dimension
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience,
see
David
Vessey,
‘Gadamer’s
Hermeneutic
Contribution
to
a
Theory
of
Time-‐Consciousness’,
The
Indo-‐Pacific
Journal
of
Phenomenology,
7,
2,
pp.
1-‐5.
13
It
is
this
emphasis
on
the
way
experience
is
already
meaningful
(as
opposed
to
the
empiricist
concept
of
sense
data)
that
leads
István
Fehér
to
describe
hermeneutics
as
starting
from
a
‘destruction
of
the
concept
of
experience’
(‘On
the
Hermeneutic
Understanding
of
Language:
Word,
Conversation,
and
Subject
Matter’,
in
Lawrence
K.
Schmidt
(ed.),
Language
and
Linguisticality
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics
[Lexington,
2000],
p.
63).
13
not
really
call
attention
to
those
things
themselves;
those
experiences
are
typically
ordered
and
interpreted
in
light
of
various
anticipations,
and
so
the
things
are
experienced
in
terms
of
how
they
relate
to
those
anticipations
–
it
is
when
our
experience
of
things
unfolds
differently
to
how
we
anticipated
it
would
that
attention
is
called
to
them.
(We
will
see
that
it
is
this
latter
kind
of
experience
that
Gadamer
privileges.)
Not
only
is
this
true
for
our
experience
of
particular
things:
it
is
also
true
for
the
second
kind
of
experience,
such
as
that
of
being
‘at
home’
somewhere.
If
one
of
my
goals
or
projects
is
to
establish
a
home
for
myself
somewhere,
to
dwell
there
and
establish
a
stable
connection
with
that
place,
then
my
experience
of
being
‘at
home’
there
will
be
of
a
particular
variety
–
satisfying,
a
sign
that
my
projects
are
turning
out
to
be
successful,
and
so
on.
On
the
other
hand,
if
I
see
myself
as
a
nomad
or
a
wanderer,
if
I
see
coming
to
dwell
somewhere
as
a
sign
of
exhaustion,
at
risk
of
becoming
stale,
then
the
experience
of
being
‘at
home’
is
of
a
different
kind
–
a
warning
sign,
an
indication
that
I
should
pick
up
and
move
on,
and
so
on.
Both
experiences
are
interpreted
in
light
of
how
I
have
come
to
understand
what
the
experiences
indicate
and
mean;
and
both
experiences
are
bound
up
with
anticipations
and
expectations
for
the
future.
Similarly,
when
I
plunge
into
an
icy
river,
my
experience
of
it
is
going
to
be
quite
different
depending
on
things
like
whether
I
jumped
in
intentionally
or
slipped
in;
whether
I
have
done
it
before;
whether
I
am
confident
in
my
ability
to
swim;
and
so
on.
It
is
the
difference
between
its
being
traumatic
or
being
exhilarating.
Similarly,
lived
experience
is
not
something
I
have
control
over.
I
can
arrange
my
projects,
and
so
on,
but
I
have
little
control
over
what
I
will
remember,
no
control
over
what
will
strike
me
as
significant,
and
little
control
over
what
effect
particular
experiences
have
on
my
projects,
world
view,
and
so
on.
So
this
highlights
some
important
features
of
experience
for
us:
experiences
are
not
self-‐contained
moments,
but
are
rather
temporally
distended
(otherwise
we
lose
sight
of
the
way
moments
relate
to
one
another,
of
the
way
an
experience
‘unfolds’);
and
they
are
interpretive,
drawing
their
significance
from
our
anticipations
–
both
of
how
the
experience
will
unfold,
and
of
what
we
expect
it
means
for
the
future.
Further
to
this,
my
experience
cannot
be
accounted
for
only
in
terms
of
my
own
personal
past
experience.
My
experiences
occur
within
a
14
particular
kind
of
community,
one
that
is
the
way
it
is
as
the
result
of
its
past;
and
my
projects
–
especially
those
projects
upon
which
I
have
not
reflected
–
derive
from
the
possibilities
that
my
community
leaves
open,
and
expectations
–
often
unarticulated
–
about
what
one
should
or
not
do,
be
or
become.
And
if
not
all
projects
are
open
to
us,
then
not
all
experiences
are
open
to
us.
I
referred
above
to
the
way
Gadamer
draws
on
the
‘lived
experience’
tradition
in
philosophy,
as
opposed
to
the
tradition
of
scientific
abstraction
from
experience
(see
again
TM
57).
In
this
he
draws
primarily
on
Husserl
and
Dilthey,
and
while
he
critiques
them
(for
failing
to
overcome
epistemological
abstraction)
he
does
not
break
with
them.
We
can
take
as
our
Husserl
text
§27
of
Ideas
I.14
Here
Husserl
is
concerned
with
what
he
terms
the
natural
attitude
–
our
ordinary
and
pre-‐theoretical
orientation
towards
and
experience
of
the
world.
In
this
attitude,
I
am
aware
of
time
stretching
out
before
and
behind
me,
and
of
space
stretching
out
indefinitely
in
every
direction;
I
am
aware,
through
my
various
senses,
of
objects
populating
the
world
around
me;
and
of
others,
who
approach
me,
talk
to
me,
gesture
in
various
ways
–
all
of
which
I
can
immediately
grasp
the
meaning
of.
Likewise,
I
am
aware
of
an
indefinite
multitude
of
things
that
are
not
part
of
my
immediate
perceptual
awareness:
I
can
let
my
attention
wander
away
from
the
writing
table
which
was
just
now
seen
and
noticed,
out
through
the
unseen
parts
of
the
room
which
are
behind
my
back,
to
the
verandah,
into
the
garden,
to
the
children
in
the
arbor,
etc.,
to
all
the
Objects
I
directly
“know
of”
as
being
there
are
here
in
the
surroundings
of
which
there
is
also
consciousness
–
a
“knowing
of
them”
which
involves
no
conceptual
thinking
and
which
changes
into
a
clear
intuiting
only
with
the
advertence
of
attention,
and
even
then
only
partially
and
for
the
most
part
very
imperfectly.
14
Husserl,
Ideas
Pertaining
to
a
Pure
Phenomenology
and
to
a
Phenomenological
Philosophy:
First
15
These
things
beyond
my
immediate
sphere
of
perception
form
the
‘constant
halo’
that
accompanies
what
I
am
attending
to;
and
it
stretches
even
further
to
the
‘horizon
of
indeterminate
actuality’,
those
things
I
am
not
currently
conscious
of
but
perhaps
could
be,
but
of
which
I
cannot
ever
be
totally
aware
of.
And
just
as
this
horizon
is
made
up
of
the
various
things
in
the
world,
it
is
also
a
temporal
horizon,
in
which
the
present
moment
is
understood
against
the
background
of
past
and
future.
This
world
is,
finally,
not
a
neutral
or
unintelligible
one,
but
rather
one
in
which
objects
typically
stand
immediately
as
something
–
I
recognise
immediately
that
this
is
a
table,
and
this
a
cup
–
and
a
practical
world,
in
which
I
can
act,
formulate
projects,
understand
things
as
good
or
bad,
helpful
or
harmful;
and
understand
others
as
friends,
enemies,
colleagues,
and
so
on.
All
of
this
is
important
as
the
background
against
which
to
understand
Gadamer;
for
his
concept
of
experience
is
grounded
in
the
lifeworld,
and
if
we
miss
this
then
his
hermeneutics
winds
up
looking
like
a
modified
version
Hegel’s
system,
in
which
Geist
has
simply
been
replaced
by
tradition.
Let
us
now
turn
to
Dilthey.
We
will
take
as
our
text
a
section
from
a
draft
of
the
Critique
of
Historical
Reason,
‘Awareness,
reality:
time’.15
‘Life
consists
of
parts,
of
experiences
which
are
inwardly
related
to
each
other,’
Dilthey
tells
us.
Every
particular
experience
refers
to
a
self
of
which
it
is
a
part;
it
is
structurally
interrelated
to
other
parts.
Everything
which
pertains
to
mind
is
interrelated
[...].
We
apprehend
connectedness
through
the
unity
of
consciousness
which
is
the
condition
of
all
apprehension.
However,
connectedness
clearly
does
not
follow
from
the
fact
of
a
manifold
of
experiences
being
presented
to
a
unitary
consciousness.
Only
because
life
is
itself
a
structural
connection
of
experiences
–
i.e.
experienceable
relations
–
is
the
connectedness
of
life
given.
This
connectedness
is
apprehended
in
terms
of
a
more
comprehensive
category
which
is
a
form
of
judgement
about
all
reality
–
the
relation
between
whole
and
part.
15
Dilthey,
Selected
Writings,
ed.
Rickman
(Cambridge,
1976),
p.
211.
16
Experiences,
in
other
words,
are
not
free-‐floating:
they
connect
with
each
other
and,
as
the
reference
to
‘whole
and
part’
makes
clear,
each
experience
is
understood
as
a
part,
against
the
background
of
the
whole
of
our
experience.
An
experience
cannot
be
understood
in
isolation.
Rather,
my
life
forms
a
unity,
in
which
my
experiences
are
connected
to
one
another;
they
are
all
understood
as
experiences
of
mine.
16
E.g.
Jean
Grondin,
The
Philosophy
of
Gadamer,
trans.
Kathryn
Plant
(Acumen,
2003),
p.
85:
‘For
Gadamer,
all
understanding
emerges
entirely
in
the
light
of
anticipations
(which
we
can
call
“prejudices”).’
17
E.g.
Charles
Lamore:
‘
“Prejudices”
are
simply
those
traditional
beliefs
that
logically
precede
or
underlie
the
judgements
at
which,
in
some
particular
context,
we
arrive.’
(‘Tradition,
Objectivity,
and
Hermeneutics’,
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.),
Hermeneutics
and
Modern
Philosophy
[SUNY,
1986],
p.
151.)
Georgia
Warnke
seems
to
presuppose
something
like
this
view,
without
explicitly
stating
it:
see
Gadamer:
Hermeneutics,
Tradition
and
Reason
(Polity,
1987),
pp.
3-‐4.
Joel
Weinsheimer
takes
prejudices
to
be
‘historical
reality
itself’:
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
170.
17
underdeveloped,
and
careful
analysis
will
show
that
it
cannot
(simply)
do
everything
he
wants
it
to.
Gadamer
seeks
to
‘rehabilitate’
the
concept
of
prejudice,
since
–
in
his
view
–
prejudices
have
been
unfairly
judged
as
‘merely’
bad
or
false
(see
TM
273).18
A
prejudice
is
really
a
kind
of
‘pre-‐judgement’,
something
that
guides
our
expectations
of
what
a
thing
is
and
what
it
will
do
in
advance.
As
Gadamer
puts
it:
a
prejudice
is
‘a
judgement
that
is
rendered
before
all
the
elements
that
determine
a
situation
have
been
finally
examined’
(TM
273).
This
means
that
it
is
not
necessarily
a
false
judgement.
What
prejudices
represent
is
the
anticipation
and
prior
understanding
we
have
of
something.
As
he
puts
it
in
a
slightly
different
context,
prejudices
are
‘what
we
take
for
granted’
(RB
11).
Whenever
we
encounter
anything
and
make
sense
of
it,
we
do
so
in
light
of
what
we
think
it
is
going
to
be
like.
Insofar
as
it
conforms
to
our
anticipations,
it
appears
as
intelligible
and
makes
sense
to
us;
when
it
defies
our
anticipations,
it
shows
us
that
we
had
misleading
anticipations.
This
defiance
of
expectations
is,
for
Gadamer,
‘genuine’
experience
(as
will
be
discussed
below);
and
what
genuine
experience
accomplishes
is
to
make
me
aware
of
prejudices
that
previously
had
been
operating
unchecked
and
unnoticed
(TM
298).
Without
prejudices,
we
could
not
ever
understand
anything,
for
it
is
only
on
the
basis
of
prejudices
that
guide
me
in
my
interpretation
that
my
interpretation
even
gets
going;
prejudices
are
the
‘conditions
of
understanding’
(TM
278).19
Without
prejudices,
it
is
not
clear
that
I
could
even
recognise
things
as
things,
as
being
in
need
of
interpretation.
(The
same
basic
problem
underlies
Meno’s
Paradox.)
Of
course,
things
do
not
always
immediately
appear
as
intelligible;
sometimes
we
need
to
work
to
understand
them.
But
nonetheless,
in
working
to
understand
something
we
presuppose
that
it
can
be
made
(more)
intelligible,
and
this
Gadamer
refers
to
as
the
‘fore-‐conception
of
completeness’
or,
on
the
same
page,
the
‘prejudice
of
completeness’
(TM
294).
So,
on
Gadamer’s
account,
we
have
a
background
of
prejudices
that
serve
to
make
experience
intelligible,
and
also
make
genuine
experience
possible.
But
18
Adam
Sandel
discusses
the
history
of
the
‘prejudice
against
prejudice’
in
his
The
Place
of
18
what
are
these
prejudices?
And
how
exactly
do
they
make
experience
intelligible?
It
might
be
tempting
to
think
of
prejudices
as
being
like
a
big
set
of
propositions,
which
are
either
shown
to
be
true
or
false
depending
on
how
experience
bears
them
out.
This,
however,
would
be
misleading
–
for
it
would
presuppose
that
my
prejudices
are
in
some
kind
of
determinate
form,
such
that
they
are
cast
into
the
form
of
a
proposition.
Gadamer
is
silent
on
this
point,
but
his
discussion
of
the
linguistic
nature
of
experience
(to
which
we
shall
come
later)
suggests
that
it
would
be
false
to
read
him
as
though
all
of
our
prejudices
were
always
already
cast
in
determinate
linguistic
form;
he
insists
that
language
is
not
a
storehouse
from
which
we
can
withdraw
ready-‐made
linguistic
formulations,20
but
rather
that
the
essence
of
hermeneutics
is
trying
to
find
the
right
word
to
bring
something
to
language.21
Thus,
we
should
think
of
prejudices
as
being
more
or
less
determinate,
as
being
for
the
most
part
largely
unarticulated,
and
as
being
the
ground
from
which
I
form
anticipations
(which
I
might
then
cast
in
propositional
form)22
–
it
is
only
when
they
are
defied
that
I
realise
I
have
them
and
am
prompted
to
reflect
on
them;
and
it
is
when
I
reflect
on
them
that
they
can
be
articulated,
developed,
or
rejected.
The
outcome
of
this
process
forms
the
background
of
prejudices
I
then
carry
forward
into
future
situations:
a
prejudice
is,
in
a
way,
an
accumulation
of
experience.23
Prejudices
are
both
the
input
and
the
output
of
the
hermeneutical
circle.
I
am
never
without
prejudices,
and
nor
would
I
want
to
be,
since
they
are
the
ground
of
the
possibility
of
my
understanding
anything.24
But
what
does
it
mean
to
say
that
prejudices
form
‘the
ground
of
the
possibility
of
my
understanding
anything’?
The
best
way
to
answer
this
question
is
to
turn
to
Heidegger;
for
it
is
to
Heidegger
that
Gadamer
himself
turns
when
20
See
Weinsheimer,
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
pp.
228-‐9.
21
PH
15:
‘...
we
are
familiar
with
the
strange,
uncomfortable,
and
tortuous
feeling
we
have
as
long
as
we
do
not
have
the
right
word.
When
we
have
found
the
right
expression
(it
need
not
always
be
one
word),
when
we
are
certain
that
we
have
it,
then
it
“stands”,
then
something
has
come
to
a
“stand”.
[...]
What
I
am
describing
is
the
mode
of
the
whole
human
experience
of
the
world.
I
call
this
experience
hermeneutical
[...].’
22
‘Long
before
we
understand
ourselves
through
the
process
of
self-‐examination,
we
understand
ourselves
in
a
self-‐evident
way
in
the
family,
society,
and
state
in
which
we
live’
(TM
278).
23
We
will
see
later
how
this
relates
to
Gadamer’s
concept
of
Erfahrung,
which
occurs
in
19
introducing
this
issue.25
Heidegger
observes
that
when
we
understand
something,
we
understand
it
as
something
(BT
149).
This
‘as-‐structure’
is
what
enables
us
to
understand
things
–
we
understand
this
thing
‘as’
a
door,
or
‘as’
a
table.
As
Heidegger
puts
it:
‘That
which
is
disclosed
in
understanding
–
that
which
is
understood
–
is
already
accessible
in
such
a
way
that
its
“as
which”
can
be
made
to
stand
out
explicitly’
(BT
149).
Understanding
‘as’
is
more
primordial
than
seeing
something
‘free’
of
the
‘as’;
our
ordinary
experiences
are
characterised
by
seeing
something
immediately
as
something;
‘when
we
merely
stare
at
something,
our
just-‐having-‐it-‐before-‐us
lies
before
us
as
a
failure
to
understand
it
any
more’,
and
is
thus
derivative
of
the
more
basic
experience
of
understanding
the
things
we
encounter
(BT
149).
Understanding
unfolds
in
light
of
a
‘fore-‐having’
(BT
150).
A
fore-‐having,
as
Heidegger
says,
‘takes
the
first
cut’:
it
gets
the
interpretation
moving
by
providing
the
point
of
view
in
light
of
which
the
thing
is
to
be
understood.
Prejudices
play
the
same
role
for
Gadamer.26
Let
us
make
a
few
more
comments
about
Heidegger
before
we
continue,
as
they
will
be
helpful
for
us
later.
(1)
What
Heidegger
makes
explicit,
but
Gadamer
does
not,
is
that
the
as-‐structure
of
understanding
is
more
fundamental
than
predication
and
assertion
(BT
§33).
This
parallels
his
distinction
between
ready-‐
to-‐hand
and
present-‐at-‐hand:
the
ready-‐to-‐hand
appears
as
something
in
light
of
whatever
it
is
I
am
trying
to
do,
while
presence-‐at-‐hand
is
how
something
appears
when
I
look
at
it
without
an
eye
to
employing
it
for
some
purpose
–
when
I
can
assert
what
it
is.
Presence-‐at-‐hand,
for
Heidegger,
is
derivative
from
readiness-‐to-‐hand:
when
we
step
back
and
assert
that
the
hammer
is
a
hammer,
this
is
performed
on
the
basis
of
a
horizon
of
practical
interests,
such
that
a
hammer
is
a
hammer
because
of
its
relation
to
nails,
wood,
building,
and
so
forth.
Gadamer’s
concept
of
prejudice
crosses
back
and
forth
between
these
two
modes:
sometimes
prejudices
are
inarticulate,
giving
us
our
angle
into
things;
at
25
TM
268-‐72.
26
Heidegger:
‘Anything
understood
which
is
held
in
our
fore-‐having
and
towards
which
we
set
our
sights
‘foresightedly’,
becomes
conceptualisable
through
the
interpretation.
In
such
an
interpretation,
the
way
in
which
the
entity
we
are
interpreting
is
to
be
conceived
can
be
drawn
from
the
entity
itself,
or
the
interpretation
can
for
the
entity
into
concepts
to
which
it
is
opposed
in
its
manner
of
Being.
In
either
case,
the
interpretation
has
already
decided
for
a
definite
way
of
conceiving
it,
either
with
finality
or
with
reservations;
it
is
grounded
in
something
we
grasp
in
advance
–
in
a
fore-‐conception.’
(BT
150)
For
an
account
of
the
origins
of
the
productive
concept
of
prejudice
in
Heidegger’s
thought,
see
Adam
Sandel,
The
Place
of
Prejudice,
Ch.
2.
20
other
times,
once
they
have
been
challenged
and
reformulated,
prejudices
are
articulated
and
determinate,
and
much
more
closely
resemble
propositions.
(2)
The
correspondence
between
Heidegger’s
‘as-‐structure’
and
Gadamer’s
‘prejudices’
is
not
perfect.
The
as-‐structure
is
determined
by
my
projects
and
concerns,
as
Heidegger
makes
clear;
but
for
Gadamer,
prejudices
are
the
accumulation
of
experience
–
the
role
of
my
projects
and
concerns
in
my
understanding
of
things
is
captured
much
more
by
his
concept
of
‘application’.
This
point
will
be
picked
up
below.
A
few
words
should
be
said
about
how
the
ongoing
process
of
the
correction
of
predjudices
is
to
be
distinguished
from
‘falsification’
(in
Popper’s
sense)
and
‘fallibilism’,
since
both
have
broad
similarities
to
Gadamer’s
account
of
prejudices,
but
both
differ
from
it
in
important
ways,
which
may
be
misleading
if
overlooked.
Falsificationism
is
a
particular
approach
to
the
philosophy
of
science,
which
places
a
particular
emphasis
on
the
way
theories
and
hypotheses
must
be
formed:
they
must
be
cast
in
falsifiable
terms.
A
statement
is
falsifiable
if
there
is
some
way
it
can
be
put
to
the
test,
and
so
could
potentially
shown
to
be
false.
Prejudices
(in
Gadamer’s
sense)
are
not
‘falsifiable’
in
this
way,
since
they
are
not
in
the
first
instance
statements
or
propositions
(although,
once
grasped,
they
can
be
rendered
in
propositional
form);
they
are
not
beliefs
that
either
correspond
to
reality
or
not,
but
rather
anticipations
that
guide
my
interpretation
of
phenomena,
and
allow
phenomena
to
present
themselves
in
the
first
place.
Further,
falsificationism
is
far
more
deliberate
than
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience.
When
I
set
up
an
experiment,
I
am
trying
to
precisely
control
which
proposition
(the
hypothesis)
is
subject
to
question.
But
an
experience
is
often
not
something
I
deliberately
set
about
having;
I
have
no
control
over
what
is
called
into
question.27
Fallibilism,
on
the
other
hand,
is
a
particular
stance
in
epistemology,
which
claims
that
all
of
our
knowledge
claims
are
at
least
potentially
wrong
–
for
27
Compare
Grondin’s
discussion
of
this
issue,
The
Philosophy
of
Gadamer,
p.
117.
For
an
attempt
to
re-‐cast
hermeneutics
in
the
falsification
mode,
see
Mantzavinos,
Naturalistic
Hermeneutics
(Cambridge,
2005);
and
see
the
review
by
Paul
Roth
in
Notre
Dame
Philosophy
Reviews
(http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/24966-‐naturalistic-‐hermeneutics/)
for
a
critical
take,
which
observes
that
hypothesis
formation
is
too
deliberate
and
occurs
‘too
late’
to
make
sense
of
how
understanding
and
meaning
unfold.
A
parallel
criticism
is
made
by
Weinsheimer,
with
reference
to
E.
D.
Hirsch,
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
23n.
21
anything
we
think
we
know,
we
might
always
be
shown
to
be
wrong
about
it.
Gadamer
is
not
a
fallibilist
–
not
because
he
thinks
there
is
anything
that
can
be
known
with
certainty,
but
because
he
presupposes
an
account
of
truth
that
places
far
less
emphasis
on
propositions
than
the
one
presupposed
by
fallibilism.
This
is
most
evident
in
the
way
fallibilism
generates
a
paradox
of
self-‐reference
(if
any
statement
may
be
false,
might
the
statement
‘any
statement
may
be
false’
be
false?).
For
Gadamer,
it
is
not
a
matter
of
assenting
to
the
proposition
that
any
statement
might
be
false,
but
rather
a
question
of
attitude
and
orientation
towards
one’s
experiences,
as
we
will
see
when
we
come
to
discuss
his
account
of
Erfahrung.28
We
always
have
more
prejudices
that
inform
our
experience
than
we
can
ever
become
totally
aware
of.29
There
are
two
different
ways
we
can
take
this.
On
the
one
hand,
we
might
take
this
primarily
as
an
expression
of
our
limits:
‘overcoming’
all
of
our
prejudices
would
be
desirable,
but
since
we
are
limited
and
finite
beings
this
just
is
not
possible
for
us.
On
the
other
hand,
we
can
understand
the
idea
of
overcoming
all
prejudices
as
fundamentally
misguided
and
resting
on
a
misunderstanding.
The
idea
that
overcoming
all
prejudices
would
be
desirable
but
is
just
unachievable
is
a
natural
and
obvious
reading
of
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
prejudices.30
In
un-‐cautious
moments,
Gadamer
does
seem
to
talk
this
way
about
prejudices,
as
for
example
when
he
says:
‘Thus
we
can
formulate
the
fundamental
epistemological
question
for
a
truly
historical
hermeneutics:
what
is
the
ground
of
the
legitimacy
of
prejudices?
What
distinguishes
legitimate
prejudices
from
the
countless
others
which
it
is
the
undeniable
task
of
critical
reason
to
overcome?’
(TM
278)
But
this
would
be
misleading;
it
would
be
to
read
Gadamer
in
epistemological
terms,
and
it
does
not
allow
us
to
make
sense
of
his
28
Cf.
Nicholas
White’s
essay,
and
Gadamer’s
response,
in
Silverman
(ed.),
Gadamer
and
Hermeneutics
(Routledge,
1991).
In
his
essay,
White
suggests
that
Gadamer
takes
over
from
Plato
and
Socrates
a
concern
with
the
way
human
beings
might
always
be
wrong,
even
when
they
think
they
are
right,
which
White
equates
with
fallibilism;
Gadamer’s
response
expresses
puzzlement
over
why
they
are
importing
a
recent
epistemological
concept
into
their
discussion
of
Plato.
29
‘The
prejudices
of
the
individual,
far
more
than
his
judgements,
constitute
the
historical
reality
of
his
being.’
(TM
278)
Cf.
PH
38:
‘What
I
have
called
historically-‐effected
consciousness
is
inescapably
more
being
than
consciousness,
and
being
is
never
fully
manifest.’
30
For
example,
Dawson,
in
his
translator’s
preface
to
Praise
of
Theory
(p.
xxix),
presents
such
a
reading.
22
conception
of
truth
(which
we
will
discuss
in
more
detail
in
Chapter
IV).
The
reason
for
this
is
as
follows.
If
the
aim
is
to
correct
all
of
our
prejudices,
this
suggests
that
there
is
a
conceivable
(even
if
not,
ultimately,
possible)
state
that
would
consist
in
having
only
‘correct’
prejudices.
But
this
would
be
truth
as
adequatio
rei
et
intellectus:
our
minds
would
have
become
adequate
to
reality.
As
Alasdair
MacIntyre
formulates
it,
the
mind
‘moves
towards
completing
itself
by
becoming
formally
identical
with
the
objects
of
its
knowledge,
so
that
it
is
adequate
to
those
objects,
objects
that
are
then
no
longer
external
to
it,
but
rather
complete
it’.31
On
this
reading,
Gadamer
would
be
a
closet
(albeit
pessimistic)
Thomist
–
and
this
would
fail
to
do
justice
to
the
way
he
follows
Heidegger
in
seeing
truth
as
aletheia,
the
way
things
present
themselves
as
what
they
are,
and
their
simultaneous
concealment,
rather
than
as
adequatio.
As
Grondin
notes,32
there
is
some
element
of
adequatio
in
Gadamer’s
account
of
truth,
insofar
as
helpful
prejudices
are
those
that
are
adequate
to
the
thing
–
but
this
leaves
two
important
features
of
Gadamer’s
thinking
out.
(1)
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language
differs
significantly
from
the
kind
of
ontology
presupposed
by
adequatio
accounts
of
truth
(as
I
will
argue
below).
(2)
While
helpful
prejudices
do
their
helping
by
being
adequate
to
the
thing,
truth
as
adequatio
is
a
state,
not
an
event
–
and,
as
we
will
see,
it
is
the
event
of
truth,
the
‘genuine
experience’
in
which
the
thing
disrupts
my
expectations,
that
most
interests
Gadamer.
So
to
the
extent
that
there
is
an
element
of
adequatio
to
Gadamer’s
account
of
truth,
it
is
not
what
is
fundamental
to
it.
Prejudices
are
better
understood,
then,
as
what
allows
things
to
show
themselves.
A
prejudice
is
‘false’
or
‘inadequate’
to
the
extent
that
it
only
allows
the
thing
to
show
itself
in
a
distorted
fashion.
For
example,
contemporary
sexual
mores
can
make
it
difficult
to
understand
the
sexual
practices
of
the
Ancient
Greeks;
pederasty
can
be
too
quickly
mistaken
for
paedophilia.
An
appropriate
prejudice,
on
the
other
hand,
allows
the
thing
to
show
itself
as
it
is
without
distortion.
By
recognising
the
prejudice
structure
of
understanding
we
prevent
31
See
‘First
Principles,
Final
Ends,
Contemporary
Issues’,
collected
in
The
Tasks
of
Philosophy
Hermeneutics?’,
in
Malpas
&
Zabala
(ed.),
Consequences
of
Hermeneutics
(Northwestern,
2010),
pp.
194-‐5.
23
them
from
simply
operating
unchecked;
says
Gadamer,
‘a
person
who
does
not
admit
that
he
is
dominated
by
prejudices
will
fail
to
see
what
manifests
itself
by
their
light’
(TM
354).
Further,
prejudices
underlie
not
just
judgements
(as
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
their
etymology
as
pre-‐judgements
could
lead
us
to
believe)
but
experience.
Not
only
does
that
last
quote
show
this
(‘what
manifests
itself
by
their
light’),
but
Gadamer
also
makes
this
clear
in
a
later
essay:
‘Prejudices
are
biases
of
our
openness
to
the
world.
They
are
simply
the
conditions
whereby
we
experience
something
–
whereby
what
we
encounter
says
something
to
us.’
(PH
9;
emphasis
added.)
Prejudices,
this
is
to
say,
are
not
merely,
nor
even
primarily,
an
epistemological
category
for
Gadamer;
they
are,
in
the
first
place,
ontological.
However,
this
does
introduce
an
ambivalence,
an
ambivalence
that
I
think
runs
right
the
way
through
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
It
is
the
tension
between
the
hermeneutical
and
phenomenological
dimensions
of
Gadamer’s
thought:
between
a
concern
for
the
horizon
in
light
of
which
things
appear,
and
a
concern
for
the
thing
itself,
the
phenomenon,
unflagging
concern
for
which
is
what
gives
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
its
‘rigor’
(TM
461).
I
will
pick
this
up
in
more
detail
below
(see
Chapter
IV),
but
it
is
worth
flagging
for
now,
because
it
underlies
much
of
the
discussion
to
follow.
Where
do
our
prejudices
come
from?
This
is
a
question
that
commentators
on
Gadamer
tend
not
to
ask.
Grondin,
for
example,
simply
takes
it
as
given
that
we
always
already
find
ourselves
with
prejudices
and
anticipations;
there
is
no
ground
prior
to
or
outside
of
prejudice-‐laden
understanding.33
Similarly,
Weinsheimer
takes
them
as
already
given:
‘We
understand
the
world
before
we
think
about
it;
such
pre-‐understanding
gives
rise
to
thought
and
always
conditions
it.’34
This
is
true,
surely;
but
it
leaves
my
question
unasked.
So
let
us
ask
it:
where
do
our
prejudices
come
from?
The
most
obvious
answer
is
that
they
derive
from
my
own
experiences
and
activity:
I
learn
from
my
own
experiences.
But
clearly
we
have
not
accumulated
all
of
them
through
our
own
independent
activities.
If
this
were
the
only
way
we
accumulated
prejudices,
our
33
The
Philosophy
of
Gadamer,
pp.
79ff.
34
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
pp.
10-‐11.
24
horizons
would
be
of
a
much
narrower
scope.
Thus
we
must
derive
prejudices
from
our
place
within
a
historical
tradition;
and
our
sharing
of
them
with
other
members
of
our
tradition
is
part
of
what
establishes
the
basic
ground
of
agreement
that
allows
elaborate
forms
of
cooperation
and
shared
enquiry
to
take
place.35
This
dimension
of
our
experience
–
the
way
it
has
been
shaped
and
produced
by
a
history
–
is
invisible
to
any
investigation
into
experience
that
takes
the
self-‐certain
experiences
of
subjectivity
as
simply
given.
Thus
Gadamer
can
say:
‘The
focus
of
subjectivity
is
a
distorting
mirror.
The
self-‐awareness
of
the
individual
is
only
a
flickering
in
the
closed
circuits
of
historical
life.
That
is
why
the
prejudices
of
the
individual,
far
more
than
his
judgements,
constitute
the
historical
reality
of
his
being’
(TM
278;
italics
in
original).
What
it
is
that
Gadamer
is
thinking
of
when
he
speaks
of
tradition
is
a
tricky
question.
There
are
times
when
he
seems
to
privilege
texts
as
being
the
sole
vessel
of
tradition
(textual
interpretation
is
certainly
the
dominant
concern
in
Truth
and
Method);
but
if
this
is
so,
then
his
account
would
need
to
be
supplemented
with
an
account
of
the
way
songs,
practices,
rituals,
institutions,
sayings
and
so
on,
are
also
bearers
of
tradition.36
One
of
the
things
that
is
striking
is
that,
in
the
central
discussion
of
tradition
and
horizon
(TM
II.4
[B(iv)];
pp.
299-‐
306),
Gadamer
discusses
in
detail
the
way
our
historical
horizon
gives
us
our
perspective
on
things,
and
how
historical
consciousness
involves
grasping
the
horizon
of
the
past,
he
does
not
discuss
how
one
actually
acquires
this
horizon.
He
discusses
the
implications
of
being
‘children
of
our
time’
(Hegel),
but
does
not
discuss
how
we
become
so.
This
is
an
important
issue,
because
there
is
a
difference
between
conceiving
of
the
tradition
in
broadly
idealist
terms
–
the
tradition
consists
in
ideas
that
are
passed
down
(perhaps
by
being
contained
in
the
language);37
and
conceiving
it
in
materialist
terms
–
as
embodied
in
our
practices,
institutions
and
forms
of
life.
35
See,
for
example,
PH
7:
“I”
and
“Thou”
do
not
exist
as
‘isolated,
substantial
realities’;
to
say
“Thou”
presupposes
‘a
common
understanding
[that]
always
precedes
these
situations’.
36
Gadamer
moved
more
in
this
direction
in
his
later
essays.
See,
for
example,
‘Towards
a
Phenomenology
of
Language
and
Ritual’,
in
Lawrence
Schmidt
(ed.),
Language
and
Linguisticality
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics.
37
P
Christopher
Smith,
in
Hermeneutics
and
Human
Finitude
(Fordham,
1991),
presents
a
25
I
would
suggest
that,
while
Gadamer
does
not
fit
comfortably
into
either
camp,
examining
him
from
the
‘materialist’
perspective
is
a
fruitful
undertaking.
It
is
primarily
his
concept
of
play
that
matters
here.
A
game,
Gadamer
notes,
does
not
exist
independently
of
the
players;
it
only
‘reaches
presentation
through
the
players’
(TM
103).
But,
nonetheless,
a
game
cannot
be
understood
merely
by
the
subjective
perspectives
of
the
players
themselves.
Play
is
not
something
one
does,
but
rather
something
one
participates
in
(TM
104).
I
do
this
by
submitting
myself
to
the
game;
this
is
not
a
passive
submission,
since
in
order
to
play
I
have
to
be
active,
but
my
activity
is
constrained
or
enabled
by
the
rules
of
the
game,
the
activity
of
the
other
players,
and
so
on
(TM
107).
This
is
why
Gadamer
says
that
‘the
actual
subject
of
play’
is
not
the
players
but
‘the
play
itself’
(TM
104).
Playing
is
both
passivity
and
activity:
‘all
playing
is
being
played’
(TM
106).
In
play,
‘the
player
experiences
the
game
as
a
reality
that
surpasses
him’
(TM
109).
Thus
we
can
think
of
play
in
connection
with
the
way
in
which
someone
picks
up
the
horizon
and
prejudices
of
the
tradition
of
which
they
are
a
part.
A
baby
is
not
yet
an
historical
being.
But
as
we
are
raised,
we
are
taught
how
to
play
the
various
‘games’
of
our
society
–
how
to
speak
the
language,
what
the
proper
manners
are
at
the
dinner
table,
how
to
do
well
in
school,
how
to
advance
one’s
career,
how
to
lead
a
good
life,
and
so
on
–
but
we
are
not,
as
it
were,
taught
all
of
the
rules.
By
‘rules’
I
mean
not
only
‘moral
rules’
that
legislate
what
is
permissible
and
impermissible
in
the
various
games,
but
also
the
underlying
rationales
of
these
games,
why
we
engage
in
them,
what
their
broader
purpose
is,
and
so
on.
These
inarticulate
rules,
those
things
implied
by
and
assumed
in
the
routine
of
our
daily
lives,
how
we
interact
with
others,
the
structure
of
our
society,
the
expressions
and
pieces
of
wisdom
that
are
part
of
our
linguistic
heritage,
and
so
on,
come
to
shape
what
we
take
to
be
important
and
our
view
of
what
matters.
It
is
from
this
process
that
we
derive
that
implicit
understanding
that
Gadamer
refers
to
when
he
says:
‘Long
before
we
understand
ourselves
through
the
process
of
self-‐examination,
we
understand
ourselves
in
a
self-‐
evident
way
in
the
family,
society,
and
state
in
which
we
live’
(TM
278).
I
will
leave
it
at
this,
however,
as
there
is
not
enough
in
Truth
and
Method
to
settle
this
matter
decisively.
The
sketch
I
have
presented
is,
I
think,
the
most
plausible
way
of
reading
Gadamer.
However,
as
we
will
see
below,
this
reading
26
connects
in
an
important
way
with
the
solution
to
a
puzzle
concerning
his
concept
of
prejudice;
but,
as
we
will
see
at
the
end
of
the
chapter,
it
is
also
implicated
in
a
basic
objection
to
his
ontology
of
language.
In
any
case,
it
is
important
to
emphasise
that
the
tradition
is
not
monolithic
or
univocal;
Gadamer
speaks
of
the
way
the
past
addresses
us
with
many
voices,
and
these
multifarious
voices
make
up
the
tradition
(TM
285).
If
it
were
univocal,
it
could
not
pose
the
challenge
to
us
it
so
obviously
does,
and
the
difference
that
generates
dialogue
and
discussion
would
disappear:
we
would
fall
into
what
Henry
James
calls
‘unspeakable
harmony’.38
The
shaping
of
consciousness
by
history
Gadamer
refers
to
as
the
principle
of
wirkungsgeschichtliches
Bewußtein:
‘consciousness
of
being
effected
by
history’
(Weinsheimer
and
Marshall),
or
‘historically
effected-‐effective
consciousness’
(Smith).
The
immediate
point
of
this
concept
is
to
highlight
the
naivety
of
an
approach
to
understanding
anything
–
especially
an
historical
text
–
that
simply
takes
the
text
as
it
appears
to
us.
When
we
do
this,
we
ignore
the
way
we
do
not
approach
the
text
as
neutral
observers
but
as
historical
beings
whose
interests
have
already
been
shaped
by
the
very
same
history
of
which
the
text
is
a
part
(in
the
case
of
texts
from
our
own
tradition,
in
any
case);
and
in
this
way
we
allow
this
effect
of
history
to
simply
happen
unmonitored
and
unchecked.
Gadamer
also
refers
to
this
as
our
‘hermeneutical
situation’
(TM
301);
and
it
is
our
hermeneutical
situation
that
‘determines
in
advance
both
what
seems
to
us
worth
inquiring
about
and
what
will
appear
as
an
object
of
investigation,
and
we
more
or
less
forget
half
of
what
is
really
there
–
in
fact,
we
miss
the
whole
truth
of
the
phenomenon
–
when
we
take
its
immediate
appearance
as
the
whole
truth’
(TM
300).
Becoming
aware
of
our
hermeneutical
situation
means
becoming
aware
of
the
way
we
have
been
affected
by
history.
The
concept
of
prejudice,
then,
is
an
attempt
to
explicate
how
my
consciousness
is
affected
by
being
a
part
of
some
tradition.
Prejudice
is
the
presence
of
the
tradition
in
the
individual.39
And
it
is
because
a
community
more
or
less
shares
the
same
38
Henry
James,
The
Princess
Casamassima,
Ch.
6.
39
This
is
an
essential
point
to
note.
Gadamer
sometimes
sounds
as
though
he
is
trying
to
eliminate
the
subject,
and
thus
attracts
criticism
that
attempts
to
mobilise
phenomenological
considerations
against
him
(e.g.
Hans-‐Herbert
Kögler
(2014),
‘A
Critique
of
Dialogue
in
Philosophical
Hermeneutics’,
Journal
of
Dialogue
Studies,
2,
1).
For
an
attempt
to
mobilise
the
concept
of
play
to
counter
this
anti-‐subjective
tendency,
see
Fleming
Lebech
(2006),
‘The
27
background
of
prejudices
that
they
inhabit
a
shared
world
–
as
Hegel
puts
it,
‘common
sense’
is
realised
through
each
member
of
a
community
having
a
particular
set
of
prejudices
(PR
317).
Similarly,
for
Hegel
the
state
does
not
exist
independently
of
the
people
who
live
in
it
–
nor
do
they
exist
independently
of
the
state.
The
same
basic
principle
is
true
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
tradition.40
There
is,
however,
a
tension
between
two
aspects
of
the
concept
of
prejudice:
(1)
prejudices
are
those
anticipations
that
make
experience
possible,
and
(2)
prejudices
are
derived
from
the
tradition
of
which
we
are
a
part.41
Gadamer
himself
yokes
both
of
these
together:
‘The
anticipation
of
meaning
that
governs
our
understanding
of
a
text
is
not
an
act
of
subjectivity,
but
proceeds
from
the
commonality
that
binds
us
to
the
tradition’
(TM
293).
But
this
can
only
lead
us
into
difficulties.
The
first,
and
most
notorious,
is
that
it
seems
to
reduce
human
beings
to
mere
functions
of
the
tradition
of
which
they
are
a
part.
I
do
not
want
to
concern
myself
with
this
objection
here,42
but
rather
to
turn
to
a
second
objection:
such
an
account
of
prejudices
leaves
Gadamer’s
account
of
experience
unintelligible.
Ordinary
experience,
for
Gadamer,
proceeds
dialectically:
my
experiences
are
always
guided
by
my
anticipations,
which
are
often
more
or
less
fulfilled;
sometimes
my
anticipations
are
thwarted,
in
which
case
I
become
alienated
from
my
experience,
and
(temporarily)
unable
to
make
sense
of
it
–
I
am
also
thrown
back
on
myself
by
the
realisation
that
there
is
more
to
the
thing
than
the
way
I
understand
it;
and
then,
in
a
movement
of
‘reconciliation’,
my
understanding
of
the
thing
is
deepened
and
I
no
longer
feel
alienated
from
my
experience
of
it,
and
my
understanding
of
my
own
finitude
is
also
deepened.43
My
anticipations
were
guided
by
my
prejudices,
as
we
have
seen;
but
now
that
they
have
passed
Concept
of
the
Subject
in
the
Philosophical
Hermeneutics
of
Hans-‐Georg
Gadamer’,
International
Journal
of
Philosophy
Studies,
14,
2,
pp.
221-‐236.
40
John
Arthos
calls
this
Gadamer’s
‘communal
ontology’:
see
Arthos
(2000)
‘Who
are
We
and
Who
am
I?
Gadamer’s
Communal
Ontology
as
Palimpsest’,
Communication
Studies,
51,
1,
pp.
15-‐
34.
41
This
tension
is
noted,
with
reference
to
the
concept
of
play,
by
Bernet
(2005),
‘The
Subject’s
Participation
in
the
Game
of
Truth’,
The
Review
of
Metaphysics,
58,
4,
p.
793.
42
Although
I
will
take
up
a
version
of
this
objection
below.
43
To
foreshadow
what
is
to
come,
the
major
element
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
Erfahrung
is
that
it
breaks
with
this
tradition
in
which
experience
is
seen
as
contributing
to
the
concept;
instead,
an
Erfahrung
calls
the
concept
into
question.
28
through
the
dialectic
of
experience,
and
have
come
out
the
other
side
changed
–
for
surely
my
anticipations
next
time
will
be
different,
in
light
of
my
experiences
this
time.
Now,
if
my
anticipations
are
different,
is
that
because
my
prejudices
have
been
revised,
or
are
my
anticipations
now
based
on
something
other
than
my
prejudices?
This
dilemma
will
force
us,
one
way
or
the
other,
to
revise
Gadamer’s
account:
for,
if
my
prejudices
can
be
revised,
then
it
is
not
totally
accurate
to
say
(as
some
commentators
do)
that
they
are
simply
the
‘traditional
beliefs’
I
share
with
my
contemporaries,
since
prejudices
revised
in
the
light
of
my
experiences
will
not
be
the
same
as
those
of
my
contemporaries;
and,
if
we
want
to
retain
the
term
‘prejudice’
exclusively
for
those
traditional
beliefs
we
all
share,
my
anticipations
are
now
based
on
something
un-‐theorised
in
Gadamer’s
account.
The
problem
emerges
because
‘prejudice’
is
trying
to
do
too
much
without
a
subtle
enough
analysis
to
support
it.
At
times,
Gadamer
wants
it
to
be
that
which
provides
the
ground
for
the
anticipations
that
guide
experience;
at
other
times,
he
wants
prejudices
to
form
the
basis
for
an
account
of
how
we
are
historically
shaped.
Of
course,
these
are
not
contradictory
aims,
but
they
do
need
to
be
carefully
related
for
the
reasons
just
given;
prejudices
cannot
simply
do
both
at
once.
Above
I
argued
that
we
should
understand
play
as
the
medium
by
which
we
come
to
acquire
the
prejudices
of
our
time;
and
it
should
now
be
clear
how
this
can
help
to
mediate
the
distinction
between
‘traditional
beliefs’
and
prejudices
that
are
the
product
of
my
own
experience.
If
the
process
of
acquisition
of
‘traditional
beliefs’
is
play,
then
the
process
of
their
acquisition
is
no
different
to
those
of
any
other
prejudice.
In
fact,
it
helps
us
to
see
the
way
in
which
these
two
kinds
of
prejudice,
which
I
have
separated,
are
actually
deeply
entwined.
After
all,
it
is
only
by
engaging
with
people
that
I
acquire
and
refine
my
idea
of
a
‘person’;
I
learn
what
a
‘supermarket’
is
by
going
to
some
particular
supermarket;
and
I
acquire
my
basic
ideas
about
what
is
important
in
life
by
being
inducted
in
the
pre-‐existing
projects
of
my
family,
community
and
society.
As
my
prejudices
are
transformed
through
my
own
experience,
it
is
not
as
though
they
become
radically
other
through
this
process
–
they
remain
rooted
in
the
broader
prejudices
of
the
community
of
which
one
is
a
part.
Even
if
one
29
comes
to
totally
repudiate
some
traditional
prejudice,
this
leaves
its
mark
on
the
prejudice
one
comes
to
have
as
that
from
which
it
is
distinct.
One
way
of
elaborating
this
relation
between
my
inherited
prejudices
and
those
prejudices
that
have
been
transformed
by
my
own
experience
is
in
terms
of
Heidegger’s
distinction
between
das
Man
and
that
which
I
have
made
my
own.44
For
Heidegger,
every
one
of
us
is
constituted
in
part
by
how
we
think
‘one
ought
to
be’;
we
have
a
common
and
unreflective
sense
of
how
things
should
be
and
what
one
should
do;
and
our
task
as
individuated,
finite
beings
is
to
come
to
take
over
as
our
own
the
projects
and
priorities
that
matter
to
us,
rather
than
remaining
beholden
to
what
we
vaguely
feel
that
we
should
do
or
care
about.
Applied
to
prejudices,
this
becomes
an
enlightenment
demand
that
one
see
for
oneself
whether
one’s
vague
and
inherited
expectations
about
things
are
actually
borne
out
by
the
phenomena.
This
is
also
central
to
the
way
we
understand
individual
persons.
Whenever
I
encounter
any
particular
entity,
if
I
understand
it
I
understand
it
as
a
particular
of
some
type:
a
particular
that
corresponds
to
no
type
that
I
am
aware
of,
that
bears
not
even
the
faintest
resemblance
–
no
matter
how
loose
–
to
any
known
type,
must
appear
to
me
entirely
unintelligible.
There
are
a
range
of
categories
under
which
I
might
understand
an
individual
person.
First
of
all,
I
could
understand
their
need
to
eat
and
defecate
in
terms
of
their
biological
reality
–
which
is
to
say
that
they
are
a
human,
and
humans
need
to
eat
and
to
defecate.
Similarly,
I
might
make
sense
of
something
they
are
saying
or
doing
in
terms
of
the
culture
to
which
they
belong.
But
as
we
get
closer
to
understanding
someone
as
an
individual,
rather
than
as
an
instantiation
of
a
type,
we
start
comparing
them
to
other
people
and
characters
with
which
we
are
familiar.
Thus
some
middle-‐aged
women
remind
me
of
my
mother;
and
when
somebody
else
asks
why
I
think
this
person
has
done
some
particular
thing,
I
will
reply
along
the
lines
of
‘Well,
when
my
mother
does
such-‐and-‐such,
it
is
usually
because
...’
Other
people,
when
I
first
meet
them,
might
remind
me
of
my
childhood
friend,
or
of
Lady
Macbeth,
or
of
Don
Quixote.
We
can
see
from
this
two
things:
(1)
when
I
do
not
know
someone
very
well,
I
will
tend
to
make
sense
of
them
in
terms
of
other
people
(real
or
fictional)
I
have
some
better
understanding
of;
(2)
when
I
do
44
BT
§27
30
know
somebody
well
(and
this
is
not
to
say
that
I
need
some
total
or
complete
understanding
of
them)
they
will
then
serve
as
a
‘character
type’
in
light
of
which
I
will
interpret
others.
But
what
this
then
implies
is
that,
as
I
get
to
know
some
particular
person
well,
I
will
need
to
refer
less
and
less
to
others
to
make
sense
of
them,
and
will
become
increasingly
able
to
make
sense
of
them
in
terms
of
themselves;
they
may
even
become
a
model
by
which
I
start
making
sense
of
others.
Thus
Gadamer’s
concept
of
prejudice,
if
divorced
from
the
idea
that
prejudices
consist
only
of
‘traditional
beliefs’,
provides
us
with
a
fine
model
for
how
we
come
to
understand
individual
others.
Now,
over
time
and
with
experience,
my
anticipations
tend
to
get
better
and
more
accurate,
as
my
understanding
improves.
But
two
things
remain
un-‐
theorised
and
un-‐illuminated
in
the
account
so
far:
first,
‘heightened’
experiences,
ones
that
stand
out
and
serve
to
reflect
my
ordinary
experiences
back
to
me
and
reinforce
them;
and
experiences
that
do
not
go
according
to
my
anticipations
and
expectations
–
particularly,
experiences
that
defy
my
expectations
and
so
call
my
prejudices
and
projects
into
question.
The
first
of
these
is
Gadamer’s
concept
of
Erlebnis,
the
second
his
concept
of
Erfahrung.
But
before
we
turn
to
these,
we
need
to
further
develop
one
of
the
most
important
features
of
his
account
of
ordinary
experience:
that
it
is
linguistic.
While
prejudices
constitute
what
we
might
call
the
‘subjective’
horizon,
the
way
the
world
appears
to
me,
language
constitutes
the
‘world’
horizon,
the
horizon
that
pre-‐exists
me
and
into
which
I
grow.
31
essential
chapter
on
this
topic
is
‘Language
as
experience
of
the
world’
(TM
III.5
3[a]).
I
will
first
give
a
synoptic
account
of
what
‘linguistic
experience’
means,
before
turning
to
Gadamer’s
text
to
spell
it
out
(2[a]).
Following
that,
I
will
move
to
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language,
exploring
its
relation
to
adequatio
and
aletheia,
and
what
Bernard
Williams
has
called
‘the
absolute
conception
of
the
world’
(2[b]),
and
then
examining
what
it
might
be
to
take
reality
as
linguistic
(2[c]).
For
Gadamer,
our
experience
of
the
world
is
always
already
linguistically
shaped.
I
do
not
first
experience
bundles
of
sense-‐data
which
I
then
apply
linguistic
categories
to;
I
experience
chairs,
tables,
scuba
diving,
works
of
art,
conservative
Prime
Ministers,
and
so
on.46
While
I
do
not
always
immediately
recognise
these
things
as
what
they
are,
such
experiences
stand
out
for
precisely
that
reason,
as
being
exceptions
to
the
general
rule
that
experiences
are
on
the
whole
always
already
linguistically
understood;
and,
further,
note
that
resolving
my
confusion
about
what
something
is
means
recognising
that
it
is
a
chair
or
a
conservative
budget.
In
other
words,
the
horizon
in
light
of
which
things
appear
to
me
is
linguistic;
and
it
is
also
the
horizon
within
which
I
myself
appear,
and
in
light
of
which
I
can
understand
myself
as
studious,
bored,
or
going
to
the
shops.47
We
might
contrast
with
this
Samuel
Beckett’s
character
Molloy,
who
spends
the
first
part
of
the
novel
narrating
what
could
loosely
be
called
series
of
events
from
his
past.
A
few
things
are
striking:
first,
Molloy
makes
explicit
towards
the
end
of
his
narrative
that
he
is
having
to
impose
meaning
on
his
past,
ascribing
projects
and
motivations
to
his
past
self
that,
he
claims,
were
no
such
thing
at
the
time
–
they
were,
rather,
just
vague
impulses,
snatches
of
half-‐forgotten
plans,
and
half-‐obscured
images.
It
is
only
by
misrepresenting
these
experiences
that
46
As
Weinsheimer
notes,
for
Gadamer
perception
is
‘always
meaningful:
we
do
not
hear
pure
sounds
but
always
a
car
in
the
street,
a
baby
crying;
we
do
not
see
pure
colours
and
shapes
but
always
a
face,
a
knife,
a
wreath
of
smoke.
Perception
is
instinct
with
meaning.
Perception
understands,
and
understanding
involves
the
construal
of
something
as
something.’
(Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
94.)
47
Cf.
Ricoeur,
Time
and
Narrative,
3
vols.,
trans.
K.
McLaughlin
&
D.
Pellauer
(University
of
Chicago
Press,
1984),
1:57-‐59,
in
which
he
discusses
the
intelligibility
of
actions.
Where
Gadamer
differs
from
Ricoeur
here
is
that
Ricoeur’s
discussion
is
coming
from
cultural
anthropology,
and
is
thus
thinking
primarily
of
symbols
and
their
structural
relations;
Gadamer’s
emphasis
is
on
language,
which
is
always
the
language
of
conversation,
and
thus
broader
and
more
inchoate.
The
basic
point
is
the
same:
the
paradigm
of
human
activity
is
symbolically
or
linguistically
mediated,
and
hence
meaningful.
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language
is
making
a
larger
claim,
that
not
only
all
activity
but
all
of
human
experience
is
like
this.
32
they
can
be
narrated.
Second,
the
Molloy
being
narrated
struggles
to
make
himself
understood
to
other
characters,
and
struggles
to
understand
them
in
turn,
and
one
gets
the
sense
that
this
is
not
least
because
he
tends
to
hear
just
sounds
instead
of
words
–
rendering
those
sounds
into
words
costs
him
a
painful
effort.
This
feature
is
particularly
striking,
since
the
word
is
the
primary
example
of
the
incarnation
of
language,
language
made
material,
both
for
Gadamer
and
for
the
Christian
tradition
on
which
he
draws
(as
we
will
see).
In
the
spoken
word,
sound
becomes
the
bearer
of
meaning
–
indeed
it
becomes
meaning,
since
to
call
it
a
‘bearer’
suggests
that
it
is
bearing
something
independent
of
it,
as
though
one
could
separate
out
the
meaning
from
the
sound
in
anything
more
than
an
analytic
way.
Molloy’s
experiences,
then
–
at
least
those
of
Molloy
being
narrated
–
are
experiences
more
or
less
alienated
from
language;
while
they
still
have
some
kind
of
meaning,
they
are
somehow
dumb
and
mute.
The
Molloy
that
narrates
the
story
seems
far
more
articulate,
and
it
is
perhaps
the
irony
of
the
novel
that,
while
it
is
about
the
experience
of
a
character
who
does
not
experience
the
world
entirely
linguistically,
it
is
a
novel,
and
thus
exists
purely
in
the
medium
of
language.
Molloy’s
experiences
have
come
into
language,
but
too
late.
33
Language
and
world
are
equiprimordial
concepts
for
Gadamer;
to
have
one
is
to
have
the
other.
Language
is
not
just
one
of
man’s
possessions
in
the
world;
rather,
on
it
depends
the
fact
that
man
has
a
world
at
all.
The
world
as
world
exists
for
man
as
for
no
other
creature
that
is
in
the
world.
But
this
world
is
verbal
in
nature.
[...]
Not
only
is
the
world
world
only
insofar
as
it
comes
into
language,
but
language,
too,
has
its
real
being
only
in
the
fact
that
the
world
is
presented
in
it.
Thus,
that
language
is
originarily
human
means
at
the
same
time
that
man’s
being-‐in-‐the-‐world
is
primordially
linguistic.
(TM
440)
Each
natural
language
presents
a
world.
The
world
of
the
Greeks,
for
example,
which
was
constituted
by
and
embodied
in
their
language,
was
in
some
sense
different
to
the
modern
world.
But
the
multiplicity
of
‘world
views’
are
not
exclusive
of
each
other:
for
Gadamer,
while
in
one
sense
the
Greek
world
is
different
from
the
modern
world,
in
another
sense
it
is
the
same
world
that
is
presented
differently
in
each.48
To
have
one
language
is
also
to
possess
the
possibility
of
learning
another;
and
learning
another
language
does
not
lead
to
some
kind
of
mental
schism
such
that
I
oscillate
between
two
incompatible
world
views
–
rather,
learning
another
language
broadens
my
view
of
the
world.
We
will
need
to
clarify
what
this
means.
[1]
[T]he
verbal
world,
in
which
we
live,
is
not
a
barrier
that
prevents
knowledge
of
being-‐in-‐itself,
but
fundamentally
embraces
everything
in
which
our
insight
can
be
enlarged
and
deepened.
(TM
444)
48
Cf.
Robert
Dostal,
‘Heidegger’s
Hermeneutics,
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics’,
collected
in
Bowler
&
Farin (eds.), Hermeneutical Heidegger (Northwestern University Press, 2016), p. 295.
34
[2]
The
multiplicity
of
these
worldviews
does
not
involve
any
relativisation
of
the
world.
Rather
what
the
world
is
is
not
different
from
the
views
in
which
it
presents
itself.
(TM
444)
[3]
Seen
phenomenologically,
the
“thing-‐in-‐itself”
is,
as
Husserl
has
shown,
nothing
but
the
continuity
with
which
the
various
perceptual
perspectives
on
objects
shade
into
one
another....
In
a
way
similar
to
perception
we
can
speak
of
the
“linguistic
shadings”
that
the
world
undergoes
in
different
language-‐worlds.
But
there
remains
a
characteristic
difference:
every
shading
of
the
object
of
perception
is
exclusively
distinct
from
every
other
one,
and
each
helps
co-‐constitute
the
“thing-‐in-‐itself”
as
the
shadings
of
verbal
worldviews,
each
worldview
can
be
extended
into
every
other.
It
can
understand
and
comprehend,
from
within
itself
the
“view”
of
the
world
presented
in
another
language.
(TM
444-‐5)
It
is
worth
pausing
here
to
emphasise
that
language
is
to
be
understood
as
a
horizon.
Brice
Wachterhauser
has
argued,
from
these
three
cited
passages,
that
for
Gadamer
the
‘real
world
[...]
presents
itself
finitely
through
the
lens
of
linguistically
mediated
dialogue’.49
This
reading
could
then
be
supported
by
Gadamer’s
appeal
(TM
445-‐6)
to
the
perspectival
nature
of
our
experience
of
the
sun
setting,
and
his
insistence
that
the
‘world
in
itself’
is
independent
of
human
activity
and
cognition
of
it
(TM
444).
Nonetheless,
it
seems
to
me
that
Gadamer
misleads
us
with
these
examples;
while
the
sun
may
continue
to
exist
after
humanity
ceases
to,
human
worlds
will
not
do
so
–
and
it
is
humans
and
human
worlds
that
are
of
concern
to
the
Geisteswissenschaften.
Let
us
leave
aside
for
now
the
question
of
whether
49
Wachterhauser,
‘Gadamer’s
Realism’,
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.)
Hermeneutics
and
Truth
(Northwestern,
1994),
p.
156.
Coltman
seems
to
assume
a
similar
view
when
he
writes
that
Gadamer
‘sensitises
us
to
the
fact
that
our
finitude
precludes
the
possibility
of
our
ever
achieving
a
perfectly
“objective”
or
“true”
reading
[of
a
text]’
(The
Language
of
Hermeneutics
[SUNY,
1998],
p.
ix).
35
Gadamer
is
a
‘perspectival
realist’
about
the
physical
world;50
what
is
his
position
on
the
human
world?
In
the
chapter
from
which
Wachterhauser’s
quotes
are
taken
(TM
III
3
(a),
‘Language
as
experience
of
the
world’),
Gadamer
notes
that
the
sciences
are
a
particular
way
of
engaging
with
the
world,
which
is
only
possible
within
the
broader
horizon
of
our
linguistic
experience
of
the
world
(TM
447).
This
broader
horizon
he
calls
the
‘world
horizon
of
language’,
to
express
the
intimate
relation
between
language
and
the
world.
There
is
an
unhelpful
ambiguity
in
the
way
he
uses
‘world’
throughout
this
chapter:
sometimes
it
means
‘[human]
world’
and
other
times
‘[physical]
world’
(both
uses
appear
on
TM
444).51
The
reason
for
the
ambiguity
is
that
Gadamer
wants
to
do
away
with
the
strict
opposition
between
these
two
senses
of
world:
it
is
always
the
world
that
appears
in
every
human
world.
Nonetheless,
the
distinction
between
the
human
world
and
the
world
purged
of
human
meanings
is
a
central
one
for
our
scientific
account
of
the
world,
and
we
will
discuss
it
in
more
detail
below.
What
is
the
human
relationship
to
the
world?
It
is
characterised
by
a
kind
of
distance,
Gadamer
says
–
to
have
a
world
is
to
have
a
distance
and
freedom
from
one’s
surroundings
such
that
‘one
can
present
[what
one
encounters]
to
oneself
as
it
is’
(TM
440-‐1).
One
does
not
just
respond
to
one’s
environment;
one
can
recognise
it
as
what
it
is.
This
distance
is
what
enables
man
to
have
language
(TM
441),
and
to
have
language
is
to
have
a
(the)
world
(TM
449).
The
major
feature
of
this
is
to
be
able
to
recognise
and
communicate
matters
of
fact:
‘Whereas
the
call
of
animals
induces
particular
behaviour
in
the
members
of
the
species,
men’s
coming
to
a
linguistic
understanding
with
one
another
through
the
logos
reveals
the
existent
itself’
(TM
442).
However,
the
capacity
to
make
assertions
about
matters
of
fact
is
not
the
most
fundamental
linguistic
phenomenon:
any
statement
about
some
matter
of
fact
or
other
is
asserted
or
disputed,
this
occurs
against
a
background
of
agreement:
‘Reaching
an
understanding
places
a
subject
matter
before
those
communicating
like
a
50
However,
his
comment
that
‘Each
science,
as
a
science,
has
in
advance
projected
a
field
of
objects
such
that
to
know
them
is
to
govern
them’
(TM
449)
does
have
an
anti-‐realist
ring
to
it.
We
will
pick
this
up
below.
51
Cf.
TM
441:
‘[M]an’s
relation
to
the
world
is
characterised
by
freedom
from
environment.
[...]
To
rise
above
the
pressure
of
what
impinges
on
us
from
the
world
means
to
have
language
and
to
have
“world”.’
We
will
discuss
this
below.
36
disputed
object
set
between
them.
Thus
the
world
is
the
common
ground,
trodden
by
none
and
recognised
by
all,
uniting
all
who
talk
to
one
another.’
(TM
443)
The
point
Gadamer
wants
to
insist
on
is
that
any
dispute
about
some
particular
thing
occurs
against
a
shared
background.
Gadamer
is
more
helpful
when
he
refers
to
this
‘common
ground’
as
the
‘world
horizon
of
language’,
and
we
should
think
of
it
as
precisely
that
–
a
horizon.
Wachterhauser
is
misled
by
Gadamer’s
appeal
to
Husserl
in
[3]:
language
is
not
best
understood
as
a
‘lens’,
through
which
we
finite
beings
squint
at
reality;
rather,
it
should
be
understood
hermeneutically
as
the
horizon
within
which
things
can
appear.
What
is
a
horizon?
Recalling
my
discussion
of
Husserl
at
the
beginning
of
this
chapter,
we
can
turn
to
the
two
key
discussions
of
the
concept
in
Truth
and
Method:
first
TM
II
3
(a)
(pp.
237ff.);
second,
in
the
discussion
of
the
principle
of
Wirkungsgeschichte
(pp.
301ff.).
In
the
first
of
these,
the
discussion
is
of
Husserl
and
the
life-‐world;
and
Gadamer
notes
that
‘everything
that
is
given
as
existent
is
given
in
terms
of
a
world
and
hence
brings
the
world
horizon
with
it’
(TM
238).
For
humans,
as
historical
creatures,
this
means
that
our
horizon
is
always
the
historical
life-‐world.
The
life-‐world
can
be
thematised,
and
made
the
object
of
a
discussion;
but
it
cannot
be
made
an
object,
in
the
sense
that
I
can
stand
over
against
it
as
an
outside
observer.
It
is
rather
the
‘pre-‐given
basis
of
all
experience’
(TM
239).
In
the
second
of
these
discussions,
the
emphasis
is
on
the
way
a
horizon
comes
with
a
perspective:
to
have
a
horizon
is
to
know
‘the
relative
significance
of
everything
within
this
horizon,
whether
it
is
near
or
far,
great
or
small’
(TM
301-‐2):
in
other
words,
it
is
to
have
things
appear
in
a
particular
way.
Understanding
others
means
trying
to
work
out
the
horizon
in
light
of
which
they
are
making
sense
of
things;
understanding
historical
periods
means
to
try
to
reconstruct
the
historical
horizon
(TM
302).52
This
discussion
culminates
with
Gadamer’s
famous
concept
of
the
‘fusion
of
horizons’,
that
process
by
which
the
horizon
of
the
other
whom
I
am
trying
to
understand
fuses
with
my
own
by
calling
my
prejudices
into
question
(TM
305).
The
horizon,
then,
is
of
that
which
52
We
will
return
to
a
point
Gadamer
raises
in
this
connection,
namely
his
concern
that
‘understanding the other’ in this way quickly falls into psychologising him or her.
37
forms
the
background
of
all
of
my
experiences,
and
in
light
of
which
particular
things
appear
in
particular
ways.
To
say
that
experience
occurs
within
the
‘world
horizon
of
language’
means
that
language
plays
a
fundamental
role
in
the
way
things
appear.
The
key
difference
between
language-‐as-‐horizon
and
language-‐as-‐lens
is
an
ontological
one.
If
language
is
a
lens
that
allows
the
finite
presentation
of
‘the
world’,
then
the
world
is
the
way
it
is
and
different
historical
periods
have
access
to
it
from
different
perspectives.
However,
if
language
is
a
horizon,
then
we
are
not
seeing
finite
presentations
of
the
way
the
world
is
anyway,
but
rather
things
in
the
world,
by
being
brought
into
language,
undergo
a
change.
They
do
not
become
other
than
themselves
in
doing
so
(as
Gadamer
makes
clear
in
[1]
and
[2]),
but
they
nonetheless
become
more
than
they
were
or
would
otherwise
be
‘in
themselves’.
An
example
of
this
is
Heidegger’s
discussion
of
the
Greek
temple:
it
comes
into
being
and
is
inextricably
bound
up
with
its
world;
while
that
Greek
world
has
faded,
the
temple
remains,
and
attempting
to
understand
the
temple
points
us
back
to
the
world
of
which
it
was
a
part.53
Section
II
of
Gadamer’s
essay
‘The
Relevance
of
the
Beautiful’
is
significant
in
this
context.
There,
Gadamer
discusses
art
as
‘symbol’,
and
the
function
of
representation.
The
point
he
wants
to
insist
on
is
that
a
work
of
art
–
insofar
as
it
is
a
work
of
art
–
does
not
merely
represent
something
beyond
itself,
but
rather
makes
that
thing
present:
‘the
work
of
art
does
not
simply
refer
to
something,
because
what
it
refers
to
is
actually
there’
(RB
35).
The
work
brings
about
an
‘increase
in
being’:
the
work
manifests
something,
increase
its
being.
However,
Gadamer
insists
this
is
peculiar
to
art,
and
is
what
distinguishes
art
from
mere
making.
This
seems
to
me
to
be
a
result
of
his
particular
purposes
in
that
essay,
in
which
he
is
at
pains
to
work
out
what
is
common
to
art
as
distinct
from
other
forms
of
production.
The
point
he
insists
on
is
that
the
tool
is
replaceable,
while
the
work
is
not.
But
when
the
tool
is
made
it
is
still
brought
into
being;
Gadamer’s
point
is
that
the
tool’s
being
is
not
irreplaceable
in
the
way
the
work
of
art’s
is.
One
might
put
it
like
this:
for
Gadamer’s
ontology,
the
work
of
art
is
more
real
than
the
hammer.
53
‘The
Origin
of
the
Work
of
Art’,
in
Martin
Heidegger,
Basic
Writings,
ed.
Krell
(2nd
ed.;
Routledge,
2011),
p.
107:
the
temple
‘opens
up
a
world’
and
‘first
gives
to
things
their
look
and
to
men
their
outlook
on
themselves’.
38
The
human
world
is
not
something
that
exists
independently
of
humans,
as
it
would
have
to
be
if
the
idea
of
looking
at
it
finitely
through
a
lens
were
to
make
sense;
it
is,
rather,
bound
up
with
our
linguistic
capacity.
Gadamer
tells
us
that
‘language
is
by
nature
the
language
of
conversation’,
and
human
communities
are
always
linguistic
(TM
443).
What
sustains
this
linguistic
mode
of
appearance,
in
which
things
can
appear
as
more
than
they
are
‘in
themselves’,
is
the
possibility
of
agreeing
with
and
understanding
each
other
in
our
judgements
of
these
things.
This
is
part
of
why
agreement
is
so
important
for
Gadamer.
The
absolute
conception
of
the
world
(i.e.
the
world
conceived
of
in
a
way
that
is
divorced
from
human
meanings)54
could
never
disclose
to
us
that
a
Greek
temple
is
a
Greek
temple
–
and
yet
it
is
a
Greek
temple.
When
things
appear
within
the
world,
against
a
linguistic
horizon,
language
becomes
part
of
their
constitution:
they
become
something
that
does
not
exist
outside
of
language,
but
discovering
them
as
such
requires
participation
in
the
language
that
constitutes
them.
An
example
Gadamer
employs
of
this
kind
of
participation
is
that
of
a
game
of
tennis:
even
the
spectators
are
participants
(watch
how
they
crick
their
necks
as
they
follow
the
ball
back
and
forth
over
the
net),
and
if
they
were
not
participants
they
could
not
grasp
what
was
going
on
(RB
24).
An
example
from
Dilthey
can
also
help
illuminate
what
is
going
on
here.
The
fixed
order
of
behaviour
within
a
culture
makes
it
possible
for
greetings
or
bows
to
signify,
by
their
nuances,
a
certain
mental
attitude
to
other
people
and
to
be
understood
as
doing
so.
In
different
countries
the
crafts
developed
particular
procedures
and
particular
instruments
for
special
purposes;
when,
therefore,
the
craftsman
uses
a
hammer
or
saw,
his
purpose
is
intelligible
to
us.55
Thus
certain
forms
of
behaviour,
by
being
part
of
the
life-‐world,
part
of
our
linguistic
horizon,
part
of
‘the
fixed
order
of
behaviour
within
a
culture’
(in
the
case
of
this
example,
these
all
come
to
the
same
thing),
become
possible:
possible
to
perform,
and
possible
to
understand.
One
cannot
bow
if
bowing
is
not
a
part
of
54
We
will
discuss
this
below.
55
Dilthey,
‘The
understanding
of
other
people
and
their
expressions’,
in
Dilthey,
Selected
39
the
world
in
which
one
lives
–
I
could
bend
forward
at
the
waist,
certainly,
but
I
would
not
be
bowing.
Similarly,
that
a
tool
is
a
part
of
the
world
as
performing
such-‐and-‐such
a
purpose
means
both
that
I,
as
a
craftsman,
can
recognise
it
as
such
and
put
it
to
use,
and
that
others
will
recognise
what
I
am
doing.
The
world
that
is
constituted
by
language
does
not
exist
outside
of
human
history.
Gadamer
is
very
clear
on
this
when
discussing
his
claim
that
‘Being
that
can
be
understood
is
language’
(TM
470).
On
the
very
next
page,
discussing
his
break
with
Hegel
and
his
‘idealistic
spiritualism’
and
his
‘metaphysics
of
infinity’,
Gadamer
claims
that
historical
language,
which
is
what
constitutes
the
world,
is
not
the
working
out
of
the
language
of
being:
The
language
that
things
have
–
whatever
kind
of
things
they
may
be
–
is
not
the
logos
ousias
[language
of
being],
and
it
is
not
self-‐fulfilled
in
the
self-‐contemplation
of
an
infinite
intellect;
it
is
the
language
that
our
finite,
historical
nature
apprehends
when
we
learn
to
speak.
This
is
true
of
the
language
of
the
text
handed
down
to
us
in
tradition,
and
that
is
why
it
was
necessary
to
have
a
truly
historical
hermeneutics.
It
is
as
true
of
the
experience
of
art
as
of
the
experience
of
history;
in
fact,
the
concepts
of
“art”
and
“history”
are
modes
of
understanding
that
emerge
from
the
universal
mode
of
hermeneutical
being
as
forms
of
hermeneutical
experience.
(TM
471)
In
other
words,
the
world
that
humans
experience
–
being
that
can
be
understood
–
is
constituted
by
language;
but
it
is
not
the
language
of
being,
nor
is
it
working
towards
such.56
It
is
a
language
that
has
come
to
be
historically
through
contingent
processes
and
pressures;
there
is
no
necessity
to
it
dictated
by
the
things
themselves;
rather,
the
things
themselves
become
something
more
than
they
would
otherwise
be
by
being
brought
into
language.
Gadamer
resists
on
the
one
side
those
in
the
tradition
from
Plato
to
Schopenhauer
(and
beyond),
who
56
In
this
I
am
committed
to
a
slightly
different
reading
of
‘Being
that
can
be
understood
is
language’
than
that
presented
by
Grondin,
‘Nihilistic
or
Metaphysical
Consequences
of
Hermeneutics?’,
pp.
198-‐9.
I
will
discuss
this
below.
This
also
rules
out
what
Kögler
calls
the
‘Platonist-‐realist’
reading
of
Gadamer
(which
Kögler
also
rejects),
that
there
is
a
linguistic
structure
to
being
(‘things
have
a
language’)
that
human
language
approximates
(The
Power
of
Dialogue,
trans.
Paul
Hendrickson
[MIT
Press,
1996],
p.
60).
40
distinguish
appearance
from
reality
with
a
radical
break
–
the
world
of
appearance
and
experience
is
the
real
world,
is
being,
and
is
not
mere
appearance;
and
on
the
other
side
he
resists
the
tradition
that
runs
from
Plato
to
Hegel
(and
beyond),
which
sees
the
world
of
appearance
as
a
manifestation
of
an
underlying
logos
ousias
that
it
is
the
task
of
knowledge
to
approximate.
As
Gianni
Vattimo
formulates
it,
Gadamer’s
ontology
does
not
suggest
that
we,
as
finite
beings,
cannot
know
the
reality
beyond
our
horizon;
rather,
‘things
are
what
they
truly
are,
only
within
the
realms
of
interpretation
and
language’.57
57
Vattimo,
‘Gadamer
and
the
Problem
of
Ontology’,
in
Malpas,
Arnswald
&
Kertscher
(eds.),
Gadamer
wants
to
employ
a
distinction
between
the
human
and
the
natural
sciences
(a
distinction
I
intend
to
maintain):
‘Gadamer
and
the
Problem
of
Ontology’,
p.
301.
59
‘Gadamer’s
Realism’,
in
Hermeneutics
and
Truth.
I
have
partially
dealt
with
this
reading
above.
60
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic
Consequences
of
Hermeneutics?’,
p.
195.
Wachterhauser
also
seems
to
hold
this
kind
of
position
in
later
pieces,
such
as
‘Getting
it
Right:
Relativism,
Realism
and
Truth’,
in
Dostal
(ed.),
The
Cambridge
Companion
to
Gadamer
(Cambridge,
2002),
in
which
he
is
less
interested
in
metaphysical
essences
and
more
interested
in
truths
about
the
world,
such
as
those
established
in
the
sciences.
Cf.
his
lengthy
discussion
of
traditions
as
‘normative
spaces’,
in
connection
with
John
McDowell,
in
that
essay.
Dostal
himself
seems
to
hold
something
like
Grondin’s
view
–
in
a
recent
essay
he
is
at
pains
to
insist
that
‘Being
that
can
be
understood
is
language’
means
only
that
understanding
(not
being)
is
linguistic,
and
therefore
partial
and
perspectival:
see
his
‘Heidegger’s
Hermeneutics,
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics’,
p.
295.
41
It
is
Grondin’s
position
that
most
interests
me
here.
He
quite
rightly
rejects
the
‘language
all
the
way
down’
reading
of
Gadamer,
by
pointing
to
a
few
key
passages
of
Truth
and
Method
in
which
Gadamer
quite
clearly
rejects
the
idea
that
everything
is
language,
that
everything
is
(merely)
historical.61
Among
them
is
the
following
passage
from
Truth
and
Method:
A
person
who
is
trying
to
understand
is
exposed
to
distraction
from
fore-‐meanings
that
are
not
borne
out
by
the
things
themselves.
Working
out
appropriate
projections,
anticipatory
in
nature,
to
be
confirmed
‘by
the
things
themselves’,
is
the
constant
task
of
understanding.
(TM
270;
quoted
on
p.
195)
Grondin
notes:
‘It
appears
obvious
that
Gadamer
follows
here
the
classical
notion
of
truth
as
adaequatio,
which
nihilistic
hermeneutics
wants
to
jettison:
to
be
sure,
our
interpretations
have
an
anticipatory
and
even
projective
nature
(who
ever
denied
this?),
but
these
fore-‐understandings
can
be
confirmed,
or
rebutted,
by
the
things
themselves
in
the
unfolding
of
any
serious
interpretation.’
This
is
followed
through
by
Grondin’s
reading
of
Gadamer’s
dictum
that
‘Being
that
can
be
understood
is
language’.
For
Grondin,
this
means
two
things:
first,
that
Being
can
be
understood;
second,
that
what
is
understood
is
Being.62
Thus:
‘Gadamer’s
grand
thesis
is
thus
that
language
is
not
only
a
(historical)
creation
of
our
mind
(or
our
species),
and
it
can
of
course
be
considered
that
way
by
linguistics,
but
it
is
first
and
foremost
the
language
of
Being,
it
is
about
Being
as
it
unfolds
itself
and
can
be
understood
in
our
language,
which
is
always
extensible
and
open
to
new
ways
of
Being,
since
it
can
never
be
exhausted
once
and
for
all
by
finite
beings.’63
Grondin’s
reading
is
correct
insofar
as
it
goes,
but
it
does
not
go
far
enough.
Adequatio
does
indeed
remain
a
part
of
Gadamer’s
account
of
truth,
but
it
is
not
the
entirety
of
it.
As
I
have
argued
above,
Gadamer’s
account
of
being-‐as-‐
language
is
not
exhausted
by
understanding
language
as
the
language
of
being
–
this
is,
as
I
have
shown,
a
position
Gadamer
rejects
in
his
rejection
of
Hegel:
‘The
61
See
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic
...’,
pp.
194-‐7.
62
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic
…’,
pp.
198-‐9.
63
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic…’,
p.
199.
42
language
that
things
have
–
whatever
kind
of
things
they
may
be
–
is
not
the
logos
ousias
[language
of
being],
and
it
is
not
self-‐fulfilled
in
the
self-‐
contemplation
of
an
infinite
intellect;
it
is
the
language
that
our
finite,
historical
nature
apprehends
when
we
learn
to
speak.’
(TM
471)
One
of
the
features
of
an
account
of
truth
as
adequatio,
as
formulated
by
Aquinas,
is
that
the
mind’s
adequacy
to
its
object
is
only
half
of
the
account.64
The
second
half
is
that
the
object
is
what
it
is
by
its
approximation
to
the
idea
in
the
mind
of
God:
a
tree
is
a
tree
insofar
as
it
best
fulfils
the
idea
of
a
tree,
and
a
bad
tree
to
the
extent
that
it
does
not.65
Without
this
second
half
of
the
account,
the
question
arises:
what
is
it
that
makes
the
thing
the
thing
it
is?66
On
what
basis
is
it
the
thing
that
it
is?
How
does
it
resist
my
concept-‐forming
activities,
such
that
it
is
not
merely
what
I
want
it
to
be?
The
problem
is
compounded
when
we
turn
from
natural
kinds
to
the
human
world:
what
is
it
that
makes
chairs
chairs?
Tables
tables?
Is
a
wastepaper
basket
itself?
There
are
two
inadequate
responses
to
this
question.
The
first
is
the
reductive
response:
there
are
no
such
things
as
tables,
chairs
or
wastepaper
baskets;
nor
are
there
trees,
rocks
or
planets.
There
are
only
atoms
in
the
void;
all
else
is
illusion.
This
is
inadequate
in
that
it
does
not
allow
for
‘getting
things
right’
in
most
of
the
domains
that
we
care
about:
it
makes
a
difference
to
me
whether
there
is
a
chair
nearby
to
sit
on,
or
a
tree
nearby
to
sit
under,
and
this
is
not
an
arbitrary
preference
for
some
collections
of
atoms
over
others.
Someone
who
wanders
about
insisting
that
there
are
not
really
cups,
chairs,
best
friends,
the
World
Bank,
etc.,
is
not
in
a
position
to
make
any
sense
of
their
experiences
or
their
projects;
and
there
is
an
air
of
self-‐delusion
about
them,
akin
to
that
of
the
professor
in
Kierkegaard’s
joke:
he
has
transcended
time
to
understand
the
world
from
the
viewpoint
of
eternity,
but
he
still
shows
up
on
the
right
day
to
collect
his
paycheque.67
So
the
second
inadequate
response
is
to
claim
that
there
are
two
levels
of
truth:
the
ultimate
truth
is
that
there
are
no
such
things
as
64
See
Milbank
and
Pickstock,
Truth
in
Aquinas
(Routledge,
2001),
Ch.
1,
esp.
pp.
9-‐10,
as
well
as
truth
of
the
divine
intellect
rather
than
because
of
its
relation
to
the
truth
of
the
human
intellect.’
(V.
J.
Bourke
trans.)
66
Milbank
and
Pickstock
argue
this
point
in
the
first
chapter
of
Truth
in
Aquinas.
67
Kierkegaard,
Concluding
Unscientific
Postscript,
ed.
and
trans.
Alastair
Hannay
(Cambridge,
43
chairs,
tables,
trees,
etc.;
but
there
is
a
superficial
kind
of
truth,
responding
to
human
concerns,
and
on
this
level
there
are
indeed
chairs,
trees,
and
so
on.
But
this,
too,
is
inadequate,
for
it
displaces
the
realm
of
‘real’
truth
into
a
domain
that
is
largely
indifferent
to
me
(it
makes
little
difference
to
my
concerns
and
projects
whether
the
ultimate
constituents
of
reality
are
atoms
or
Ideas),
and
renders
the
domain
that
actually
matters
to
me
the
realm
of
not-‐really-‐true.68
Gadamer
is
fruitfully
read
as
responding
to
these
issues.
His
ontology
is
a
way
of
accounting
for
the
reality
of
the
world
of
our
experiences
(and
thus
resisting
the
reductive
approach)
without
appeal
to
a
transcendent
entity
that
makes
the
world
what
it
is
(Geist
for
Hegel,
God
for
Aquinas).
Thus
I
argued
in
the
preceding
section
that
Gadamer’s
account
of
the
ontology
of
language
is
that
it
makes
things
more
than
they
would
otherwise
be;
that
a
thing,
by
being
brought
into
language,
becomes
itself.
The
young
Walter
Benjamin
says
something
similar
when
he
claims
that
man,
by
naming
things,
completes
them;69
but
for
Benjamin,
like
Aquinas,
it
is
God
who
stands
behind
things
as
a
kind
of
guarantee.70
This
inner
connection
between
word
and
thing,
between
language
and
world,
is
vital
–
the
alternative
is
an
entirely
alienated
world
in
which,
in
the
phrase
of
Beckett’s
Molloy,
there
are
'no
things
but
nameless
things,
no
names
but
thingless
names.'71
68
For
a
similar
line
of
argument
against
reductive
accounts
of
truth,
see
Stanley
Rosen,
‘Are
we
such
stuff
as
dreams
are
made
on?’,
in
Malpas
et
al.
(ed.),
Gadamer’s
Century;
and
Linda
Alcoff,
Real
Knowing
(Cornell
University
Press,
1996),
p.
76.
Compare
also
Husserl’s
comment
on
this
issue:
‘The
tradesman
on
the
market
has
his
truth
–
the
truth
of
the
market.
Is
that
not,
taken
in
its
relations,
a
good
truth
and
the
best
of
which
he
may
avail
himself?
Is
it
the
mere
semblance
of
truth,
because
the
scientist,
forming
his
judgments
with
respect
to
other
relations,
other
goals
and
ideas,
seeks
a
different
sort
of
truths
and
because
these
truths,
though
instrumental
within
a
broader
range
of
application,
happen
to
be
unfit
just
for
the
purposes
of
the
market?’
(Quoted
in
Helmut
Kuhn,
‘The
Phenomenological
Concept
of
Horizon’,
collected
in
Farber
(ed.),
Philosophical
Essays
in
Memory
of
Edmund
Husserl
(Harvard,
1940)
pp.
106-‐107.)
69
Or,
as
Eagleton
formulates
Aquinas’s
position,
‘The
world
somehow
becomes
more
real
in
the
act
of
being
understood’
(Reason,
Faith,
and
Revolution
[Yale,
2009],
p.
78);
cf.
Milbank
and
Pickstock:
‘adequating
is
an
event
which
realises
or
fulfils
the
being
of
things
known,
just
as
much
as
it
fulfils
truth
in
the
knower’s
mind’
(Truth
in
Aquinas,
p.
5).
70
See
‘On
Language
as
Such
and
on
the
Language
of
Man’,
in
Selected
Writings,
vol.
1
(Harvard,
1999).
For
some
discussion
of
this
essay,
see
Eiland
and
Jennings,
Walter
Benjamin:
A
Critical
Life
(Belknap
Press,
2014),
pp.
87-‐90.
71
My
interest
in
the
following
discussion
has
some
proximity
to,
but
is
distinct
from,
the
‘holism
and
hermeneutics’
debates
of
the
70s
and
80s.
Where
those
debates
focused
on
the
scope
of
hermeneutics,
and
the
difference
between
the
human
and
natural
sciences,
my
interest
is
in
the
reality
of
the
human
world
vs.
that
of
the
world
uncovered
by
the
natural
sciences.
Naturally,
there
is
some
crossover
of
topics.
For
a
brief
overview
of
that
debate,
see
Alcoff,
Real
Knowing,
pp.
71-‐5.
44
Two
things
are
important:
as
Grondin
has
shown,
for
Gadamer
things
provide
resistance
to
our
intellectual
activity
(Gadamer,
in
Truth
and
Method
at
least,
is
not
so
interested
in
our
practical
activity);
but,
as
I
have
attempted
to
show,
what
things
are
cannot
be
established
by
appeal
to
what
they
would
be
if
not
brought
into
language.
Or:
not
all
things
can
be
thought
of
in
this
way.
For,
as
Vattimo
notes,
Gadamer
preserves
the
distinction
between
the
human
and
the
natural
sciences,
with
hermeneutical
concerns
applying
only
to
the
former.72
This
distinction
can
be
brought
out
with
reference
to
a
distinction
Bernard
Williams
introduced
in
his
book
on
Descartes,
and
has
subsequently
defended
in
a
number
of
places.73
This
is
between
the
‘absolute
conception
of
the
world’,
and
the
world
as
we
experience
it.
We
arrive
at
the
absolute
conception,
Williams
thinks,
by
pursuing
the
question
of
what
it
is
to
know
something,
and
what
disagreement
means:
if
to
know
something
means
to
have
grasped
some
state
of
affairs
that
was
the
case
anyway
(‘anyway’
in
the
sense
of
‘whether
or
not
I
know
it’),
then
some
account
needs
to
be
given
of
disagreement:
whether
it
is
simply
a
case
of
one
person
being
right,
and
the
other
wrong,
or
whether
both
are
correct
but
just
describing
different
aspects
of
the
same
reality.
If
this
dialectic
of
the
reconciliation
of
disagreements
about
states
of
affairs
is
played
out
across
increasingly
less
local
states
of
affairs,
then
eventually
we
will
arrive
at
a
conception
of
the
world
with
which
all
merely
local
perspectives
on
the
world
can
be
reconciled.
Or
so,
at
least,
the
hope
goes.
But
not
all
knowledge
is
like
this:
some
knowledge
is
itself
constituted
by
our
perspective.
Williams
thinks
that
ethical
knowledge
is
of
this
variety:
some
things
are
shameful,
but
they
are
only
shameful
because
we
(locally)
think
of
them
as
such;
abstract
moral
theory,
which
attempts
to
make
use
of
universal
principles,
cannot
by
itself
arrive
at
a
morally
‘thick’
concept
like
shame,
or
account
for
the
role
it
plays
in
our
ethical
life.
But
nonetheless
it
is
still
appropriate
to
talk
about
knowing
what
shame
is,
and
what
is
shameful
–
there
is
72
Weinsheimer
has
gathered
together
the
relevant
material
to
show
that
Gadamer,
at
least
some
of
the
time,
is
a
pretty
straightforward
realist
about
natural
science:
see
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
pp.
15-‐36.
This
is
a
position
more
or
less
maintained
by
Charles
Taylor
in
his
recent
attempt
to
set
out
something
like
an
ontology
of
language
in
The
Language
Animal
(Harvard,
2016);
see
in
particular
his
contrast
between
‘the
human
world’
and
‘the
world
out
there’,
p.
37.
73
See
Descartes:
The
Project
of
Pure
Enquiry
(Harvester,
1978),
Ethics
and
the
Limits
of
Philosophy
(Harvard,
1985),
and
‘Philosophy
as
a
Humanistic
Discipline’,
collected
in
his
Philosophy
as
a
Humanistic
Discipline,
ed.
A.
W.
Moore
(Princeton,
2006).
45
something
that
counts
as,
in
Williams’s
phrase,
‘getting
it
right’.
From
here,
we
can
quite
easily
broaden
the
domain
of
this
kind
of
knowledge
to
the
whole
field
of
the
humanities
and
human
sciences,
insofar
as
they
are
bound
up
in
the
project
of
‘making
sense
of
humanity’
(to
borrow
another
Williamsism),
and
making
sense
of
humanity
involves,
among
other
things,
employing
evaluative
notions
and
mental
concepts
(such
as
‘intention’).
So
we
might
be
tempted
to
say
that
there
is
a
nice
clean
demarcation:
on
the
right
hand
side,
we
have
the
sciences
and
their
pursuit
of
the
absolute
conception
of
the
world;
and
on
the
left,
we
have
the
humanities
and
their
attempt
to
make
sense
of
humanity.
Every
discipline
could
have
its
place;
we
need
only
move
in
an
orderly
fashion
to
the
correct
side;
and
the
domain
of
hermeneutics
would
clearly
be
over
on
the
left.
There
is
something
in
this
clean
demarcation,
but
while
it
is
illuminating
it
does
not,
unfortunately,
remain
very
clean.
Nonetheless,
before
we
move
onto
its
problems,
it
does
neatly
show
us
why
hermeneutical
concerns
cannot
be
straightforwardly
applied
to
those
disciplines
over
on
the
scientific
side
in
the
same
way
as
they
can
be
to
humanistic
disciplines.
Insofar
as
they
are
understood
as
enquiries
into
what
is
the
case
anyway,
and
what
would
be
the
case
whether
or
not
we
bothered
to
enquire,
then
it
is
a
matter
of
revising
our
concepts
to
be
more
adequate
to
reality
–
the
role
of
language
and
interpretation
in
constituting
the
objects
of
inquiry
is
diminished
(but
not
entirely
lacking).74
In
this
domain,
hermeneutical
claims
about
the
‘historicity
of
knowledge’
and
so
on
risk
winding
up
as
platitudes,
as
happens
when
Wachterhauser
points
out
(in
his
book
on
Gadamer
and
Plato)
that
our
understanding
of
AIDS
unfolds
over
time.75
We
hardly
needed
Gadamer’s
insight
to
work
this
out.
The
trouble
for
Wachterhauser’s
example
is
that,
if
one
is
to
apply
hermeneutical
insights
to
the
sciences,
one
will
have
to
go
deeper
than
just
looking
at
some
particular
inquiry
–
one
instead
has
to
show
the
way
the
field
of
objects
has
been
disclosed
in
advance,
such
that
in
AIDS
research
we
are
looking
74
This
is
so
because
any
scientific
enquiry
has
to
treat
its
objects
as
something;
and,
as
we
have
seen,
to
take
something
as
something
is
to
interpret
it.
75
Wachterhauser,
Beyond
Being
(Northwestern
University
Press,
1999),
p.
52.
46
for
microscopic
entities
and
not
miasma.76
This
is
the
first
trouble
with
Williams’s
distinction.
While
the
project
of
the
natural
sciences
is
to
work
out
how
nature
is
‘in
itself’,
independently
of
our
experience
of
it
(insofar
as
that
is
possible),
the
sciences
always
set
out
from
the
basis
of
an
already-‐given
understanding
of
the
world,
and
for
an
already-‐given
purpose.
When
Gadamer
claims
that
‘Each
science,
as
a
science,
has
in
advance
projected
a
field
of
objects
such
that
to
know
them
is
to
govern
them’
(TM
449),
there
seem
to
be
two
ideas
lurking
in
there.
The
first
is
that,
before
a
science
can
get
off
the
ground,
it
has
to
‘project
a
field
of
objects’.
Just
as
it
is
impossible
to
do
something
so
simple
as
to
count
the
number
of
objects
in
a
room
without
already
having
determined
(even
if
implicitly)
what
is
to
count
as
an
object
(is
a
cup
one
object,
or
is
the
handle
separate;
or
do
we
have,
to
adapt
Quine’s
phrase,
an
ontology
of
cup-‐parts?),
so
a
science
must
determine
what
counts
as
an
object
for
it,
and
how
these
objects
are
to
be
‘seen’.77
This
does
not
entail
that
there
is
nothing
at
all
‘there’
prior
to
this
projection;
it
is
merely
to
take
Nietzsche’s
point
that
the
world
does
not
pre-‐
determine
how
it
is
to
be
taken:
it
can
be
carved
up
(or
‘interpreted’)
in
a
variety
of
ways.78
Second,
it
projects
this
field
of
objects
‘so
that
to
know
them
is
to
govern
them’:
this
is
a
way
of
engaging
with
the
world
that
prioritises
making
its
objects
manipulable,
which
further
constrains
the
ways
in
which
these
objects
are
to
be
projected.79
76
This
is
the
point
of
Thomas
Kuhn’s
insistence
on
revolutions
and
paradigm
shifts
in
the
history
of
science:
see
The
Structure
of
Scientific
Revolutions
(University
of
Chicago
Press,
2012).
77
Thomas
Kuhn,
The
Structure
of
Scientific
Revolutions;
and
see
also
Heidegger,
Being
and
Time,
§3,
esp.
p.
30:
‘Basic
concepts
determine
the
way
in
which
we
get
an
understanding
beforehand
of
the
area
of
subject-‐matter
underlying
all
the
objects
a
science
takes
as
its
theme,
and
all
positive
investigation
is
guided
by
this
understanding.’
78
Nietzsche,
Beyond
Good
and
Evil,
§22,
in
Beyond
Good
and
Evil
/
On
the
Genealogy
of
Morality,
objects
has
been
projected
in
a
variety
of
ways
–
the
point
he
would
want
to
insist
on
is
that
the
ultimate
goal
of
the
sciences
is
to
progressively
overcome
these
historically
variable,
inadequate
conceptions
of
the
world
until
we
finally
arrive
at
a
stable,
final
conception.
At
this
stage,
while
we
would
still
need
to
interpret
the
objects
of
scientific
inquiry
as
something,
the
‘as’
would
perfectly
correspond
to
what
the
entity
was
independently
of
interpretation.
The
basic
distinction
between
his
position
and
the
(strongly)
hermeneutical
position
seems
to
lie
in
whether
we
are
to
believe
that
the
world
is
sufficiently
determinate
to
force
upon
us
one
final
conception,
that
there
is
something
the
‘as’
could
perfectly
correspond
to.
Kuhn,
for
example,
closes
The
Structure
of
Scientific
Revolutions
by
claiming
that
we
should
give
up
on
the
idea
of
a
final
conception
towards
which
we
are
moving,
and
instead
to
think
of
science
as
always
evolving
from.
47
The
second
trouble
with
Williams’s
distinction
is
that
it
leaves
something
important
out:
the
relationship
between
humans
as
entities
that
have
experiences,
and
the
entities
they
have
experiences
of.
One
of
the
central
features
of
our
experience
of
the
world
is
that
we
find
it
(more
or
less)
intelligible
–
and
we
might,
legitimately,
ask
what
this
intelligibility
consists
in.80
Further,
our
relation
to
the
world
is
not
limited
to
enquiring
into
its
processes
and
attempting
to
arrive
an
absolute
conception;
the
world
is
also
the
horizon
within
which
(and
along
with
which)
I
appear,
and
within
which
things
appear.
Husserl’s
investigations
into
the
ways
in
which
things
are
given
do
not
seem
to
fit
either
into
a
project
of
working
out
the
absolute
conception
of
the
world
(the
world
does
not
appear
if
there
is
nobody
to
whom
it
could
do
so),
nor
is
it
bound
up
with
local
(cultural
and
historical)
perspectives
(it
is
not
only
in
Germany
in
the
early
20th
century
that
objects
appear
such
that
one
side
faces
us
and
the
other
is
hidden).81
From
the
hermeneutical
perspective,
then,
it
is
not
that
the
sciences
investigate
‘ultimate’
reality,
and
human
experience
is
the
domain
of
‘mere’
appearances;
rather,
the
human
world,
the
life
world,
is
the
world,
from
which
the
sciences
set
out
to
investigate,
in
a
certain
mode,
certain
aspects.
The
sciences
flatten
the
world,
reduce
it,
purge
it
of
its
interest,
try
to
get
behind
the
things
in
the
lifeworld,
and
in
doing
so
prove
strikingly
productive
in
working
out
its
basic
machinery;
but
to
hold
that
the
reality
it
uncovers
is
ultimate
while
the
lifeworld
is
an
illusion
is
to
enter
into
a
topsy-‐turvy
world.82
But
the
lifeworld
is,
nonetheless,
grounded
in
this
lifeless,
purged
world
uncovered
by
the
sciences.83
As
Heidegger
puts
it:
‘Entities
are,
quite
independently
of
the
experience
by
which
they
are
disclosed,
the
acquaintance
by
which
they
are
discovered,
and
the
grasping
in
which
their
nature
is
80
On
this
point
see
Grondin’s
essay,
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic
...’,
p.
199.
81
Cf.
TM
249-‐50,
where
Gadamer
makes
a
similar
critique
of
Dilthey’s
distinction
between
the
on
the
idea
that
scientific
models
were
true:
‘Indeed,
almost
the
sole
recent
philosopher
of
science
who
feels
no
embarrassment
about
truth
is
Michael
Polyani.’
(Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
18)
I
would
suggest
in
turn
that,
30
years
later,
here
in
Australia,
scientific
truth
is
in
a
position
of
dominance,
and
we
live
in
this
kind
of
topsy-‐turvy
world,
in
which
one
cannot
mention
intentional
activity
or
self-‐control
without
someone
immediately
explaining
it
in
terms
of
the
pre-‐frontal
cortex.
83
‘No
one
doubts
that
the
world
can
exist
without
man
and
perhaps
will
do
so.’
(TM
444)
48
ascertained.
But
Being
‘is’
only
in
the
understanding
of
those
entities
to
whose
Being
something
like
an
understanding
of
Being
belongs.’84
This
is
to
say:
entities
exist
in
some
bare
sense
of
the
term,
but
they
only
acquire
being
through
becoming
manifest
and
acquiring
meaning
and
significance.85
That
entities
are
thus
grounded
is
one
of
the
bases
on
which
things
in
the
world
can
resist
our
conception
of
them.
There
are
certain
things
that
must
always
remain
true
in
the
human
world,
that
cultural
and
historical
change
simply
cannot
eliminate:
physical
objects
move
and
interact
in
a
regular
fashion;
fire
warms,
melts,
cooks
and
burns;
and
humans
require
a
certain
minimum
of
food,
water
and
shelter,
and
when
these
are
not
met
the
result
is
misery.86
But,
just
as
from
the
human
perspective
the
world
understood
through
the
sciences
is
a
reduction,
from
that
perspective
the
human
world
is
an
elaboration.
The
material
base
of
things
is
elaborated
through
being
brought
into
language:
certain
potentialities
are
suppressed,
others
are
encouraged.
Our
sexual
identities,
for
example,
are
partly
constituted
by
the
ideas
in
light
of
which
we
make
sense
of
ourselves.87
Our
ethical
life
is
similarly
constituted.88
Chairs,
tables,
and
so
on
–
human
material
objects
–
become
what
they
are
through
coming
into
a
language,
a
language
bound
up
with
a
certain
kind
of
tradition
and
practical
life.89
84
Heidegger,
Being
and
Time,
p.
228.
This
passage
is
essential
for
understanding
Gadamer’s
word’.
See
her
‘Gadamer:
The
Speculative
Structure
of
Language’,
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.),
Hermeneutics
and
Modern
Philosophy,
p.
212.
86
Grounding
things
in
this
way
protects
us
against
the
cruder
excesses
of
culturalism
–
and,
perhaps,
from
ideology
as
well.
This
seems
to
be
the
reason
why
Marx
and
Engels
insist
they
are
starting
from
‘material
premises’
in
The
German
Ideology:
the
human
body
that
labours
in
order
to
reproduce
itself.
To
start
from
abstract
premises,
they
suggest,
is
to
tempt
ideological
confusion.
87
For
a
discussion
of
this,
see
the
essays
in
the
first
part
of
David
Halperin’s
One
Hundred
Years
of
(Cambridge,
1985);
and
see
also
his
more
recent
discussion
in
The
Language
Animal
(Harvard,
2016),
Ch.
6.
89
Helmut
Kuhn
makes
a
similar
point
when
he
observes
that
our
responses,
our
practical
interests,
and
so
on,
‘contribute
to
[the
world’s]
constitution,
draw
it
into
the
ambit
of
our
life,
and
mark
it
as
an
element
of
the
human
situation.
The
surface
of
the
globe,
then,
becomes
our
“landscape”,
the
waste
of
salt
water
an
ocean
which
we
sail;
the
plant
a
vegetable
or
a
weed,
etc.’
(‘The
Phenomenological
Concept
of
“Horizon”
’,
p.
121)
Cf.
the
whole
of
the
third
part
of
his
essay,
from
which
this
quote
was
taken,
which
also
discusses
this
issue
of
the
relation
between
‘ontology
(theory
of
the
intended
object
in
general,
Gegenstandslehre)’
(which
corresponds
roughly
to
Williams’s
‘absolute
conception’)
and
‘existential
analysis
(theory
of
the
human
situation,
philosophical
anthropology)’
(i.e.
the
world
with
us
in
it).
49
Gadamer’s
discussions
of
translation
and
of
interpretation
can
illuminate
this
issue.
In
interpretation,
Gadamer
says,
it
is
not
the
case
that
a
second
thing
is
created
that
is
distinct
from
the
thing
interpreted;
rather,
it
is
through
interpretation
that
the
thing
is
able
to
appear
(TM
400).90
The
interpretation
relates
to
the
work
of
art
as
accident
to
substance;
in
allowing
the
work
to
present
itself,
the
interpretation
emphasises
some
elements
(TM
401).
In
other
words,
the
rich
and
indeterminate
possibility
of
the
artwork
must
be
made
determinate
in
order
to
appear;
in
being
made
determinate,
the
artwork
both
becomes
more
than
it
is
otherwise
(uninterpreted,
it
is
mere
abstract
possibility)
and
less
(this
possibility
being
realised,
others
are
excluded).
‘All
interpretation
is
highlighting,’
Gadamer
says
(TM
401).
Similarly,
‘every
translation
that
takes
its
task
seriously
is
at
once
clearer
and
flatter
than
the
original’
(TM
388).
It
is
perhaps
significant
that
Walter
Benjamin
sees
understanding
things
as
a
matter
of
translating
the
divine
language
of
God
into
a
human
language:91
like
a
text
in
translation,
like
a
work
of
art
in
interpretation,
the
world
becomes
both
more
and
less
than
itself
in
being
brought
into
language.92
To
have
a
world
is
to
have
these
possibilities
for
acting,
feeling,
thinking,
and
so
on
–
and
to
not
have
those
possibilities
for
acting,
etc.,
and
thus
to
not
have
all
possibilities.
This
is
not
to
suggest
that
one
cannot
act
or
feel
without
language
(my
dog
manages
to
do
both),
but
rather
to
say
that
feeling
and
acting
–
which
are
basic
possibilities
rooted
in
our
creaturely
being
–
are
transformed
in
various
ways
by
our
being
a
part
of
a
particular
world.93
And
this,
then,
is
the
second
way
in
which
things
can
resist
our
conceptualising
activity,
why
there
is
something
that
counts
as
‘getting
it
right’:
what
brings
things
into
language
is
not
me
but
my
community
or
my
tradition;
this
is
what
constitutes
the
clearing
or
opening
that,
in
Heidegger’s
words,
affects
90
Cf.
Grondin,
‘Play,
Festival,
and
Ritual
in
Gadamer:
On
the
theme
of
the
immemorial
in
his
later
works’,
p.
53;
and
István
Fehér,
‘On
the
Hermeneutic
Understanding
of
Language:
Word,
conversation
and
subject
matter’,
pp.
63-‐4;
both
are
collected
in
Lawrence
K.
Schmidt
(ed.),
Language
and
Linguisticality
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics.
91
‘On
Language
as
Such
and
the
Language
of
Man’.
92
The
dialectic
between
more
and
less
here
is
similar
to
Hegel’s
discussion
of
the
will,
which
has
to
give
up
on
indeterminate
infinity
in
order
to
actually
become
something.
In
doing
so
it
becomes
both
more
(actual
rather
than
possible)
and
less
(finite
rather
than
infinite).
93
Cf.
Charles
Taylor,
The
Language
Animal,
esp.
Ch.
6.
50
the
original
un-‐concealment
of
things,
what
he
calls
aletheia.94
The
hermeneutical
way
of
seeing
the
world
is
to
grasp
things
in
their
historical
contingency:
things
really
are
what
they
appear
to
us
as,
but
there
is
no
necessity
to
the
world
horizon
being
the
way
it
is
such
that
they
appear
this
way.
This
is
why
Heidegger
speaks
of
aletheia
as
a
revealing
that
is
at
the
same
time
concealing:
things
could
appear
to
us
otherwise
than
they
do:
some
possibilities
are
disclosed
while
others
are
hidden.
51
The
treasure
never
graced
my
land...
So
I
renounced
and
sadly
see:
Where
word
breaks
off
no
thing
may
be.96
This
poem
tells
a
story
of
the
poet’s
relation
to
language
and
his
efforts
to
render
things
in
words.
In
the
first
three
stanzas,
we
are
offered
an
image
of
poetry
successfully
practised:
the
poet
manages
to
bring
to
his
poem
(his
‘country’s
strand’)
‘wonder
or
dream
from
distant
land’
–
the
stuff
of
the
poem.
But
the
next
group
of
stanzas,
four
through
six,
present
something
different:
the
failure
of
this
practise.
The
poet,
returning
with
a
great
treasure,
finds
that
there
are
no
words
for
it:
“No
like
of
this
these
depths
enfold.”
The
treasure
promptly
vanishes
from
his
hand
–
it
cannot
be
brought
into
the
poem,
cannot
be
brought
into
language.
And
so
the
poet
resigns
himself
to
it:
‘Where
word
breaks
off
no
thing
may
be.’97
What
Heidegger
notes
is
that
the
poem
points
us
towards
just
how
tightly
bound
up
words
are
with
things.
The
word,
he
says,
is
what
makes
the
thing
a
thing:
it
‘bethings’
it
(p.
151).
‘Bethinging’,
he
says,
does
not
mean
that
the
word
is
the
‘ground’
of
the
thing,
or
the
‘sufficient
reason’;
rather,
it
‘allows
the
thing
to
presence
as
thing’.98
We
should
recall
here
Gadamer’s
rejection
of
language
as
96
This
is
the
translation
(by
P.
Hertz)
given
in
the
essay,
p.
140.
97
An
example
of
the
reverse
of
this
can
be
found
in
the
rather
less
lofty
literature
of
Flann
O’Brien.
In
The
Third
Policeman,
when
the
narrator
is
taken
to
‘eternity’,
he
is
shown
a
cabinet
that
can
seemingly
produce
anything.
One
of
the
things
the
demonstrating
policeman
produces
for
him
is
a
stream
of
strange
non-‐objects:
‘But
what
can
I
say
about
them?
In
colour
they
were
not
white
or
black
and
certainly
bore
no
intermediate
colour;
they
were
far
from
dark
and
anything
but
bright.
But
strange
to
say
it
was
not
their
unprecedented
hue
that
took
most
of
my
attention.
They
had
another
quality
that
made
me
watch
wild-‐eyed,
dry-‐throated
and
with
no
breathing.
I
can
make
no
attempt
to
describe
this
quality.
It
took
me
hours
of
thought
long
afterwards
to
realise
why
these
articles
were
astonishing.
They
lacked
an
essential
property
of
all
known
objects.
I
cannot
call
it
shape
or
configuration
since
shapelessness
is
not
what
I
refer
to.
I
can
only
say
that
these
objects,
not
one
of
which
resembled
the
other,
were
of
no
known
dimensions.
They
were
not
square
or
rectangular
or
circular
or
simply
irregularly
shaped
nor
could
it
be
said
that
their
endless
variety
was
due
to
dimensional
dissimilarities.
Simply
their
appearance,
if
even
that
word
is
not
inadmissible,
was
not
understood
by
the
eye
and
was
in
any
event
indescribable.
That
is
enough
to
say.’
(The
Third
Policeman
[Harper
Perennial,
2007],
Ch.
8,
pp.
139-‐140;
emphasis
in
original.)
The
strange
non-‐objects
he
is
presented
with
resist
all
attempts
to
describe
them
–
the
narrator
has
to
resort
to
negatives.
No
word
can
get
any
traction
with
them.
98
When
Weinsheimer
discusses
the
last
line
of
this
poem,
his
gloss
suggests
that
he
is
downplaying
this
ontological
dimension
in
favour
of
emphasizing
the
connection
between
language
and
understanding:
‘Where
the
word
breaks
off
no
thing
can
be.
There
is
no
understanding
of
things
apart
from
language,
and
no
understanding
of
language
apart
from
things.
They
belong
together.’
This
seems
to
imply
that
there
can
be
things
without
language,
just
52
the
language
of
being
–
such
an
account
would
make
language
the
reason
for
things.
But
the
relation
is
much
more
contingent
than
this,
as
is
evidenced
by
Heidegger’s
discussion
of
this
point
with
reference
to
poetry.
A
poem
is
not
world
history
–
there
is
no
inexorable
logic
by
which
it
unfolds,
nor
anything
even
vaguely
necessary
about
it.
But
when
a
poem
succeeds
there
is
an
inner
logic
to
it,
a
coherence
that
then
leads
us
to
wonder
how
it
could
have
been
any
different.
And
so
it
is
when
the
word
allows
the
thing
to
presence
as
thing:
once
it
appears
as
a
thing,
it
seems
so
natural
and
obvious
that
we
forget
it
is
the
work
of
a
word,
that
without
the
word
it
could
not
appear
as
a
thing.
This
leads
us
to
the
converse
reflection:
without
the
thing
there
could
be
no
word.
When
discussing
the
‘treasure’
that
the
poet
is
unable
to
bring
into
language,
Heidegger
supposes
that
it
must
be
something
very
grand
indeed
(p.
147).
He
pursues
this
thought,
and
finally
suggests
that
the
treasure
that
the
poet
cannot
bring
into
language
is
the
essence
of
language
itself
(p.
154).
The
poem
is
thus
about
the
poet’s
relation
to
the
essence
of
language;
an
expression
of
the
dependence
of
the
poet
on
something
that
cannot
itself
be
expressed
–
and
Heidegger
notes
the
significance
that
the
poet
renounces
(and
thus
expresses)
this
inability
to
express
this
mystery,
rather
than
merely
rejecting
it
and
lapsing
into
silence
(p.
147).
I
do
not
want
to
reject
this
reading,
but
would
like
to
observe
that
if
we
take
the
poem
to
be
about
the
failure
to
‘find
the
right
word’
(in
Gadamer’s
expression)
in
general
rather
than
just
about
the
poet’s
meditation
on
the
un-‐sayable
heart
of
the
sayable,
we
open
up
a
broader
horizon.
‘Where
word
breaks
off
no
thing
may
be’
points
us
towards
the
indeterminacy
of
what
has
not
been
brought
into
language,
how
slippery
and
hard
to
grasp
it
is;
and,
inversely,
how
relatively
stable
and
natural
those
things
seem
that
have
been
brought
to
order
by
language.
There
is
another
feature
of
the
poem
that
is
worth
calling
attention
to,
since
it
is
important
for
Heidegger’s
reading.
This
is
that
the
poet
waits
upon
the
Norn
(a
being
from
Norse
mythology)
to
find
the
name
for
his
treasure
–
it
is
she
who
speaks
the
line
“No
like
of
this
these
depths
enfold”.
What
this
emphasises
is
the
no
understanding
of
them.
The
point
I
am
making
is
that,
for
an
ontology
of
language,
ontology,
language
and
understanding
all
belong
together.
See
Weinsheimer,
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
232.
53
passivity
of
the
poet,
who
is
listening
for
the
language
of
things.99
In
this,
Heidegger
differs
from
Gadamer,
who
takes
language
to
be
neither
simply
the
language
of
things,
nor
simply
a
human
projection.
In
an
essay
from
the
same
year
in
which
Truth
and
Method
was
published
(1960),
Gadamer
explored
precisely
this
issue.100
What
is
striking
in
the
essay
is
the
way
Gadamer
opposes
both
modern-‐technological
consciousness,
which
sees
in
the
world
so
much
unresisting
matter
to
be
brought
under
human
control
and
bestowed
with
human
meanings,
and
modern
attempts
to
insist
on
the
independent
existence
of
things,
such
that
they
provide
resistance
to
our
attempts
to
appropriate
them.
This
latter
camp
insists
on
‘the
nature
of
things’,
and
point
out
that
the
independent
existence
of
things
means
there
is
a
limit
to
our
powers
to
appropriate
them.
What
both
camps
share,
he
claims,
is
‘the
assumption
that
human
subjectivity
is
will,
an
assumption
that
retains
its
unquestioned
validity
even
where
we
posit
being-‐in-‐itself
as
a
limit
to
the
determination
of
things
by
man’s
will’
(PH
74).
This
means
that
they
are
caught
in
a
one-‐sided
understanding
of
the
relation
of
man
to
things,
whether
they
think
that
man
can
bend
things
to
his
will,
or
must
bend
his
will
to
things.
This
is
an
occasion
when
Gadamer
appeals
to
the
superiority
of
ancient
metaphysics
over
modern
subjectivism
(PH
74,
78),
the
superiority
of
which
lies
in
its
emphasis
on
the
‘pre-‐existent
correspondence’
of
subject
and
object,
which
allows
it
to
transcend
the
opposition
between
subjectivity/will
and
objectivity/being-‐in-‐itself.
While
the
theological
grounding
for
this
view
has
fallen
away,
Gadamer
thinks
the
basic
insight
is
right
(PH
75).
Language
is
the
‘finite
possibility
of
doing
justice
to
this
correspondence’
(PH
75);
the
correspondence
of
the
human
mind
to
things
is
not
a
victory
of
one
over
the
other,
but
rather
‘the
correspondence
that
finds
its
concretion
in
the
linguistic
experience
of
the
world
is
as
such
what
is
absolutely
prior’
(PH
78).
Language
is,
in
some
sense,
prior
to
our
experience
of
the
world,
in
that
it
has
(usually)
already
(more
or
less)
achieved
its
task
of
carving
the
world
up
–
what
we
experience
is
already
linguistically
mediated.
For
this
reason,
Gadamer
favours
99
See
Gadamer’s
essay
‘Heidegger’s
Later
Philosophy’
(collected
in
PH)
for
the
importance
of
this
for
Heidegger.
100
‘The
Nature
of
Things
and
the
Language
of
Things’,
collected
in
PH.
54
the
expression
‘the
language
of
things’
over
‘the
nature
of
things’,
as
reflecting
the
primordial
correspondence.
Gadamer
elaborates
what
he
means
by
this
with
a
terse
and
ambiguous
discussion
of
the
concept
of
‘rhythm’
(PH
79).
I
will
quote
it
at
length,
and
then
proceed
to
unpack
it.
[1]
The
succession
that
is
rhythmatised
by
the
rhythm
does
not
necessarily
represent
the
rhythm
of
the
phenomena
themselves.
Rather,
rhythm
can
be
imputed
by
our
hearing
even
to
a
regular
succession,
so
that
it
appears
as
rhythmatically
organised.
Or
better,
wherever
a
regular
succession
is
to
be
perceived
by
the
mind,
such
a
rhythmatising
not
only
can
but
in
the
end
must
take
place.
But
what
do
we
mean
here
when
we
say
“it
must”?
Something
opposed
to
the
nature
of
things?
Obviously
not.
But
then
what
does
“the
rhythm
of
the
phenomena
themselves”
mean?
Are
the
phenomena
not
first
precisely
what
they
are
in
that
they
are
thus
apprehended
as
rhythmatic
or
rhythmatised?
Thus
the
correspondence
that
holds
between
them
is
more
original
than
the
acoustic
succession
on
the
one
hand
and
the
rhythmatising
apprehension
on
the
other.
(PH
79)
He
goes
on
to
elaborate
this
with
reference
to
‘poetic
minds’
like
that
of
Hölderlin:
[2]
When
they
differentiate
the
original
poetic
experience
from
the
pre-‐given
character
of
language
as
well
as
from
the
pre-‐given
character
of
the
world
(i.e.,
the
order
of
things)
and
describe
the
poetic
conception
as
the
harmony
of
the
world
and
soul
in
the
linguistic
concretisation
that
becomes
poetry,
it
is
a
rhythmic
experience
they
are
describing.
The
structure
of
the
poem,
which
thus
becomes
language,
guarantees
the
process
of
soul
and
world
addressing
each
other
as
something
finite.
It
is
here
that
the
being
of
language
shows
its
central
position.
(PH
79)
55
And
then
concludes
by
rejecting
the
idea
that
language
is
a
human
projection
onto
the
world.
[3]
The
subjective
starting
point,
which
has
become
natural
to
modern
thought,
leads
us
wholly
into
error.
Language
is
not
to
be
conceived
as
a
preliminary
projection
of
the
world
by
subjectivity,
either
as
the
subjectivity
of
individual
consciousness
or
as
that
of
the
spirit
of
a
people.
These
are
all
mythologies,
just
as
the
concept
of
genius
is.
The
concept
of
genius
plays
so
dominant
a
role
in
aesthetic
theory
because
it
understands
the
origination
of
the
form
as
an
unconscious
production
and
thus
teaches
us
to
interpret
it
in
analogy
with
conscious
production.
But
the
work
of
art
is
as
little
to
be
understood
in
terms
of
the
planned
execution
of
a
sketch
–
even
an
infallibly
unconscious
one
–
as
the
course
of
history
may
be
conceived
for
our
finite
consciousness
as
the
execution
of
a
plan.
Rather,
he
as
well
as
there,
luck
and
success
tempt
us
into
oracula
ex
eventu
that
in
fact
hide
the
event
–
the
word
or
deed
–
by
which
they
are
expressed.
(PH
79)
The
first
passage
contains
a
few
crucial
ambiguities.
What
is
he
referring
to
when
he
mentions
a
‘regular
succession’
in
the
second
sentence?
Something
human,
like
tapping
on
a
table
or
knocking
on
a
door,
which
humans
tend
to
spontaneously
turn
into
rhythmic
exercises?
Could
it
be
any
regular
succession,
like
the
drip
of
water?
Must
it
be
a
regular
succession
of
sound,
or
could
it
include
the
phases
of
the
moon
and
the
cycle
of
the
seasons?
It
cannot
be
something
already
human,
since
that
would
not
succeed
in
making
his
point
–
it
would
only
show
that
humans
are
rhythmic,
not
that
rhythm
is
a
paradigm
case
of
correspondence.
Limiting
it
to
only
successions
of
sounds
would
make
some
sense,
in
that
he
chooses
rhythm
as
an
example
in
part
because
it
is
a
‘structural
aspect
of
everything
linguistic’
(PH
79),
but
it
would
limit
the
correspondence
of
word
and
thing
only
to
audible
things.
So
it
must
be
any
regular
succession
to
be
found
in
things.
Then
he
says
that
such
regular
successions
in
things
must
be
grasped
by
humans
as
rhythms
–
and
the
series
of
rhetorical
questions
that
follow
seem
to
point
to
the
conclusion
that
what
is
going
on
in
the
perception
of
56
rhythm
in
the
world
is
not
well
understood
as
the
perception
of
rhythm
in
the
things
themselves,
since
one
can
always
suppose,
from
an
abstracted
perspective,
that
the
successions
in
the
things
themselves
are
“meaningless”
(and
thus
resist
our
attempts
at
imposing
meaning);
and
nor
is
it
well
understood
as
the
imposition
of
meanings
on
“neutral”
things
in
themselves,
since
the
hearing
of
rhythm
is
not
arbitrary
–
one
cannot
hear
any
rhythm
one
likes
in
the
succession
of
things.101
Rather,
the
rhythm
happens
in
between
the
thing
and
the
person:
the
apparent
immediacy
of
the
experience
of
hearing
a
rhythm
in
the
dripping
of
a
pipe
is
neither
the
domination
of
the
thing
over
the
person
nor
the
person
over
the
thing,
but
a
disguised
mediation
between
person
and
thing
–
it
is
only
from
the
starting
point
of
this
mediation
that
one
can
abstract
oneself
to
the
point
of
wondering
which
(the
person
or
the
thing)
is
dominating
the
other.102
Elsewhere,
Gadamer
says
of
images
that
‘we
both
elicit
the
image
from
things
and
imaginatively
project
the
image
into
things
in
one
and
the
same
process’
(RB
17).
Humans
are
linguistic
beings,
and
thus
their
experience
of
the
world
is
one
that
is
always
already
mediated
by
language.
There
is
a
sense
in
which
it
is
something
humans
‘do’,
in
that
there
is
no
intelligible
world
without
a
subject
to
experience
it;
and
the
given
mediation
of
the
world
is,
on
Gadamer’s
account,
a
result
of
the
prejudice-‐structure
of
that
subject’s
understanding.
But,
in
another
sense,
this
mediation
cannot
be
described
as
something
humans
do,
since
it
is
not
an
activity
we
consciously
(or
even
unconsciously,
as
[3]
suggests)
undertake.
Rather,
the
world
is
already
intelligible
before
we
even
begin
to
think
or
act.
Thus
in
[3]
Gadamer
rejects
the
idealist
conception
of
experience
and
language
as
the
activity
of
the
subject,
whether
that
subject
is
understood
as
an
individual
or
as
a
community;
to
understand
experience
or
language
in
this
way
is
to
suppose,
as
it
were
that
one
could
hear
any
rhythm
one
liked.
We
can
then
see
this
mediation
at
work
in
[2].
The
poet
delves
beneath
the
‘pre-‐given’
mediation
that
has
been
concretised
in
their
linguistic
community
in
order
to
experience
afresh
–
and
the
poem
is
the
result.
(As
we
will
see
later,
this
delving
beneath
pre-‐given
mediations
is
very
important
for
Gadamer.)
In
a
101
In
arriving
at
this
reading,
I
had
in
mind
Raymond
Geuss’s
discussion
of
Adorno’s
and
Benjamin’s
concept
of
‘constellations’,
A
World
Without
Why
(Princeton,
2014),
pp.
181-‐2.
102
See
also
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
rhythm
in
‘The
Relevance
of
the
Beautiful’,
RB
44-‐5.
57
similar
manner,
Anne
Carson
defines
the
‘poetic
act’
as
'reaching
right
to
the
edge
of
ordinary
babble,
to
the
place
where
metaphor
waits
and
naming
occurs'.103
This
is
a
‘rhythmic
experience’,
it
seems
to
me,
because
in
thus
diving
down
the
poet
affects
a
fresh
experience
of
the
things,
finding
new
words,
experiencing
a
new
mediation
between
soul
and
thing
just
as
listening
to
the
rhythm
of
the
rain
affects
a
direct
mediation.
The
poet
seeks
the
rhythm
of
the
thing
itself.
On
the
final
page
of
the
essay,
Gadamer
aligns
himself
with
Heidegger
and
the
‘language
of
things’,
as
opposed
to
the
advocates
of
‘the
nature
of
things’.
It
strikes
me
that
this
is
too
hasty
on
his
part,
since
his
argument
has
also
undermined
the
too-‐passive
demand
that
we
simply
listen
to
the
language
of
things.
The
helpful
thing
about
his
concept
of
prejudice
is
that
it
allows
us
to
see
the
mediation
in
the
apparent
immediacy
of
experience;
and
the
trouble
with
the
later
Heidegger
is
his
insistence
on
the
self-‐presentation
of
things,
such
that
one
gets
the
impression
that
humans
are
passively
beholden
to
the
way
Being
presents
itself,
and
that
conceptual
activity
on
their
part
only
serves
to
obscure
the
self-‐disclosure
of
being.104
In
the
concept
of
rhythm,
Gadamer
has
found
a
way
of
showing
that
human
experience
is
neither
activity
nor
passivity
but
harmonious
mediation.
We
can
now
turn
to
Gadamer’s
most
essential
discussions
of
language:
the
discussion
of
Plato’s
Cratylus
in
Truth
and
Method
(TM
III.5
2[a]);
and
the
discussion
of
language-‐as-‐incarnation
(TM
III.5
2[b]).
Our
interest
will
be
to
show
how
the
account
of
the
ontology
of
language
I
have
developed
in
the
previous
sections
illuminates
and
is
illuminated
by
these
chapters.
Let
us
begin
with
the
first
of
these
chapters,
‘Language
and
logos’.
The
tension
Gadamer
finds
at
the
root
of
Greek
thought
about
language
is
that
between
‘belief
in
the
word
and
doubt
about
it’:
does
the
word
belong
to
the
thing,
or
is
it
a
mere
sign?
(TM
406)
Thus
the
Cratylus
discusses
two
competing
theories:
the
‘similarity’
theory
that
there
is
a
kind
of
natural
affinity
between
word
and
thing,
and
a
‘conventionalist’
theory
that
holds
that
there
is
nothing
more
to
language
103
Carson,
Economy
of
the
Unlost,
p.
68.
104
Cf.
Adorno,
‘Why
Still
Philosophy’,
in
his
Critical
Models:
Interpretations
and
Catchwords,
pp.
9-‐
12.
58
than
(ultimately
arbitrary)
custom
and
usage.
Plato’s
presentation
of
these
positions,
Gadamer
notes,
seems
to
aim
at
a
third
account
of
truth
and
language:
that
truth
cannot
be
attained
in
language,
and
instead
the
mind
must
be
opened
to
its
objects
(through
dialectic),
since
‘the
adequacy
of
the
word
can
be
judged
only
from
the
knowledge
of
the
thing
it
refers
to’
(TM
408).
But
there
is
something
missing
from
this
account,
Gadamer
thinks.
Both
the
conventionalist
and
similarity
theories
start
‘too
late’,
in
that
they
take
for
granted
that
we
know
things
independently
and
then
reach
for
language
as
a
tool
to
express
our
thoughts.
Similarly,
Plato’s
account
wants
to
look
around
the
corner,
to
peek
at
the
things
themselves
so
as
to
judge
the
adequacy
of
names.
Language
remains
a
mere
tool,
with
‘no
real
cognitive
significance’
(TM
410).
The
upshot
is
that
‘if
the
sphere
of
the
logos
represents
the
sphere
of
the
noetic
in
the
variety
of
its
associations,
then
the
word,
just
like
the
number,
becomes
mere
sign
of
a
being
that
is
well
defined
and
hence
pre-‐known’
(TM
413).
Thus
this
conception
of
language
‘turns
the
question
around’,
since
it
begins
‘from
the
word
as
means’
and
asks
‘how
it
communicates
to
the
person
who
uses
it’,
rather
than
beginning
from
the
thing
and
‘inquiring
into
the
being
of
the
word
as
a
means
of
conveying
it’.
Ever
since
the
Cratylus,
Gadamer
thinks,
the
convention
theory
of
language
has
won
out
over
the
similarity
theory
–
and
this
is
a
real
problem.
This
is
not
to
say
that
Gadamer
wants
to
restore
a
similarity
theory
of
language;
on
the
contrary,
he
thinks
the
problem
is
that
the
basic
way
of
framing
the
question
is
misleading.
The
result
has
been
what
Gadamer
calls
the
‘forgetfulness
of
language’:105
the
treatment
of
ordinary
language
as
a
messy,
inadequate
affair,
105
David
Vessey
has
some
apt
observations
about
this
claim:
‘Gadamer
holds
that
were
it
not
for
Augustine's
account
of
the
Verbum
interius
we
would
have
descended
into
an
inescapable
forgetfulness
of
language.
It's
hard
to
know
what
would
count
as
evidence
for
this
claim.
That
Augustine's
view
is
distinctively
non-‐Greek,
in
the
sense
that
it
is
impossible
to
express
it
in
the
range
of
traditional
categories
of
Greek
metaphysics,
does
not
mean
that
without
it
later
thinkers
could
not
have
thought
in
non-‐Greek
ways.
Moreover
Gadamer
is
seeking
a
purely
secular
understanding
of
the
ontological
connection
between
words
and
things,
so
the
theological
context
of
the
Trinity
would
not
seem
to
be
historically
essential
for
avoiding
a
merely
semiotic
interpretation
of
language.
I
think
a
more
plausible
way
of
putting
Gadamer's
conclusion
should
be
that
Augustine,
and
especially
Aquinas,
developed
aspects
of
their
philosophies
of
language
and
mind
that
were
indebted
to
their
Christologies
and
that
help
us
today
to
explain
the
proper
ontological
relation
between
words
and
things.
The
more
extreme,
quasi-‐Heideggarian
claim
about
the
forgetfulness
of
language
is
best
ignored.’
(See
Vessey’s
review
of
Arthos,
The
Inner
Word
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/24223-‐the-‐inner-‐word-‐in-‐
gadamer-‐s-‐hermeneutics/)
59
and
the
pursuit
of
a
more
perfect
system
of
signs
in
which
everything
could
have
its
name,
clearly
and
unequivocally.
Gadamer’s
comment
on
this
is
important,
and
worth
quoting
at
length:
In
my
view
this
path
leads
us
away
from
the
nature
of
language.
Language
and
thinking
are
so
bound
together
that
it
is
an
abstraction
to
conceive
of
the
system
of
truths
as
a
pre-‐given
system
of
possibilities
of
being
for
which
the
signifying
subject
selects
corresponding
signs.
A
word
is
not
a
sign
that
one
selects,
nor
is
it
a
sign
that
one
makes
or
gives
to
another;
it
is
not
an
existent
thing
that
one
picks
up
and
gives
an
ideality
of
meaning
in
order
to
make
another
being
visible
through
it.
This
is
mistaken
on
both
counts.
Rather,
the
ideality
of
the
meaning
lies
in
the
word
itself.
It
is
meaningful
already.
But
this
dos
not
imply,
on
the
other
hand,
that
the
word
precedes
all
experience
and
simply
advenes
to
an
experience
in
an
external
way,
by
subjecting
itself
to
it.
Experience
is
not
wordless
to
begin
with,
subsequently
becoming
an
object
of
reflection
by
being
named,
by
being
subsumed
under
the
universality
of
the
word.
Rather,
experience
of
itself
seeks
and
finds
words
that
express
it.
We
seek
the
right
word
–
i.e.,
the
word
that
really
belongs
to
the
thing
–
so
that
in
it
the
thing
comes
into
language.
Even
if
we
keep
in
mind
that
this
does
not
imply
any
simple
copying,
the
word
still
belongs
to
the
thing
insofar
as
a
word
is
not
a
sign
coordinated
to
the
thing
ex
post
facto.
(TM
417)
Experience
is
thus
linguistic
experience,
because
the
world
is
linguistically
structured.
We
note
that
in
this
passage
Gadamer
is
concerned
with
experience
as
that
which
is
expressible
and
spoken
about;
and
in
this
he
seems
closer
to
Walter
Benjamin’s
concept
of
experience
as
what
can
be
communicated
to
others106
than
we
might
expect
if
we
are
looking
for
an
account
of
experience
that
corresponds
to
the
phrase
‘being
that
can
be
understood
is
language’.
But
a
106
Cf.
Martin
Jay,
Songs
of
Experience
(California,
2005),
Ch.
8;
and
Adorno,
Notes
to
Literature,
1:31.
60
closer
look
shows
that
this
is
not
so,
for
what
Gadamer
is
pointing
to
is
that
expressible
experience
arises
out
of
experience
that
is
already
linguistic;
what
he
is
opposing
is
the
idea
that
experience
occurs
independently
of
language
and
is
then
simply
expressed
by
means
of
linguistic
expressions
that
already
lie
ready
to
hand.
This
gets
further
spelled
out
in
the
next
chapter,
‘Language
and
verbum’.
In
this
chapter,
Gadamer
makes
a
famous
excursion
into
Christian
theology:
‘There
is
[...]
an
idea
that
is
not
Greek
which
does
more
justice
to
the
being
of
language,
and
so
prevented
the
forgetfulness
of
language
in
Western
thought
from
being
complete.
This
is
the
Christian
idea
of
incarnation.’
(TM
418)
The
significance
of
incarnation
is
that
it
is
not
embodiment:
where
embodiment
presupposes
a
distinction
between
body
and
soul,
with
the
latter
imprisoned
in
the
former,
incarnation
is
not
the
divine
soul
entering
a
human
body
but
rather
the
divine
showing
itself
in
human
form.
Incarnation
was
closely
connected
by
the
Christian
theologians
with
‘the
problem
of
the
word’:
the
connection
between
the
‘inner
word’
(of
my
thinking
and
understanding)
and
the
‘outer
word’
(which
I
speak).
Speaking,
like
the
incarnation,
is
an
act
of
becoming
that
‘is
not
the
kind
of
becoming
in
which
something
turns
into
something
else’;
nor
is
it
‘separating
one
thing
from
the
other’,
nor
‘lessening
the
inner
word
into
its
emergence
into
exteriority’,
nor
‘becoming
something
different,
so
that
the
inner
word
is
used
up’
(TM
419;
Gadamer
is
paraphrasing
from
Augustine).
Thought,
this
is
to
say,
does
not
become
other
than
itself
in
being
expressed
in
language:
it
is
already
language.
The
‘miracle
of
language’
is
‘that
that
which
emerges
and
externalises
itself
in
utterance
is
always
already
a
word’
(ibid.).
‘The
inner
mental
word
is
just
as
consubstantial
with
thought
as
is
God
the
Son
with
God
the
Father’
(TM
420).
Although
it
occurs
temporally,
thinking
is
not
a
temporal
series
of
moments;
it
is,
rather,
a
process
–
and
Gadamer
follows
Aquinas
in
taking
the
Neoplatonic
concept
of
emanation
to
explicate
it.
‘In
the
process
of
emanation,
that
from
which
something
flows,
the
One,
is
not
deprived
or
depleted’;
the
image
is
that
of
a
fountain
(TM
422).
‘The
same
is
true
of
the
birth
of
the
Son
from
the
Father,
who
does
not
use
up
anything
of
himself
but
takes
something
to
himself.
And
this
is
likewise
true
of
the
mental
emergence
that
takes
place
in
the
process
of
61
thought,
speaking
to
oneself.
This
kind
of
production
is
at
the
same
time
a
total
remaining
within
oneself.’
(TM
422-‐3)
The
human
word
is
potential
before
it
is
actual:
in
this
it
differs
from
the
divine
word.
A
thought
occurs
to
us,
but
it
is
not
yet
finished
–
the
‘real
movement
of
thought’
consists
in
thinking
the
thought
through
to
its
conclusion.
This
process
is
the
bringing
of
the
thought
into
language,
of
forming
the
perfect
word
to
express
it
–
at
which
point
the
thing
is
present
in
it.
‘Thomas
found
a
brilliant
metaphor
for
this:
the
word
is
like
a
mirror
in
which
the
thing
is
seen.’
(TM
424)
However,
being
finite
creatures,
we
can
never
quite
find
the
perfect
word
to
express
our
thought
or
ourselves.
This
is
not
a
defect
of
the
word,
however,
but
rather
a
feature
of
our
minds:
‘the
imperfection
of
the
human
mind
consists
in
its
never
being
completely
present
to
itself
but
in
being
dispersed
into
thinking
this
or
that’.107
For
this
reason,
the
human
word
is
not
one
word
but
many
words.
The
mind
is
also
incapable
of
completely
grasping
the
things
it
thinks
about,
and
thus
‘constantly
proceeds
to
new
conceptions
and
is
fundamentally
incapable
of
being
wholly
realised
in
any’
(TM
424-‐5).
The
infinity
of
the
mind
consists
in
this
constant
surpassing
of
itself.
As
he
summarises
the
chapter,
Gadamer
points
to
the
link
between
the
inner
word
and
the
ontology
of
language.
‘The
word
[that
forms
in
the
mind
through
thought]
is
not
expressing
the
mind
but
the
thing
intended,’
he
tells
us
(TM
425);
in
other
words,
it
is
only
because
things
already
signify
that
they
can
be
thought.108
Thus
I
would
like
to
claim
that
Gadamer
has
a
thoroughly
materialist
or
corporeal
conception
of
language.
I
do
not
mean
this
in
the
sense
that
at
heart
he
is
a
materialist
in
the
sense
that
is
a
synonym
for
‘physicalist’;
on
the
contrary,
while
physicalism
claims
that
the
human
world
is
more
or
less
an
illusion,
and
the
real
world
is
the
world
of
whatever
it
is
physics
describes,
for
Gadamer
(staying
true
to
his
phenomenological
roots)
it
is
the
human
world
that
is
real
and
the
world
of
physics
that
is
a
reduction
(in
the
sense
of
my
discussion
above:
107
One
might
compare
the
character
of
Mr
Kelly
from
Beckett’s
Murphy:
‘His
attention
could
not
be
mobilised
like
that
at
a
moment’s
notice.
His
attention
was
dispersed.
Part
was
with
its
caecum,
which
was
wagging
its
tail
again;
part
with
his
extremities,
which
were
dragging
anchor;
part
with
his
boyhood;
and
so
on.
All
this
would
have
to
be
called
in.’
Samuel
Beckett,
The
Works
of
Samuel
Beckett,
4
vols.,
ed.
Paul
Auster
(Grove,
2006),
1:14.
108
‘Being
makes
itself
accessible
by
presenting
itself
in
beings
that
can
be
understood,
and
they
are its self-‐presentations, its language.’ Weinsheimer, Gadamer’s Hermeneutics, p. 255.
62
the
physical
world
is
a
reduction
of
–
something
less
than
–
the
human
world).
The
material
world
is
a
part
of
the
phenomenal
world,
whereas
the
physical
world
is
a
Platonic
projection
of
a
beyond;
and
while
the
physical
world
is
purged
of
signification,
the
material
world
is
shot
through
with
it.109
Gadamer’s
corporeality
of
language
goes
two
ways.
In
the
chapters
we
have
just
discussed,
he
shows
how
language
is
something
corporeal
–
it
makes
things
present
to
us
(or,
as
he
puts
it,
the
thing
is
present
in
the
word).110
There
is
an
obvious
objection
that
may
be
made
to
this,
one
expressed
neatly
by
Petrarch
in
one
of
his
laments
on
the
limits
of
language:
‘From
reading
“fire”
you
are
not
burned.’111This
is
to
say:
language
does
not
affect
one
as
a
material
object
does.
Petrarch
laments
frequently
that
his
poems
are
unable
to
capture
the
beauty
of
his
subject,
Laura.
We
have
all
had
this
experience:
the
range
of
shades
of
the
colour
green
we
observe
on
a
tree
(which
we
can
only
call
‘green’,
‘light
green’,
‘dark
green’,
‘pale
green’,
etc.
–
all
utterly
inadequate);
or
the
beauty
of
a
sunset
behind
a
mountain
that
eludes
words.
This
objection
highlights
that
what
Gadamer
means
is
not
that
language
performs
some
kind
of
magical
conjuring
trick,
making
things
physically
present
to
us
by
naming
them
–
as
though
when
I
call
something
‘green’
or
‘pale
green’
you
can
see
precisely
the
right
colour,
or
that
when
I
describe
a
sunset
as
‘beautiful’
you
immediately
know
precisely
how
it
looked.
Rather,
language
makes
things
present
to
us
in
much
the
same
way
that
a
portrait
makes
the
subject
present
(RB
35).
It
directs
our
attention
to
the
thing
expressed,
not
necessarily
to
the
language
used,112
and
renders
that
thing
in
a
certain
way,
painting
it
in
a
certain
way
(‘godlike
Achilles’,
‘wily
Odysseus’,
‘that
bastard’).
The
word
does
not
express
the
mind
–
it
expresses
the
thing
intended
(TM
425).
We
have
also
seen
the
way
in
which
language
is
corporeal
in
the
second
sense:
things
are
always
already
in
some
sense
linguistic.
Language
is
part
of
the
constitution
of
things.
Things
signify
–
or,
as
he
puts
it,
they
speak
to
us.
By
109
BT
§15-‐18.
110
For
brief
discussion,
see
P.
Christopher
Smith
(2000),
‘Between
the
Audible
Word
and
the
language. For the importance of this, see the discussion at the end of Ch. 3.
63
speaking
to
us,
they
are
within
language,
but
not
exhausted
by
it.
No
matter
how
many
poems
Petrarch
writes,
and
no
matter
how
good
they
are,
the
real
Laura
(or
even,
after
her
death,
Petrarch’s
memory
of
her)
exceeds
their
grasp.
And
yet
her
name
serves
to
gather
together
those
disparate
moments
of
her
life
(and
death);
and
the
virtues
of
hers
that
Petrarch
responded
to
so
deeply
are
only
there
to
be
aimed
at
through
the
medium
of
language.113
We
might
think
of
this
aspect
of
language
as
its
unifying
or
gathering
force;
it
picks
out
the
ways
in
which
things
are
similar
to
each
other,
and
in
this
way
gathers
them.
As
Montaigne
has
said,
everything
is
at
once
in
some
ways
similar
and
in
some
ways
different
from
everything
else:
‘All
things
hold
together
by
some
similarity;
every
example
is
lame,
and
the
comparison
that
is
drawn
from
experience
is
always
faulty
and
imperfect;
however,
we
fasten
together
our
comparisons
by
some
corner.’114What
is
distinctive
about
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language,
as
we
have
seen,
is
that
it
insists
that
such
comparisons
are
not
merely
external
to
the
things,
which
are
what
they
are
in
themselves
anyway;
it
insists
that
the
words
by
which
we
gather
things
become
part
of
those
things,
and
thus
constitute
them.
That
the
fit
is
not
perfect,
that
the
particular
thing
is
not
exhausted
by
the
language
that
captures
it,
is
part
of
the
way
in
which
things
speak
to
us,
and
is
the
reason
why
Gadamer
insists
on
the
final
inadequacy
of
all
words,
and
why
‘finding
the
right
word’
is
a
perpetual
task.
Similarly,
the
encounter
with
something
new
can
expand
the
range
of
a
word
in
a
way
that
would
not
previously
have
suggested
itself.
In
Chapter
5
of
Alice’s
Adventures
in
Wonderland,115
Alice
eats
a
piece
of
mushroom
that
causes
her
neck
to
stretch
to
absurd
length,
far
above
the
trees.
She
finds
she
is
able
to
coil
and
move
her
neck
like
a
snake,
and
as
her
head
comes
down
through
the
trees
to
find
her
body,
she
is
accosted
by
a
pigeon,
who
accuses
her
of
being
a
serpent
and
wanting
to
eat
its
eggs.
She
insists
that
she’s
a
little
girl,
although
she
admits
that
she
has
eaten
eggs
in
the
past:
‘But
little
girls
eat
eggs
quite
as
much
as
serpents
do,
you
know.’
The
pigeon
replies:
‘I
don’t
believe
it;
but
if
they
do,
why
then
they’re
a
kind
of
serpent,
that’s
all
I
can
say.’
There
is,
in
other
words,
in
this
113
See
Charles
Taylor,
The
Language
Animal,
Ch.
6.
114
Montaigne,
‘Of
Experience’,
pp.
997-‐8.
115
Lewis
Carroll,
Alice’s
Adventures
in
Wonderland
&
Through
the
Looking
Glass
(Vintage,
2007).
64
context
and
for
this
pigeon,
a
highly
relevant
similarity
between
serpents
and
little
girls,
namely
that
both
eat
eggs,
which
allows
him
to
make
a
metaphorical
extension
of
‘serpent’.
Were
this
similarity
to
remain
of
overwhelming
significance,
and
not
just
for
this
pigeon
but
for
pigeons
at
large,
one
can
easily
imagine
pigeons
eliding
the
difference
between
‘little
girls’
and
‘serpents’
entirely,
for
they
are
hardly
going
to
maintain
a
distinction
between
such
things
as
are,
for
all
practical
purposes,
the
same.
In
this
way
what
is
at
first
a
metaphorical
extension
of
a
term
may
become
part
of
its
literal
meaning;
and
the
way
language
gathers
things
together
may
shift
its
boundaries.116In
the
world
of
a
pigeon,
the
difference
between
a
little
girl
and
a
serpent
is
rather
more
abstract
than
it
is
for
us.
We
began
the
discussion
of
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language
by
setting
up
a
contrast
with
Beckett’s
Molloy,
to
which
contrast
we
can
now
return
in
order
to
motivate
a
criticism
of
Gadamer’s
treatment
of
the
ontology
of
language.
Molloy
points
us
towards
a
dimension
of
experience
that
Gadamer’s
insistence
on
linguisticality
cannot
comfortably
accommodate.
It
is
striking
that
when
Molloy
insists
that
his
past
self
did
not
experience
in
an
orderly
linguistic
way
but
rather
in
a
way
that
was
vague
and
not
fully
conscious
this
makes
sense
to
us.
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience
takes
as
its
paradigm
the
person
who
is
fully
awake
and
self-‐present,
whose
experiences
make
sense
to
themselves;
but
when
we
are
only
half-‐conscious,
it
is
not
that
we
experience
something
that
we
recognise
does
not
make
sense
–
making
sense
of
things
just
is
not
something
we
are
even
trying
to
do.
In
that
half-‐conscious
state
we
do
not
make
sense
of
things,
we
just
‘cope’.
I
mean
this
term
in
a
more
basic
sense
than
that
given
to
it
by
Dreyfus,117
where
it
runs
the
gamut
from
basic
coping
to
the
chess-‐playing
of
a
Grand
Master.
To
cope,
in
the
sense
that
interests
me,
is
to
muddle
through,
to
get
by
as
best
one
can;
and
we
spend
rather
a
lot
of
time
coping
in
this
sense.
If
this
line
of
thought
is
right,
then
there
is
a
whole
domain
of
experience
–
the
domain
that
116
Cf.
Nietzsche,
‘On
Truth
and
Lie
in
an
Extra-‐Moral
Sense’,
in
The
Portable
Nietzsche,
ed.
and
the
Phenomenology
of
Everyday
Expertise’,
Proceedings
and
Addresses
of
the
American
Philosophical
Association,
79,
2,
pp.
47-‐65.
65
most
fascinated
Samuel
Beckett
–
that
Gadamer’s
account
passes
over
in
silence.118
Pressing
this
point
further,
what
the
contrast
with
Beckett
shows
is
that,
while
for
Beckett
confusion
and
failure
are
the
central
features
of
human
life
(against
which
clarity
and
success
are
to
be
seen
by
contrast),
for
Gadamer
the
central
feature
is
the
way
the
world
always
already
more
or
less
makes
sense
to
us
(and
it
is
against
this
background
that
experiences
of
incomprehension
stand
out).
As
we
will
see
in
Ch.
3,
it
is
precisely
because
of
this
that
he
so
highly
values
those
disruptive
experiences
that
startle
us
out
of
our
too-‐easy
complacency.
This
is
not
to
suggest
that
for
Gadamer
the
linguistic
world
is
simply
clear
and
pre-‐given.
The
ontology
of
language
is
not
to
be
mistaken
for
the
disappointed
hope
that
finds
expression
in
Charles
Simic’s
poem
‘The
Dictionary’:
Maybe
there
is
a
word
in
it
somewhere
To
describe
the
world
this
morning,
A
word
for
the
way
the
early
light
Takes
delight
in
chasing
the
darkness
Out
of
store
windows
and
doorways.
Another
word
for
the
way
it
lingers
Over
a
pair
of
wire-‐rimmed
glasses
Someone
let
drop
on
the
sidewalk
Last
night
and
staggered
off
blindly
Talking
to
himself
or
breaking
into
song.119
There
is,
in
other
words,
no
expectation
that,
if
being
is
language,
then
there
is
always
the
perfect
word
ready
to
hand
to
express
any
given
phenomenon.
As
we
have
seen,
it
is
not
that
things
are
already
pre-‐given
in
language,
but
rather
that
human
experience
of
the
world
involves
things
constantly
coming
into
language.
For
Gadamer,
the
constant
struggle
is
to
find
the
right
word,
and
part
of
the
118
One
will
not
find
it
in
Truth
and
Method,
and
nor
does
it
come
up
in
Gadamer’s
later
essay
‘Boundaries
of
Language’
(from
1985),
translated
by
Lawrence
K.
Schmidt
and
collected
in
Schmidt
(ed.),
Language
and
Linguisiticality
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics.
119
Charles
Simic,
The
Lunatic
(Ecco,
2015),
p.
11.
66
dynamic
quality
of
experience
is
that
the
right
word
is
always
elusive:
any
given
verbal
formulation
is
always,
finally,
inadequate.
One
might
think
that
this
makes
him
closer
to
Beckett
than
I
have
allowed,
if
we
think
of
Beckett’s
poem
‘What
is
the
word’:
folly
–
folly
for
to
–
for
to
–
what
is
the
word
–
folly
from
this
–
all
this
–
folly
from
all
this
–
given
–
folly
given
all
this
–
seeing
–
folly
seeing
all
this
–
this
–
what
is
the
word
–
[…
etc.]120
The
poem
continues
on,
and
continues
to
fail
to
find
the
right
word
to
express
the
thing
it
is
searching
for.
The
difference,
however,
is
that
for
Gadamer
the
mind
is
more
or
less
at
home,
and
the
moments
of
puzzlement
stand
out;
even
the
fully
alert
mind
is
not
fully
present
to
itself,
and
is
forever
engaged
in
trying
to
articulate
an
insight
that
runs
ahead
of
it
(we
will
return
to
this
particular
theme
in
Ch.
4).
For
Beckett,
it
is
the
‘dim
mind
wayfaring
/
through
barren
lands’,
a
mind
‘hedged
about
/
going
out
/
gone
out’;121
the
mind
rarely
feels
at
home.
Structurally,
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language
directs
our
attention
towards
the
world
as
it
is
given
(through
our
tradition),
and
away
from
the
murkier,
puzzling
base
from
which
it
arises
and
within
which
it
always
dwells.
This
120
The
Collected
Poems
of
Samuel
Beckett,
ed.
Seán
Lawlor
&
John
Pilling
(Grove,
2012),
pp.
228-‐
9.
121
Collected
Poems,
p.
110.
67
murkier
base
is
rooted
both
in
the
largely
inarticulate
drives
and
desires
that
give
direction
to
human
experience,
and
also
in
the
mysterious
nature
of
being
that
language
is
an
elaboration
of.
Charles
Taylor
is
quite
right
to
point
out
that
what
is
distinctive
about
human
needs,
desires
and
drives
(as
opposed
to
those
of
other
animals)
is
that
they
are
taken
up
by
and
transformed
through
language,122
and
there
is
no
doubt
that
Gadamer
would
agree
with
this.
But
the
problem
remains
that
the
ontology
of
language
directs
our
attention
towards
the
already
linguistically
intelligible,
and
treats
what
is
not
linguistically
intelligible
as
simply
in
need
of
linguistic
articulation.
One
can
accept
this
as
an
entirely
desirable
aim
while
still
doubting
that
it
need
be
the
only
aim
with
regard
to
the
linguistically
inarticulate.
Beckett’s
oft-‐quoted
dictum
To
drill
one
hole
after
another
into
[language]
until
that
which
lurks
behind,
be
it
something
or
nothing,
starts
seeping
through
–
I
cannot
imagine
a
higher
goal
for
today’s
writer123
expresses
an
aim
that
runs
entirely
counter
to
the
thrust
of
Gadamer’s
position.
And
yet,
if
we
take
seriously
the
idea
that
things
are
brought
into
language
–
even
though
the
very
distinction
between
inside
and
outside
of
language
is
one
made
within
language
–
then
we
cannot
help
but
be
haunted
by
that
which
is
prior
to
our
articulation,
even
though
we
cannot
talk
about
it
without
thereby
bringing
it
into
language,
thus
missing
our
mark
by
the
very
act
of
aiming
at
it.
If
we
treat
the
experience
of
being
at
home
in
the
world
and
being
able
to
make
sense
of
it
as
the
central
kind
of
experience,
we
lose
sight
of
the
way
in
which
it
is
an
achievement
rooted
in
a
deeper
experience,
that
of
puzzlement
and
muddling
through.
Even
if
most
of
us
much
of
the
time
find
ourselves
reasonably
self-‐present,
this
is
because
we
manage
to
forget
how
puzzling
everything
is,
and
there
are
times
for
all
of
us
when
we
regress
to
this
puzzlement.
We
do
not
easily
have
cognitive
access
to
such
experience,
since
the
demands
of
cognition
force
it
into
shape.
It
is
part
of
Beckett’s
achievement
to
have
found
ways
of
bringing
122
See
the
papers
collected
in
Human
Agency
and
Language,
especially
‘The
Self-‐interpreting
Animal’,
as
well
as
his
more
recent
and
substantial
statement
of
this
position
in
The
Language
Animal.
123
The
Letters
of
Samuel
Beckett
1929-‐1940
(Cambridge,
2009),
p.
518.
68
such
experience
into
artistic
expression
without
thereby
nullifying
them.
If
we
ignore
it
we
wind
up
with
a
distorted
picture
of
human
beings,
and
our
ability
make
sense
of
them
is
hampered.
This
is
evident,
for
instance,
in
the
ongoing
debate
between
Dreyfus
and
McDowell,
which
inherits
a
broadly
Gadamerian
conception
of
the
linguisticality
of
experience.124
Rather
than
entering
into
the
details
of
their
debate,
I
would
just
call
attention
to
the
peculiarity
of
one
of
their
central
examples,
which
I
think
is
telling:
the
experience
of
the
chess
Grand
Master
playing
chess.
The
point
at
issue
between
them
is
the
extent
to
which
an
experience
of
knowing
accompanies
the
Grand
Master’s
ability
to
just
see
which
move
they
should
next
make;
the
observation
I
would
like
to
make
is
just
how
peculiar
it
is
to
treat
an
example
of
hyper-‐skilled,
expert
activity
as
the
central
paradigm
of
human
experience.
The
drunk,
the
person
who
is
exhausted
or
half
asleep,
someone
who
is
worrying
about
something
or
otherwise
distracted,
someone
in
a
state
of
depression,
or
someone
trying
to
learn
a
new
skill
under
pressure
and
feeling
the
stress:
these
are
all
people
in
states
that
are
perfectly
common
–
more
common
than
that
of
the
chess
Grand
Master!
–
and
yet
that
do
not
at
all
fit
that
model.
They
are
not
fully
self-‐present,
and
would
likely
be
unable
to
offer
adequate
after-‐the-‐fact
accounts
of
what
they
are
doing
or
why
(which
McDowell
especially
associates
with
the
Grand
Master’s
capacity
to
see
the
right
move).125
They
are,
rather,
muddling
through:
perhaps
trying
to
achieve
the
best
outcome,
but
perhaps
not;
perhaps
trying
to
make
sense
of
what
they
are
doing,
but
perhaps
not.
Beckett’s
Molloy
is
hardly
a
picture
of
a
complete
human
being.
His
capacity
to
interact
with
other
people
is
comically
atrophied:
it
is
only
with
great
effort
that
he
can
make
any
sense
of
what
others
are
saying
to
him,
or
make
himself
understood
by
them.
With
his
mother
he
can
only
communicate
by
knocking
her
on
the
head:
‘One
knock
for
yes,
two
no,
three
I
don’t
know,
four
money,
five
goodbye.’126
He
cares
little
if
she
confuses
all
of
these,
so
long
as
she
understands
that
four
knocks
means
money.
His
incapacity
for
dialogue,
and
the
self-‐interest
and
instinct
for
self-‐preservation
that
drive
his
interactions
with
others,
mark
124
See
the
essays
collected
in
Schear
(ed.),
Mind,
Reason,
and
Being-‐in-‐the-‐World:
The
McDowell-‐
69
him
out
as
in
many
ways
the
negative
image
of
Gadamer’s
ideal
character:
always
conversing,
open
to
the
challenge
to
one’s
own
priorities
offered
by
the
other.
But
he
is
not
a
simple
opposite
to
be
held
in
contrast;
he
is
a
deeper,
obscurer
part
of
the
same
person,
that
part
of
oneself
that
is
prior
(in
an
ontological,
rather
than
temporal
sense)
to
the
shaping
of
one’s
self
through
the
aspirations
and
ideals
given
in
language,
and
that
persists
underneath;127
a
part
that
has
been
elided
in
Gadamer’s
account.
127
See
again
Charles
Taylor,
‘The
Self-‐interpreting
Animal’.
70
II
–
Interlude:
Heightened
Experience
We
have
now
set
out
Gadamer’s
basic
account
of
ordinary
experience,
as
pieced
together
from
his
various
discussions
of
prejudice
and
the
linguistic
nature
of
all
experience.
The
time
has
almost
come
for
us
to
turn
to
the
main
event,
his
concept
of
‘genuine’
experience;
but
before
we
do
that,
we
must
briefly
consider
what
he
considers
to
be
a
rival
but
deficient
mode
of
experience,
that
of
Erlebnis,
what
we
can
call
‘heightened
experience’.
It
is
important
to
note,
up
front,
that
Gadamer
uses
the
term
Erlebnis
in
a
particular
and
limited
sense,
and
that
he
has
particular
polemical
aims
in
his
discussion
of
it;
my
concern
in
the
present
chapter
is
only
to
set
out
the
concept
in
terms
of
how
it
functions
in
his
philosophical
economy.
The
concept
of
Erlebnis
is
introduced
at
the
end
of
TM
I.1
2
B(i),
and
then
discussed
in
detail
in
B(ii)
and
(iii).
Gadamer
tells
us
that
it
is
etymologically
related
to
the
verb
erleben:
Erleben
means
primarily
“to
be
alive
when
something
happens”.
Thus
the
word
suggests
the
immediacy
with
which
something
real
is
grasped
–
unlike
something
which
one
presumes
to
know
but
which
is
unattested
by
one’s
own
experience,
whether
because
it
is
taken
over
from
others
or
comes
from
hearsay,
or
whether
it
is
inferred,
surmised,
or
imagined.
What
is
experienced
is
always
what
one
has
experienced
oneself.
(TM
53)
Further
to
this,
the
form
‘das
Erlebte’
refers
to
the
‘permanent
content
of
what
is
experienced’.
It
is,
in
other
words,
what
is
retained
from
experience,
what
‘achieves
permanence,
weight,
and
significance
from
out
of
the
transience
of
experiencing’.
The
concept
is
thus
ambiguous,
in
the
same
ways
as
the
English
word
‘experience’,
between
experiences
that
we
have,
and
being
‘experienced’;
or,
as
Gadamer
puts
it,
between
experience
and
its
result
(TM
56).128
Someone
who
is
experienced
at
something
is
someone
who
has
lots
of
experience
at
it,
which
suggests
they
have
had
lots
of
experiences
of
it.
128
The
same
basic
point
is
made
by
Martin
Jay,
Songs
of
Experience,
p.
11.
71
After
setting
out
the
basic
history
of
the
word
and
its
ambiguity
(TM
I
2
B[ii]),
Gadamer
goes
on
to
discuss
it
as
a
concept
(B[iii]).
The
discussion
in
this
chapter
is
dense
and
tricky,
with
terse
references
to
Dilthey,
Husserl,
Nietzsche,
Natorp,
Bergson,
Schleiermacher,
and
Simmel;
and
it
presents,
by
my
count,
four
different
(albeit
connected)
kinds
of
Erlebnis.129
Presenting
a
reading
of
it
is
further
complicated
by
its
place
within
Gadamer’s
argument.
After
all,
the
discussion
of
Erlebnis
occurs
towards
the
end
of
the
first
half
of
TM
I,
and
this
first
half
is
concerned
with
setting
out
the
‘aesthetic
dimension’
in
order
to
offer
a
critique
of
it;
thus,
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
Erlebnis
is
a
hostile
one:
its
development,
he
says,
is
driven
by
the
needs
of
epistemology,130
and
in
both
Dilthey
and
Husserl
it
serves
an
epistemological
function.131
At
the
end
of
the
chapter,
he
claims
that
the
paradigm
of
Erlebnis
is
aesthetic
experience,
and
it
is
the
idea
of
aesthetic
experience
that
he
is
trying
to
overcome.
Nonetheless,
the
concept
is
important
for
us.
(1)
When
Gadamer
introduces
the
concept
of
Erfahrung,
it
is
explicitly
in
contrast
with
Erlebnis;
so
to
grasp
the
importance
of
this
concept,
we
will
need
to
see
what
it
is
contrasted
with.
(2)
Even
though
Erfahrung
is
the
kind
of
experience
that
Gadamer
privileges,
not
every
experience
is
Erfahrung,
and
we
would
be
in
a
sorry
state
if
it
were.
(3)
An
Erlebnis
is
still
a
kind
of
experience,
even
if
it
is
not
the
highest
kind.
Thus,
in
what
follows,
I
will
try
to
excavate
an
acceptable
concept
of
Erlebnis
from
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
it
in
the
chapters
under
consideration;
then
I
will
discuss
the
way
he
transitions
from
Erlebnis
to
Erfahrung
in
TM
I.1
3
B.
The
first
three
stages
of
his
discussion
I
will
pass
over;
it
is
the
final
stage,
at
which
the
discussion
culminates,
that
is
of
interest
to
us.132
What
emerges
in
this
final
part
is
that
an
Erlebnis
is
an
experience
that
stands
out:
it
breaks
the
flow
of
life,
while
also
reflecting
the
whole
of
life
within
it
(TM
60).
It
is
not,
then,
a
129
The
discussion
of
Erlebnis
proceeds
as
follows:
first,
Gadamer
discusses
it
as
a
‘unity
of
meaning’;
second,
as
conceived
through
memory,
i.e.
‘my
experiences’;
third,
in
connection
with
life;
and
fourth,
as
something
undergone,
an
adventure,
culminating
with
aesthetic
experience
as
the
paradigm.
130
‘Thus
[Dilthey’s]
concepts
are
motivated
by
this
epistemological
purpose
or
rather
by
the
72
radical
break,
but
rather
one
that
serves
to
further
the
normal
course
of
life
precisely
by
being
a
departure
from
it.
In
this
it
is
like
an
adventure
‘from
which
one
emerges
enriched
and
more
mature’
(ibid.).133
This
is
the
essence
of
an
‘aesthetic’
experience,
in
that
the
work
of
art
‘suddenly
tears
the
person
experiencing
it
out
of
the
context
of
his
life,
and
yet
relates
him
back
to
the
whole
of
his
existence’
(TM
60-‐1).
The
essence
of
the
heightened
experience,
then,
is
that
it
is
an
experience
that
stands
out
from
the
flow
of
ordinary
life,
but
does
not
(radically)
change
that
life
(cf.
TM
86).
One
‘emerges’
from
an
Erlebnis
‘enriched
and
more
mature’,
perhaps,
but
one’s
life,
and
one’s
priorities,
have
not
been
called
into
question.
Examples
of
this
(beyond
the
example
of
‘aesthetic
experience’
[Erlebniskunst],
which
Gadamer
is
arguing
against)
may
include
going
on
a
holiday:
when
I
go
on
holiday
somewhere,
I
leave
behind
my
ordinary
life
(my
job,
my
chores,
and
so
on),
and
instead
live
for
a
little
while
in
an
entirely
different
mode.
But
at
the
same
time,
this
other
mode
of
life
reflects
my
ordinary
life,
both
by
being
differentiated
from
it,
and
because
the
way
my
ordinary
life
makes
possible
the
holiday
–
the
holiday
serves
almost
to
‘redeem’
my
ordinary
life,
in
particular
my
job,
which
allows
me
to
build
up
the
funds
to
be
able
to
go
away,
care-‐free,
for
a
little
while.
Or,
perhaps,
as
a
musician,
when
I
go
on
stage
and
perform
and
receive
applause
and
accolades,
this
experience
stands
out
from
my
ordinary
day
(which
is
spent
practicing,
even
on
those
days
I
do
not
feel
like
it)
and
makes
it
all
worthwhile.134
Gadamer’s
opposition
has
two
related
elements.
The
first,
which
is
most
prominent
in
the
part
of
the
book
under
consideration,
has
to
do
with
the
technicalities
of
aesthetic
experience;
and
this,
while
essential
to
the
structure
of
Truth
and
Method,
is
not
what
interests
us
for
our
present
purposes.
His
objection
is
that
aesthetic
experience
has
been
divorced
from
the
questions
of
knowledge
and
truth;
but,
as
can
be
seen
from
my
examples
of
Erlebnis
above,
133
It
is
worth
noting,
however,
that
while
Gadamer
deploys
this
metaphor
in
a
critical
way,
in
a
later
essay
he
uses
the
metaphor
of
an
adventure
to
explicate
what
is
going
on
when
one
understands:
‘Hermeneutics
as
Practical
Philosophy’,
RAS
109-‐110.
134
That
some
kinds
of
experience
can
be
heightened
in
this
way
without
being
genuine
experiences
(in
Gadamer’s
sense)
is
missed
by
some
commentators.
See,
for
example,
Anne
Marie
Olesen
(2000),
‘The
Concept
of
(Aesthetic)
Experience
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics
and
its
Anthropological
Implications’,
Nordic
Journal
of
Aesthetics,
12,
20,
p.
74.
73
this
is
not
a
pressing
concern
for
us,
since
these
experiences
which
serve
to
reinforce
and
redeem
ordinary
experience
may
well
have
truth
on
their
side.
It
is
Gadamer’s
second
objection
that
is
more
interesting
to
us:
an
Erlebnis
does
not
call
into
question
the
basis
of
my
ordinary
life;
it
does
not
call
on
me
to
change
it.135
This
is
what
I
meant
above
by
‘radical’
change:
a
change
in
my
outlook,
a
change
in
my
priorities.136
Let
us
briefly
look
at
Gadamer’s
critique
of
Romantic
hermeneutics,
as
an
illustration
of
his
polemical
employment
of
Erlebnis.137
On
the
view
he
is
criticising,
one
is
trying
to
‘recreate’
the
experience
of
the
author
of
the
text,
or
the
experience
of
the
‘original
readers’138
of
the
text.
Both
involve
my
somehow
leaping
out
of
my
own
experiences
and
experiencing
things
from
another’s
perspective;
I
then
return
to
myself
with
a
deeper
understanding
of
the
text
I
am
investigating.
We
can
see
how
this
parallels
the
examples
of
Erlebnisse
I
gave
above:
the
experience
of
imaginatively
reconstructing
the
experience
of
the
author/reader
is
something
of
an
adventure,
in
that
for
a
short
period
I
become
somebody
else;
and
my
return
vindicates
the
hard
work
of
reading
I
have
been
doing
that
has
allowed
me
to
grasp
this
other’s
perspective.
Gadamer’s
criticism
of
this
has
two
elements.
(1)
First,
there
is
the
sceptical
element:
he
does
not
think
that
it
is
possible.
(a)
Relying
on
the
concepts
of
the
present
assimilates
the
historical
text
to
the
present:
The
historian
usually
chooses
concepts
to
describe
the
historical
particularly
of
his
objects
without
expressly
reflecting
on
their
origin
and
justification.
He
simply
follows
his
interest
in
the
material
and
takes
no
account
of
the
fact
that
the
descriptive
concepts
he
chooses
can
be
highly
detrimental
to
his
proper
purpose
if
they
assimilate
what
is
historically
different
to
what
is
familiar
and
thus,
despite
all
135
As
Weinsheimer
puts
it:
‘The
genuineness
of
the
experience
of
art
is
indicated
by
the
fact
that
it
alters
the
one
who
experiences
it;
it
alters
the
understanding
subject.’
(Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
99.)
136
Warnke
notes
that
Dilthey’s
concept
of
Erlebnis
is
actually
compatible
with
this
idea
of
transformative
experiences:
see
her
Gadamer:
Hermeneutics,
Tradition
and
Reason,
p.
29.
137
I
have
in
mind
here
the
discussion
in
TM
III
1(B).
138
Gadamer
takes
the
very
idea
of
an
‘original
reader’
to
be
an
‘unexamined
idealisation’
(TM
396).
74
impartiality,
subordinate
the
alien
being
of
the
object
to
his
own
preconceptions.
Thus,
despite
his
scientific
method,
he
behaves
just
like
everyone
else
–
as
a
child
of
his
own
time
who
is
unquestioningly
dominated
by
the
concepts
and
prejudices
of
his
own
age.
(TM
397)
(b)
Rejecting
the
concepts
of
the
present,
and
instead
relying
only
on
the
concepts
of
the
past
does
not
help
either:
Insofar
as
the
historian
does
not
admit
this
naiveté
to
himself
[i.e.
he
fails
to
reflect
on
the
concepts
he
is
applying
to
the
text],
he
fails
to
reach
the
level
of
reflection
that
the
subject
matter
demands.
But
his
naiveté
becomes
truly
abysmal
when
he
starts
to
become
aware
of
the
problems
it
raises
and
so
demands
that
in
understanding
history
one
must
leave
one’s
own
concepts
aside
and
think
only
in
the
concepts
of
the
epoch
one
is
trying
to
understand.
(TM
398)
This
demand,
he
notes,
goes
‘unfulfilled’.
But
this
sceptical
move
is
mere
ground
laying;
the
real
force
of
Gadamer’s
critique
comes
in
the
second
element:
(2)
The
very
ideal
of
transposing
oneself
into
the
past
is
mistaken
as
an
ideal.
This
is
because,
Gadamer
argues,
the
interests
that
ground
our
historical
inquiries
are
rooted
in
the
present.
I
will
quite
this
important
passage
at
length:
[W]hat
the
legitimate
demand
of
the
historical
consciousness
–
to
understand
a
period
in
terms
of
its
own
concepts
–
really
means
is
something
quite
different.
The
call
to
leave
aside
the
concepts
of
the
present
does
not
mean
a
naive
transposition
into
the
past.
It
is,
rather,
an
essentially
relative
demand
that
has
meaning
only
in
relation
to
one’s
own
concepts.
Historical
consciousness
fails
to
understand
its
own
nature
if,
in
order
to
understand,
it
seeks
to
exclude
what
alone
makes
understanding
possible.
To
think
historically
means,
in
fact,
to
perform
the
transposition
that
the
concepts
of
the
past
undergo
when
we
try
to
think
in
them.
To
think
historically
always
involves
mediating
between
those
ideas
and
one’s
own
thinking.
To
try
to
75
escape
from
one’s
own
concepts
in
interpretation
is
not
only
impossible
but
manifestly
absurd.
To
interpret
means
precisely
to
bring
one’s
own
preconceptions
into
play
so
that
the
text’s
meaning
can
really
be
made
to
speak
for
us.
(TM
398)
We
can
frame
this
in
terms
of
Erlebnis.
If
we
take
historical
research
to
consist
in
moments
in
which
we
bracket
the
present
and
think
in
terms
of
historical
research
–
engage
in
an
historical
adventure,
in
other
words
–
we
cannot
understand
what
we
are
doing
unless
we
make
sense
of
it
in
terms
of
the
present.
Once
we
bring
the
present
into
the
picture,
however,
we
see
that
‘to
perform
the
transposition
that
the
concepts
of
the
past
undergo
when
we
try
to
think
in
them’
means
a
move
from
our
present
concepts
to
the
past
concepts;
and
this
move
is
going
to
vary
depending
on
what
those
present
concepts
are.
Further,
one
does
not
simply
find
the
past
concepts
lying
there,
such
that
one
could
just
pick
them
up;
we
only
work
out
what
the
past
concepts
are
by
allowing
our
present
ones
to
be
challenged.
Gadamer’s
treatment
of
heightened
experience
is,
we
have
said,
polemical.
For
his
purposes
in
Truth
and
Method
this
makes
sense;
but
if
we
are
interested
in
human
experience
more
broadly
then
it
is
a
rejection
that
comes
with
a
great
loss.
For
a
great
many
of
our
most
important
experiences
are
heightened
in
precisely
the
sense
here
discussed:
they
shine
so
bright
as
to
cause
other
parts
of
our
lives
to
glow
with
reflected
light.
I
gave,
before,
the
example
of
the
musician
whose
heightened
experience
on
stage
reflects
back
on
and
redeems
the
long
hours
of
toil
and
frustration
that
accompany
the
daily
practice;
but
it
would
be
mad
for
the
musician
to
for
this
reason
find
her
experience
on
stage
lacking,
for
her
to
wish
for
the
genuine
experience
of
having
her
expectations
and
outlook
challenged.
Similarly,
a
wedding
is
a
celebration
that
serves
in
many
ways
to
reinforce
and
perhaps
redeem
the
past
experiences
of
the
bridge
and
groom:
there
is
a
common
trope
in
fiction
that
the
bride
or
groom
will
say
in
their
wedding
speech
that
all
of
the
bad
decisions
they
had
made
in
the
past
were
redeemed
because
they
had
led
to
their
meeting
this
person,
their
to-‐be-‐spouse.
76
A
wedding
that
mounts
a
challenge
to
their
expectations
may
be
no
wedding
at
all.
Erlebnis
is,
for
Gadamer,
an
experience
that
interrupts
ordinary
experience,
but
does
not
serve
to
call
the
concepts
that
underlie
that
experience
into
question.
Once
it
is
over,
it
leaves
everything
pretty
much
where
it
was.
As
we
will
see
later,
his
denigration
of
this
kind
of
experience
will
raise
issues
for
his
account
of
experience
as
a
whole.
Nonetheless,
it
is
time
for
the
main
event:
against
Erlebnis,
Gadamer
opposes
the
concept
of
Erfahrung.
77
78
phronesis.
In
the
following
chapter,
we
will
see
how
Erfahrung
is
deeply
connected
with
Gadamer’s
concepts
of
truth,
understanding
and
interpretation.
into
the
mountains
to
do
his
‘penance’.
An
interpretation
of
the
novel
as
a
whole
is
beyond
the
scope
of
our
present
interest.
79
something
to
be
taken
seriously
in
itself
(TM
347).
What
is
important
about
experience
is
that
it
is
something
that
we
undergo,
a
process
that
happens
to
us,
over
which
we
have
little
control.
What
we
take
away
from
particular
experiences,
or
repeated
experiences,
is
often
not
what
we
may
have
intended
to,
going
in
to
them;
the
process
by
which
this
or
that
experience
stays
with
us
is
quite
obscure.
He
distinguishes
two
senses
of
‘experience’:
on
the
one
hand,
there
are
experiences
that
conform
to
our
expectations
and
confirm
them
(both
ordinary
experience
and
heightened
experience,
as
I
have
distinguished
them,
fall
into
this
camp);
on
the
other,
there
are
experiences
that
defy
our
expectations,
and
lead
us
to
see
the
object
in
a
new
light,
and
now
see
it
better
(TM
347-‐8).
To
put
this
in
terms
of
the
prejudice
structure
of
understanding,
there
are
experiences
that
conform
to
our
prejudices,
and
others
that
call
them
into
question;
these
latter
Gadamer
terms
‘genuine
experiences’.
What
is
important
about
these
‘negative’
experiences
is
that
they
are
not
mere
corrections,
but
allow
us
to
‘acquire
a
comprehensive
knowledge’.
Thus
‘we
cannot
[...]
have
a
new
experience
of
any
object
at
random,
but
it
must
be
of
such
a
nature
that
we
gain
a
better
knowledge
through
it,
not
only
of
itself,
but
of
what
we
thought
we
knew
before
–
i.e.,
of
a
universal’
(TM
348).
In
other
words,
genuine
experiences
lead
us
to
a
deeper
understanding
of
the
things
they
are
experiences
of;
they
are
thus
‘dialectical’,
in
that
they
occur
in
the
space
between
how
I
take
something
to
be
and
how
it
is.
When
an
experience
conforms
to
my
expectations,
it
lulls
me
into
forgetting
that
there
is
more
to
the
thing
experienced
than
the
way
it
presents
itself
to
me,
such
that
I
may
well
even
begin
to
forget
my
finitude:
I
come
to
forget
that
I
am
surrounded
by
things
that
are
not
reducible
to
my
understanding
of
them.
When
an
experience
defies
my
expectations,
I
am
recalled
to
the
fact
that
the
thing
has
its
own
reality.
As
we
have
seen,
for
Gadamer
my
anticipations
are
guided
by
‘prejudices’.
While
prejudices
operate
unprovoked,
we
do
not
realise
we
have
them;
it
is
only
through
their
provocation
that
we
become
aware
of
them
(TM
298-‐9).
For
Gadamer
there
is
no
end
to
new
experience;
and
so
the
concept
of
genuine
experience
‘stands
in
an
ineluctable
opposition’
to
scientific
or
technical
knowledge
(TM
350).
Technical
experience
is
exhausted
by
the
achievement
of
80
some
end;
scientific
experience
is
exhausted
in
the
completion
of
the
concept.
Both
contain
an
implicit
idea
of
perfectibility,
in
that
they
point
toward
the
possibility
of
the
perfection
of
our
knowledge.
Genuine
experience,
on
the
other
hand,
always
points
to
the
possibility
of
new
experiences,
and
this
means
that
to
become
experienced
is
to
become
‘radically
undogmatic’;
‘the
dialectic
of
experience
has
its
proper
fulfilment
not
in
definitive
knowledge
but
in
the
openness
to
experience
that
is
made
possible
by
experience
itself’.
All
experience
is
acquired
through
disappointment,
and
‘every
experience
worthy
of
the
name
thwarts
an
expectation’.141
Ultimately,
what
experience
teaches
us
is
not
‘this
or
that
particular
thing’,
but
‘insight
into
the
limitations
of
humanity,
into
the
absoluteness
of
the
barrier
that
separates
man
from
the
divine’;
experience
is
experience
of
human
finitude
(TM
351).142
It
teaches
us
insight,
and
to
become
insightful
is
‘part
of
the
vocation
of
man’.
William
James
nicely
expresses
this
view
when
he
says:
‘I
live,
to
be
sure,
by
the
practical
faith
that
we
must
go
on
experiencing
and
thinking
over
our
experience,
for
only
thus
can
our
opinions
grow
more
true;
but
to
hold
any
one
of
them
-‐
I
absolutely
do
not
care
which
-‐
as
if
it
never
could
be
re-‐interpretable
or
corrigible,
I
believe
to
be
a
tremendously
mistaken
attitude.’143
On
the
basis
of
this
account
of
genuine
experience,
Gadamer
turns
to
hermeneutical
experience.
Hermeneutical
experience,
it
turns
out,
is
not
a
distinct
kind
of
experience
but
a
subspecies
of
genuine
experience;
and
he
elucidates
it
by
way
of
three
major
changes
–
all
of
which
are
developed
in
parallel
with
an
account
of
experience
of
the
‘Thou’.144
Hermeneutical
experience
141
It
is
worth
noting
that,
while
it
is
essential
to
Gadamer’s
account
that
no
knowledge
is
to
be
insisted
on
dogmatically
as
‘secure’,
he
is
not
a
fallibilist,
for
reasons
discussed
in
the
first
chapter.
142
The
reader
will
recall
the
parallel
I
drew
with
Montaigne
in
the
introduction:
‘When
I
find
myself
convicted
of
a
false
opinion
by
another
man’s
reasoning,
I
do
not
so
much
learn
what
new
thing
he
has
told
me
and
this
particular
bit
of
ignorance
–
that
would
be
small
gain
–
as
I
learn
my
weakness
in
general,
and
the
treachery
of
my
understanding’
(Complete
Works,
pp.
1001-‐2).
143
'The
Will
to
Believe',
collected
in
Writings
1878-‐1899
(Library
of
America,
1992),
p.
466.
He
goes
on
a
few
pages
later:
‘There
is
indeed
nothing
which
someone
has
not
thought
absolutely
true,
while
his
neighbour
deemed
it
absolutely
false;
and
not
an
absolutist
among
them
seems
ever
to
have
considered
that
the
trouble
may
all
the
time
be
essential,
and
that
the
intellect,
even
with
truth
directly
in
its
grasp,
may
have
no
infallible
signal
for
knowing
whether
it
be
truth
or
no.’
(p.
468)
144
This
is
what
distinguishes
Gadamer’s
hermeneutical
philosophy
from
that
of
the
early
Heidegger,
for
whom
hermeneutics
is
not
primarily
about
understanding
what
is
other
to
me
but
rather
understanding
myself.
81
is
experience
of
a
tradition,
he
says;
but
a
tradition
is
not
something
that
we
simply
know,
but
is
rather
itself
language
–
‘it
expresses
itself
like
a
Thou’
(TM
352).
And
it
is
for
this
reason
that
his
elaboration
of
hermeneutical
experience
runs
in
parallel
with
his
explication
of
the
experience
of
the
Thou.
The
first
of
the
major
differences
of
an
experience
of
an
other
(as
opposed
to
an
object)
is
that
our
goal
is
not
to
discern
‘human
nature’
so
that
we
can
develop
some
kind
of
theory
of
the
other
that
would
allow
us
to
predict
them.
Citing
Kant,
Gadamer
claims
that
this
would
contradict
the
‘moral
definition’
of
man
by
making
the
other
into
something
useful.
Likewise,
to
take
the
tradition
as
an
object
that
we
are
trying
to
interpret
methodologically
flattens
it
out.
The
second
major
difference
develops
this
thought:
not
only
am
I
not
trying
to
develop
a
predictive
theory
of
the
other,
something
has
also
gone
wrong
when
I
try
to
reflectively
grasp
the
other’s
position
in
advance,
holding
myself
to
have
understood
it
better
than
they
do,
such
that
I
do
not
need
to
listen
to
them.
‘The
claim
to
understand
the
other
person
in
advance
functions
to
keep
the
other
person’s
claim
at
a
distance’
(TM
354);
‘a
person
who
reflects
himself
out
of
the
mutuality
of
such
a
relation
[sc.
that
of
mutual
recognition]
changes
this
relationship
and
destroys
its
moral
bond’
(354).
The
parallel
for
hermeneutical
experience
occurs
when
we
try
to
grasp
the
past
‘historically’,
and
claim
to
understand
it
‘objectively’
and
‘free
of
prejudices’.
Rather,
to
understand
tradition
I
must
‘think
within
[my]
own
historicity’
(TM
355).
The
third
major
difference
is
the
culmination
of
the
previous
two,
and
is
the
‘highest
type
of
hermeneutical
experience’
(TM
355):
to
properly
experience
the
other
is
to
listen
to
them,
which
means
to
be
open
to
them.
What
this
requires
is
that
I
attend
to
them,
and
ensure
that
I
remain
open.
‘Openness
to
the
other
[...]
involves
recognising
that
I
myself
must
accept
some
things
that
are
against
me,
even
though
no
one
else
forces
me
to
do
so’
(TM
355).
The
hermeneutical
parallel
is
that
if
I
am
to
actually
understand
the
tradition,
I
have
to
acknowledge
its
validity
by
allowing
it
to
speak
to
me.
To
fail
in
this
is
to
‘smooth
over’
historical
texts
beforehand,
so
that
‘the
criteria
of
the
historian’s
own
knowledge
can
never
be
called
into
question
by
the
tradition’
(TM
355).
Historically
effected
consciousness
must
let
itself
be
affected
by
the
tradition’s
claim
to
truth.
‘The
hermeneutical
consciousness
culminates
not
in
methodological
sureness
of
itself,
82
but
in
the
same
readiness
for
experience
that
distinguishes
the
experienced
man
from
the
man
captivated
by
dogma’
(TM
355).
These
three
points
can
be
summarised
thus:
in
many
of
our
engagements
with
others,
to
take
them
only
as
an
object
to
study
is
not
only
morally
problematic,
it
also
entirely
misses
the
point
of
our
interest
in
them.145
The
consciousness
that
seeks
only
a
complete
‘understanding’
of
the
other,
such
that
everything
they
say
and
do
is
explicable
and
predictable
in
advance,
is
a
consciousness
that
seeks
to
do
without
others
entirely;
it
is
a
consciousness
that
seeks
satisfaction
entirely
within
itself
–
that
seeks,
in
other
words,
to
become
unbounded
by
anything
else.
But
this
means
to
lose
sight
of
our
finitude.
This
insight
can
only
be
realised
by
listening:
attending
carefully
to
the
other
such
that
I
take
them
as
having
something
to
say
to
me,
such
that
what
they
say
can
call
into
challenge
what
I
had
taken
for
granted.
Gadamer
says
his
account
of
experience
stands
in
opposition
to
scientific
knowledge.
What
are
we
to
make
of
this?
The
first
thing
to
be
said
is
that
it
is
not
merely
natural-‐scientific
knowledge
that
he
has
in
mind,
but
rather
scientific
knowledge
in
the
broad
sense
of
the
term:
the
increasing
perfection
of
the
concept.146
We
have
said
that
experience
is
an
inherently
dialectical
process:
experiences
are
understood
in
light
of
our
anticipations,
which
are
either
fulfilled
or
unfulfilled;
genuine
experience
occurs
when
our
anticipations
are
defied,
and
the
independence
of
the
thing
is
thrust
upon
us,
which
leads
us
to
see
the
thing
anew;
and
reconciliation
occurs
as
our
understanding
of
the
thing
and
ourselves
deepens
in
light
of
this
new
experience.
Experience
emerges,
then,
in
the
interplay
of
anticipations
and
the
thing
experienced.
For
Hegel
the
end
point
of
the
dialectic
of
experience
is
a
form
of
‘absolute
knowing’
in
which
consciousness
145
There
are
certain
well-‐defined
contexts
in
which
taking
a
human
as
an
object
is
unproblematic:
human
biology,
psychology
and
medicine
are
three
such
contexts.
It
is
also
not
always
a
bad
thing
to
be
taken
as
an
object
to
be
worked
on,
either:
one
is
quite
happy
to
have
one’s
doctor
treat
one
as
an
object
of
medical
concern.
The
trouble
starts
when
one
takes
the
modes
of
understanding
proper
to
these
contexts
and
applies
it
more
generally.
146
See
Warnke,
Gadamer:
Hermeneutics,
Tradition
and
Reason,
p.
26,
where
she
observes
Gadamer’s
distinction
‘between
two
senses
of
Erfahrung
itself:
the
scientific
sense,
emphasising
the
way
experiences
or
experiments
confirm
one
another,
and
a
dialectical
or
historical
sense
that
emphasises
negativity’.
83
and
object
become
identical.
In
other
words,
when
my
anticipations
are
defied
my
understanding
deepens,
and
this
will
eventually
lead
to
the
point
at
which
my
understanding
is
perfected,
and
my
anticipations
are
never
again
defied.
Experience,
in
the
‘genuine’
sense,
would
be
overcome,
and
its
possibility
would
henceforth
be
excluded.
For
Don
Quixote,
by
contrast,
genuine
experience
is
excluded
by
the
firmness
of
his
prejudices,
but
it
has
not
been
overcome,
since
the
world
and
his
prejudices
are
not
in
alignment
–
it
always
remains
a
possibility
(and
in
the
end
he
does
indeed
realise
his
madness).147
When
Gadamer
stresses
the
importance
of
the
failure
of
expectations,
those
occasions
when
we
are
forced
to
recognise
the
inadequacy
of
our
understanding,
he
is
standing
in
opposition
to
a
philosophical
tradition
that
stretches
from
Aristotle
to
the
present
day,
but
which
Gadamer
associates
most
prominently
with
Hegel,148
a
tradition
that
understands
experience
in
terms
of
its
contribution
to
concept
formation,
a
tradition
for
which
the
goal
is
a
finally
adequate
conception
of
the
world
such
that
‘genuine’
experience
no
longer
occurs.
The
end
point,
for
Hegel,
is
the
unity
of
subject
and
object:
once
the
subject
has
completely
grasped
the
object’s
concept,
they
no
longer
experience
alienation
from
that
object
–
confusion
about
it,
a
sense
that
they
do
not
quite
understand
it
–
and
are
thus
reconciled
with
it.149
As
Gadamer
puts
this:
The
mind
directed
toward
self-‐knowledge
regards
itself
as
alienated
from
the
“positive”
and
must
learn
to
reconcile
itself
with
it,
seeing
it
as
its
own,
as
its
home.
By
dissolving
the
hard
edge
of
positivity,
it
becomes
reconciled
with
itself.
(TM
341)
147
Don
Quijote,
Part
II,
Ch.
74.
148
For
more
on
the
opposition
between
Hegel
and
Gadamer,
see
Weinsheimer,
Gadamer’s
the
finite
subject
but
rather
Geist
that
becomes
finally
reconciled
with
its
object;
the
finite
subject
is
reconciled
by
finding
its
place
within
the
overall
structure
(this
reading
is
presented
by
Charles
Taylor,
Hegel).
And
this
is
a
contentious
reading,
because,
as
Pippin
and
Pinkard
argue,
the
end
point
for
Hegel
might
be
not
so
much
the
final
reconciliation
of
Geist
(conceived
of
metaphysically)
but
rather
the
insistence
on
the
part
of
Geist
(conceived
of
as
reflective
human
community)
that
it
not
take
anything
for
granted,
and
its
recognition
that
autonomy
means
not
being
ruled
by
reasons
it
takes
as
authoritative
without
being
able
to
say
why.
See
Pippin,
Modernism
as
a
Philosophical
Problem
(Cambridge,
1991);
and
Pinkard,
Hegel’s
Phenomenology
(Cambridge,
1995).
84
The
question
is:
what
then?
Such
a
subject
could
no
longer
have
‘genuine’
experiences
(their
expectations
would
never
be
thwarted).
But
the
very
idea
of
‘genuine’
experience
calls
this
into
question:
the
occurrence
of
a
genuine
experience
is,
by
definition,
not
predictable
(if
it
were
predictable,
it
could
conform
to
my
expectations,
which
would
make
it
not
genuine
experience).
This
is
connected
with
the
problem
of
induction:
no
matter
how
many
times
one
has
seen
the
same
thing
act
the
same
way
in
the
same
circumstances,
there
is
no
way
to
know
that
the
next
time
won’t
be
different.
But
the
endless
openness
of
experience
is
also
connected
with
Gadamer’s
ontology
of
language:
genuine
experience
is
a
permanent
possibility
because
things
can
be
brought
into
language
in
ever-‐new
ways.
‘Since
concealment
belongs
to
revelation,’
Weinsheimer
says,
‘one
might
say
that
revelation
constantly
increases
its
own
task.
Absolute
knowledge
thus
becomes
impossible.’150
It
might
seem
peculiar
to
treat
Hegel
as
the
paradigm
of
the
scientific
attitude,
especially
today,
when
many
see
him
as
the
very
model
of
unscientific
obscurity,
and,
even
among
those
who
are
his
proponents,
many
jettison
his
‘scientific’
outlook
so
as
to
focus
on
other
aspects
of
his
thought.151
But
his
philosophy
is
nonetheless
the
purest
example
of
the
impulse
to
treat
experience
as
contributing
to
the
completion
of
the
concept:
the
mind
strives,
in
Hegel’s
view,
to
attain
such
a
perfect
understanding
of
the
world
in
which
it
lives
that
it
is
no
longer
alienated
by
encountering
something
it
cannot
readily
understand
(and
affirm).
Hegel
is
far
removed
from
modern
science
in
many
ways
–
not
least
in
his
desire
that
we
be
able
to
affirm
the
world
when
we
understand
it
–
but
not
insofar
as
the
goal
of
modern
science
is
to
arrive
at
a
perfected
theoretical
grasp
of
the
natural
world.
The
other
kind
of
knowledge
Gadamer
says
experience
is
opposed
to
is
technical
knowledge.
By
technical
knowledge
we
should
understand
techne
in
the
Aristotelian
sense.152
Aristotle
sets
out
his
definition
of
techne
in
a
few
brief
150
Weinsheimer,
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
39.
151
See,
as
an
example,
Allen
Wood,
Hegel’s
Ethical
Thought
(Cambridge
University
Press,
1990),
p.
5.
Wood
is
talking
specifically
about
Hegel’s
logic,
but
logic
is,
for
Hegel,
the
science
of
logic.
152
In
what
follows
I
have
in
mind
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
phronesis
and
techne
in
the
chapter
on
Aristotle in Truth and Method, ‘The hermeneutic relevance of Aristotle’. At the end of the present
85
strokes
in
the
Nicomachean
Ethics.153
At
the
beginning
of
Book
VI,
Aristotle
distinguishes
between
two
kinds
of
knowledge:
knowledge
of
what
‘admits
of
being
otherwise’
and
knowledge
of
what
does
not
(1139a5-‐10).
What
does
not
admit
of
being
otherwise
is
the
domain
of
‘scientific
knowing’
(episteme);
what
could
be
otherwise
is
the
domain
of
‘deliberation’
(bouleusis),
i.e.
the
domain
in
which
we
can
make
decisions
about
how
things
should
be
(a10-‐15).
In
the
passage
we
are
concerned
with,
he
goes
on
to
set
out
a
distinction
within
this
latter
domain:
that
between
‘production’
(poesis)
and
‘action’
(praxis).
The
former
is
the
domain
of
techne,
and
the
latter
is
the
domain
of
phronesis.
Techne
is
concerned
with
the
production
of
things
that
would
not
otherwise
come
to
be,
‘whose
origin
is
in
the
producer
and
not
in
the
product’.
In
other
words,
a
tree
comes
to
be
from
its
seed
on
its
own
accord
(assuming
favourable
conditions,
which
I
might
assist
with,
of
course),
while
a
table
is
produced;
the
former
has
its
origin
‘in
itself’,
the
latter
has
its
origin
‘in
the
producer’.154
Techne
is
‘a
state
involving
true
reason
concerned
with
production’;
it
is
to
have
an
understanding
of
how,
given
the
appropriate
materials,
to
produce
a
given
product.
There
is,
of
course,
an
element
of
luck
involved
(‘Techne
loves
luck,
and
luck
techne,’
as
Agathon
says),
since
circumstances
beyond
my
control
or
simply
unseen
by
me
may
bring
my
project
to
ruin
–
or
lead
to
its
success
beyond
what
I
had
anticipated.
But
what
distinguishes
someone
who
possesses
techne
from
someone
who
does
not
is
that
they
have
an
understanding
(‘true
reason’)
of
how
something
is
produced,
while
someone
else
may
be
able
to
produce
it
but
not
be
able
to
say
how
it
is
done,
and
someone
else
may
be
unable
to
produce
it
because
they
lack
any
understanding
of
how
it
is
produced
(and
might
even
possess
‘false
reason’
concerning
it).
In
his
discussion
of
phronesis,155
Aristotle
states
what
it
is
that
distinguishes
production
from
action:
‘production
has
its
end
beyond
it;
but
action
does
not,
since
its
end
is
doing
well
itself’.
That
is,
the
end
of
techne
is
a
well-‐made
chapter
we
will
discuss
the
way
Gadamer
appropriates
the
concept
of
phronesis
for
his
own
purposes.
153
Book
VI,
chapters
4
and
5.
154
It
would
seem
there
can
be
borderline
or
mixed
cases,
too.
A
well-‐kept
garden,
for
example,
is
a
combination
of
what
occurs
naturally
(as
plants
naturally
grow)
and
human
production
(as
plants
do
not
naturally
prune
themselves,
or
keep
themselves
in
neat
rows).
155
NE
VI,
Ch.
5.
86
product;
to
have
the
techne
is
to
be
able
to
reliably
produce
a
well-‐made
product
(in
light
of
having
the
correct
understanding
of
how
it
is
done).
It
does
not
matter,
so
far
as
the
quality
of
a
table
is
concerned,
what
state
its
producer
was
in
when
she
made
it;156
what
matters
is
that
it
is
well
made.157
On
the
other
hand,
an
act
is
not
just
unless
the
actor
is
in
a
just
‘state’,
which
is
to
say
that
they
(correctly)
understand
themselves
to
be
acting
for
the
sake
of
justice:
I
may
outwardly
appear
to
be
acting
justly,
and
make
out
to
others
that
I
am
acting
justly,
but
if
my
motive
is
only
to
appear
just
so
that
I
might
reap
the
rewards
of
the
appearance
of
justice,
then
I
am
not
acting
justly
–
I
am
co-‐opting
justice
for
other
purposes.
Now,
why
would
experience
be
opposed
to
technical
knowledge,
as
Gadamer
claims
it
is?
Genuine
experience,
we
have
said,
is
the
experience
of
one’s
expectations
being
defied.
Clearly
this
is
something
that
happens
regularly
when
we
are
on
the
way
to
acquiring
technical
knowledge,
insofar
as
we
lack
‘true
reason’
concerning
what
we
are
producing.
And
it
may
be
something
that
never
really
stops
happening,
at
least
on
occasion,
as
Aristotle’s
reference
to
the
relationship
between
luck
and
techne
suggests:
no
matter
how
wide-‐ranging
one’s
experience
at
producing
something
is,
there
might
always
be
something
one
has
not
seen
before;
and
no
matter
how
well
one
understands
the
process
of
production,
since
we
cannot
exercise
perfect
control
over
the
materials,
there
is
always
the
chance
that
the
materials
might
prove
to
be
unruly
and
cause
my
production
to
come
undone.
So
perhaps
this
is
all
the
opposition
between
experience
and
technical
knowledge
amounts
to:
total
technical
perfection
might
exclude
genuine
experience,
but
as
finite
beings,
perfect
technical
knowledge
just
is
not
possible
for
us,
and
it
would
be
hubristic
to
suppose
it
is;
experience
should
teach
us
to
be
mindful
of
our
technological
limits,
and
not
bank
too
much
on
technical
ingenuity
to
solve
our
problems.
But
there
is
a
further
and
deeper
problem
and
opposition
between
experience
and
technical
knowledge.
Let
us
suppose
that
we
could
achieve
perfect
technical
156
As
Aristotle
had
already
pointed
out
earlier:
NE
II,
Ch.
4.
157
Some
would
argue
that
somebody
in
a
good
state
of
mind
will
tend
to
produce
better
work,
but
this
does
not
matter
for
Aristotle’s
argument,
since
this
connection
is
an
external
and
contingent
one:
a
good
state
of
mind
might
produce
better
work,
but
the
only
criterion
is
the
quality
of
the
work,
so
whether
it
was
produced
happily
or
angrily
or
joyfully
or
resentfully
makes
no
difference
so
long
as
it
is
good.
87
mastery
over
our
environment,
that
we
could
perfectly
produce
whatever
we
wanted
to,
with
no
risk
of
failure.
In
light
of
what
would
we
decide
what
to
produce?
As
Aristotle
observes,
it
is
in
light
of
what
we
take
to
be
good
for
us
that
we
order
our
production
and
other
activities,158
so
we
would
produce
what
we
thought
was
good
for
us.
But,
if
our
aim
is
to
achieve
what
is
good
for
us,
and
our
conception
of
what
is
good
is
flawed,
then
no
amount
of
technical
knowledge
will
save
us
from
failure
–
in
achieving
what
we
aimed
for
we
will
frustrate
our
own
end:
technical
projects
can
fail
even
though
they
are
perfect
from
the
technical
point
of
view.
The
possibility
of
genuine
experience
extends
beyond
the
domain
of
what
can
be
technically
controlled,
and
so
can
never
be
overcome
by
perfected
technical
knowledge.
There
is
another,
related
issue.
When
I
fail
at
a
technical
level,
this
may
tell
me
that
my
understanding
is
inadequate,
and
that
I
need
to
improve
it
if
I
am
to
succeed;
regular
and
repeated
failure
may
lead
me
to
the
conclusion
that
the
project
just
is
not
technically
feasible,
and
so
it
will
have
to
be
abandoned.
But
what
cannot
be
called
into
question,
when
we
approach
things
only
from
the
technical
point
of
view,
is
the
validity
of
the
project
itself,
whether
it
is
actually
a
project
worth
pursuing.
Technical
knowledge,
in
other
words,
is
not
concerned
about
ends,
but
only
with
finding
and
perfecting
the
means.
This
means
that
technical
failure
may
not
count
as
genuine
experience
in
Gadamer’s
sense
at
all,
since
such
experience
is
supposed
to
call
me
up
short
and
lead
me
to
reflect
on
the
limits
of
my
grasp
of
the
world;
technical
failure
does
not
(necessarily)
call
me
into
question
in
anything
like
the
same
way.159
Particular
failures
may
teach
me
‘this
or
that
thing’,
but
the
experience
only
counts
as
Erfahrung
if
it
reaches
behind
what
is
immediately
at
stake
and
calls
into
question
my
concepts,
projects,
limits,
etc.160
158
NE
I,
Ch.
1.
159
Although
it
always
might:
for
Kuhn,
the
transition
from
‘ordinary’
science
(problem
solving
within
a
well-‐defined
area)
to
‘extraordinary’
science
(the
search
for
a
new
account
of
the
basic
objects
and
methods
of
some
scientific
domain)
occurs
when
technical
failures
build
and
can
no
longer
be
taken
as
minor
problems.
See
The
Structure
of
Scientific
Revolutions.
160
As
Gadamer
remarks
elsewhere:
‘[The
pilot]
transports
all
passengers
securely
to
land.
But
was
it
good
for
them
that
they
had
arrived?
It
is
possible
that
Agamemnon’s
pilot
succumbed
to
doubt
after
he
saw
that
his
master
had
been
murdered.’
See
Gadamer,
‘Notes
on
Planning
for
the
Future’,
p.
583.
88
Rather
than
knowledge
of
what
something
is
or
how
it
can
be
made,
Gadamer
sees
experience
as
having
a
different
goal:
‘insight
into
the
limitations
of
humanity,
into
the
absoluteness
of
the
barrier
that
separates
man
from
the
divine’
(TM
351).161
In
the
scientific
or
technical
domains,
having
our
expectations
thwarted
tells
us
only
that
our
knowledge
is
not
yet
perfect;
it
does
not
teach
us
anything
about
ourselves.
This
brings
us
to
what
it
is
that
is
distinctive
about
genuine
experience,
and
how
it
lies
at
the
foundation
of
hermeneutical
experience.
For
scientific
and
technical
experience,
the
anticipations
of
the
subject
are
corrected
by
experience
that
does
not
fulfil
them;
in
genuine
experience,
my
anticipations
are
called
into
question.162
The
distinction
between
these
two
is
as
follows.
Even
Don
Quixote
can
recognise
some
of
his
errors:
when
he
realises
that
the
inn
in
which
he
and
Sancho
Panza
have
stayed
the
night
(and
inadvertently
started
a
brawl)
is
in
fact
not
a
castle,
this
does
not
lead
him
to
question
any
of
his
other
projects
or
perceptions:
he
immediately
proceeds
to
declaring
that,
as
a
knight
errant,
he
is
not
required
to
pay
any
money
for
his
room
and
board.163
Similarly,
on
the
same
night,
Don
Quixote
concocts
a
potion
that,
he
says,
will
heal
the
person
who
drinks
it
of
any
injury.
When
Sancho
drinks
it,
he
is
violently
ill
for
several
hours,
and
his
injuries
are
not
cured;
but
there
is
a
ready
explanation:
‘I
think,
Sancho,
that
you’ve
been
sorely
afflicted
because
you’ve
not
been
dubbed
a
knight,
for
it
strikes
me
that
this
magic
liquid
ought
not
to
be
employed
by
those
who
are
not
knights.’164
In
both
cases,
Don
Quixote
notes
that
his
expectations
were
wrong:
the
inn
turns
out
to
be
an
inn,
not
a
castle;
and
the
magic
potion
does
not
have
its
anticipated
effect
on
Sancho.
But
the
recognition
of
the
error
does
not
go
very
deep:
Don
Quixote’s
identity
and
his
project
remain
secure,
and
he
remains
convinced
that
there
are
castles
at
which
knights
errant
are
welcome
(this
castle
161
Cf.
TM
356:
‘The
dialectical
negativity
of
experience
culminates
in
the
idea
of
being
perfectly
science’.
During
periods
of
‘ordinary’
science,
scientific
activity
consists
of
testing
hypotheses
and
trying
to
correct
aspects
of
the
overarching
dominant
paradigm.
But
when
the
dominant
paradigm
comes
into
question,
the
science
comes
into
an
‘extraordinary’
period,
in
which
the
basic
concepts
come
into
question.
This
questioning
of
basic
concepts
may
run
deep
enough
to
count
as
a
genuine
experience,
but
I
am
happy
to
leave
the
question
open.
163
Don
Quijote,
Part
I,
Ch.
17.
164
Don
Quijote,
p.
94.
89
being
in
fact
an
inn
is
just
an
aberration)
and
that
this
potion
is
indeed
magic
(it
just
does
not
work
for
everyone).
A
genuine
experience
must
run
deeper.
Gadamer
does
not
explicitly
distinguish
between
ordinary
cases
of
my
anticipations
being
defied
(which
merely
call
for
a
correction
of
my
anticipations),
and
those
deeper
cases
(which
call
something
fundamental
into
question)
that
are
genuinely
genuine
experiences.
Nonetheless,
this
seems
to
be
implicit
in
the
concept
of
a
genuine
experience.
Further,
it
is
central
to
Gadamer’s
distinction
between
techne
and
phronesis:
recall
that
what
techne
produces
is
outside
of
myself,
whereas
part
of
what
phronesis
produces
is
myself.
Genuine
experience
produces
an
understanding
(in
a
technical
sense
Gadamer
sometimes
employs,
which
we
will
discuss
toward
the
end
of
the
next
chapter);
by
understanding,
I
change
myself.
In
a
later
essay,
Gadamer
remarks:
‘This
is
what
I
call
the
hermeneutic
character
of
speech:
when
we
speak
to
another
we
do
not
so
much
transmit
well-‐defined
facts,
as
place
our
own
aspirations
and
knowledge
in
a
broader
and
richer
horizon
through
dialogue
with
the
other.’165
As
an
example
of
genuine
experience,
let
us
consider
the
crucial
encounter
described
by
Levinas
in
Totality
and
Infinity.
There
Levinas
imagines
a
person
living
alone
in
a
kind
of
paradise.
Without
the
presence
of
others,
this
person
experiences
the
whole
world
as
there
for
their
enjoyment:
the
sea
for
the
pleasure
of
bathing
in,
the
sun
for
lying
in,
the
grass
for
lying
on,
the
fruit
of
the
trees
for
eating.
He
or
she
builds
a
home
for
shelter,
and
stocks
its
store
with
supplies,
and
so
on.
All
of
this
is
done
in
light
of
projects
that
are
entirely
their
own;
the
idea
of
other
persons,
with
other
projects,
never
occurs
to
them.
Then
Levinas
describes
the
crucial
moment:
a
starving
stranger
arrives.
The
face
of
this
starving
stranger
calls
into
question
all
of
these
projects:
how
can
the
life
of
personal
enjoyment
be
justified
in
the
face
of
the
starving
stranger?
We
can
see
how
the
experience
of
the
face
of
the
other
is
not
of
a
kind
with
that
of
technical
failure:
technical
failure
tells
me
that
something
has
gone
wrong
with
producing
this
or
that,
as
perhaps
the
design
of
one’s
storeroom
needs
improving,
or
a
set
of
shelves
falls
down
because
it
has
been
badly
built.
Rather,
165
RB
106.
90
the
experience
of
the
other
calls
into
question
the
whole
project
of
building
a
storeroom
to
cater
only
for
one’s
own
needs.166
This
all
amounts
to
a
genuine
experience:
what
happens
in
this
moment
of
the
encounter
with
the
other
opens
various
phenomena
and
projects
around
me
to
question.
There
are
all
kinds
of
possible
answers
to
the
question,
and
the
experience
itself
does
not
determine
any
of
them.
It
is
even
possible
that
I
might
decide
to
ignore
the
starving
stranger
and
continue
stocking
food
for
myself
–
but
the
experience
now
will
be
different,
since
it
has
lost
its
naïveté.
The
genuine
experience
changes
the
way
I
see
things.167
But
it
does
not
amount
to
a
single,
isolated
moment.
For,
once
the
interruption
occurs,
there
is
a
temporal
dimension
to
genuine
experience:
the
work
of
making
sense
of
it,
of
trying
to
figure
out
what
about
it
was
so
disruptive,
and
how
to
adjust
one’s
view
to
make
sense
of
it.
Perhaps
there
are
genuine
experiences
that
immediately
make
sense
(some
forms
of
revelation
or
sudden
enlightenment
seem
to
suggest
such
a
model),
but
most
do
not.
It
is
a
genuine
experience
when
one
hears
a
snatch
of
music
that
one
cannot
get
out
of
one’s
head,
from
a
genre
one
normally
pays
no
attention
to,
but
that
winds
up
changing
one’s
taste
in
music.
It
is
a
genuine
experience
when
a
few
obscure
lines
of
poetry
lodge
in
one’s
memory,
appealing
to
one’s
attention
somehow
but
without
offering
up
their
meaning,
but
that
suddenly
become
illuminated
and
illuminating
after
some
later
experience.
It
is
a
genuine
experience
when
one
is
struck
by
a
surprising
conjunction
of
elements
in
a
painting
that
over
time
offer
up
surprising
depths
of
meaning.
It
is
a
genuine
experience
when
one’s
worldview
is
challenged,
and
a
much
more
strange
and
puzzling
world
comes
into
view.
It
is
a
genuine
experience
when
somebody
one
knows
well
does
something
surprising
that
leads
one
to
re-‐evaluate
what
one
thought
one
knew
of
them.
None
of
these
are
the
work
of
a
moment,
and
some
of
them
may
echo
through
one’s
entire
life.168
166
Gadamer
makes
precisely
this
point
in
his
discussion
of
the
distinction
between
Aristotle’s
the
hermeneutical
encounter
changes
one’s
perspective,
and
thus
changes
oneself
(RAS
110).
168
It
is
this
constant
work
of
‘making
sense’,
recovering
those
parts
of
the
past
(my
personal
history,
and
the
history
of
which
I
am
a
part)
that
do
not
fit,
that
is
central
to
Risser’s
account
of
hermeneutical
‘convalescence’
in
his
The
Life
of
Understanding
(Northwestern,
2012).
91
There
is
a
second
kind
of
genuine
experience,
which
we
can
uncover
if
we
approach
from
a
slightly
different
direction.
Gadamer
refers
to
the
‘rigor’
of
hermeneutic
experience
consisting
in
‘uninterrupted
listening’
(TM
461).
We
have
described
hermeneutic
experience
thus
far
in
terms
of
experiences
that
interrupt
and
call
into
question
what
we
took
for
granted;
but
there
is
another
kind
of
genuine
experience,
uninterrupted
listening,
that
Gadamer
also
seems
to
have
in
mind.
This
kind
of
experience
is
not,
as
in
our
discussion
of
Levinas,
the
encounter
with
the
other
that
calls
my
whole
way
of
life
into
question,
but
rather
any
and
all
encounters
with
an
other
when
I
attend
to
them
as
they
are
present
here
right
now.
When
I
attend
to
the
other,
rather
than
suppose
I
know
what
they
are
going
to
do
or
say,
my
understanding
follows
their
lead,
rather
than
playing
by
itself;
it
is
receptive
to
what
is
other
than
me,
tracing
their
movements
and
trying
to
make
sense
of
them.
Borges’s
story
‘The
Circular
Ruins’
can
helpfully
illuminate
this
idea.169
In
this
story,
a
man
tries
to
dream
another
man
into
reality.
Significantly,
he
tries
two
different
methods
to
achieve
this;
and
both
have
a
bearing
on
this
concept
of
genuine
experience.
In
the
first,
the
man
–
over
a
succession
of
days
and
nights
–
dreams
an
amphitheatre
filled
with
students,
to
whom
he
lectures.
He
soon
works
out
that
‘he
could
expect
nothing
from
those
pupils
who
accepted
his
doctrine
passively,
but
that
he
could
expect
something
from
those
who
occasionally
dared
to
oppose
him’
(p.
40).
The
former
group
‘could
not
ascend
to
the
level
of
individuals’,
while
the
latter
‘pre-‐existed
to
a
slightly
greater
degree’.
What
we
see
in
this
method
is
the
idea
that
what
is
real
is
separate
from
me
in
some
way
–
separate
from
me
in
a
way
that
demands
that
I
conform
to
it
if
I
am
to
understand
it.
The
group
that
do
not
contradict
the
man
do
not
exist
except
as
his
projections;
but
the
latter,
while
still
ultimately
his
projections,
attain
some
small
degree
of
separateness
from
him
by
defying
him.
For
some
reason,
this
approach
fails
and
the
man
attempts
a
different
method.
This
second
method
is
much
slower
and
more
painstaking:
beginning
with
the
heart,
he
dreams
a
single
man
into
existence
gradually,
in
exacting
detail,
beginning
with
the
heart.
One
might
suppose
that
this
method
contradicts
the
first,
since
the
man
being
dreamed
is
not
even
awake
for
a
very
long
time,
and
169
Collected
in
Borges,
Ficciones
(Everyman’s
Library,
1993).
92
the
emphasis
is
certainly
not
on
him
defying
his
creator.
Nonetheless,
there
is
a
deep
similarity
between
the
two
methods.
For
we
are
told
that
the
dreamer
‘perceived
[the
heart]
and
lived
it
from
all
angles
and
distances’
and
then
later
that
dreaming
‘the
innumerable
hair
[i.e.
strand
by
strand]
was
perhaps
the
most
difficult
task’
(p.
42).
It
is
as
though
by
dreaming
the
man
in
such
detail
those
details
become
fixed:
what
was
the
creation
of
his
own
mind
becomes
fixed
in
such
a
way
that
he
cannot
merely
alter
it
by
whim.
(This
is
perhaps
a
parable
for
the
creation
of
a
fiction.)
What
was
his
creation
becomes,
over
time,
something
fixed
to
which
he
must
conform
himself.
And
so
if
we
return
to
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience,
we
can
see
the
same
motif
at
work.
We
recall
Gadamer’s
suspicion
about
attempts
to
‘understand’
the
other
in
the
sense
of
creating
a
working
model
of
them
which
we
use
to
predict
what
they
will
do,
and
which
we
feel
allows
us
to
stop
attending
to
them.
This
is
a
sentiment
we
find
expressed
by
Humbert
Humbert
in
Nabokov’s
Lolita,
when
he
writes:
We
expect
our
friends
to
follow
this
or
that
logical
and
conventional
pattern
we
have
fixed
for
them.
…
We
have
it
arranged
in
our
minds,
and
the
less
often
we
see
a
particular
person
the
more
satisfying
it
is
to
check
how
obediently
he
conforms
to
our
notion
of
him
every
time
we
hear
of
him.
Any
deviation
in
the
fates
we
have
ordained
would
strike
us
as
not
only
anomalous
but
unethical.
We
would
prefer
not
to
have
known
at
all
our
neighbour,
the
retired
hot-‐dog
stand
operator,
if
it
turns
out
he
has
just
produced
the
greatest
book
of
poetry
his
age
has
seen.170
To
understand
others
(in
this
bad
sense)
is
to
deny
them
reality;
and
this
is
why
Gadamer
claims
that
to
listen
and
attend
to
the
other
is
the
highest
type
of
hermeneutical
experience
(TM
355).
This
is
Gadamer’s
meaning
when
he
says:
‘Openness
to
the
other
[...]
involves
recognising
that
I
myself
must
accept
some
things
that
are
against
me,
even
though
no
one
else
forces
me
to
do
so’
(TM
355).
170
Nabokov,
Novels
1955-‐1962
(Library
of
America,
1996),
p.
249.
93
It
seems
to
me
that
these
two
kinds
of
genuine
experience
work
together.
For
the
important
kind
of
experience
for
Gadamer
is
the
kind
that
leads
me
to
see
things
anew;
attending
to
the
other
keeps
me
open
to
the
things
they
might
say
or
do
that
will
lead
to
such
a
challenge
to
my
perspective.
What
Gadamer
is
constantly
on
guard
against
is
our
propensity
to
withdraw
into
ourselves,
to
suppose
that
our
understanding
is
already
adequate,
and
that
we
need
only
interpret
things
through
the
lens
of
existing
categories
–
this
is
to
sever
the
most
vital
part
of
our
connection
with
the
world
around
us.
We
will
pick
this
up
in
our
discussion
of
phronesis
in
the
next
section.
Now
that
we
have
reached
this
point,
it
will
come
as
no
surprise
that
Gadamer
immediately
follows
his
discussion
of
experience
with
a
chapter
on
the
nature
of
the
question.
‘We
cannot
have
experiences
without
asking
questions,’
he
notes
(TM
356),
so
an
analysis
of
questions
is
undertaken
to
‘examine
the
logical
structure
of
openness
that
characterises
hermeneutical
consciousness’.
This
openness
of
the
question
‘culminates
in
a
radical
negativity:
the
knowledge
of
not
knowing’,
which
is
to
say,
Socratic
ignorance.
A
question
is
not
simply
a
particular
kind
of
speech
act
–
not
every
performance
of
asking
a
question
actually
serves
as
a
question
in
the
sense
Gadamer
is
interested
in.
Rhetorical
questions,
pedagogical
questions,
leading
questions,
and
so
on
are
not
questions
in
this
fundamental
sense
because
–
regardless
of
what
other
functions
they
may
have
–
they
do
not
arise
because
the
subject
matter
has
become
questionable
for
the
speaker,
nor
do
they
serve
to
make
it
so.
(Although,
in
the
case
of
rhetorical
or
pedagogical
questions,
they
may
serve
to
make
the
subject
matter
questionable
for
the
person
addressed
by
them.)
A
question,
in
Gadamer’s
expression,
‘breaks
open’
its
object
(TM
357).
This
is
to
say
that
something
that
is
not
questionable
appears
as
determinate,
as
obviously
being
what
it
appears
to
be;
when
it
becomes
questionable,
it
becomes
indeterminate,
it
becomes
puzzling
–
we
see
that
how
we
had
previously
taken
it
might
not
exhaust
its
possibilities,
that
we
may
have
been
mistaken
about
the
truth
of
it:
‘Every
true
question
requires
this
openness’
(TM
357).
In
this
it
is
structurally
similar
to
genuine
experience,
in
that
it
moves
from
understanding,
to
puzzlement
–
and
then,
hopefully,
back
to
understanding.
And,
in
the
same
94
way
as
genuine
experience,
questions
often
pose
themselves
to
us
–
‘Thus
questioning
too
is
more
a
passion
than
an
action.
A
question
presses
itself
on
us;
we
can
no
longer
avoid
it
and
persist
in
our
accustomed
opinion’
(TM
360).171
There
are
two
ways
we
could
take
this
‘passion’
of
questioning.
On
the
one
hand,
Gadamer
may
be
claiming
that
the
questioner
has
no
active
role
to
play
in
questioning;
they
are
beholden
to
questions
occurring
to
them.
On
the
other
hand,
Gadamer
may
be
claiming
that,
as
with
genuine
experience,
one
cannot
determine
in
advance
what
will
become
questionable,
and
what
questions
will
occur
to
us.
It
is
this
latter
reading
that
makes
better
sense
of
the
text,
particularly
Gadamer’s
frequent
reference
to
Socrates:
the
wisdom
of
Socrates
consists
in
knowing
that
one
does
not
know,
which
is
an
activity
in
itself;
it
would
be
all
too
easy
to
slip
back
into
the
passivity
of
received
opinion.
The
activity
of
the
questioner
is
thus
that
of
resisting
the
temptation
to
suppose
that
what
they
take
for
granted
really
is
the
case.
Ignoring
this
activity,
and
focussing
instead
on
the
activity
of
simply
trying
to
find
questions,
leads
to
the
asking
of
forced
questions,
which
are
often
unfruitful,
or
questions
that
unthinkingly
serve
only
to
protect
our
pre-‐existing
opinions,
or
questions
that
serve
only
to
disrupt
and
undermine
the
process
of
trying
to
come
to
a
better
understanding
(as
we
see
acted
out
in
Plato’s
Euthydemus).
So
the
force
of
this
claim,
that
questioning
is
‘more
a
passion
than
an
action’,
is
not
that
trying
to
question
things
is
a
pointless
activity
(since
questions
can
only
occur
to
us),
but
rather
that
the
activity
of
trying
to
question
is
best
directed
towards
bearing
in
mind
that
one
does
not
know,
and
allowing
things
to
become
questionable,
rather
than
casting
about
for
specific
questions
(since
the
right
question
cannot
be
determined
in
advance
–
there
is
no
method
for
determining
it,
TM
360-‐1).172
A
question
is
not
a
neutral
thing.
It
does
not
simply
lay
bare
the
phenomena,
but
does
so
in
a
particular
way.
It
has
a
sense,
which
involves
a
‘sense
of
direction’
(TM
357-‐8).
In
other
words,
‘a
question
places
what
is
questioned
in
a
particular
perspective’
(ibid.).
This
perspective
is
determined
by
the
‘horizon’
of
171
‘Passion’
needs
to
be
understood
in
its
relation
to
‘passive’,
which
is
not
necessarily
the
first
sense
one
hears
–
to
be
‘passionate’
about
questioning
is
not
what
is
meant,
and
so
the
translation
is
potentially
misleading.
172
We
will
take
this
up
again
with
a
discussion
of
the
virtue
of
phronesis
in
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
95
the
question,
that
background
of
assumptions
that
give
it
determinate
force;
a
question
does
not
render
everything
questionable,
but
rather
holds
some
things
steady
so
that
a
limited
area
can
be
opened
to
question.
Questions
serve
to
disrupt
popular
opinions,
and
prevent
us
from
simply
taking
things
for
granted
as
we
have
been
told
they
are
or
as
we
have
come
to
expect
them.
As
Gadamer
puts
it,
‘the
sudden
occurrence
of
the
question
is
already
a
breach
in
the
smooth
front
of
popular
opinion’
(TM
360).
In
a
discussion
of
literary
theories
that
owe
some
intellectual
debt
to
this
part
of
Gadamer’s
thought,
Terry
Eagleton
has
challenged
the
idea
of
privileging
this
kind
of
experience
in
which
the
routine
is
called
into
question:
That
many
routine
norms
and
conventions
may
be
positive,
to
be
cherished
rather
than
challenged,
is
scarcely
considered.
What
of
the
norms
that
govern
the
rights
of
working
people
to
withdraw
their
labour?
Is
the
view
that
fraudulent
bankers
should
be
punished
to
be
made
freshly
perceptible
so
that
it
may
become
an
object
of
critique?173
On
the
one
hand,
this
is
a
peculiarly
conservative
argument
for
him
to
be
making.
That
we
take
something
for
granted
as
a
good
idea
should
not
shield
it
from
being
called
into
question.174
Calling
something
into
question
is
not
only
done
for
the
sake
of
knocking
it
down;
it
can
also
be
done
for
the
purpose
of
recalling
us
to
why
we
cherish
or
value
it.
If
punishing
fraudulent
bankers
is
a
good
idea,
but
we
forget
why
we
do
it,
then
we
risk
losing
sight
of
its
being
a
good
idea,
and
so
no
longer
doing
it.175
It
is
not
enough
that
something
is
routine.
If
we
do
not
pose
questions
to
ourselves
about
why
we
take
for
granted
what
we
do,
then
we
risk
not
being
able
to
provide
adequate
answers
for
those
questions;
and
if
we
cannot
adequately
answer
the
question
of
why
we
do
what
we
do,
then
we
may
eventually
realise
that
there
is
no
reason
for
which
we
do
it
–
and
if
there
is
no
173
See
Eagleton,
The
Event
of
Literature
(Yale,
2013),
pp.
91-‐3.
174
The
earlier
Eagleton
was
keener
on
demanding
justifications:
see
his
The
Function
of
Criticism
96
reason
for
doing
something,
and
there
is
some
kind
of
reason
against
it
(in
light
of
which
it
has
become
questionable),
why
are
we
doing
it?
But
on
the
other
hand,
there
is
a
well-‐founded
suspicion
that
undergirds
this
line
of
criticism.
As
we
touched
on
in
Ch.
2,
and
will
return
to
in
Ch.
5,
Gadamer’s
privileging
of
disruptive
experiences
leads
him
to
lose
sight
both
of
the
importance
of
non-‐
disruptive
experiences,
and
of
the
potentially
destructive
nature
of
disruptive
experiences.
What
is
the
significance
of
hermeneutical
experience?
Ordinary
experience,
we
said,
occurs
in
light
of
my
various
anticipations
regarding
a
situation;
when
an
experience
does
not
unfold
in
accordance
with
my
expectations,
Gadamer
refers
to
it
as
a
‘genuine’
experience.
As
we
saw,
this
concept
itself
needs
to
be
refined,
so
as
to
distinguish
between
those
experiences
that
simply
serve
to
correct
my
understanding
of
something
(as
when
my
anticipations
are
let
down
when
I
am
trying
to
make
something),
and
those
experiences
that
reach
to
my
fundamental
concerns
and
serve
to
call
them
into
question.
As
we
saw
with
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
questions,
questions
serve
to
open
phenomena
up
and
make
them
indeterminate,
to
let
us
see
them
in
the
light
of
various
possibilities.
Hermeneutical
experience
(as
we
discussed
above)
is
a
subspecies
of
this
kind
of
experience:
it
is
the
genuine
experience
that
occurs
through
being
addressed
by
someone.
The
central
feature
of
this
experience
is
that
my
aim
is
not
to
develop
some
kind
of
predictive
theory
of
the
other,
or
of
human
nature
in
general.
We
do,
of
course,
want
to
understand
others,
and
part
of
this
means
having
a
reasonable
idea
of
what
they
are
likely
to
act
and
the
kind
of
thing
they
are
likely
to
say.
But
this
cannot
be
our
core
aim;
we
have
missed
something
important
if
we
are
to
treat
them
only
as
an
object
to
be
understood.
One
of
the
dangers
in
treating
others
in
this
way
is
that
we
may
come
to
suppose
that
we
understand
what
they
want
to
say
better
than
they
do,
which
absolves
us
of
trying
to
actually
listen
when
they
speak.
This
serves
to
insulate
our
own
point
of
view,
since
if
we
are
not
listening,
we
will
not
be
open
to
question.
Listening
to
an
other
means
allowing
what
they
say
to
call
my
point
of
view
into
question.
As
we
saw
in
the
discussion
of
questions,
it
is
only
when
something
is
called
into
question
that
it
can
be
allowed
to
show
itself
again
from
behind
the
veneer
of
97
accepted
opinion
behind
which
it
has
sunk.
More
fundamentally,
as
we
saw
in
the
discussion
of
Levinas,
others
can
call
into
question
not
only
this
or
that
thing
but
my
whole
way
of
life
and
my
highest
priorities.
On
Gadamer’s
account,
the
hermeneutical
experience
of
the
tradition
does
something
similar;
for
the
tradition
is
not
only
the
source
of
prejudices,
but
is
also
capable
of
calling
those
prejudices
into
question
–
since
the
tradition
is
not
unitary,
and
many
of
our
prejudices
are
not
shared
by
Plato.
Indeed,
this
is
precisely
how
the
tradition
features
in
Gadamer’s
account
of
genuine
experience:
a
source
of
challenge
that
calls
my
prejudices
into
question.
This
can
be
put
another
way.
Behind
hermeneutical
experience,
whether
it
addresses
our
fundamental
convictions
or
corrects
our
previous
view,
is
the
insight
that
to
understand
the
other
is
to
change
the
self.
For
Gadamer,
to
understand
something
requires
that
I
allow
it
to
be
different
from
how
I
think
it
is
(which
is
to
say,
to
allow
it
to
call
my
prejudices
into
question),
and
then
to
allow
my
understanding
to
shape
itself
to
what
I
am
trying
to
understand.
It
is
this
imitative,
mimetic
quality
of
the
understanding
that
allows
me
to
understand
anything
at
all;
and
it
is
when
the
understanding
becomes
sclerotic
and
inflexible,
when
it
loses
this
imitative
capacity,
that
I
become
unable
to
make
sense
of
what
is
other
than
me.
The
imitative
capacity
of
the
understanding
is
evident
to
anyone
who
has
asked
themselves
what
advice
their
parents
are
likely
to
give
them
on
some
issue:
on
the
basis
of
one’s
understanding
of
them,
one’s
imagination
can
imitate
them
and
suggest
things
that
would
not
otherwise
occur
to
one.
This
connection
between
imitation
and
transformation
is,
in
fact,
a
view
that
in
some
sense
Gadamer
shares
with
Plato
–
it
is
just
that
Plato
is
more
suspicious
of
it.
In
the
discussion
of
poetry
and
drama
in
the
Republic,
Socrates
worries
that
allowing
the
Guardians
to
play
the
parts
of
characters
who
lack
the
virtues
(or
are
otherwise
unworthy
of
imitation)
will
ultimately
be
bad
for
them:
to
imitate
what
is
not
the
self
is
to
change
the
self,
and
so
the
Guardians
should
only
play
characters
worthy
of
them.
Gadamer
lacks
the
worry
that
the
self
will
be
harmed
(on
the
contrary,
he
thinks
the
effects
are
beneficial),
but
he
agrees
that
when
the
understanding
mimics
something
(those
are
not
his
terms)
the
self
is
changed.
98
The
experience
of
art
is
also
a
hermeneutical
experience
for
Gadamer,
as
one
can
see
in
his
essay
‘The
Relevance
of
the
Beautiful’.
There,
Gadamer
works
out
an
account
of
art
by
bringing
into
play
three
concepts:
play,
symbol
and
festival.
These
three
concepts
can
be
understood
in
relation
to
a
deeper
concept,
which
Gadamer
does
not
explicitly
employ
in
order
to
link
them,
but
which
is
present
throughout
his
essay:
the
concept
of
the
overwhelming.
The
experience
of
art,
for
Gadamer,
is
one
that
runs
ahead
of
my
attempt
to
make
sense
of
it,
and
that
overwhelms
whatever
prior
understanding
I
had
brought
to
bear
on
the
artwork.
This
overwhelming
is
not
purely
passive,
however;
the
experience
of
art
is
an
activity
in
which
I
am
a
participant,
called
upon
to
gather
together
the
elements
of
the
artwork
and
relate
them
(RB
26-‐8).
This
activity
is
never
quite
adequate,
and
whatever
is
given
in
the
artwork
always
seems
to
slip
beyond
what
can
be
grasped:
an
artwork
is
always
‘an
intricate
interplay
of
showing
and
concealing’,
the
result
of
which
is
that
it
resists
paraphrase
and
is,
as
Gadamer
puts
it,
‘irreplaceable’
(RB
33).
The
other,
deeper
way
in
which
the
experience
of
art
is
overwhelming
is
in
its
relation
to
our
sense
of
time.
This
occurs
through
the
artwork’s
demand
to
be
understood
in
its
own
time:
the
poem
has
a
rhythm
which
one
has
to
find,
just
as
the
piece
of
music
has
its
own
pace
(RB
43).
But
Gadamer
insists
that
this
is
true
not
only
of
temporal
arts
but
also
of
static
ones.
The
painting
demands
that
one
tarry
before
it,
breaking
the
flow
of
one’s
busy
schedule,
seeking
understanding,
which
comes
in
its
own
time.
All
art
has
this
temporal
dimension:
When
we
dwell
upon
the
work,
there
is
no
tedium
involved,
for
the
longer
we
allow
ourselves,
the
more
it
displays
its
manifold
riches
to
us.
The
essence
of
our
temporal
experience
of
art
is
in
learning
how
to
tarry
in
this
way.
And
perhaps
it
is
the
only
way
that
is
granted
to
us
finite
beings
to
relate
to
what
we
call
eternity.
(RB
45)
The
experience
of
art,
then,
is
hermeneutical
in
two
ways.
The
first
we
are
familiar
with
from
the
preceding
discussion:
when
we
get
caught
up
with
an
artwork,
we
come
to
recognise
the
way
it
surpasses
our
grasp,
and
thus
come
to
recognise
the
inadequacy
of
our
understanding.
The
second
way
is
new:
the
99
experience
of
art
changes
our
temporal
orientation
–
for
as
long
as
we
tarry
before
it.
Despite
its
interest,
however,
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
art
and
time
would
lead
us
too
far
afield
for
our
present
purposes,
and
so
we
must
content
ourselves
with
merely
noting
it.176
176
For
discussion
of
Gadamer
on
art
and
time,
see
Vessey,
‘Gadamer’s
Hermenutic
Contribution
to
a
Theory
of
Time-‐Consciousness’;
and
Daniel
Tate
(2012),
‘In
the
Fullness
of
Time:
Gadamer
on
the
Temporal
Dimension
of
the
Work
of
Art’,
Research
in
Phenomenology,
42.
177
I
note
that
this
is
very
close
to
the
goal
of
philosophy
that
Adorno
sets
up
in
‘Why
Still
Philosophy’,
collected
in
his
Critical
Models:
Interventions
and
Catchwords,
p.
13.
Adorno,
of
course,
is
thinking
about
this
in
terms
of
the
distorting
social
forms
of
the
actually
existing
world,
while
Gadamer
is
just
thinking
through
understanding
as
such,
without
an
eye
to
radical
social
critique.
178
See
also
Bernet,
‘Gadamer
on
the
Subject’s
Participation
in
the
Game
of
Truth’,
pp.
804ff.
100
something
at
a
distance
–
namely
everything
that
suggests
itself,
on
the
basis
of
his
own
prejudices,
as
the
meaning
expected
–
as
soon
as
it
is
rejected
by
the
sense
of
the
text
itself.
Even
the
experience
of
reversal
(which
happens
unceasingly
in
talking,
and
which
is
the
real
experience
of
dialectic)
has
its
equivalent
here.
Explicating
the
whole
of
meaning
towards
which
understanding
is
directed
forces
us
to
make
interpretive
conjectures
and
to
take
them
back
again.
The
self-‐
cancellation
of
the
interpretation
makes
it
possible
for
the
thing
itself
–
the
meaning
of
the
text
–
to
assert
itself.
(TM
461)
The
‘activity
and
[...]
effort
[of
thinking]
consist
in
not
interfering
arbitrarily
–
latching
onto
this
or
that
ready-‐made
notion
as
it
strikes
one
–
with
the
immanent
necessity
of
the
thought’
(TM
459).
If
we
fail
to
do
this
we
wind
up
distorting
the
thing
we
are
trying
to
understand.
Our
aim
instead
is
to
allow
them
to
show
themselves
as
they
are,
without
distorting
them.
When
we
do
not
allow
this
to
happen,
we
risk
seeing
everything
in
the
light
of
our
purposes
and
interests,
and
we
distort
and
bend
and
do
violence
to
appearances.
In
a
later
speech,
‘In
Praise
of
Theory’,
Gadamer
relates
this
to
the
ideal
of
theoria:
at
its
root,
theory
is
‘a
looking
away
from
oneself
and
looking
out
towards
the
other,
disregarding
oneself
and
listening
to
the
other’
(PT
35).
It
is
not
bracketing
out
one’s
point
of
view
but
‘overcoming
the
illusions
that
constantly
arise
from
one’s
own
ego
[...]
in
order
to
see
what
is’
(PT
31).179
That
is
to
say,
for
Gadamer
‘theory’
is
not
mental
model
building
(constructing
‘a
theory’)
but
rather
looking,
trying
to
see
what
is
other
than
oneself.
Theoria
–
seeing
things
as
they
are,
not
as
one
wills
them
–
does
not
simply
happen.
Avoiding
the
distortion
and
damage
that
can
be
done
to
appearances
by
one’s
will
requires
a
virtue
Gadamer
terms
phronesis.180
The
virtue
of
phronesis
has
a
long
history
–
so
what
precisely
does
it
mean
to
Gadamer,
and
how
does
it
179
Heidegger
makes
the
same
point
in
Being
and
Time
(§32),
where
he
writes
that
we
have
to
constantly
resist
fancies
and
popular
opinions
when
working
out
an
interpretation.
180
For
its
history
in
Gadamer’s
development,
and
an
argument
that
it
is
the
fundamental
concept
for
that
development,
see
Ricardo
Dottori
(2009),
‘The
Concept
of
Phronesis
by
Aristotle
and
the
Beginning
of
Hermeneutic
Philosophy’,
Ethics
&
Politics,
XI,
1,
pp.
301-‐310.
For
a
discussion
of
the
relation
between
Gadamer
and
Heidegger
on
phronesis,
see
Coltman,
The
Language
of
Hermeneutics
(SUNY,
1998),
Ch.
1.
101
fit
within
the
broader
project
of
Truth
and
Method?
The
concept
appears
most
prominently
in
the
chapter
on
Aristotle’s
ethics
(‘The
hermeneutic
relevance
of
Aristotle’,
in
Part
II).
There
it
provides
a
model
for
elucidating
the
placed
nature
of
hermeneutic
thinking:
for
Aristotle,
phronesis
is
that
capacity
to
apprehend
what
the
good
is
in
this
situation
–
it
is
a
kind
of
intuitive
grasp
that
goes
beyond
mere
rule-‐following,
and
instead
allows
one
to
see
how
the
elements
of
the
situation
relate
to
each
other
to
create
a
range
of
possibilities;
for
Gadamer,
it
is
a
matter
of
grasping
the
‘meaning
and
significance’
of
the
text
as
it
speaks
to
me
in
this
situation
(TM
321).
The
theme
Gadamer
emphasises
is
that
of
self-‐
knowledge:
where
the
end
of
techne
is
external
to
my
action,
phronesis
is
concerned
with
acting
well
–
part
of
what
phronesis
produces
is
myself
(TM
314).
In
his
later
book,
The
Idea
of
the
Good
in
Platonic-‐Aristotelian
Philosophy,
Gadamer
claims
that
while
Aristotle’s
use
of
the
concept
of
phronesis
is
concerned
with
practical
affairs
(and
so
is
a
thoroughly
normal
use
of
the
word),
Plato
expands
its
usage
to
the
extent
that
he
uses
it
as
a
synonym
for
dialectic
–
a
‘real
reasonableness’
employed
in
the
pursuit
of
‘real
justification’
as
opposed
to
‘self-‐justification’
and
the
insistence
on
one’s
own
view
(IG
37-‐9).
This
proximity
of
phronesis
to
dialectic
is
also
present
in
Truth
and
Method,
when
in
Part
III
Gadamer
discusses
his
debts
to
Hegel:
‘thinking
means
unfolding
what
consistently
follows
from
the
subject
matter
itself’,
and
‘it
is
part
of
this
process
to
suppress
ideas
“that
tend
to
insinuate
themselves”
and
to
insist
on
the
logic
of
the
thought’
–
all
of
which
is
dialectic
(TM
459).
Phronesis,
then,
has
two
aspects:
it
is
both
listening
to
the
other
such
that
I
understand
what
they
are
saying
as
of
relevance
to
me
(this
is
what
Gadamer
calls
‘application’),
and
my
active
resistance
to
my
own
fancies.
These
cannot
be
finally
separated
from
each
other,
since
listening
properly
means
taking
the
other
to
be
addressing
me,
and
resisting
the
temptation
to
suppose
I
know
better.
I
have
to
bracket
my
interests
–
and
not
assume
things
are
as
I
assume
they
are,
or
as
I
wish
them
to
be
–
if
I
am
to
see
things
as
they
actually
are.
This
concern
with
allowing
the
thing
to
show
itself
as
prior
to
grasping
it
–
even
grasping
it
conceptually
–
goes
all
the
way
back
to
Gadamer’s
first
book,
Plato’s
Dialectical
Ethics.
In
that
book,
it
was
Gadamer’s
view
that
this
is
one
of
the
major
differences
between
Plato
and
Aristotle:
where
Plato
seeks
to
lay
bare
the
102
phenomena,
Aristotle
seeks
to
grasp
them
and
render
them
on
a
conceptual
plane.
There
he
writes:
Crucial
to
the
interpretation
of
the
Philebus
[...]
is
the
fact
that
the
problem
of
ethics
is
really
seen
here,
but
is
not
taken
hold
of,
in
itself,
as
a
task.
The
fact
that
the
Philebus's
position
in
regard
to
ontology
is
identical
with
the
general
Platonic
position
that
we
call
the
doctrine
of
the
Forms
cannot
conceal
the
distinctive
concentration
of
the
Philebus's
inquiry
on
the
ethical
problem
-‐
that
is,
on
the
good
in
human
life.
The
goal,
after
all,
is
to
argue
from
the
general
ontological
idea
of
the
good
precisely
to
the
good
of
actual
human
existence.
(PDE
1-‐2)
We
have,
in
this
passage,
two
themes
that
will
prove
essential
for
the
later
Gadamer.
The
first
is
the
distinction
between
'seeing'
a
problem
and
'taking
hold
of'
it.
The
other
is
that
Gadamer
can
be
seen
to
be
already
opposing
Aristotle's
interpretation
(and
so
also
his
criticism)
of
the
Idea
of
the
Good:
rather
than
being
of
no
use
to
us,
the
good
in
human
life
is
derived
explicitly
from
an
ontological
conception
of
the
Good.181
It
is
with
the
former
that
we
will
concern
ourselves.
What
does
the
distinction
between
'seeing'
and
'taking
hold
of'
consist
in?
Immediately
we
can
see
that
these
are
two
importantly
different
modes
of
engaging
with
something:
on
the
one
hand,
we
can
just
look
at
something
and
contemplate
it
as
it
is
(the
theoretical
attitude);
on
the
other,
we
can
look
at
something
with
a
view
to
how
it
will
be
useful
to
us
(the
practical
attitude).
This
is
also
the
root
of
Heidegger's
distinction
between
'present-‐at-‐hand'
and
'ready-‐
to-‐hand',182
but
there
is
something
more
fundamental
going
on:
we
can
apply
Gadamer's
distinction
within
the
theoretical
attitude
itself,
and
this
is
what
he
does.
Within
the
theoretical
attitude,
we
can
distinguish
between
the
kind
of
clearing
activity
that
we
engage
in
in
order
to
let
the
thing
apprehended
show
181
For
Aristotle’s
criticism
of
the
Idea
of
the
Good,
see
NE
1096 b32
f.:
'It
is
hard,
too,
to
see
how
a
weaver
or
a
carpenter
will
be
benefited
in
regard
to
his
own
craft
by
knowing
this
"good
itself".'
182
Being
and
Time,
§69(b)
103
itself
as
it
is
(the
clearing
away
of
misleading
biases
-‐
or
'prejudices',
to
use
Gadamer's
later
terminology)
and
the
conceptualising
activity
by
which
we
categorise
the
phenomenon
and
bring
it
within
the
grasp
of
the
understanding.
These
two
activities
are
clearly
related,
but
it
is
in
terms
of
the
distinction
between
them
that
Gadamer
understands
the
difference
between
Plato
(who
sees)
and
Aristotle
(who
grasps).
Thus
Plato
is
not
understood
as
writing
treatises
in
dialogue
form,
or
as
necessarily
offering
conceptual
arguments
for
his
position,
but
rather
as
always
engaged
in
a
protreptical
process
by
which
the
reader
is
invited
to
share
in
the
inquiry
itself.
As
a
general
view
this
is
not
particularly
contentious;183
however,
Gadamer's
manner
of
elaborating
it
is
more
unusual.
Understood
in
terms
of
the
distinction
just
elaborated,
Plato
is
attempting
to
lay
bare
the
thing
under
discussion
so
that
it
can
be
seen,
rather
than
to
develop
it
conceptually
so
that
it
can
be
grasped.
With
regard
to
ethics,
where
Aristotle
elaborates
the
good
life
conceptually
(albeit
with
the
qualification
that
there
are
limits
to
the
precision
attainable
by
ethics
as
an
inquiry),
Plato's
dialogues
are
fundamentally
different
because
he
does
not
claim
to
take
possession
(even
partially),
but
always
points
only
to
the
possibility
of
a
grasp
that
always
slips
away
(PDE
6-‐7).
The
firsthand
discovery
that
Plato
is
more
than
what
Aristotle
and
conceptual
analysis
can
extract
from
him
cannot
itself
be
conveyed
secondhand.
It
stands
at
the
limit
of
all
Plato
interpretation,
just
as
there
stands,
at
the
limit
of
all
conceptual
work
in
philosophy,
the
realisation
that
all
interpretation
makes
its
object
univocal
and,
by
providing
access
to
it,
necessarily
also
obstructs
access
to
it.
(PDE
8)
On
the
preceding
page,
Gadamer
had
contrasted
the
richness
of
lived
experience
with
the
'flattened'
version
that
'enters
into'
the
concept.
This
can
be
elaborated
183
As
an
example
chosen
almost
at
random,
consider
Julia
Annas:
'Writing
[dialogues]
is
not
just
for
literary
effect;
the
dialogue
form
formally
distances
Plato
from
the
views
of
anyone
in
the
dialogue,
and
this
forces
the
reader
to
think
for
herself
what
positions
are
being
discussed,
and
what
the
upshot
is,
rather
than
accepting
what
is
said
on
Plato's
example.'
(Ancient
Philosophy:
A
Very
Short
Introduction
[Oxford,
2000],
p.
5)
104
in
terms
of
the
distinction
between
'seeing'
and
'grasping',
and
will
also
afford
us
the
opportunity
to
elaborate
the
significance
of
this
distinction.
Gadamer’s
basic
outlook
is
that
we
are
finite
subjects
that
encounter
a
world
that
is
more
or
less
opaque
to
us,
as
we
are
more
or
less
opaque
to
ourselves.
Our
intellectual
activity
takes
place
as
we
are
already
'under
way':
we
do
not
begin
from
nothing,
but
rather
already
have
some
kind
of
understanding
of
ourselves
and
the
world.
In
attempting
to
better
understand
something,
we
elaborate
the
concept
by
which
we
grasp
it,
adding
details
and
making
it
more
complex,
with
the
intended
end
goal
being
the
possession
of
a
concept
that
precisely
matches
the
thing:
when
our
understanding
is
precisely
adequate
to
the
phenomenon.
However,
if
this
way
of
understanding
operates
solely
by
itself,
then
it
can
occur
that
concern
for
our
concepts
triumphs
over
a
vision
of
the
thing
understood.
We
become
concerned
with
adjusting
our
concepts
in
order
to
cope
with
the
phenomenon,
rather
than
returning
to
fundamental
questions
about
what
the
thing
is.
To
borrow
a
popular
image,
we
continuously
add
epicycles
rather
than
looking
at
the
thing
afresh.
(Recall
Gadamer’s
praise
of
theory
as
looking.)
But
Gadamer
goes
further
than
this.
For
it
could
be
said,
following
all
of
this,
that
the
aim
of
intellectual
activity
is
to
progressively
work
through
conceptions
of
things,
throwing
out
unworkable
ones
until
we
finally
arrive
at
an
understanding
that
is
totally
adequate
to
the
phenomena.
This
is
the
goal
of
(among
others)
Hegel,
the
Thomistic
tradition,
and
probably
also
Aristotle
himself
(we
can
call
this
the
'progressive'
view).
On
the
other
hand,
by
claiming
that
our
conceptual
access
to
things
also
blocks
access
to
them,
Gadamer
is
closing
the
possibility
of
a
final
and
adequate
conception
of
things.
If
this
is
correct,
then
the
distinction
between
'seeing'
and
'grasping'
takes
on
greater
significance.
For,
on
the
'progressive'
view,
we
could
in
principle
reach
a
point
at
which
our
grasp
of
the
phenomena
is
such
that
we
no
longer
need
to
'see'.184
On
Gadamer's
view,
'seeing'
is
something
we
can
never
do
without;
the
richness
of
lived
experience
is
not
conceptually
exhaustible.
Further,
the
concern
with
perfecting
our
concepts
appears
as
a
turn
inwards:
we
become
concerned
184
However,
for
a
slightly
contrasting
perspective,
see
Alasdair
MacIntyre's
'On
Not
Having
the
105
with
the
self-‐enjoyment
of
refining
our
concept
over
attending
to
the
thing
itself;
and,
as
we
saw
with
Gadamer’s
analysis
of
Erfahrung,
this
means
losing
that
openness
to
new
experience.
Thus
the
significance
of
Plato's
approach
is
that
he
allows
us
to
see
something
of
the
richness
of
the
thing
under
consideration.
He
is
not
espousing
doctrine,
or
trying
to
synthesise
rival
views,
but
instead
is
trying
to
shape
our
view
of
the
Sache
(PDE
11).
(This
is
not
to
say
that
Plato's
view
of
the
world
is
somehow
a
neutral
one,
however;
even
at
this
early
stage,
Gadamer
speaks
of
the
'fore-‐
conception'
that
links
Plato,
Aristotle
and
the
Greeks
together
[PDE
12].)
Rather,
Gadamer
says,
'the
dialogues
are
comprehended
in
their
own
intention
only
when
one
understands
them
as
serving
to
lead
the
reader
toward
the
existential
ideal
of
the
philosopher:
toward
life
in
pure
theory'
(PDE
2).
‘Theory’:
to
be
understood
not
as
the
work
of
conceptualisation,
but
in
connection
with
its
Greek
root,
which
means
‘to
look’.
In
the
primacy
of
‘seeing’
over
‘grasping’
we
can
already
see
Gadamer’s
later
prizing
of
genuine
experience.
For
the
genuine
experience
is
precisely
that
experience
that
calls
me
afresh
to
the
phenomena,
that
jolts
me
out
of
my
comfortable
conceptualisations.
The
activity
of
phronesis
is
the
seeking
after
‘seeing’,
seeking
after
genuine
experience.
To
develop
the
virtue
of
phronesis
is
to
become
like
the
‘experienced
man’
Gadamer
describes
in
the
chapter
on
Erfahrung;
it
is
to
recognise
one’s
limits,
which
is
to
say
it
is
to
recognise
the
way
in
which
the
horizon
one
brings
with
oneself
serves
as
the
backdrop
against
which
everything
appears
to
me
–
it
is
to
actively
allow
what
appears
to
me,
what
is
addressed
to
me,
to
call
this
horizon
into
question,
such
that
a
productive
engagement
can
be
had
with
it.
This
is
clearly
related
to
the
discussion
of
dialectic
that
occurs
towards
the
end
of
Truth
and
Method.
Dialectic
is
truly
experienced
when
thought
undergoes
the
incomprehensible
reversal
into
its
opposite.
The
very
act
of
holding
onto
what
consistently
follows
in
the
thought
leads
to
this
surprising
movement
of
the
reversal
–
as
when,
for
example,
a
person
seeking
106
justice
discovers
that
adhering
strictly
to
the
idea
of
justice
becomes
“abstract”
and
proves
to
be
the
greatest
injustice
(summum
ius
summa
iniuria).
(TM
463)
The
virtue
of
phronesis,
then,
involves
holding
on
and
following
through
this
kind
of
dialectical
reversal.
We
note
that
the
example
of
serving
justice
by
not
being
a
hard-‐line
enforcer
of
justice
comes
from
Aristotle
–
it
is
the
virtue
of
epieikeia,
which
is
the
complement
to
the
virtue
of
justice
(dikaiosune):
since
abstract
laws
cannot
account
for
every
case,
sometimes
exceptions
need
to
be
made
in
particular
cases
in
order
to
uphold
the
aim
and
spirit
of
the
law
(i.e.
the
promotion
of
justice).
Of
course,
as
we
have
observed
a
number
of
times,
Gadamer
does
not
wish
to
follow
Hegel
in
thinking
that
these
reversals
that
thought
undergoes
in
dialectic
lead
to
some
final
resting
place;
but
we
can
recognise
the
way
these
reversals
return
our
attention
to
the
thing
in
question,
and
require
us
to
account
for
it
anew:
we
thought
we
knew
what
justice
was,
but
now
we
see
that
we
did
not.
Our
concepts
are
more
unruly
than
we
know.
One
of
the
striking
features
of
phronesis,
as
related
to
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics,
is
how
un-‐Hegelian
it
is.
For
Hegel,
the
alienation
that
thought
undergoes
in
dialectic
is
finally
resolved
in
a
final
stage
of
absolute
knowing;
but
Gadamer,
in
rejecting
this
end,
makes
of
phronesis
and
the
reversals
of
dialectic
the
endless
pursuit
of
alienation.
This
is,
in
fact,
the
upshot
of
his
privileging
of
Erfahrung
as
genuine
experience,
of
his
claim
that
‘only
an
experience
that
thwarts
an
expectation
is
worthy
of
the
name’.
If
a
genuine
experience
is
one
in
which
I
realise
the
way
in
which
the
thing
exceeds
my
understanding
of
it,
and
phronesis
is
the
virtue
of
being
open
to
genuine
experience,
then
phronesis
is
the
virtue
of
the
perpetual
pursuit
of
the
beyond,
that
which
exceeds
my
horizon,
a
virtue
of
the
constant
minding
of
the
limited
nature
of
my
horizon.
Reading
Gadamer
in
this
way,
with
genuine
experience
and
phronesis
at
the
centre
of
his
account,
runs
directly
counter
to
the
kind
of
reading
one
finds
in
Robert
Bernasconi,
for
example.185
Bernasconi
thinks
that
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
as
a
theory
cannot
accommodate
his
occasional
remarks
on
the
185
‘
“You
don’t
know
what
I’m
talking
about”:
Alterity
and
the
Hermeneutical
Ideal’,
in
Lawrence
107
otherness
of
the
other.
This
is
because
Gadamer’s
theory
emphasises
too
heavily
the
role
of
coming
to
an
agreement
(pp.
186-‐7),
which
is
related
to
his
privileging
philosophical
conversation
at
the
expense
of
other
forms
of
conversation
(pp.
190-‐1).
He
sums
up
his
critique
by
saying
that
he
is
charging
Gadamer
with
‘not
being
Levinas’.186
He
leverages
this
argument
by
considering
the
phrase
‘You
don’t
know
what
I’m
talking
about’.
The
idea
is
that
this
phrase
is
not
necessarily
uttered
with
the
aim
of
reaching
agreement:
when
said
by
the
victim
of
oppression,
it
implies
‘you
ought
to
change’
while
also
acknowledging
‘the
change
won’t
–
in
a
sense,
can’t
–
take
place’
(p.
192).
This
occurs
especially
when
what
is
under
discussion
is
not
some
third
thing
but
rather
the
experience
of
one
of
the
participants
in
the
conversation
(or,
perhaps,
the
focus
of
the
discussion
is
the
difference
between
the
experiences
of
the
two
participants).
It
points,
in
other
words,
to
the
limits
of
the
oppressor’s
experience,
and
to
the
way
that,
since
the
experience
of
the
oppressed
is
not
open
to
them,
they
cannot
ever
understand
it
and
–
lacking
understanding
–
will
never
change
to
accommodate
it.
However,
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
authority
and
understanding
is
helpful
here.
To
take
somebody
as
an
authority,
Gadamer
says,
is
not
an
‘abdication
of
reason’
but
an
acknowledgement
of
their
superior
judgement
or
insight
into
some
topic
(TM
281).
We
can
easily
extend
this
to
the
notion
that
others
have
experiences
that
we
might
have
no
access
to
or
awareness
of.
A
socially
privileged
group
may
be
unaware
of
the
difficulties
faced
by
those
who
are
at
the
social
margins,
just
as
those
who
are
discriminated
in
favour
of
will
not
always
be
aware
of
the
difficulties
faced
by
those
who
are
discriminated
against.
But
this
kind
of
concern
that
one
group
of
people
may
not
understand
the
experiences
of
another
group
is
not
limited
to
the
kinds
of
cases
Bernasconi
refers
to.
It
was
also
central
Wilfred
Owen’s
project
as
a
war
poet:
to
tell
the
truth
about
the
experience
of
the
soldiers.
In
a
number
of
poems,
Owen
takes
aim
at
some
un-‐truth
about
that
experience
(a
lie,
a
romanticisation,
etc.)
peddled
back
in
England:
in
‘Dulce
et
decorum
est’
he
takes
aim
at
Horace’s
line
that
‘it
is
sweet
and
meet
to
die
for
one’s
country’
(in
the
translation
Owen
provides
in
a
186
See
n.
26
to
Bernasconi’s
essay.
108
letter
to
his
mother),
and
those
spreading
that
sentiment
at
home.187
This
poem’s
centre
of
gravity
is
the
horror
of
gas
warfare,
and
it
describes
watching
another
soldier
die
‘guttering,
choking,
drowning’
during
a
gas
attack;
the
experience
has
marked
the
speaker
to
such
an
extent
he
still
sees
it
in
his
dreams.
The
idea
of
the
dream
allows
Owen
to
set
up
a
contrast
between
the
experience
that
marks
a
soldier
so
deeply
he
keeps
reliving
it
in
his
dreams,
and
the
non-‐soldier
back
in
England
who
has
been
propagating
the
lies
about
that
experience,
who
could
only
live
that
experience
in
their
imagination,
but
probably
won’t.
The
final
stanza
of
the
poem
is
as
follows:
If
in
some
smothering
dreams
you
too
could
pace
Behind
the
wagon
that
we
flung
him
in,
And
watch
the
white
eyes
writhing
in
his
face,
His
hanging
face,
like
a
devil’s
sick
of
sin;
If
you
could
hear,
at
every
jolt,
the
blood
Come
gargling
from
the
froth-‐corrupted
lungs,
Obscene
as
cancer,
bitter
as
the
cud
Of
vile,
incurable
sores
on
innocent
tongues,
–
My
friend,
you
would
not
tell
with
such
high
zest
To
children
ardent
for
some
desperate
glory,
The
old
Lie:
Dulce
et
decorum
est
Pro
patria
mori.188
Owen’s
lines
express
doubts
that
are
strikingly
similar
to
Bernasconi’s:
‘if
in
some
smothering
dreams
you
too
could
pace’:
the
grammar
has
the
effect
of
distancing
that
possibility,
and
seems
to
imply
‘but
you
can’t
or
won’t’.
And
yet,
historically,
this
is
an
argument
that
Owen
has
more
or
less
won:
we
now,
when
we
think
of
the
First
World
War,
think
of
the
horrors
of
trench
warfare
and
the
senseless
waste
of
human
lives.
In
other
words,
it
is
misery
we
think
of,
not
glory;
and
this
is,
in
part,
because
we
belong
to
the
effective-‐history
(to
employ
one
of
Gadamer’s
terms)
of
Owen’s
poem.
The
effectiveness
of
the
poem
lies
in
187
See
Stallworthy’s
notes
to
the
poem
in
Wilfred
Owen,
The
Complete
Poems
and
Fragments,
2
109
the
way
it
encourages
one
to
imagine
oneself
into
the
position
of
the
soldiers,
‘drunk
with
fatigue’,
‘coughing
like
hags’,
bootless
and
‘blood-‐shod’,
too
tired
even
to
care
about
the
shells
falling
nearby;
to
imagine
helplessly
watching
one’s
friend
die
horribly
in
a
gas
attack;
and
to
imagine
pacing
behind
a
wagon
witnessing
their
final
death-‐spasms.
By
the
time
you
get
to
the
final
Latin
tag,
it
has
become
utterly
and
obviously
false
–
a
lie
told
by
those
who
do
not
have
to
fight.
While
the
poem
expresses
doubts
about
the
ability
or
willingness
of
others
to
imagine
the
soldiers’
experience,
it
is
itself
a
propaedeutic
to
exactly
that
act
of
imagination.
Returning
to
Bernasconi,
while
we
ought,
then,
to
be
suspicious
of
the
claim
of
a
privileged
group
to
simply
speak
on
behalf
of
the
dispossessed,
Owen’s
poem
and
its
effective
history
give
us
reason
to
believe
that
Bernasconi
is
unduly
pessimistic.
It
does
not
follow
that
the
privileged
can
never
come
to
understand
the
experiences
of
the
dispossessed,
or
that
they
can
never
come
to
recognise
the
way
their
own
experiences
do
not
furnish
them
with
the
adequate
categories
for
understanding
that
experience.
This
is
to
say:
they
can
accept
the
testimony
of
others
as
authoritative.
Accepting
the
testimony
of
someone
else
as
authoritative,
especially
when
it
goes
against
what
I
had
presumed,
is
an
event
of
understanding
in
the
fundamental,
disruptive
sense
that
is
so
important
to
Gadamer.
This
does
not
mean
accepting
that
testimony
in
a
dogmatic
or
authoritarian
way;
one
can
still
ask
critical
questions,
ask
for
elaborations,
and
so
on:
what
is
required
is
the
acknowledgment
that
my
experience
does
not
by
itself
furnish
me
with
the
resources
to
understand
theirs
–
it
is
only
through
dialogue
and
a
capacity
for
imagination
that
I
can
approach
an
understanding.
All
of
this
requires
an
openness
that
is
the
hallmark
of
phronesis.
Monica
Vilhauer
makes
some
parallel
objections
to
Bernasconi’s
argument,
although
she
is
more
concerned
by
it
than
I
am.189
Vilhauer
is
concerned
that,
on
Gadamer’s
model
of
understanding,
there
is
a
temptation
to
‘fool
ourselves
into
believing
that
we
ever
achieve
a
kind
of
“complete”
understanding
with
the
Other
where
nothing
is
left
out
or
ignored’
(p.
91).
But,
as
we
can
see
from
the
foregoing,
this
is
simply
not
an
issue.
While
Gadamer
does
have
a
drive
towards
agreement,
it
is
not
a
drive
to
make
the
other
agree
with
me
but
a
drive
towards
189
Gadamer’s
Ethics
of
Play
(Lexington,
2010),
pp.
89ff.,
esp.
p.
91.
110
my
agreement
with
them.
The
highest
hermeneutical
virtue
is
an
openness
toward
what
the
other
says,
such
that
I
take
what
they
say
as
a
direct
challenge
to
my
point
of
view.
This
openness
is
called
phronesis.
One
of
the
central
propositions
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
is
the
claim
that
‘Openness
to
the
other
[...]
involves
recognising
that
I
myself
must
accept
some
things
that
are
against
me,
even
though
no
one
else
forces
me
to
do
so’
(TM
355).
Pace
Bernasconi,
Gadamer
cedes
dialogical
priority
to
the
other
over
the
self.
Pace
Vilhauer,
there
is
no
temptation
to
collapse
the
otherness
of
the
other
to
my
self;
if
anything,
the
temptation
runs
in
something
like
the
opposite
direction.
This
gives
us
a
perspective
from
which
to
view
Derrida’s
objection
to
Gadamer,
voiced
during
their
‘debate’.190
Derrida
asks
of
Gadamer’s
insistence
on
a
fundamental
‘good
will
to
understand’:
Doesn’t
this
unconditional
axiom
nevertheless
presuppose
that
the
will
is
the
form
of
that
unconditionality,
its
last
resort,
its
ultimate
determination?
What
is
the
will
if,
as
Kant
says,
nothing
is
absolutely
good
except
the
good
will?
Would
not
this
determination
belong
to
what
Heidegger
has
rightly
called
“the
determination
of
the
being
of
beings
as
will,
or
willing
subjectivity”?
Does
this
way
of
speaking,
in
its
very
necessity,
belong
to
a
particular
epoch,
namely,
that
of
a
metaphysics
of
the
will?191
The
basic
idea
lurking
behind
these
questions
is
that
if
the
‘good
will
to
understand’
is
a
form
of
willing,
then
it
is
too
invested
in
trying
to
determine
the
world
in
one
way
or
the
other
for
it
to
make
space
for
the
way
the
other
it
is
supposedly
trying
to
‘understand’
is
other
to
how
it
wills
the
world
to
be.
This
is
to
say:
the
will
is
not
a
neutral
observer,
for
it
views
the
world
through
the
lens
of
what
it
wants
to
bring
about.
As
Josef
Simon
has
elaborated
the
issue,192
the
‘good
will
to
understand’
must
be
caught
in
an
antinomy:
on
the
one
hand,
what
190
For
materials
concerning
this
debate,
see
Dialogue
&
Deconstruction,
ed.
Diane
P.
Michelfelder
& Deconstruction.
111
it
wills
is
to
understand
the
other,
which
means
to
conform
itself
to
what
is
other;
on
the
other,
as
the
will
it
cannot
help
but
try
to
determine
its
object
in
accordance
with
its
aim.
Thus,
the
will
to
understand
must
necessarily
find
itself,
“against
its
intentions”
(so
to
speak),
engaged
in
subterfuge
in
order
to
bring
the
other’s
position
into
agreement
with
mine
–
and
Gadamer’s
position,
as
a
metaphysics
of
the
will,
cannot
acknowledge
that
‘the
attempt
to
take
seriously
the
other’s
position,
for
example
in
answering
to
the
“subtleties”
if
his
or
her
expression,
is
[…]
only
a
more
elegant
method
of
taking
people
in,
after
which
they
are
supposed
ultimately
to
agree
with
one’s
point’.193
When
Gadamer
in
his
response
to
Derrida
echoes
the
Socratic
claim
that
the
the
good
will
to
understand
means
strengthening
the
other’s
argument
and
being
glad
to
be
refuted,194
for
Simon
this
is
just
another
subterfuge.195
But
is
it?
For
Derrida’s
objection
hinges
on
a
simplistic
conception
of
the
will:
the
will
seeks
to
affect
the
world,
but
that
it
can
be
self-‐reflexive
does
not
seem
to
have
occurred
to
him
(or
to
Simon).
Even
Nietzsche’s
‘will
to
power’,
which
lurks
in
the
background
of
the
objection,
has
this
self-‐reflexive
character:
the
‘ascetic
priest’
of
the
third
essay
of
the
Genealogy
of
Morality
is
the
person
who
encourages
the
slaves
to
turn
their
frustrated
wills
against
themselves,
and
in
practising
asceticism
–
which
is
to
say,
turning
their
wills
against
themselves,
holding
their
own
desires
in
check
–
they
are
able
to
attain
that
feeling
of
power
and
resistance
overcome
that
is
the
satisfaction
of
the
will.
And
it
is
precisely
this
capacity
to
hold
one’s
interpretive
desires
in
check
that
Gadamer
terms
phronesis.
Rather
than
being
deployed
against
the
other,
the
good
will
to
understand
is
a
self-‐reflexive
form
of
the
will,
directed
towards
thwarting
one’s
attempts
to
determine
what
the
other
is
saying
for
them.
This
is
why
Gadamer
insists
on
the
good
will
being
the
equivalent
of
Plato’s
eumeneis
elenchoi,
“strengthening
the
arguments”.196
It
is
a
constant
danger
that
the
will
to
understand
will
fail,
and
that
one
will
instead
assimilate
the
other’s
perspective
to
one’s
own,
or
wind
up
employing
argumentative
subtleties
in
order
to
ensure
193
‘Good
Will
to
Understand’,
p.
166.
194
Dialogue
&
Deconstruction,
p.
55.
195
‘Good
Will
to
Understand’,
p.
166.
196
Dialogue
&
Deconstruction,
p.
55.
112
one’s
own
argument
is
the
winning
one
–
but
this
is
precisely
the
failure
of
the
will
to
understand,
and
the
reason
why
understanding
is
a
constant
task.197
197
Dialogue
&
Deconstruction,
p.
57.
198
These
have
been
gathered
and
translated
into
English
in
the
volume
Gadamer
on
Celan
[GC];
there
is
also
a
discussion
of
Celan
and
Heidegger
in
Philosophical
Apprenticeships,
pp.
53-‐4.
199
‘What
is
truth?’
(originally
1957),
translated
by
Wachterhauser
and
collected
in
113
find
the
right
words,
demands
that
they
let
the
experience
work
on
them
in
order
to
bring
it
into
language.
In
his
Celan
book,
Gadamer
refers
to
the
‘Erfahrung
[which
we
have
been
rendering
as
‘genuine
experience’]
of
writing
poetry’
(GC
73).
For
the
reader,
too,
the
encounter
with
the
poem,
in
which
one
discovers
a
new
apt
expression,
or
a
startling
image,
or
a
surprising
conjunction,
or
a
puzzling
phrase
that
lodges
itself
in
one’s
memory
–
in
all
of
these,
the
encounter
with
the
poem
is
a
genuine
experience.
In
Gadamer’s
commentary
on
the
Breath-‐crystal
cycle,
he
finds
a
number
of
poems
that
express
the
poet’s
relation
to
language.
In
the
first
poem
he
finds
the
need
of
the
poet
for
solitude
and
silence,
and
then
the
relation
to
language
becomes
explicit
in
the
second
poem
(GC
75-‐8):
Von
ungeträumtem
geätzt,
wirft
das
schlaflos
durchwanderte
Brotland
den
Lebensberg
auf.
Aus
seiner
Krume
knetest
du
neu
unsre
Namen,
die
ich,
ein
deinem
gleichendes
Aug
an
jedem
der
Finger,
abtaste
nach
einer
Stelle,
durch
die
ich
mich
zu
dir
heranwachen
kann,
die
helle
Hungerkerze
im
Mund.
[By
the
undreamt
etched,
the
sleeplessly
wandered-‐through
breadland
casts
up
the
life
mountain.
From
its
crumb
you
knead
anew
our
names,
114
which
I,
an
eye
similar
to
yours
on
each
finger
probe
for
a
place,
through
which
I
can
wake
myself
toward
you,
the
bright
hungercandle
in
mouth.]200
Gadamer
finds
in
this
poem
an
image
for
our
lives:
spent
blindly
moving
like
‘moles’
through
a
land
in
which
we
must
toil
for
our
bread;
driven
by
something
‘undreamt’
and
unacknowledged
that
bites
into
us;
and
casting
up,
as
we
go,
a
‘life
mountain’
–
our
accumulated
experience,
which
weighs
down
heavily
upon
us.
It
is
from
this
life
mountain
that
our
‘names’
–
our
selves
–
are
kneaded
anew
by
a
‘you’.
The
‘I’
of
the
poem,
buried
under
this
mountain,
searches
for
a
way
‘wake’
towards
this
‘you’,
a
‘hungercandle’
in
his
mouth.
In
this
image,
Gadamer
sees
the
poet,
digging
through
the
mountain
of
words:
It
means
language,
which
is
deposited
over
the
entire
experience
of
life
like
a
covering
burden.
It
is
language
which
is
probed,
that
is,
tested
for
its
permeability,
for
the
possibility
of
maybe
somewhere
permitting
the
breakthrough
into
brightness.
This
seems
to
me
to
describe
the
destitution,
as
well
as
the
distinction,
of
the
poet.
But
is
it
the
poet’s
alone?
(GC
78)
The
destitution
of
the
poet,
then,
is
the
sense
that
language
is
a
burden,
that
it
cannot
simply
be
trusted;
the
poet’s
distinction
is
to
have
recognised
this,
and
to
probe
for
a
way
through
the
untrustworthy
surface
of
language.
Insofar
as
we
are
all
in
the
position
of
the
poet
–
experiencing
the
world
through
the
medium
of
a
language
that
is
both
the
possibility
of
experience
and
a
burden
–
we
all
have
a
‘hungercandle’
in
our
mouths,
seeking
the
right
word.
200
Translated
by
Pierre
Joris
in
Breathturn
into
Timestead
(FSG,
2014),
p.
3.
115
The
dual
nature
of
language
as
both
what
makes
experience
possible,
and
that
which
burdens
experience,
comes
through
in
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
the
next
poem
in
the
cycle
(GC
79-‐82):
In
die
Rillen
der
Himmelsmünze
im
Türspalt
preßt
du
das
Wort,
dem
ich
entrollte,
als
ich
mit
bebenden
Fäusten
das
Dach
über
uns
abtrug,
Schiefer
um
Schiefer,
Silbe
um
Silbe,
dem
Kupfer-‐
schimmer
der
Bettel-‐
schale
dort
oben
zulieb.
[Into
the
furrows
of
the
heavenscoin
in
the
doorcrack
you
press
the
word
from
which
I
rolled,
when
I
with
trembling
fists
the
roof
over
us
dismantled,
slate
for
slate,
syllable
for
syllable,
for
the
copper-‐
glimmer
of
the
begging-‐
cup’s
sake
up
there.]201
The
lines
of
most
interest
to
us
for
our
present
purposes
are
the
central
ones:
that
‘I’
‘rolled’
from
a
word,
and
that
‘I’
sought
to
dismantle
the
‘roof
over
us’
–
a
roof
composed
of
‘syllables’
–
the
roof
of
language
under
which
we
all
live.
201
Translated
by
Pierre
Joris,
Breathturn
into
Timestead,
pp.
3-‐4.
116
Perhaps
it
is
true
for
all
of
us
that
we
each
would
prefer
to
dismantle
the
roof
which
offers
us
common
protection
by
taking
away
the
portal
and
prospect,
in
order
to
look
into
the
open.
Certainly
more
than
anyone
the
poet
says
of
himself
here
something
that
is
perhaps
true
for
everyone.
The
covering
of
words
is
like
a
roof
over
us.
They
secure
the
familiar.
But
insofar
as
they
envelope
us
completely
with
familiarity,
they
inhibit
any
view
of
the
unfamiliar.
Syllable
by
syllable,
that
is,
laboriously
and
tirelessly,
the
poet
–
or
is
it
each
of
us?
–
seeks
to
dismantle
what
is
covering.
This
“syllable
by
syllable”
dismantling
seems
to
correspond
to
what
we
encountered
in
the
previous
poem
as
the
proving
of
names
and
the
waking
onto.
Both
poems
appear
to
describe
a
desperate
effort
to
strive
for
the
brightness
above.
(GC
81)
This
passage
is
of
central
importance
for
Gadamer’s
conception
of
our
relation
to
language.
For
language
is
both
the
shelter
that
enables
us
to
live
and
to
make
sense
of
ourselves
–
and
at
the
same
time,
by
the
same
features
that
make
it
a
shelter,
it
inhibits
our
view
of
what
is
unfamiliar
and
threatens
to
envelope
us
in
familiarity.
This
threat
drives
us
to
try
to
dismantle
the
roof,
in
order
to
get
to
the
brightness
on
the
other
side
–
a
brightness
that
turns
out
to
be
disappointing:
the
mere
gleam
of
a
begging-‐cup.
Theologically,
Gadamer
reads
this
as
the
Deus
absconditus,
the
hidden
god
who
is
beyond
our
grasp
even
if
we
clear
away
what
we
think
is
obscuring
our
view.
But
the
poem
also
describes
the
task
of
the
poet:
‘to
seek
the
true
word,
not
the
word
which
comes
from
the
usual,
protective
roof
of
every
day,
but
the
one
which
arrives
from
beyond
as
if
it
were
his
true
home.
Therefore,
the
poet
must
dismantle
the
scaffolding
of
every
day
words
syllable
by
syllable.
He
must
fight
against
the
ordinary,
customary,
obscuring,
and
levelling
function
of
language
in
order
to
lay
open
a
view
of
the
glimmer
above.
That
is
poetry.’
(GC
82)
This
need
to
fight
against
the
‘levelling
function
of
language’
epitomises
the
connection
between
genuine
experience
and
the
linguisticality
of
experience.
Gadamer’s
insistence
on
the
linguistic
nature
of
experience
is
not
a
drive
to
assimilate
all
contradictory
experience
to
the
already-‐existing,
tradition-‐derived
language
of
the
present,
but
rather
is
shot
through
with
his
ambivalence
towards
117
language:
on
the
one
hand,
what
allows
us
to
make
sense
of
things
and
of
ourselves;
on
the
other
hand,
what
threatens
to
reduce
all
difference
to
the
familiar.
Now
let
us
turn
a
critical
eye
on
one
peculiar
feature
of
Gadamer’s
thought
that
shows
through
in
his
reading
of
Celan.
What
we
will
see
is
an
aversion
to
the
particular
and
the
singular
–
to
those
things
that
mark
out
an
individual
as
individual.
The
central
interpretive
question
Gadamer
poses
in
his
reading
of
the
Breath-‐
crystal
cycle
forms
the
title
of
his
book:
“Who
am
I
and
who
are
You?”
One
expects,
on
this
basis,
an
interpretation
that
works
out
the
I-‐You
relation
as
it
is
present
in
these
poems,
but
this
anticipation
is
disrupted:202
three-‐quarters
of
the
way
through,
Gadamer
seems
to
reject
the
question
itself:
‘We
do
not
need
to
ask
ourselves:
Who
am
I
and
who
are
You?
The
poem
will
say
‘yes’
to
every
answer’
(GC
118).
In
the
‘Epilogue’,
he
writes:
‘And
if
one
thinks
about
the
question
I
raised
in
relation
to
the
poem-‐cycle
“Breath-‐crystal”:
Who
am
I
and
who
are
you?
–
does
anybody
really
want
to
answer
it?
I
must
insist
that
the
figure
of
this
You
[the
immediate
reference
here
is
to
the
poem
‘Flower’
/
‘Blume’]
is
itself,
not
any
particular
person,
a
beloved,
or
any
other,
even
the
Wholly
Other’
(GC
134).
Frequently,
‘I’
turns
out
to
be
all
of
us;203
frequently,
‘You’
turns
out
to
be
‘I’
engaged
in
self-‐address.204
But
the
point
Gadamer
wants
to
insist
on
is
that
reading
in
the
poem
a
reference
to
any
particular
person
would
limit
the
sphere
of
the
interpretation
of
the
poem;
the
poem
(in
contrast
to
what
he
sees
in
the
poem
‘(I
know
you…’,
which
is
bracketed)
has
a
universal
significance
–
it
speaks
to
every
reader
of
the
poem
regardless
of
any
‘originally
intended’
references
or
meanings
–
that
takes
precedence
to
any
particular
reading.
202
This
may
also
be
because
of
what
Raymond
Geuss
calls
Celan’s
‘moral
indifferentism’:
he
just
wasn’t
interested
in
the
I-‐Thou
relation
in
the
way
Buber
or
Levinas
were.
See
Geuss’s
essay
‘Celan’s
Meridian’,
in
his
Politics
and
the
Imagination,
pp.
126-‐7.
203
For
example:
‘In
speaking
the
lyrical
word,
the
“I”
that
includes
us
all
is
so
present
that
“I”
is
not
even
mentioned
in
the
entire
poem.
This
“I”
that
includes
us
all
…’
(GC
90).
204
E.g.
GC
99,
100-‐1,
113-‐4,
118.
118
This
comes
across
with
particular
force
in
his
reading
of
Celan’s
poem
‘Tenebrae’
in
his
essay
‘Meaning
and
Concealment
of
Meaning
in
Paul
Celan’.205
Here
is
the
poem:
Tenebrae
Nah
sind
wir,
Herr,
nahe
und
greifbar.
Gegriffen
schon,
Herr,
ineinander
verkrallt,
als
wär
der
Leib
eines
jeden
von
uns
dein
Leib,
Herr.
Bete,
Herr,
bete
zu
uns,
wir
sind
nah.
Windschief
gingen
wir
hin,
gingen
wir
hin,
uns
zu
bücken
nach
Mulde
und
Maar.
Zur
Tränke
gingen
wir,
Herr.
Es
war
Blut,
es
war,
was
du
vergossen,
Herr.
Es
glänzte.
Es
warf
uns
dein
Bild
in
die
Augen,
Herr.
Augen
und
Munde
stehn
so
offen
und
leer,
Herr.
Wir
haben
getrunken,
Herr.
205
GC
167-‐178.
119
Das
Blut
und
das
Bild,
das
im
Blut
war,
Herr.
Bete,
Herr.
Wir
sind
nah.
[We
are
near,
Lord,
near
and
graspable.
Grasped
already,
Lord,
clawed
into
each
other
as
though
the
body
of
each
of
us
were
your
body,
Lord.
Pray,
Lord,
pray
to
us,
we
are
near.
Wind-‐skewed
we
went
there,
went
there
to
bend
down
to
the
trough,
to
the
crater.
To
be
watered
we
went
there,
Lord.
It
was
blood,
it
was
what
you
shed,
Lord.
It
glistened.
It
cast
your
image
into
our
eyes,
Lord.
Our
eyes
and
our
mouths
are
so
open
and
empty,
Lord.
We
have
drunk,
Lord.
The
blood
and
the
image
that
was
in
the
blood,
Lord.
120
Pray,
Lord.
We
are
near.]206
On
Gadamer’s
reading,
this
is
a
kind
of
Christian
existentialist
poem:
Christ
on
the
cross
(the
title,
‘Tenebrae’,
means
‘darkness’,
but
can
refer
specifically
to
the
eclipse
that
coincided
with
Christ’s
death)
is
urged
to
pray
to
us,
humankind,
in
his
moment
of
suffering
and
death
because
we
can
sympathise
with
his
condition
in
a
way
that
his
divine
Father
cannot.
The
poem
calls
our
attention
to
the
way
we
cannot
escape
our
own
deaths,
and
yet
affirms
us
in
this:
when
we
go
to
be
watered,
we
find
blood
–
a
symbol
of
death
and
mortality
–
but
we
drink
it
and
find
nourishment
nonetheless.
Gadamer
thus
finds
universal
significance
in
the
poem
–
even
if
not
all
of
us
are
Christians,
the
Christian
message
is
itself
supposed
to
be
universal.
Since
we
all
need
to
face
up
to
our
own
deaths,
the
poem
is
about
all
of
us.207
But
is
it?
To
my
ear,
the
most
immediate
feature
of
the
poem
is
its
eeriness:
the
bodies
‘clawed
into
each
other’,208
the
empty
eyes
and
mouths,
the
drinking
of
the
blood,
the
way
the
poem
seems
to
be
spoken
in
chorus
(‘we
are
near’).
We
happen
to
know
that
the
expression
‘clawed
into
each
other’
[ineinander
verkrallt]
comes
from
a
book
Celan
had
read
on
the
‘Final
Solution’:
there
it
described
the
positions
of
the
bodies
of
the
dead
in
the
gas
chambers.209
Gadamer
is
right
to
stress
that
one
should
not
read
a
poem
merely
as
an
enigma
to
be
unlocked
by
reference
to
biography
of
its
author
–
the
poem
must
speak
for
itself.
But
biographical
information
can
help
to
give
us
an
orientation
towards
the
poem
–
knowing
the
poet’s
general
preoccupations
especially
so.
So
let
us
pose
the
question:
Who
is
speaking
here?
Rather
than
Gadamer’s
universal
humanity,
let’s
suppose
it
is
instead
the
ghosts
of
those
dead
in
the
gas
chambers
206
I
have
lightly
modified
Hamburger’s
translation,
Poems
of
Paul
Celan,
3rd
ed.
(Anvil
Press,
Bruns
has
suggested
that
Gadamer’s
reading
of
‘Tenebrae’
is
a
partial,
Christian
reading
of
the
poem
that
can
always
be
contrasted
with
other
readings
(GC
34).
But
this
seems
to
me
too
conciliatory:
it
is
an
attempt
to
make
contradictory
readings
sit
peacefully
next
to
each
other,
rather
than
engage
with
the
question
of
which
better
makes
sense
of
the
poem.
Gadamer’s
reading
is
Christian,
it
is
true
–
but
it
is
existentialist
before
it
is
Christian
(he
reads
it
as
about
death
first
and
the
divine
second),
and
it
takes
the
poem
as
having
the
universal
significance
I
have
just
described.
208
‘A
tortured
picture,’
notes
Jerry
Glenn,
Paul
Celan
(Twayne,
1973),
p.
97.
209
See
John
Felstiner,
Paul
Celan:
Poet,
Survivor,
Jew
(Yale,
1995),
p.
103.
121
(just
as
‘Todesfugue’
/
‘Deathfugue’
is
spoken
by
those
in
the
concentration
camps)
–
or,
taking
it
one
step
further,
their
Furies.
The
Furies,
in
Aeschylus’s
Oresteia,
are
chthonic
entities
that
rise
up
to
pursue
Orestes
after
he
has
murdered
his
mother;
they
are
the
agents
summoned
forth
by
Clytemnestra’s
desire
for
vengeance.
In
Celan’s
poem,
the
Furies
of
those
dead
in
the
death
camps
have
stumbled
across
a
desolate
landscape
(‘wind-‐skewed’)210
in
pursuit
of
the
god
‘who,
so
they
head,
wanted
all
this,
/
who,
so
they
heard,
knew
all
this’
(to
borrow
lines
from
another
of
his
poems);211
like
the
chthonic
Furies,
‘there
was
earth
inside
them’.212
Drawing
near,
they
urge
Christ
to
pray
to
them
–
for
forgiveness.
Thirsty,
they
find
the
blood
of
Christ
pooling
on
the
ground,
and
drink
it.
They
are
clawed
into
each
other,
grotesquely
maintaining
the
posture
they
were
in
at
death,
and
they
will
soon
get
their
claws
into
Christ’s
body.
But
there
is
also
bitter
irony
in
the
poem.
For
Christ
came
nearly
two
thousand
years
too
early
for
these
Furies
to
get
their
hands
on
him,
and
Christ
was
the
only
coming
of
the
Lord
in
a
form
that
could
be
grasped
and
clawed.
Hölderlin’s
lines
(of
which
the
first
two
lines
of
‘Tenebrae’
are
an
inversion)
are
partially
right:
whether
or
not
God
is
near,
he
is
difficult
to
grasp.213
The
desire
of
the
Furies
for
vengeance
is
thus
impotent.
Short
of
a
second
coming,
the
encounter
imagined
by
the
poem
can
never
take
place.
If
this
is
correct,
then
the
poem
is
not
immediately
about
all
of
us
at
all.
If
it
has
universal
significance,
it
is
in
its
posing
the
question
about
how
we
are
to
deal
with
a
desire
for
vengeance
against
the
divine
when
the
divine
seems
to
be
absent.
This
may
not
in
the
end
be
the
right
reading,214
but
I
have
followed
Gadamer’s
injunction
to
say
what
one
sees
in
the
poem.
What
strikes
me
as
implausible
about
Gadamer’s
reading
is
not
only
its
universality,
but
that
it
210
Felstiner
hears
in
this
line
an
evocation
of
‘the
terrain
where
Einsatzkommandos
did
their
job’:
God’.
For
the
relation
of
‘Tenebrae’
to
‘Patmos’
see
Glenn,
p.
97
and
Felstiner,
p.
102.
214
For
some
alternative
readings,
see
Glenn,
Paul
Celan,
pp.
96-‐99
and
Felstiner,
Paul
Celan,
pp.
101-‐105.
122
passes
over
that
eeriness
I
have
made
central,
and
that
he
makes
the
poem
seem
far
more
pious
than
I
would
expect
from
Celan.215
But
there
is
something
instructive
in
Gadamer’s
immediate
insistence
on
the
universality
of
the
poem:
as
we
saw
in
Gadamer’s
account
of
genuine
experience,
what
it
teaches
us
is
not
any
particular
thing
but
knowledge
of
a
universal:
our
human
finitude.
This
is
what
seems
to
lie
behind
his
desire
not
to
read
the
poem
as
containing
particular
references:
it
must,
in
his
view,
speak
to
the
reader
without
the
need
for
‘specialist’
knowledge.216
But
this
seems
to
run
counter
to
Celan’s
injunction
that
the
poem
should
be
mindful
of
its
dates.217
The
concept
of
the
‘meridian’
that
Celan
sets
out
in
his
Meridian
speech
is
deeply
bound
up
with
particularity,
as
has
been
well
argued
by
Raymond
Geuss.218
A
meridian
is
a
line
that
runs
north-‐south
on
the
Earth,
at
every
point
along
which
the
sun
stands
at
its
highest
point
simultaneously.
In
many
of
Celan’s
poems,
a
number
of
particular
historical
occasions
are
brought
together
on
one
‘meridian’
such
that
they
are
grasped
in
their
relation
to
one
another.
These
historical
events
often
speak
to
the
utopian
impulse
–
the
desire
for
a
world
without
injustice
–
and
the
frustration
of
that
desire.219
Thus
in
the
poem
‘You
lie’
/
‘Du
liegst’,
the
executions
of
Karl
Liebknecht
and
Rosa
Luxemburg
are
brought
together
with
the
meathooks
on
which
the
conspirators
against
Hitler
were
hung
nearly
three
decades
later,
together
with
apples
on
stakes
and
Christmas
gifts
and
a
luxury
hotel.220
In
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
this
poem,221
he
acknowledges
the
need
for
215
This
is,
after
all,
the
man
who
said
to
Nelly
Sachs:
‘I
hope
to
be
able
to
blaspheme
until
the
end.’
See
Paul
Celan
/
Nelly
Sachs:
Correspondence
(Sheep
Meadow
Press,
1995),
p.
26.
216
This
is
a
recurring
theme
in
Who
Am
I
and
Who
Are
You?
but
see
especially
pp.
134-‐147
&
149-‐
153.
In
his
introduction
to
the
volume,
Bruns
glosses
this
by
quoting
Derrida
to
the
effect
that
Celan’s
poetry
addresses
us
even
if
we
don’t
understand
a
single
allusion
or
reference,
and
goes
on
to
say
that
‘one
cannot
respond
to
this
address
by
supplying
it
with
special
information’
(GC
29):
this
is
true,
and
Celan’s
poetry
would
be
uninteresting
if
it
merely
consisted
of
cryptic
crosswords
the
answers
to
which
were
historic
dates,
but
it
ignores
the
way
the
demand
of
Celan’s
poems
is
often
that
we
then
try
to
find
out,
through
research,
‘what
the
poem
knows’
(in
Gadamer’s
expression).
As
Geuss
formulates
it,
Celan’s
poetics
demands
of
the
poet
that
they
find
‘dated
experiences
that
deserve
to
enter
into
our
utopian
memory,
for
better
or
for
worse,
and
to
locate
them
on
their
meridian’
(‘Celan’s
Meridian’,
p.
137).
217
‘Perhaps
we
may
say
that
every
poem
has
its
“20th
of
January”
inscribed?
Perhaps
what’s
new
for
poems
written
today
is
just
this:
that
here
the
attempt
is
clearest
to
remain
mindful
of
such
dates?
[…]
Yet
the
poem
does
speak!
It
remains
mindful
of
its
dates,
yet
–
it
speaks.’
The
Meridian,
translated
by
John
Felstiner,
in
Selected
Poems
and
Prose
of
Paul
Celan,
p.
408.
218
See
‘Celan’s
Meridian’,
esp.
pp.
128-‐37.
The
following
discussion
draws
on
this
article.
219
‘Celan’s
Meridian’,
pp.
130ff.
220
See
Szondi’s
discussion
of
this
poem
in
‘Eden’,
collected
in
his
Celan
Studies,
trans.
Susan
123
knowledge
of
specific
dates
and
events,
since
this
is
what
the
poem
itself
knows.
He
thus
arrives
at
what
seems
to
me
the
right
reading
of
the
poem:
the
injunction
to
see
the
way
all
of
these
contradictory
elements
can
be
in
such
close
proximity
to
each
other,
such
that
a
building
that
was
used
to
hold
political
prisoners
awaiting
execution
can
later
be
a
luxury
hotel
(as
in
the
case
of
the
hotel
Eden).
But
while
the
inscription
of
particular
dates
seems
to
me
central
to
Celan’s
poetics,
for
Gadamer
it
is
a
side
issue:
what
matters
is
the
way
the
poem
speaks
to
the
reader
–
the
need
for
specific
dates
is
an
aberration,
perhaps
confined
to
only
a
few
poems
(see
particularly
GC
143).222
The
issue
is
not
confined
only
to
Celan’s
poems.
Consider,
for
another
example,
Wilfred
Owen’s
poem
‘Futility’:
Move
him
into
the
sun
–
Gently
its
touch
awoke
him
once,
At
home,
whispering
of
fields
half-‐sown.
Always
it
woke
him,
even
in
France,
Until
this
morning
and
this
snow.
If
anything
might
rouse
him
now,
The
kind
old
sun
will
know.
Think
how
it
wakes
the
seeds
–
Woke
once
the
clays
of
a
cold
star.
Are
limbs,
so
dear
achieved,
are
sides,
Full-‐nerved,
still
warm,
too
hard
to
stir?
Was
it
for
this
the
clay
grew
tall?
–
O
what
made
fatuous
sunbeams
toil
To
break
earth’s
sleep
at
all?223
221
GC
137-‐144.
222
It
is
interesting
that,
when
writing
without
his
philosophical
hat
on,
Gadamer
reads
Celan’s
124
What,
to
ask
Gadamer’s
question,
does
the
poem
know?
Clearly
it
is
about
a
dead
man,
and
the
futility
of
trying
to
wake
him.
There
is
also
the
suggestion
that
the
man
in
question
died
from
the
cold
(‘until
this
morning
and
this
snow’).
But
does
the
poem
know
it
is
a
war
poem?
There
is
a
reference
to
France,
but
that
could
point
in
any
number
of
directions
–
perhaps,
for
instance,
to
a
holiday.
It
is
our
knowledge
of
the
context
into
which
Owen
was
speaking
and
of
his
usual
preoccupations
that
allow
us
to
read
it
in
a
particular
direction.
Without
being
read
as
a
war
poem,
‘Futility’
is
still
a
moving
poem
about
death
and
the
impossibility
of
recovering
what
is
thus
lost
–
and
about
the
way
this
impossibility
of
recovering
a
loved
one
can
call
into
question
the
whole
point
of
existing
in
the
first
place.
But
the
poem
gains
additional
force
by
being
read
in
the
context
of
the
1914-‐18
war:
in
that
context,
it
points
to
the
bitter
winters
faced
by
the
soldiers,
who
could
die
not
just
in
fighting,
but
from
exposure.
The
title
thus
comes
to
refer
not
only
to
the
futility
of
trying
to
wake
the
dead,
but
also
to
the
futility
of
the
struggle
of
the
soldiers
to
stay
warm,
to
live
longer.
We
are
guided
in
reading
the
poem
this
way
by
our
knowledge
of
Owen’s
particular
preoccupations;
but
it
is
precisely
those
preoccupations
that
Gadamer
is
averse
to.
Now,
Gadamer’s
method
is
difficult
to
pin
down.
As
with
his
hermeneutics
generally,
at
one
level
he
wants
to
insist
that
all
he
is
doing
is
unpacking
how
readers
do
actually
engage
with
the
text.
But
there
is
something
deeper
going
on.
Gadamer
would,
I
think,
agree
with
this
poem
of
Celan’s
that
sets
out
the
way
the
meaning
of
a
poem
emerges
between
reader
and
text:
Mit
wechselndem
Schlüssel
schließt
du
das
Haus
auf,
darin
der
Schnee
des
Verschwiegenen
treibt.
Je
nach
dem
Blut,
das
dir
quillt
aus
Aug
oder
Mund
oder
Ohr,
wechselt
dein
Schlüssel.
Wechselt
dein
Schlüssel,
wechselt
das
Wort,
das
treiben
darf
mit
den
Flocken.
125
Je
nach
dem
Wind,
der
dich
fortstößt,
ballt
um
das
Wort
such
der
Schnee.
[With
a
variable
key
you
unlock
the
house
in
which
drifts
the
snow
of
that
left
unspoken.
Always
what
key
you
choose
depends
on
the
blood
that
spurts
from
your
eye
or
your
mouth
or
you
ear.
You
vary
the
key,
you
vary
the
word
that
is
free
to
drift
with
the
flakes.
What
snowball
will
form
round
the
word
depends
on
the
wind
that
rebuffs
you.]224
A
whole
hermeneutics
of
reading
could
be
unpacked
from
this
poem.
The
snowball
–
the
meaning
that
emerges
from
a
poem
–
forms
in
the
last
lines.
First
a
key
must
be
chosen
to
‘unlock’
the
unspoken
words
that
surround
the
poem,
those
words
that
will
form
the
context
out
of
which
the
meaning
can
form.
Which
key
gets
selected
is
not
an
entirely
free
choice,
but
rather
one
that
is
rooted
in
our
needs,
as
the
image
of
spurting
blood
testifies.
The
key,
once
chosen,
is
not
simply
held
rigid,
however:
as
the
second
stanza
emphasises,
even
after
the
key
has
been
chosen
it
can
be
varied,
as
one
seeks
a
better
key.
Then,
once
one
has
settled
on
a
key
and
gained
an
orientation
to
the
poem,
the
snowball
that
forms
depends
on
the
resisting
winds
–
the
poem
itself,
which
is
not
a
null
space
onto
which
just
anything
can
be
projected.
As
I
have
said,
I
do
not
think
Gadamer
would
object
to
this:
it
is
very
close
to
his
concept
of
the
prejudice-‐structure
of
understanding,
and
it
corresponds
fairly
closely
with
the
interpretive
method
he
brings
to
bear
on
Celan’s
poems.
However,
what
is
missing
from
Gadamer’s
approach
is
a
sense
that
not
all
of
the
needs
and
interests
we
bring
to
bear
on
a
poem
are
equal.
Sometimes
we
read
a
poem
for
the
sake
of
pleasure
in
the
way
it
engages
our
imaginative
faculties
–
224
‘With
a
variable
key’,
translated
by
Michael
Hamburger,
Poems
of
Paul
Celan,
p.
95.
126
and
when
we
read
like
this,
there
is
little
or
nothing
at
stake,
and
in
the
end
it
doesn’t
matter
whether
our
interpretation
of
the
imagery
or
the
meaning
of
the
poem
in
any
way
corresponds
to
what
the
poet
had
in
mind.
One
could,
for
example,
read
Owen’s
poem
‘Futility’
at
a
funeral,
and
it
would
not
matter
that
the
connection
with
soldiers
in
the
trenches
was
lost
–
indeed,
one
could
go
further
and
suggest
that
a
poem
is
enriched
by
its
application
in
a
variety
of
contexts
beyond
those
envisaged
by
its
author;
one
could
even
suggest
that
rigid
insistence
on
fidelity
to
the
original
context
and
intention
are
death
to
a
poem.
But
at
other
times
what
we’re
interested
in
when
reading
the
poem
is
working
out
what
the
poet
was
trying
to
achieve
or
trying
to
say
–
and
reading
and
discussing
poetry
often
involves
the
ascription
of
various
views
to
the
poet
on
the
basis
of
their
poetry.
With
some
lyric
poetry,
the
question
of
what
the
poet
had
in
mind
may,
paradoxically,
be
irrelevant
to
responding
to
what
the
poem
is
trying
to
achieve
–
a
poem
that
revels
in
the
sounds
of
its
words
and
the
juxtaposition
of
its
images
might
not
be
trying
to
say
anything.
But
a
poet
like
Celan
is
trying
to
say
something,
and
while
we
don’t
have
to
read
him
on
those
terms,
it
is
hardly
surprising
that
–
at
least
some
of
the
time
–
we
should
want
to.
This
is
where
Gadamer’s
claim
to
be
simply
unpacking
the
way
readers
do
actually
engage
with
the
text
comes
undone.
For
he
has
implicitly
chosen
one
particular
way
of
reading,
and
then
set
this
up
as
the
normative
model.
This
style
of
reading
is
that
of
the
reader
of
lyric
poetry
for
whom
imaginative
and
personal
engagement
with
the
poem
is
more
important
than
understanding
the
poem
as
a
communicative
act
on
the
part
of
a
poet
with
a
particular
set
of
concerns.
This
approach
still
allows
Gadamer
to
acknowledge
the
need
for
some
pieces
of
information
not
simply
given
in
the
poem
(the
particular
dates
it
is
concerned
with,
etc.),
but
this
need
is
explicitly
put
into
the
service
of
allowing
the
reader
to
better
engage
with
the
poem
as
a
piece
of
lyric.
Conversely,
one
can
read
Celan’s
poems
as
attempts
to
provide
an
orientation
with
regard
to
the
significance
of
the
various
events
and
occasions
(i.e.
those
dates)
inscribed
in
them.225
One
need
not,
in
the
end,
decide
definitively
in
one
direction
or
the
other
–
Celan
insists
225
Geuss
presents
some
arguments
to
support
the
view
that
this
is
how
Celan
himself
saw
at
127
that
the
key
is
‘variable’
–
but
the
point
here
is
that
Gadamer’s
method
is
not
so
neutral
as
it
purports
to
be.
This
objection
can
be
broadened
if
one
contrasts
Gadamer’s
approach
with
an
entirely
different
conception
of
the
relation
between
reader
and
text:
that
of
Borges’s
story
‘Pierre
Menard,
Author
of
Don
Quixote’.226
The
story
is
well
known,
but
I
will
quickly
rehearse
its
key
points:
Pierre
Menard
sets
out
to
re-‐
write
Don
Quixote,
not
by
copying
it
or
reinterpreting
it
or
retelling
it,
but
by
arriving
at
it
himself.
He
first
sets
out
to
become
Cervantes
by
learning
16th
century
Spanish
and
forgetting
the
last
few
hundred
years
of
history;
rejecting
this
approach
as
too
easy
(!),
he
resolves
to
arrive
at
Don
Quixote
through
his
own
experience
as
Pierre
Menard.
The
narrator
proceeds
through
a
few
comparisons
of
(identical)
passages
by
Cervantes
and
by
Menard,
finding
them
strikingly
different
in
character
and
quality.
The
story
concludes
thus:
Menard
(perhaps
without
wishing
to)
has
enriched,
by
means
of
a
new
technique,
the
hesitant
and
rudimentary
art
of
reading:
the
technique
is
one
of
deliberate
anachronism
and
erroneous
attributions.
This
technique,
with
its
infinite
applications,
urges
us
to
run
through
the
Odyssey
as
if
it
were
written
after
the
Aeneid,
and
to
read
Le
jardin
du
Centaure
by
Madame
Henri
Bachelier
as
if
it
were
by
Madame
Henri
Bachelier.
This
technique
would
fill
the
dullest
books
with
adventure.
Would
not
the
attributing
of
The
Imitation
of
Christ
to
Louis
Ferdinand
Céline
or
James
Joyce
be
a
sufficient
renovation
of
its
tenuous
spiritual
counsels?227
What
is
of
interest
for
us
is
not
so
much
the
positive
suggestion
(deliberate
misattribution)
as
what
it
tells
us
about
the
way
we
normally
read.
It
is
perfectly
normal
to
read
a
work
with
an
eye
to
the
positions
it
advances,
and
then
attribute
them
to
the
author;
this
is,
of
course,
made
more
complicated
by
poets,
226
Collected
in
Borges,
Ficciones.
This
is
a
much-‐commented
on
story,
but
the
discussion
of
it
that
prompted
my
inclusion
of
it
here
is
that
of
Alberto
Manguel,
‘Faking
It’,
collected
in
his
A
Reader
on
Reading
(Yale,
2010).
Manguel’s
marvelous
essay,
which
at
times
feels
like
a
Borges
story,
treats
the
story
in
the
context
of
false
attributions
to
Borges
of
various
works
he
did
not
actually
write.
227
‘Pierre
Menard’,
p.
38.
128
writers
of
fiction,
and
others
who
adopt
various
masks
in
their
writings.228
But
it
has
certainly
been
my
experience
that
I
find
it
much
easier
to
read
an
author
if
I
have
some
idea
of
their
general
interests
and
what
they
have
to
say
on
a
range
of
topics:
any
given
passage
is
easier
to
grasp
if
one
has
a
sense
of
the
author
in
general;
I
find
it
harder
to
read
unattributed
fragments
than
the
work
of
a
named
author.
This
is
the
old
hermeneutical
circle
of
part
and
whole,
and
Gadamer’s
poetics,
by
focusing
on
the
poem
as
it
stands,
partially
elides
the
circle,
and
loses
sight
of
the
way
sometimes
something
is
interesting
not
just
because
of
what
it
says,
but
because
of
who
said
it.
We
can
see
this
elision
at
play
in
Gadamer’s
reading
of
Celan.
Oddly,
at
one
stage
Gadamer
passes
over
a
poem
in
the
Breath-‐crystal
cycle
as
impenetrable
to
his
method.
Here
is
the
poem,
which
is
positioned
third-‐last
in
the
cycle:
(Ich
kenne
dich,
du
bist
die
tief
Gebeugte,
ich,
der
Durchbohrte,
bin
dir
untertan.
Wo
flammt
ein
Wort,
das
für
uns
beide
zeugte?
Du
–
ganz,
ganz
wirklich.
Ich
–
ganz
Wahn.)
[(I
know
you,
you’re
the
deeply
bowing,
bowed,
I,
the
drilled
through,
to
you
am
subjugate.
Where
flames
one
word
that
for
us
both
could
vouch?
You
–
wholly
real.
I
–
all
delusion,
mad.)]229
The
most
obvious
typographical
feature
of
the
poem
is
the
way
it
is
set
in
parentheses,
bracketing
it
off
from
the
flow
of
the
cycle.
Gadamer,
for
this
reason,
treats
it
as
of
more
private
significance
than
the
other
poems:
‘The
I
that
speaks
here
and
admits
in
the
end
to
being
“wholly
illusion”
[ganz
Wahn
–
‘all
delusion,
mad’
in
Hamburger’s
translation]
is
not
transformed
in
these
verses
into
that
228
A
particular
challenge
for
reading
authors
whose
works
have
characters
in
them
(and
we
must
including
the
narrator
as
a
character)
is
the
attribution
of
a
character’s
views
to
the
author.
This
is
highlighted
in
a
very
amusing
story
Borges
tells
about
a
man
who
stopped
him
in
the
street
to
ask
if
he
really
possessed
the
seventh
volume
of
the
encyclopedia
from
the
story
‘Tlön,
Uqbar,
Orbis
Tertius’
(collected
in
Ficciones);
when
Borges
told
him
he
did
not
in
fact
possess
it,
that
it
was
only
a
story,
the
man
responded:
‘It’s
all
a
lie,
then?’
(Borges
&
Ferrari,
Conversations,
trans.
Jason
Wilson
[Seagull
Books,
2014],
vol.
1,
p.
111.)
229
Trans.
Hamburger,
in
Poems
of
Paul
Celan,
p.
265.
129
omnipresent
I
of
lyric
poetry
in
which
poet
and
reader
are
fused
together’
(GC
122).
Both
the
I
and
the
You
of
this
poem
thus
seem
to
Gadamer
to
be
singular
individuals,
and
thus
not
of
general
significance
–
which
is
to
say,
not
of
significance
to
the
rest
of
us.
I
say
this
is
an
odd
place
for
Gadamer
to
abandon
his
usual
interpretive
approach
because
this
poem
perfectly
captures
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
of
charity.
I,
who
am
all
delusion,
subject
myself
to
you,
whom
I
recognise
as
wholly
real;
I
seek
a
word
that
could
vouch
for
both
of
us:
a
word
that
would
bring
us
into
agreement.
We
have
seen
that
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
is
oriented
towards
resisting
the
delusions
and
fancies
that
the
I
is
always
at
risk
of
falling
into,
and
that
it
checks
this
tendency
by
insisting
on
the
dialogical
primacy
of
the
other
who
calls
into
question
what
I
had
taken
to
be
the
case.
To
see
the
I
as
delusion
and
the
You
as
real
captures
this
precisely.
For
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics,
this
is
a
poem
of
universal
significance
–
it
describes
how
each
I
should
relate
to
each
You.
But
he
glosses
over
this
poem
because
it
seems
to
him
to
be
related
only
the
experiences
of
some
particular,
singular
individuals.
This
aversion
to
the
particular
is
the
peculiarity
I
referred
to
at
the
beginning
of
this
section.
We
can
see
it
in
his
minimalist
treatment
‘(I
know
you…’,
in
his
universalist
reading
of
‘Tenebrae’,
in
his
preference
for
lyric,
and
in
his
sidelining
of
the
particular
dates
inscribed
in
Celan’s
poems.
These
are
not
aberrations,
but
the
result
of
the
central
movement
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics:
the
other
is
a
partner
in
dialogue
who
offers
an
alternative
perspective
and
voices
criticisms,
but
they
are
not
an
individual,
this
singular
other
who
appears
before
me
–
for
to
particularise
them
would
come
dangerously
close
to
psychologising
them,
and
trying
to
explain
what
they
have
said
by
appeal
to
their
particularities.
This
is
why
the
other
is
treated
as
‘wholly
real’
while
I
am
‘wholly
delusion’:
in
the
contrast
between
delusion
and
reality,
reality
is
the
absence
of
delusion:
thus
the
‘real’
other
is
given
authority
over
the
‘delusional’
self.
The
irony
is
that
the
‘real’
human
being
is
actually
partially
constituted
by
their
delusions;
but
to
know
them
in
their
real
delusion
would
be
to
insulate
my
prejudices
from
their
delusional
perspective.230
Montaigne
is
rather
more
circumspect:
noting
his
own
230
This
is
precisely
why
Gadamer
says
that
psychoanalytic
interpretation
‘goes
in
a
totally
different direction’ to his hermeneutics: ‘Psychoanalytic interpretation does not seek to
130
fallibility,
especially
that
of
his
memory,
he
says
that
he
would
‘always
accept
the
truth
in
matters
of
fact
from
another
man’s
mouth
rather
than
from
my
own’,
except
that
‘what
I
do
for
lack
of
memory,
others
do
still
more
often
for
lack
of
good
faith’.231
We
would
do
well,
in
other
words,
not
to
be
too
impressed
by
our
own
finitude.
This
is
a
different
objection
to
that
mounted
by
Bernasconi
and
Derrida.
For
their
objection
is
that
Gadamer
is
forever
trying
to
assimilate
the
other
to
the
self,
which
I
have
attempted
to
show
is
a
misreading
of
the
whole
direction
of
his
thought.
The
objection
I
am
making
against
Gadamer
could
equally
be
made
against
Derrida
and
Bernasconi
as
well:
in
reacting
against
what
they
recognise
as
a
tendency
of
the
self
to
try
to
assimilate
the
other,
and
thus
insisting
on
the
unknowability
of
the
other
and
on
their
dialogical
priority
over
the
self,
they
wind
up
making
the
particular
human
being
disappear;
and
all
we
are
left
with
is
an
unfillable
gap
that
offers
provocations
and
challenges
and
to
which
I
am
to
subordinate
myself
without
ever
knowing
who
they
are.
understand
what
someone
wants
to
say,
but
instead
what
that
person
doesn't
want
to
say
or
even
admit
to
him
or
herself.’
(Dialogue
&
Deconstruction,
p.
56.)
231
Montaigne,
‘Of
Experience’,
p.
1002.
232
Gadamer,
‘On
the
Contribution
of
Poetry
to
the
Search
for
Truth’
(collected
in
RB),
p.
107.
For
the
‘thickening’
of
language
in
the
literary
work,
see
Foucault,
Language,
Madness,
and
Desire,
ed.
Philippe
Artières
et
al.,
trans.
Robert
Bononno
(Minnesota,
2015),
p.
46.
233
RB
114.
131
linguistic;
in
a
poem,
we
stand
for
a
while
in
the
nearness
and
familiarity
of
language.234
But
by
doing
so
it
allows
us
to
see
just
how
linguistic
the
whole
world
is:
the
seeming
transparency
of
language
in
its
everyday
functions
of
naming
and
describing
is
deeply
deceptive.
There
are
not
two
opposed
functions
of
language,
one
of
them
describing
the
world
as
it
is
anyway,
the
other
inventing
things
that
are
not.
All
language
invents
the
world;
it
is
precisely
because
the
world
and
its
contents
have
been
named
by
us
that
we
can
feel
at
home
in
the
world;
it
is
just
that
its
inventive
character
can
be
more
or
less
in
play.
Sometimes
what
matters
is
to
accord
with
already-‐establish
inventions;
other
times
it
is
a
matter
of
coming
up
with
a
new
and
more
fitting
formulation.
The
poem
merely
concentrates
this
inventive
power
of
language
to
create
something
that
exists
purely
in
language,
rather
than
gathering
and
elaborating
on
the
raw
material
of
the
world.235
This
is
the
general
significance
of
poetry
for
hermeneutics.
It
is
of
deep
significance,
but
limited
in
scope,
since
it
elides
the
individuality
of
the
particular
poem,
and
makes
the
significance
of
all
poems
the
same.
This
leads
us
to
the
second
point
of
relevance
of
poetry
for
hermeneutics:
the
poem
offers
a
genuine
experience.236
This
is
true
in
two
ways,
which
can
be
brought
out
in
connection
with
Plato’s
discussion
of
poetry
in
the
Ion.
Plato's
Ion
poses
two
different
philosophical
problems
about
poetry.
The
first
is
the
question
of
the
relation
between
poet
and
poem,
of
exactly
to
what
extent
the
poet
can
be
said
to
have
consciously
determined
the
poem
they
write.
In
his
discussion
of
this
point,
Plato
suggests
the
marvellous
image
of
the
muse
as
a
kind
of
magnet,
to
whom
a
poet
is
attracted
and
attaches,
like
an
iron
ring;
and,
by
virtue
of
this
attachment,
the
poet
is
granted
the
attractive
power
of
the
magnet,
which
then
leads
them
to
attract
further
iron
rings,
or
listeners.
The
second
is
the
problem
of
the
relation
between
poetry
and
truth,
and
is
posed
at
the
end
of
the
dialogue.
Socrates
has
been
interrogating
Ion
about
his
art,
that
of
the
rhapsode.
Ion
has
just
won
a
competition
for
his
recitation
of
Homer;
and
he
claims
that
to
understand
a
poem
is
to
understand
everything
the
poet
meant,
which
is
to
understand
everything
the
poet
understood.
Since
234
RB
115.
235
See
again
the
discussion
of
the
ontology
of
language
in
Ch.
1,
2(b).
236
See
again
GC
73
on
the
genuine
experience
of
the
poem.
132
Homer
demonstrated
a
great
understanding
of
generalship
(or
so
it
is
said),
of
what
generals
should
say
and
do
and
when,
Ion
is
forced
to
admit
that
he,
too,
has
a
great
understanding
of
generalship.
Socrates
asks
if
perhaps
he,
Ion,
is
not
then
the
greatest
general
among
the
Athenians,
to
which
Ion,
presumably
feeling
himself
backed
into
a
corner
or
maybe
just
because
he
lacks
any
self-‐critical
distance,
responds
that
indeed
he
is.
It
is
all
very
funny,
and
Ion
is
revealed
to
be
a
ridiculous
character.
But
nonetheless
it
poses
a
serious
problem:
what
is
the
relationship
between
poetry
and
truth?
What
is
it
that
we
understand
when
we
understand
poetry?
Clearly,
as
Plato's
ridicule
has
shown,
it
is
not
that
we
understand
the
objects
to
which
the
poem
'refers':
reading
and
reciting
the
Iliad
is
not
good
training
for
generalship.
But
then
what
is
it
that
the
poem
does?
How
do
these
two
issues
relate
to
hermeneutics
and
poetry?
In
the
case
of
the
first
question,
there
is
the
problem
of
the
relation
between
poet
and
poem.
Hermeneutically,
the
task
of
the
poet
is
the
get
beneath
our
ordinary
ways
of
seeing
and
thinking,
and
to
bring
things
into
language
afresh.
The
poem
is
the
concretion
of
this,
the
poet’s
genuine
experience.
This
need
not
suggest
that
the
poet
must
totally
understand
the
poem
they
have
composed;
a
poem
that
is
entirely
circumscribed
by
the
poet’s
understanding
is
probably
not
much
of
a
poem,
in
any
case.
As
in
Plato’s
image,
they
may
have
found
themselves
seized
by
the
significance
of
something,
though
they
do
not
fully
know
what
it
is
or
what
its
significance
is
–
like
an
iron
ring
on
a
magnet,
they
are
in
its
grip.
That
the
poet
does
not
necessarily
fully
know
the
truth
of
their
poem
is
no
objection,
however:
a
genuine
experience
is
frequently
ongoing
and
unresolved;
what
matters
is
that
the
poem
is
able
to
transmit
that
magnetic,
electrifying
quality
on
to
the
reader.
This
bring
us
to
the
second
issue,
that
of
the
relation
of
the
poetry
to
truth.
The
kind
of
truth
in
play
is
not
that
of
a
systematic
body
of
knowledge,
nor
of
scatted
propositions.
Ion’s
suggestion
that
knowing
Homer
makes
him
a
good
general
is
ridiculous.
However,
these
two
possibilities
do
not
exhaust
what
a
poem
might
offer
us.
One
might
not
learn
to
be
a
good
general
from
Homer,
but
that
does
not
mean
one
learns
nothing.
One
might
even
learn
something
about
leadership
and
the
risks
of
certain
leadership
ploys,
as
one
sees
Agamemnon’s
failed
attempt
to
rally
the
troops
by
playing
up
the
hopelessness
of
their
133
situation
(Iliad,
Book
II).237
A
poem,
more
generally,
offers
a
way
of
seeing
and
feeling,
which
is
to
say
an
orientation
towards
what
things
are
and
what
their
significance
is.
Openness
to
this
requires
of
the
reader
an
openness
to
the
poem’s
way
of
seeing
and
feeling,
which
means
on
openness
to
the
difference
between
that
way
of
seeing
and
feeling
and
one’s
own
habitual
ways.
The
poem
invites
one
to
consider
something
new,
or
something
old
in
a
new
way,
and
thereby
fuses
with
and
expands
one’s
horizon.
This
is
true
even
when
the
poem
in
question
is
very
old,
as
Homer’s
are.
When
one
encounters
them
for
the
first
time
(even
though
they
have
been
formative
for
the
world
in
which
one
has
grown
up),
or
when
one
reads
them
again,
one
finds
all
kinds
of
provocations;
the
measure
of
a
classic
is
the
inexhaustibility
of
its
horizon.
But
there
are
also
provocations
to
be
found
in
good
little
poems
of
much
less
grand
scope,
such
as
(to
take
but
a
recent
example),
‘The
Cloud’
by
Christopher
Reid:
When
the
precocious
Tadworth
twins,
Nigel
and
Phil,
drew
me
aside
in
the
changing
room
to
explain
how
things
really
worked,
what
men
did
to
women,
the
body
parts
involved
and
the
manner
in
which
they
were
used,
it
was
as
if
a
great,
blanking
cloud
had
lifted
and
a
new
one
taken
its
place.238
Here
we
have
an
ordinary
pre-‐adolescent
experience
–
the
spreading
of
lurid
tales
about
sex
–
transformed
into
the
expression
of
a
mystery.
The
poem
achieves
this
effect
through
the
transition
from
the
fifth
to
the
sixth
line:
had
the
poem
ended
with
the
fifth
line,
we
would
have
a
tale
of
enlightenment,
in
which
something
mysterious
suddenly
becomes
clear.
But
instead
we
are
told
that
the
explanation
merely
replaced
one
mystery
(rooted
in
ignorance)
with
another
(rooted
in
knowledge).
The
poem
asks
us:
do
we
really
understand
sex
when
we
know
the
parts
and
motions?
Is
sex
not
much
more
puzzling
than
that
–
237
Translated
as
The
Anger
of
Achilles
by
Robert
Graves
(Cassell,
1960).
Graves
reads
this
moment
as
an
instance
of
Homer’s
‘merciless’
wit
in
his
treatment
of
the
Greek
heroes:
‘Introduction’,
p.
xv.
238
Christopher
Reid,
The
Curiosities
(Faber
&
Faber,
2015),
p.
10.
134
especially
when
it
is
cast
in
purely
biological
terms
(as
it
is
in
this
poem),
without
reference
to
the
drives
and
desires
that
motivate
us?
To
say
that
poetry
has
some
connection
to
truth,
and
that
this
connection
is
rooted
in
ways
of
seeing
and
feeling,
is
not
necessarily
to
claim
that
there
is
one
way
of
seeing
and
feeling
that
is
most
appropriate,
and
that
the
truth
of
the
poem
consists
in
capturing
this.
While
one
might
like
to
commit
oneself
to
this
(Romantic)
conception
of
the
truth
of
the
poem,239
it
seems
to
me
that
the
core
of
the
hermeneutical
interest
in
the
poem
is
the
challenge
it
offers
by
presenting
a
way
of
seeing
and
feeling
that
is
distinct
from
one’s
own,
and
thus
offers
a
challenge
to
it
and
allows
one
to
see
one’s
own
perspective
anew.
This
is
a
sense
of
truth
that
we
will
discuss
in
the
next
chapter
as
the
‘truth
event’.
The
fundamental
connection
between
poetry
and
truth
is
thus
distinct
from
the
three
possibilities
Geuss
discusses
in
his
essay
on
‘Poetry
and
Knowledge’:
propositional
knowledge
(‘I
know
that
such-‐and-‐such
is
the
case’),
knowledge-‐
as-‐skill
(‘I
know
how
to
ride
a
bike’),
and
knowledge-‐as-‐acquaintance
(‘I
know
Sam/Paris/what
my
bike
looks
like’).240
Geuss
goes
through
each
of
these
in
turn,
and
shows
that
it
is
doubtful
that
poetry
has
any
special
relation
to
any
one
of
these
kinds
of
knowledge
(although
in
any
particular
case
it
may
provide
some
form
of
knowledge
to
the
reader).
His
arguments
are
salutary,
but
do
not
touch
on
the
connection
between
poetry
and
truth
that
interested
Gadamer.
Poetry
is
thus
important
for
philosophical
hermeneutics
in
two
ways:
by
existing
purely
within
language,
the
poem
calls
attention
to
the
way
language
is
bound
up
in
everything;
and
the
poem
also
offers
provocations
to
genuine
experience.
This,
it
should
be
said,
is
the
hermeneutical
relevance
of
poetry,
but
not
an
exhaustive
account
of
the
potential
ways
one
might
take
an
interest
in
poetry.
One
does
not
always
read
a
poem
in
order
to
be
reminded
of
the
linguisticality
of
all
experience,
or
to
have
one’s
perspective
challenged.
The
reasons
one
might
read
a
poem
are
at
least
as
varied
as
the
reasons
a
poem
239
See
Geuss’s
discussion
of
the
‘Romantic’
and
‘Platonic’
ways
of
thinking
about
truth
in
poetry
in
‘Poetry
and
Knowledge’,
collected
in
his
Outside
Ethics,
p.
197.
Roughly,
the
‘Platonic’
approach
is
to
suppose
that
an
accurate
description
of
the
world
is
sufficient
to
determine
how
one
should
feel
about
it,
while
on
the
Romantic
the
facts
are
not
enough:
the
appropriate
feeling
is
an
achievement.
Geuss
is
sceptical
that
there
is
a
single
correct/appropriate/true/fitting
way
of
seeing
and
feeling,
suggesting
that
they
have
a
necessarily
loose
fit
to
reality.
240
‘Poetry
and
Knowledge’,
p.
185.
135
might
be
written:
one
might
be
seeking
amusement,
entertainment,
distraction,
information,
wisdom,
a
bon
mot,
a
puzzle,
a
doctrine,
a
celebration,
an
elegy;
one
might
want
to
study
a
philosophical
position
(as
one
might
read
Lucretius),
to
learn
about
the
author’s
life
(Wordsworth’s
Prelude),
or
to
impress
somebody
at
a
dinner
party;
the
list
of
reasons
could
be
expanded
indefinitely.241
It
would
be
a
mistake
to
limit
poetry
to
its
hermeneutical
interest
–
or
to
suppose
that
every
poem
will
be
hermeneutically
interesting.
How
does
poetry
differ,
from
the
hermeneutical
perspective,
from
other
literary
genres,
such
as
the
novel?
A
novel,
just
like
a
poem,
exists
purely
in
language;242
and
it
too
can
subvert
one’s
expectations
or
call
something
into
question.
The
difference,
it
seems
to
me,
is
one
of
degree,
and
one
that
depends
on
the
poem
or
novel
in
question.
There
is,
this
is
to
say,
a
question
of
sub-‐genre:
prose
poem,
lyric,
epic,
etc.
This
can
be
brought
out
with
reference
again
to
Homer’s
Iliad.
Parts
of
the
Iliad
can
be
rendered
as
a
prose
narrative
not
easily
distinguishable
from
a
novel;
other
parts,
such
as
the
similes,
are
rather
more
‘poetic’.
Take
this
example,
from
Alice
Oswald’s
moving
version
of
the
Iliad
(which
consists
only
of
the
similes,
the
names
of
the
dead
and
the
violence
visited
upon
them
–
the
narrative
has
been
stripped
away):
Like
leaves
Sometimes
they
light
their
green
flames
And
are
fed
by
the
earth
And
sometimes
it
snuffs
them
out243
Here
we
have
an
image
of
human
lives
as
leaves,
and
their
variable
fates
pictured
as
the
fates
of
leaves
we
are
so
used
to
seeing:
sometimes
they
are
bright
and
green
and
healthy
(and
the
mixing
in
of
the
flame
metaphor
adds
movement
and
vigour),
and
at
other
times
they
wither.
The
suggestion
that
it
is
the
earth
that
snuffs
them
out
brings
us
up
short,
and
perhaps
refers
to
the
withering
of
the
leaves
at
their
proper
time
when
the
earth
cools
and
autumn
sets
in;
it
also
241
See
also
Geuss,
‘Poetry
and
Knowledge’,
pp.
204-‐5.
242
Gadamer’s
own
example
in
‘On
the
Contribution
of
Poetry
…’
(RB
111)
of
a
purely
linguistic
creation
is
that
of
the
staircase
Smerdjakov
falls
down
in
Dostoevsky’s
The
Brothers
Karamazov.
243
Alice
Oswald,
Memorial:
An
Excavation
of
the
Iliad
(Faber
&
Faber,
2011),
p.
15.
136
recalls
us
to
the
way
something
may
nurture
us
at
one
time
and
harm
us
at
another,
or
the
way
it
may
help
one
person
while
harming
someone
else.
The
image
of
natural
decline
that
it
suggests
is
also
provocative
in
the
context
of
a
poem
one
of
the
central
features
of
which
is
the
way
lives
are
violently
cut
short.244
These
moments
in
the
Iliad
are
more
poetic
than
others
partly
because
they
employ
a
poetic
device
(the
simile),
in
part
because
of
their
compression,
and
in
part
because
one’s
response
to
them
is
more
heightened.245
These
three
aspects
are
internally
related:
the
very
compression
of
a
well-‐handled
simile
(or
metaphor,
or
synecdoche,
etc.)
–
and
compression
here
refers
to
how
suggestively
packed
the
language
is,
even
if
it
is
a
lengthy
passage
–
is
what
prompts
the
heightened
response.
Further,
a
poem
–
unlike
a
piece
of
descriptive
prose
–
is
deeply
concerned
with
its
formal
and
aural
qualities.
In
this
way,
it
calls
one’s
attention
to
the
particularities
of
the
language
it
is
composed
in
–
the
(often
very
suggestive)
rhythms
and
rhymes
and
assonances
and
echoes
that
are
possible
in
that
language,
but
often
not
in
another,
which
is
why
poems
are
famously
the
hardest
things
to
translate.
These,
then,
are
some
of
the
reasons
why
poetry
is
of
deep
hermeneutical
significance,
even
above
and
beyond
the
importance
of
other
literary
genres
–
although
this
is
not
to
suggest
that
other
genres
lack
hermeneutical
relevance,
as
we
will
see
in
the
final
section
of
Ch.
5
when
we
turn
to
genuine
experience
and
narrative.
With
this
we
can
conclude
our
discussion
of
genuine
experience.
As
opposed
to
ordinary
experience,
in
which
nothing
stands
out
and
nothing
mounts
a
serious
challenge
to
our
expectations,
and
as
opposed
to
heightened
experience,
in
which
something
stands
out
but
not
in
such
a
way
as
to
mount
a
challenge,
a
genuine
experience
is
one
in
which
something
stands
out
in
such
a
way
as
to
mount
a
challenge.
A
genuine
experience
is
unpredictable,
in
two
ways:
I
cannot
know
when
I
will
undergo
one;
and
I
cannot
know
what
the
outcome
will
be.
This
is
the
central
concept
for
Gadamer’s
entire
hermeneutics:
the
experience
that
244
There
are
issues
of
translation
here
–
Oswald’s
version
is
fairly
loose
–
but
they
do
not
matter
much
for
the
point
here,
which
is
primarily
about
the
poetic,
rather
than
about
the
Iliad.
245
Graves’s
translation
The
Anger
of
Achilles
follows
precisely
this
division,
rendering
most
of
the
text as prose narrative, and switching to verse for those parts that demand poetic treatment.
137
draws
me
out
of
myself
and
changes
the
way
I
see
things.
In
the
final
chapter
I
will
subject
Gadamer’s
privileging
of
this
concept
to
criticism;
but
first,
in
the
following
chapter,
we
will
see
the
way
this
concept
is
intimately
connected
with
the
Gadamer’s
concepts
of
truth,
understanding
and
interpretation.
138
IV
–
Gadamer
on
Truth
Having
set
out
Gadamer’s
account
of
genuine
experience,
we
are
now
on
the
downward
slope.
Two
tasks
remain
for
us.
First,
we
need
to
fill
out
the
account
of
genuine
experience
by
bringing
in
a
constellation
of
concepts
that
are
closely
bound
up
with
it,
and
which
serve
to
expand
and
elaborate
it:
these
are
Gadamer’s
concepts
of
truth
and
interpretation.
This
is
the
aim
of
the
present
chapter.
In
the
next
chapter,
we
will
turn
to
our
final
task:
a
critical
assessment
of
the
structure
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutical
account
of
experience.
Truth,
for
some,
is
the
correspondence
of
the
mind
to
its
object;
for
others,
it
is
a
matter
of
a
proposition
picking
out
some
feature
of
the
world
(‘‘P’
is
true
if
and
only
if
P’).
Others
contend
that
truth
is
a
matter
of
the
coherence
of
beliefs
(or
perhaps
of
propositions)
with
each
other;
and
yet
others
hold
that
truth
is
being.
Some
say
that
truth
is
mind-‐dependent
(that
there
would
be
no
truth
if
there
were
no
minds),
while
others
say
that
what
is
true
is
true
regardless
of
the
presence
or
absence
of
minds.
Gadamer,
notoriously,
does
not
devote
much
time
to
spelling
out
what
exactly
he
means
by
truth.
He
is
taken
by
some
to
be
a
‘realist’,
in
that
what
makes
things
true
is
that
they
really
are
that
way.246
Others
contend
that,
since
Gadamer
brings
being
and
language
into
such
close
proximity,
there
is
no
‘way
things
are’
that
could
serve
as
a
ground
for
the
truth.247
Some
think
truth
for
Gadamer
is
a
flash
of
insight,248
while
others
think
it
is
a
matter
of
tarrying
and
taking
time.249
Contradiction,
one
can
see,
is
rife.
I
would
contend
that
what
Paul
Healy
calls
the
‘considerable
interpretive
challenge’250
posed
by
elucidating
Gadamer’s
concept
of
truth
is
compounded
by
that
concept
itself:
for
the
concept
of
truth
Gadamer
246
In
quite
different
ways,
Grondin,
‘Metaphysical
or
Nihilistic…’,
and
Wachterhauser
‘Getting
it
Right:
Relativism,
Realism
and
Truth’
(in
Dostal
[ed.],
The
Cambridge
Companion
to
Gadamer)
hold
something
like
this
view.
247
E.g.
Andrzej
Wiercinski
(2009),
‘Hans-‐Georg
Gadamer
and
the
Truth
of
Hermeneutic
Relativism.
249
E.g.
Robert
Dostal,
‘The
Experience
of
Truth
for
Gadamer
and
Heidegger:
Taking
Time
and
139
employs
is
not
unitary,
and
in
order
to
make
sense
of
it,
two
distinctions
have
to
be
made.
First,
a
distinction
must
be
made
between
the
‘phenomenological’
and
the
‘hermeneutical’;
second,
a
distinction
must
be
made
between
‘understanding’
and
‘interpretation’
(and
it
should
be
noted
that
Gadamer
employs
these
terms
in
specific
ways,
which
we
shall
discuss
in
more
detail
when
we
come
to
them).
We
will
see
that,
once
these
distinctions
are
employed,
each
of
the
above
contending
views
can
be
seen
to
be
a
part
of
the
whole.
Corresponding
to
the
first
distinction,
we
can
distinguish
between
‘truth-‐as-‐
adequatio’
and
‘truth-‐as-‐aletheia’;
corresponding
to
the
second
distinction,
we
can
distinguish
between
the
‘truth
event’
and
‘truth-‐as-‐fittingness’.
All
four
aspects
of
truth
are
operative
within
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
By
way
of
anticipation,
let
us
consider
preliminary
glosses
of
each
of
these:
Truth-‐as-‐adequatio:
truth
is
the
adequacy
of
my
understanding
to
the
thing
–
truth
is
a
measure
of
how
well
my
understanding
conforms
to
it.
Truth-‐as-‐aletheia:
truth
is
the
disclosure
of
something
as
what
it
is
–
this
is
a
more
fundamental
sense
of
truth,
since
it
is
only
if
something
is
already
disclosed
as
such-‐and-‐such
that
my
understanding
can
conform
to
it
as
that.
The
truth
event:
this
is
the
moment
when
I
suddenly
realised
the
inadequacy
of
my
previous
understanding
of
something
–
when
my
understanding
is
disrupted,
and
I
am
forced
to
look
upon
the
thing
anew.
Truth-‐as-‐fittingness:
following
a
disruption
in
my
understanding,
I
am
forced
to
work
out
a
new
way
of
understanding
something
–
this
means
working
out
a
new
interpretation,
the
measure
of
which
is
how
well
it
‘fits’
the
thing
under
consideration.
As
we
can
see,
there
are
close
connections
between
these
aspects
of
truth;
these
connections,
and
the
distinctions
between
them,
will
come
into
clearer
focus
as
we
proceed.
We
will
first
set
out
the
distinction
between
the
phenomenological
and
the
hermeneutical,
and
show
ways
in
which
both
are
present
in
Gadamer’s
thought.
Then
we
will
turn
to
the
concept
of
understanding,
and
its
relation
to
the
truth
event,
and
then
show
that
the
truth
event
means
different
things
at
the
phenomenological
and
hermeneutical
levels.
We
will
then
return
to
the
concepts
of
understanding
and
interpretation,
show
140
where
truth-‐as-‐fittingness
fits
in,
and
then
tease
out
some
of
the
ambiguities
in
the
concept
of
understanding.
literature,
although
not
in
this
connection.
It
is
the
basis,
for
example,
of
Helmut
Kuhn’s
distinction
between
horizon
as
“that
which
lies
beyond
the
immediately
given”
and
as
“inherent
potentialities”
(see
‘The
Phenomenological
Concept
of
“Horizon”
’,
especially
p.
166).
Or,
more
recently,
a
similar
distinction
also
appears
in
Nenon’s
argument
that
one
of
the
differences
between
Gadamer
and
Dilthey
lies
in
Dilthey’s
emphasis
on
what
Nenon
calls
the
‘subjective’
(which
is
similar
to
what
I
have
called
the
‘phenomenological’)
and
Gadamer’s
emphasis
on
what
I
have
called
the
‘hermeneutical’.
See
Nenon,
‘Hermeneutical
Truth
and
the
Structure
of
Human
Experience:
Gadamer’s
Critique
of
Dilthey’,
in
Schmidt
(ed.),
The
Specter
of
Relativism.
Finally,
in
Ricouer’s
discussion
of
the
distinction
between
phenomenology
and
hermeneutics,
he
notes
(with
reference
to
Gadamer)
that
part
of
the
distinction
turns
on
the
difference
between
what
is
brought
into
language
(phenomenology),
and
the
way
it
is
brought
into
language
(hermeneutics).
Hermeneutics
has
a
phenomenological
presupposition
(the
thing
given
in
experience),
while
phenomenology
has
a
hermeneutical
presupposition
(that
the
thing
can
be
explicated).
See
Ricoeur,
‘Phenomenology
and
Hermeneutics’,
Nous
(1975),
9,
1,
pp.
98-‐102.
141
He
notes
that
while
it
is
true
that
different
linguistic
and
cultural
traditions
see
the
world
in
different
ways,
and
that
historical
“worlds”
are
different
from
those
before
and
after;
‘but
in
whatever
tradition
we
consider
it,
it
is
always
a
human
–
i.e.,
verbally
constituted
–
world
that
presents
itself
to
us’
and
‘as
verbally
constituted,
every
such
world
is
of
itself
always
open
to
every
possible
insight
and
hence
to
every
expansion
of
its
own
world
picture,
and
is
accordingly
available
to
others.’
Thus
the
idea
of
measuring
our
view
of
the
world
against
the
‘world
in
itself’
is
problematic:
‘the
criterion
for
the
continuing
expansion
of
our
own
world
picture
is
not
given
by
a
“world
in
itself”
that
lies
beyond
all
language’;
rather,
since
human
experience
is
‘infinitely
perfectible’,
whatever
language
we
use,
we
only
ever
extend
our
view
of
the
world
–
but
always
remain
within
a
view
of
the
world.
‘Those
views
are
not
relative
in
the
sense
that
one
could
oppose
them
to
the
“world
in
itself”,
as
if
the
right
view
from
some
possible
outside
the
human,
linguistic
world
could
discover
it
in
its
being-‐in-‐itself.’
‘No
one
doubts
that
the
world
can
exist
without
man
and
perhaps
will
do
so.
This
is
part
of
the
meaning
in
which
every
human,
linguistically
constituted
view
of
the
world
lives.
In
every
worldview
the
existence
of
the
world-‐in-‐itself
is
intended.’
However,
the
multiplicity
of
worldviews
does
not
relativise
the
world:
‘rather,
the
world
is
not
different
from
the
views
in
which
it
presents
itself.’
It
is
at
this
point
that
he
moves
in
the
direction
of
the
phenomenological:
The
relationship
is
the
same
in
the
perception
of
things.
Seen
phenomenologically,
the
“thing-‐in-‐itself”
is,
as
Husserl
has
shown,
nothing
but
the
continuity
with
which
the
various
perceptual
perspectives
on
objects
shade
into
one
another.
A
person
who
opposes
“being-‐in-‐itself”
to
these
“aspects”
must
think
either
theologically
–
in
which
case
the
“being-‐in-‐itself”
is
not
for
him
but
only
for
God
–
or
he
will
think
like
Lucifer,
like
one
who
wants
to
prove
his
own
divinity
by
the
fact
that
the
whole
world
has
to
obey
him.
In
this
case
the
world’s
being-‐in-‐itself
is
a
limitation
of
the
omnipotence
of
his
imagination.
(TM
444-‐5)
142
As
this
passage
makes
clear,
Gadamer
never
loses
sight
of
the
way
our
cognitive
faculties
are
engaged
with
a
reality
that
is
not
reducible
to
them.
The
imagination,
as
he
puts
it,
is
not
omnipotent;
and
this
shows
up
the
falsehood
of
such
assessments
as
this:
‘Hermeneutic
truth
does
not
signify
the
correspondence
of
mental
states
to
objective
reality.
It
is
not
a
matter
of
adequation
between
the
cognizing
subject
and
the
object
in-‐itself,
according
to
the
definition
adaequatio
intellectus
et
rei.
For
Gadamer,
hermeneutic
truth
is
a
matter
of
mutual
agreement
between
partners
engaged
in
dialogue
and
seeking
common
understanding.
It
is
far
more
existential,
and
in
this
respect
an
ethical
aspect
of
being-‐in-‐the-‐world.’252
On
this
model,
the
partners
in
dialogue
agree
with
each
other,
but
not
about
anything.253
On
the
other
hand,
expressing
his
hermeneutical
bent
the
page
before,
Gadamer
observes
that
what
is
‘conceive[d]
as
existent
emerges
as
logos,
as
an
expressible
matter
of
fact,
from
the
surrounding
whole
that
constitutes
the
world-‐horizon
of
language’
(TM
443).
These
two
levels
–
the
hermeneutical
and
the
phenomenological
–
are
intimately
connected:
a
thing
cannot
appear
without
appearing
within
a
horizon
(the
world);
but
the
world
does
not
itself
appear,254
but
is
rather
manifest
in
the
way
things
appear.
This
is
the
point
of
contact
between
the
hermeneutical
and
the
phenomenological
modes,
which
otherwise
can
pull
in
contrary
directions.
We
see
this
tension,
for
example,
in
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
genuine
experience
[Erfahrung].
This
discussion
centres
around
the
role
anticipations
play
in
our
understanding
of
things,
anticipations
guided
by
our
prejudices.
When
these
anticipations
are
defied
by
some
phenomenon,
we
become
aware
of
a
prejudice
of
which
we
were
not
previously
aware,
but
that
nonetheless
has
formed
part
of
the
horizon
by
which
we
make
sense
of
things.
Attendance
to
the
phenomena,
then,
can
call
into
question
aspects
of
the
horizon
–
and
we
thus
learn
something
about
this
particular
thing
and
the
horizon
of
our
experiences.
But
here
Gadamer
takes
up
the
hermeneutical
dimension
much
more:
the
252
Wiercinski,
‘Hans-‐Georg
Gadamer
and
the
Truth
of
Hermeneutic
Experience’,
p.
11.
253
See
Jeff
Malpas,
‘Gadamer,
Davidson,
and
the
Ground
of
Undestanding’
(collected
in
Malpas
et
al.
(eds.),
Gadamer’s
Century)
for
the
importance
of
‘triangulation’
(self-‐other-‐object)
in
hermeneutic
thought.
254
Nor
does
the
tradition:
‘The
mode
of
being
of
tradition
is
not,
of
course,
sensible
immediacy.’
(TM 459)
143
experience
of
having
our
expectations
defied
ultimately
teaches
us
not
so
much
‘this
or
that
thing’
but
to
appreciate
our
own
historicity
and
finitude,
those
constant
features
of
human
experience
(TM
351).
We
can
see
the
same
hermeneutical
concern
at
the
forefront
of
his
essay
from
1954,
‘Truth
in
the
Human
Sciences’.255
Here
he
takes
up
the
question
of
how
this
truth
is
to
be
distinguished
from
that
of
the
natural
sciences.
Gadamer
outright
rejects
the
‘relativism’
and
‘nihilism’
of
historicism
(p.
27);
while
there
is
nothing
like
the
methodological
security
of
the
natural
sciences,
this
does
not
mean
that
we
should
give
up
on
the
project
of
the
human
sciences,
or
restrict
it
to
the
domain
of
the
methodological
certainty
–
rather,
this
calls
for
us
to
‘remain
mindful’
so
as
to
save
ourselves
from
‘delusion’
(p.
29).256
What
is
it
that
we
might
become
deluded
about?
‘What
we
know
historically
is,
in
the
final
analysis,
ourselves’
(p.
29);
and
‘what
we
ourselves
are
and
what
we
are
capable
of
heeding
from
the
past
is
not
arbitrary
and
not
optional’.
In
other
words,
as
historical
beings
who
live
in
historical
communities,
we
cannot
understand
ourselves
without
historical
inquiry
–
and
what
we
find
through
historical
inquiry
is
not
arbitrary,
and
its
interest
to
us
is
not
arbitrary
either.
While
there
is
always
the
danger
of
manipulation
by
external
political
powers,
or
–
more
insidiously
–
the
danger
of
being
lead
astray
by
one’s
own
inclinations,
or
the
unconscious
desire
to
meet
with
the
approval
of
the
public
(p.
30),
because
of
the
importance
of
the
task
of
the
human
sciences
–
our
understanding
of
ourselves
has
an
effect
–
they
have
a
responsibility
to
hold
to
the
truth
(p.
31).
In
light
of
our
discussion
of
genuine
experience
previously,
some
of
Gadamer’s
remarks
take
on
particular
interest.
The
kind
of
research
that
deserves
our
support,
he
says,
is
not
inoffensive
research
that
just
presents
something
to
us
as
we
already
supposed
it
was,
but
rather
research
that
offers
a
provocation
(Anstoss)
(p.
29).
This
is
because
what
research
in
the
human
sciences
is
closely
bound
up
with
our
understanding
of
ourselves,
and
being
told
things
that
conform
to
our
self-‐understanding
hardly
does
us
much
good;
unless
we
suppose
that
we
already
have
a
perfect
self-‐understanding
(in
which
case
we
are
255
Translated
by
Wachterhauser
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.),
Hermeneutics
and
Truth.
Page
144
deluded),
what
we
need
is
provocative
research
to
make
us
‘recognise
the
new
and
fruitful,
which
we
ourselves
do
not
see
because
we
have
our
own
ways
before
our
eyes’.
What
we
get
from
this
essay,
then,
is
not
so
much
a
direct
account
of
truth
as
an
account
of
its
function
and
importance.
The
kind
of
truth
Gadamer
is
concerned
with
is
the
truth
involved
in
our
self-‐understanding.
Its
function
is
to
resist
and
challenge
the
distortions
of
our
self-‐understanding,
and
to
prevent
us
from
slipping
into
complacent
or
self-‐serving
delusions.
But
these
truths
are
the
truths
that
occur
at
the
margins
of
our
experiences,
and
thereby
give
shape
to
them.
For
understanding
ourselves
through
history
means
better
understanding
the
world
in
light
of
which
we
make
sense
of
ourselves,
and
the
concepts
we
employ
when
we
make
sense
of
ourselves
and
the
world.
So
again
we
have
the
truth
not
of
particular
things,
but
the
truth
of
a
horizon
that
does
not
distort
what
appears
within
it.
The
other
thing
to
note
in
this
essay
is
that
we
can
see
the
connection
between
the
‘provocation’
of
original
research
and
‘genuine
experience’.
In
another
essay
from
this
period
during
the
writing
of
Truth
and
Method,257
Gadamer
observes
that
real
research
requires
the
ability
to
‘break
through
that
which
controls
our
entire
thinking
and
knowing
like
a
closed
and
impermeable
layer
of
smoothed-‐
over
opinions’
(p.
42).
This
will
be
important
for
us
when
we
discuss
the
truth
event,
below.
Phenomenological
concerns
are
more
prominent
in
the
notoriously
dense
closing
pages
of
Truth
and
Method.258
Here
Gadamer
suggests
two
ways
in
which
the
‘idea
of
the
beautiful’
can
illuminate
hermeneutical
experiences.259
The
first
is
in
relation
to
the
experience
of
a
statement
or
argument
as
‘probable’
(wahrscheinlich)
or
‘evident’
(einleuchtend).
The
German
terms
both
conjure
up
ideas
of
‘light’:
einleuchtend
literally
means
‘shining
in’,260
and
has
an
echo
of
Erleuchtung
(‘illumination’)
about
it;
and
wahrscheinlich
literally
means
257
‘What
is
truth?’
(1957),
also
translated
by
Wachterhauser
and
collected
in
Wachterhauser
145
‘true-‐shining’.
Gadamer
takes
this
as
a
helpful
lead
for
thinking
about
the
way
an
argument,
even
one
we
are
disagreeing
with,
can
have
something
plausible
about
it
–
although,
he
notes,
precisely
what
in
an
argument
seems
plausible
always
needs
further
investigation:
What
is
evident
(einleuchtend)
is
always
something
that
is
said
–
a
proposal,
a
plan,
a
conjecture,
an
argument,
or
something
of
the
sort.
The
idea
is
always
that
what
is
evident
has
not
been
proved
and
is
not
absolutely
certain,
but
it
asserts
itself
by
reason
of
its
own
merit
within
the
realm
of
the
possible
and
probable.
Thus
we
can
even
admit
that
an
argument
has
something
evidently
true
about
it,
even
though
we
are
presenting
a
counterargument.
How
it
is
to
be
reconciled
with
the
whole
of
what
we
ourselves
consider
correct
is
left
open.
It
is
only
said
that
it
is
evident
“in
itself”
–
i.e.,
that
there
is
something
in
its
favour.
(TM
479-‐80)
This
needs
careful
interpretation.
If
what
Gadamer
means
is
what
Wachterhauser
takes
him
to261
–
that
all
plausible
utterances
have
a
connection
with
their
Sache,
which
shines
through
in
them
–
then
this
is
false:
statements
that
are
totally
divorced
from
reality
can
seem
completely
plausible
to
me
if
I
am
uncritical
enough
and
they
accord
with
my
prejudices.262
But
if
what
he
means
is
that
genuine
speech
–
not
idle
chatter,
but
speech
connected
with
genuine
experience
of
the
Sache
–
makes
the
Sache
present
(cf.
TM
483)
and
presents
it
in
an
illuminating
light,
elaborates
it,
brings
it
into
focus,
then
this
has
something
to
it.
The
passage
we
are
considering
is
compressed
and
imprecise.
Considered
in
isolation,
it
would
seem
to
support
Wachterhauser’s
reading.
However,
in
the
first
sentence
of
the
next
paragraph,
Gadamer
draws
attention
to
genuine
experience.
If
we
recall
what
is
essential
about
genuine
experience
–
an
experience
that
calls
my
understanding
into
question,
that
breaks
through
the
261
Wachterhauser,
‘Gadamer’s
Realism’,
pp.
159-‐160.
262
As
the
priest
says
of
Don
Quixote:
‘But
isn’t
it
strange
to
see
how
readily
this
poor
gentleman
believes
all
these
fictions
and
lies,
and
just
because
they
ape
the
style
and
the
formulas
he
finds
in
his
books?’
(Don
Quijote,
Part
I,
Ch.
30)
146
smoothed-‐over
surface
of
my
opinions
–
then
we
can
see
this
passage
in
a
different
light.
While
he
does
not
make
it
explicit,
this
passage
is
best
understood
as
concerned
with
the
experience
of
plausibility
of
views
that
are
not
our
own
(this
is
presumably
the
meaning
of
‘even
though
we
are
presenting
a
counterargument’);
and
this
seems
to
be
the
meaning
of
the
final
part
of
the
paragraph
under
consideration:
‘[W]hat
is
evident
is
always
something
surprising
as
well,
like
a
new
light
being
turned
on,
expanding
the
range
of
what
we
can
take
into
consideration’
(TM
480).
The
function
of
the
plausible,
then,
is
to
call
our
attention
to
aspects
of
something
that
our
current
understanding
of
it
cannot
account
for
–
to
direct
our
attention
back
to
the
Sache.
Similarly,
Gadamer
suggests
that
one
of
the
features
of
an
experience
of
the
tradition
is
that
on
being
understood
it
‘disturbs
the
horizon
that
had,
until
then,
surrounded
us’
(TM
480).263
We
should
also
consider
Lawrence
Schmidt’s
reading
of
the
section
under
consideration.264
For
Schmidt,
the
evident
(das
Einleuchtende)
is
the
criterion
for
hermeneutical
truth.
Against
the
obvious
objection,
that
sometime
we
feel
like
something
is
evident
but
we
turn
out
to
be
totally
mistaken,
he
argues
that
something’s
being
evident
is
less
a
feeling
and
more
an
experience,
comparable
to
the
concept
of
‘evidence’
in
Husserl
(p.
80).
However,
even
if
we
were
to
grant
this,
his
argument
unravels
when
he
argues
that
even
though
sometimes
we
feel
certain
about
something,
we
can
later
recognise
–
in
light
of
a
new
evident
experience
–
that
we
were
mistaken,
and
that
we
ultimately
learn
that
we
are
finite
and
fallible
(p.
81).
To
claim
that
the
evident
is
the
criterion
of
truth,
but
that
we
can
be
mistaken
about
the
experience
of
evidentness,
is
to
fall
into
the
‘no
true
Scotsman’
fallacy,
and
to
render
the
concept
useless.
What
we
took
to
be
evident
turns
out
not
to
be
so;
‘evidentness’
turns
out
to
need
its
own
criterion,
else
the
criterion
be
criterion-‐less.
We
should
not,
then,
take
this
as
a
criterion
for
truth.
Sometimes
a
flash
of
insight,
a
sudden
realisation
in
which
a
previously
un-‐considered
option
appears
evident,
turns
out
to
be
a
dead
end
or
totally
unfruitful.
So
while
the
experience
263
The
reader
will
notice
that
this
parallels
my
objections
to
Bernasconi
at
the
end
of
the
previous
chapter.
264
Schmidt,
‘Uncovering
Hermeneutic
Truth’,
in
Schmidt
(ed.)
The
Specter
of
Relativism.
The
147
of
'enlightening'
occurs
with
the
'truth
event'
(the
flash
of
insight),
it
is
not
the
criterion
for
it,
since
it
can
be
mistaken.
This
is
perfectly
consistent
with
Gadamer’s
general
concern
about
our
finitude
fallibility:
sometimes
we
just
cannot
tell
whether
we
have
really
seized
upon
something,
or
whether
our
cognitive
faculties
are
just
spinning
in
the
void.
We
have
to
wait
to
see
whether
the
insight
is
borne
out.
When
Gadamer
speaks
of
a
‘criterion’
for
the
correct
interpretation
of
a
poem
in
his
book
on
Paul
Celan,
it
is
the
criterion
of
‘coherence’
–
how
well
an
interpretation
can
bring
all
of
the
elements
of
a
poem
into
a
coherent
relation
with
each
other.
But
he
immediately
disavows
any
firm
criterion
on
the
very
next
page,
when
he
affirms
that
every
interpretation
of
a
poem
is
only
provisional.265
So
much
for
the
first
connection
Gadamer
notes
between
the
idea
of
the
beautiful
and
hermeneutical
experience.
The
second
is
an
ontological
one.
‘If
we
start
from
the
basic
ontological
view
that
being
is
language
–
i.e.,
self-‐
presentation
–
as
revealed
to
us
by
the
hermeneutical
experience
of
being,
then
there
follows
not
only
the
event-‐character
of
the
beautiful
and
the
event-‐
structure
of
all
understanding’
(TM
481).
The
basic
idea
is
to
overcome
the
opposition
between
a
thing
in
itself
and
the
way
it
appears.
The
Platonic
form
of
beauty
‘is
not
radiance
shed
on
a
form
from
without’
but
rather
its
‘ontological
constitution
[...]
is
to
be
radiant’:
in
other
words,
the
form
of
the
beautiful
does
not,
by
shining
on
them,
render
things
beautiful
that
otherwise
would
not
be,
but
rather
is
itself
manifest
in
them.
Thus
it
always
appears
as
an
image.
Similarly,
when
we
experience
something,
when
it
appears
to
us,
what
we
experience
is
not
a
representation
of
the
thing
but
rather
a
presentation,
an
image,
of
the
thing
itself:
‘What
presents
itself
[...]
is
not
different
from
itself
in
presenting
itself’
(TM
481).
Here
we
have
Gadamer
the
phenomenologist
through
and
through.
The
distinction
between
the
phenomenological
and
the
hermeneutical
is
an
important
one
to
bear
in
mind,
since
what
it
is
we
are
trying
to
understand
may
belong
to
one
or
the
other
of
the
levels.
As
we
discussed
way
back
with
regard
to
prejudices,
sometimes
there
is
an
element
of
adequatio
in
Gadamer’s
account,
which
some
commentators
think
could
be
a
lingering
element
of
the
265
See
GC
145-‐6.
148
epistemological
tradition
that
he
has
not
yet
overcome.266
We
need
not
see
it
in
this
way.
Adequatio
is
a
perfectly
adequate
conception
of
truth
for
what
we
have
been
calling
the
phenomenological
domain,
where
the
concern
is
with
how
something
is
given
to
me
in
experience.
As
we
saw
above,
Gadamer
is
insistent
that
there
is
something
‘there’
that
I
experience
and
interpret,
and
I
may
simply
be
mistaken
about
what
that
something
is
–
which
is
to
say,
my
prejudices
may
be
wrong
or
misleading.
When
it
is
a
matter
of
my
prejudices
not
adequately
conforming
to
what
something
is,
the
correction
of
those
prejudices
leads
to
a
truer
understanding
of
what
the
thing
is.
This
is
the
place
for
truth-‐as-‐adequatio.
However,
truth-‐as-‐adequatio
does
not
go
all
the
way
down,
since
it
is
a
question
only
the
mind’s
relation
to
its
object.
It
must
presuppose
that
the
object
already
is
in
one
way
rather
than
the
other.
On
one
traditional
view,
things
are
what
they
are
because
they
correspond
to
ideas
in
the
mind
of
God;
on
another
traditional
view,
they
simply
are
what
they
are,
waiting
for
the
mind
to
discover
them.
One
of
Heidegger’s
achievements
in
Being
and
Time
was
to
explicitly
undermine
the
latter
view
(and,
implicitly,
the
former)
by
demonstrating
the
concealed
dimension
of
concern
and
interest
in
the
way
things
are:
the
world
consists
of
these
objects,
divided
into
these
groups
according
to
these
categories,
because
we
live
in
a
particular
way,
have
some
set
of
interests
and
concerns,
and
want
to
do
certain
things.
In
a
way,
he
turned
the
saying
‘When
you
have
a
hammer,
everything
looks
like
a
nail’
into
a
principle
of
ontology.
As
Mark
Wrathall
summarises
it,
Heidegger’s
thought
was
an
attempt
‘to
reject
the
idea
that
there
are
entities,
we
know
not
what,
existing
as
they
are
independently
of
the
conditions
under
which
they
can
manifest
themselves’.267
For
Gadamer,
the
basic
ontological
principle
is
not
this
practical
horizon
but
rather
the
world-‐
horizon
of
language.
This
horizon
does
not
correspond
to
anything
beyond
it,
and
so
cannot
be
adequate
to
anything;
rather,
it
is
what
makes
it
possible
for
something
to
be
one
thing
or
another.268
It
is
this
world-‐constituting
function
of
language
that
is
truth-‐as-‐aletheia,
which
is
the
concept
of
truth
relating
to
hermeneutics.
266
See
Grondin,
The
Philosophy
of
Gadamer,
p.
86-‐7.
(Grondin
seems
to
have
changed
his
view
in
149
If
this
is
correct,
then
it
is
not
the
case
that
there
is
a
lingering
element
of
the
epistemological
tradition
in
Gadamer’s
thought
that
he
has
failed
to
overcome;
rather,
Gadamer
wavers
between
the
domains
of
the
phenomenological
and
the
hermeneutical
(and
thus
between
adequatio
and
aletheia)
–
and
failure
to
distinguish
them
(as
Gadamer
himself
fails
to)
can
lead
to
confusion.
understanding.
270
Gadamer
uses
‘understanding’
in
a
few
different
ways,
which
will
be
discussed
below.
The
present
sense
of
the
term
captures
the
way
a
work
of
art
lays
hold
of
us
and
leaves
an
impression,
even
when
we
cannot
say
precisely
what
it
is
that
has
captivated
us
(cf.
Grondin,
‘Play,
Festival,
and
Ritual
in
Gadamer:
On
the
theme
of
the
immemorial
in
his
later
works’,
collected
in
Lawrence
K.
Schmidt
(ed.),
Language
and
Linguisticality
in
Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
52).
150
question,
in
a
way
that
Gadamer
has
described
earlier
in
the
text:
‘To
interpret
means
precisely
to
bring
one’s
own
preconceptions
into
play
so
that
the
text’s
meaning
can
really
be
made
to
speak
for
us’
(TM
398).271
In
this
sense,
understanding
runs
ahead
of
the
rest
of
our
intellectual
capacities;
it
is
the
exercise
of
the
understanding
that
enables
a
productive
engagement
to
take
place.272
If
we
do
not
strive
to
engage
in
this
way,
to
understand
in
this
way,
we
run
the
risk
of
assimilating
the
text
to
our
taken-‐for-‐granted
interests,
concerns
and
categories:
[2]
the
historian
usually
chooses
concepts
to
describe
the
historical
particularly
of
his
objects
without
expressly
reflecting
on
their
origin
and
justification.
He
simply
follows
his
interest
in
the
material
and
takes
no
account
of
the
fact
that
the
descriptive
concepts
he
chooses
can
be
highly
detrimental
to
his
proper
purpose
if
they
assimilate
what
is
historically
different
to
what
is
familiar
and
thus,
despite
all
impartiality,
subordinate
the
alien
being
of
the
object
to
his
own
preconceptions.
Thus,
despite
his
scientific
method,
he
behaves
just
like
everyone
else
–
as
a
child
of
his
own
time
who
is
unquestioningly
dominated
by
the
concepts
and
prejudices
of
his
own
age.
Insofar
as
the
historian
does
not
admit
this
naiveté
to
himself,
he
fails
to
reach
the
level
of
reflection
that
the
subject
matter
demands.
But
his
naiveté
becomes
truly
abysmal
when
he
starts
to
become
aware
of
the
problems
it
raises
and
so
demands
that
in
understanding
history
one
must
leave
one’s
own
concepts
aside
and
think
only
in
the
concepts
of
the
epoch
one
is
trying
to
understand.
(TM
397-‐8)
271
To
reiterate
this
important
point,
to
understand
and
interpret
a
text
means
to
allow
it
to
call
one’s
preconceptions
into
play.
Jonathan
Barnes
thus
has
it
completely
backwards
when
he
writes:
‘The
hermeneutical
approach
to
philosophical
texts
is
thus
wholly
egocentric:
we
read
Plato
in
order
to
‘learn
from
him’,
in
order
to
‘make
his
questions
our
own’;
when
we
talk
nominally
about
Aristotle
we
are
really
talking
about
ourselves.
We
do
not
particularly
wish
to
learn
about
Plato.
We
are
not
interested
in
the
fact
that
Aristotle’s
concerns
were
utterly
different
from
our
own.’
Barnes
seems
not
to
have
noticed
that
trying
to
‘make
someone’s
questions
our
own’
means
first
and
foremost
to
work
out
what
their
questions
are,
and
how
they
differ
from
our
own.
See
Barnes,
‘A
Kind
of
Integrity’,
London
Review
of
Books,
8,
19,
pp.
12-‐13
[accessed
online].
272
We
might
compare
William
James
on
the
relation
between
‘intuitions’
and
‘rationalism’,
The
Varieties of Religious Experience (Longmans Green & Co, 1943), pp. 72-‐3.
151
Understanding,
then,
comes
first
–
then
interpretation.273
This
is
the
meaning
of
the
second
and
third
sentences
in
the
passage
we
are
considering
[1].
The
third
sentence
is
puzzling:
we
‘arrive,
as
it
were,
too
late,
if
we
want
to
know
what
we
are
supposed
to
believe’.
If
by
this
Gadamer
means
that
it
is
pointless
trying
to
engage
critically,
because
before
the
critical
faculties
can
be
engaged
we
have
already
assimilated
to
the
text
and
so
have
already
changed
our
beliefs,
then
one
of
the
standard
critiques
of
him,
that
his
account
lacks
a
critical
spirit,
would
be
entirely
appropriate.
But
I
do
not
think
this
is
would
be
an
accurate
characterisation
of
his
thought.
Rather,
it
is
more
productively
read
in
light
of
the
passage
just
cited
[2]
(which
comes
from
TM
III
1
[B]):
if
we
want
to
understand
something
(in
the
usual
sense),
the
first
step
must
be
to
submit
our
preconceptions,
concepts
and
categories
to
the
question
of
the
thing
itself
–
it
must
first
question
us,
before
we
question
it.
Discussing
the
limits
of
the
parallel
between
‘hermeneutical
and
philosophical
dialectic’,
Gadamer
tells
us:
[3]
[T]he
hermeneutical
experience
always
includes
the
fact
that
the
text
to
be
understood
speaks
into
a
situation
that
is
determined
by
previous
opinions.
The
hermeneutical
situation
is
not
a
regrettable
distortion
that
affects
the
purity
of
understanding,
but
the
condition
of
its
possibility.
Only
because
between
the
text
and
its
interpreter
there
is
not
automatic
accord
can
a
hermeneutical
experience
make
us
share
in
the
text.
Only
because
a
text
has
to
be
brought
out
of
its
alienness
and
assimilated
is
there
anything
for
the
person
trying
to
understand
it
to
say.
Only
because
the
text
calls
for
it
does
interpretation
take
place,
and
only
in
the
way
called
for.
The
apparently
thetic
beginning
of
interpretation
is,
in
fact,
a
response;
and
the
sense
of
the
interpretation
is
determined,
like
every
response,
by
the
question
asked.
Thus
the
dialectic
of
question
and
answer
always
precedes
the
273
So
it
is
not
sufficient
to
simply
subsume
one
to
the
other,
as
in:
‘For
Gadamer,
understanding
is
always
interpretation’
(Wiercinski,
p.
13).
While
it
is
true
that
for
Gadamer
understanding
(in
the
broad
sense)
is
always
interpretation
(in
the
broad
sense),
we
risk
trivialising
his
thought
to
the
level
of
post-‐modern
banalities
if
we
lose
sight
of
the
way
his
concepts
actually
relate
to
each
other.
152
dialectic
of
interpretation.
It
is
what
determines
understanding
as
an
event.
(TM
467)
Before
the
dialectic
of
interpretation
can
get
going,
there
must
be
a
dialectic
of
question
and
answer:
in
reading,
I
pose
questions
to
the
text,
and
the
answers
it
gives
will
call
into
question
those
‘previous
opinions’
of
mine;
interpretation
then
proceeds
as
I
try
to
make
sense
of
these
alien
answers.
If
this
first
step
is
passed
over,
we
end
up
naively
assimilating
the
text
to
the
way
we
ordinarily
think,
and
unless
we
have
some
kind
of
warrant
to
believe
that
the
way
we
ordinarily
think
is
entirely
correct,
our
understanding
will
be
distorted.
But,
at
the
same
time,
we
do
not
want
to
fall
into
the
opposite
error,
of
attempting
to
leap
over
our
current
concepts
entirely,
as
though
they
could
be
bracketed
out,
and
to
take
on
only
the
concepts
of
the
text.
Not
only
is
this
impossible,
it
is
not
a
desirable
end,
either,
for
two
related
reasons.274
The
first,
which
Gadamer
notes,
is
that
in
this
way
we
psychologise
the
meaning
of
the
text,
rather
than
understanding
it
as
about
something,
its
Sache.
The
second,
which
Gadamer
does
not
explicitly
note,
if
we
take
on
only
the
viewpoint
of
the
text
we
lose
the
capacity
to
engage
it
critically.275
The
final
sentence
of
[1]
recalls
us
to
the
role
of
prejudice
in
understanding.
As
I
discussed
in
a
previous
chapter,
prejudices
are
a
somewhat
ambiguous
category
in
Gadamer’s
thought,
but
the
meaning
here
is
clear
enough:
without
prejudices
there
is
no
understanding
and
no
experience
of
things
as
we
experience
them
(as
he
notes
on
TM
480,
this
is
related
to
the
finite
nature
of
our
experience);
but
nonetheless
what
is
of
real
value
is
genuine
experience
that
recalls
us
to
the
things
themselves.
This
structure
of
the
hermeneutical
experience,
which
so
totally
contradicts
the
idea
of
scientific
methodology,
itself
depends
on
the
274
While
Gadamer
does
not
always
make
this
explicit,
that
it
is
not
a
desirable
end
does
not
mean
it
is
not
sometimes
a
useful
activity
to
undertake,
as
by
making
an
effort
to
reconstruct
the
historical
horizon
of
a
text
we
can
better
call
into
question
our
own
horizon.
275
There
is
perhaps
a
problem
along
these
lines
with
Collingwood’s
account
of
how
to
uncover
the
question
that
a
text
is
asking,
in
that
a
text
winds
up
being
the
perfect
answer
to
its
own
question.
In
this
case,
how
can
we
engage
the
text
critically?
This
point
is
raised
in
Bernard
Williams’s
essay
on
Collingwood
in
The
Sense
of
the
Past,
ed.
Myles
Burnyeat
(Princeton,
2006).
153
character
of
language
as
event
that
we
have
described
at
length.
It
is
not
just
that
the
use
and
development
of
language
is
a
process
which
has
no
single
knowing
and
choosing
consciousness
standing
over
against
it.
(Thus
it
is
literally
more
correct
to
say
that
language
speaks
us,
rather
than
that
we
speak
it
[...].)
A
more
important
point
is
the
one
to
which
we
have
constantly
referred,
namely
that
what
constitutes
the
hermeneutical
event
proper
is
not
language
as
language,
whether
as
grammar
or
as
lexicon;
it
consists
in
the
coming
into
language
of
what
has
been
said
in
the
tradition:
an
event
that
is
at
once
appropriation
and
interpretation.
Thus
here
it
really
is
true
to
say
that
this
event
is
not
our
action
upon
the
thing,
but
the
act
of
the
thing
itself.
(TM
459)
The
coming-‐into-‐language
over
which
we
have
no
control:
this
is
the
truth
event.
Gadamer,
in
this
passage,
is
particularly
concerned
with
the
way
the
tradition
is
forever
coming
afresh
into
the
language
of
the
present;
this
is
because,
as
the
opening
words
make
clear,
he
is
thinking
here
of
what
goes
on
in
hermeneutical
experience
–
which,
as
we
have
said,
is
that
sub-‐species
of
genuine
experience
concerned
with
the
way
we
find
ourselves
addressed
by
an
interlocutor
(the
tradition,
for
the
hermeneuticist,
is
just
one
interlocutor
among
others,
albeit
the
most
important
one).
But
there
is
more
to
be
said
about
the
truth
event.
We
have
distinguished
between
the
phenomenological
and
the
hermeneutical
tendencies
of
Gadamer’s
account
of
truth,
and
the
truth
event
can
take
place
on
either
or
both
levels.
This
is
something
Gadamer
does
not
give
any
explicit
attention
to,
but
we
can
explicate
it
as
follows.276
276
Some
other
commentators
pick
up
on
this
distinction,
but
do
not
elaborate
on
it.
Thus
Bernet
says
of
the
truth
event:
‘For
a
game
to
have
truth
value,
the
disclosure
of
the
meaning
of
this
world
of
human
life
must
form
the
horizon
and
the
ultimate
stake
of
the
truth
put
into
play
by
a
particular
thing’
–
this
is
a
hermeneutical
truth
event.
He
goes
on
to
say:
‘Inversely,
there
is
truth
value
in
any
game
which
shifts
a
thing
into
a
new
context,
thereby
showing
it
to
be
different
than
we
thought’
–
this
is
a
phenomenological
truth
event.
(See
Bernet,
‘Gadamer
on
the
Subject’s
Participation
in
the
Game
of
Truth’,
p.
799.)
154
At
the
phenomenological
level,
the
truth
event
is
the
presentation
of
the
thing
to
me
such
that
it
issues
a
challenge
to
my
understanding
of
it.
So,
for
example,
my
friend
might
do
something
I
think
reprehensible:
on
the
basis
of
my
understanding
of
him,
I
take
his
failure
to
fulfil
some
important
commitment
to
be
due
to
some
private
whim
–
he
has,
in
the
past,
failed
to
fulfil
other
commitments
because
he
just
did
not
feel
like
it
at
the
time,
and
so
on.
But
when
I
challenge
him,
he
tells
me
something
about
his
relation
to
that
commitment
–
perhaps
it
was
made
under
duress,
or
there
is
some
private
reason
why
fulfilling
that
commitment
would
be
intensely
painful
for
him,
or
so
on.
This
discovery
then
puts
him
into
a
new
light:
I
see
that
what
appeared
to
be
a
reprehensible
failure
is
actually
no
such
thing;
perhaps,
if
the
revelation
he
provides
is
deep
enough,
it
will
also
lead
me
to
see
a
whole
range
of
things
he
has
done
in
the
past
in
a
different
light.
Thus
the
truth
event
is
this
moment
in
which
what
I
had
taken
to
be
the
truth
about
my
friend
is
shown
to
be
mistaken,
and
my
friend
(‘the
thing
itself’)
presents
himself
as
other
than
what
I
had
taken
him
to
be.
Alternatively,
something
might
be
revealed
as
corresponding
to
its
concept.
In
his
essay,
‘On
the
contribution
of
poetry
to
the
search
for
truth’,
Gadamer
notes
the
way
we
use
the
expression
“true
friend”:
‘We
mean
by
this
that
someone
has
proved
himself
or
herself
to
be
a
friend
and
not
simply
given
us
the
impression
of
friendly
support
and
sympathy.
It
has
emerged
this
is
a
real
friend.
[...]
It
can
also
be
put
this
way:
when
we
say
“a
true
friend”,
we
mean
that
here
the
word
accords
with
its
concept.
This
man
actually
corresponds
with
the
concept
of
a
friend.’277
There
are
two
things
going
on
at
the
phenomenological
level,
then:
my
understanding
of
someone/something
may
correspond
better
or
worse
to
that
person/thing;
and
that
person/thing
may
correspond
better
or
worse
to
the
concept
in
light
of
which
it
is
understood
(or
it
may
turn
out
to
be
better
understood
in
light
of
a
different
conceptual
horizon).
At
the
hermeneutical
level,
the
truth
event
could
occur
in
two
different
ways.
The
first
is
when
some
particular
concept
is
unfolded.
In
discussing
Hegel’s
dialectic,
Gadamer
uses
the
example
of
the
concept
of
justice
(TM
463).278
A
reversal
takes
place,
he
notes,
when
we
realise
that
in
some
cases
by
pursuing
277
RB
108.
278
This
is
a
passage
we
will
discuss
below.
155
justice
too
thoroughly
we
can
thwart
justice
(the
principle
of
summum
ius
summa
iniuria).
Suppose
that
we
take
justice
to
be
the
impartial
application
of
law:
anyone
who
breaks
the
law,
must
face
the
consequences.
Two
people
steal
some
bread:
the
first,
a
wealthy
woman,
who
steals
because
she
is
a
miser;
the
second,
a
destitute
woman,
who
steals
because
otherwise
she
will
starve
to
death.
To
apply
the
law
against
theft
to
the
first
woman
would
be
to
punish
her
for
an
act
freely
committed;
but
to
apply
the
law
to
the
second
woman
would
be
to
punish
her
for
an
act
committed
out
of
desperation,
as
a
result
of
being
in
a
situation
that
she
was
probably
only
in
(given
the
kind
of
society
in
which
we
live)
due
to
structural
injustices
in
the
first
place
–
it
would
be
to
perpetuate
injustice.
Thus
the
truth
event
in
this
case
is
the
realisation
that
the
concept
of
justice
is
not
so
straightforward
as
I
had
taken
it
to
be.
The
second
way
takes
place
when
I
come
to
see
that
the
concepts
by
which
I
make
sense
of
the
world
are
in
some
way
contingent.
This
is
different
to
the
case
of
the
concept
of
justice
just
discussed,
because
in
that
case
it
was
not
a
matter
of
a
different
concept
of
justice
coming
into
view,
but
the
unfolding
of
one
and
the
same
concept.
Such
a
hermeneutical
project
is
the
one
pursued
by
Charles
Taylor
in
Sources
of
the
Self,
in
which
Taylor
attempts
to
trace
part
of
the
history
of
our
sense
of
self,
to
show
the
way
certain
elements
of
it
–
our
sense
of
interiority,
of
the
value
of
ordinary
life,
of
our
connection
with
nature
–
are
not
simply
given
but
have
come
to
be
through
our
contingent
history.
By
doing
so
he
throws
elements
of
our
horizon
into
sharp
relief,
and
shows
that
they
need
not
necessarily
be
the
way
they
are.
Our
conception
of
the
good
life
consisting
of
(or
at
least
according
an
important
place
to)
a
contented
private
life,
for
example,
is
not
one
that
would
have
made
much
sense
to
the
Greeks.279
Now,
the
point
of
such
a
project
is
not
to
allow
us
to
pick
and
choose
between
different
conceptions,
but
rather
to
throw
our
conceptions
into
relief
so
that
we
can
get
a
better
grasp
of
them,
for
the
sake
of
being
better
able
to
unfold,
develop
or
criticise
them
(like
in
the
case
of
justice
above).280
Even
if
we
do
not
(even
279
Cf.
Hannah
Arendt,
The
Human
Condition
(Chicago,
1998).
280
Raymond
Geuss
has
suggested
that,
since
our
political
world
is
in
a
significant
sense
constituted
by
the
kinds
of
political
concepts
we
have
(in
the
hermeneutical
sense
I
have
been
discussing),
one
of
the
tasks
of
political
philosophy
might
be
‘conceptual
innovation’
–
the
development
of
conceptual
resources
by
which
we
can
better
make
sense
of
the
world
we
live
in
156
though
we
do
not)
buy
the
Hegelian
line
that
concepts
can
be
worked
out
with
a
kind
of
immanent
necessity,
nonetheless
we
can
only
move
to
new
conceptions
on
the
basis
of
where
we
are;281
and
sometimes
we
might
show
that
a
wrong
turn
has
been
taken
at
some
historical
juncture,
that
we
might
be
best
advised
to
try
to
think
through
an
alternative
line
of
development.282
We
need
now
to
distinguish
between
the
truth
event,
as
I
have
been
applying
the
term
to
Gadamer’s
thought,
and
a
related
concept
that
Heidegger
employs,
which
we
may
designate
‘the
happening
of
truth’.283
The
happening
of
truth,
for
Heidegger,
is
the
way
in
which
the
work
of
art
‘opens
up
a
world
and
keeps
it
abidingly
in
force’
(p.
44;
emphasis
in
original).
The
world
in
question
is
not
the
totality
of
given
objects
but
rather
the
background
against
which
they
can
appear
as
what
they
are
(previously
we
designated
this
the
hermeneutical
‘horizon’).
The
happening
of
truth
is
the
opening
up
of
this
world,
and
its
remaining
open;
it
is
an
ongoing
event
within
which
everything
we
do
takes
place.
Where
this
differs
from
Gadamer’s
conception
of
the
(hermeneutical)
truth
event
is
in
its
temporality.
The
happening
of
truth
is
an
ongoing
event
in
which
we
all
stand;
the
truth
event
is
that
flash
in
which
things
change,
and
a
rebuke
or
challenge
is
issued
to
see
things
anew.
To
put
that
another
way:
the
happening
of
truth
is
an
ongoing
event
in
which
things
are
sustained;
the
truth
event
is
a
single
moment
in
which
things
are
changed.
This
brings
out
a
further,
implicit
contrast.
For
Heidegger,
the
Greek
temple
sets
up
a
world,
giving
people
their
outlook
and
letting
things
appear
as
what
they
are;
perhaps,
if
the
people
stray
from
that
outlook
the
temple
might
offer
a
silent
rebuke
and
recall
them
to
who
they
are;
and
eventually
that
world
passes
away
–
presumably
because
the
temple’s
call
and
rebuke
was
not
heeded.284
But
this
way
of
thinking
about
history
has
no
and
the
problems
it
faces,
which
(if
successful)
is
tantamount
to
changing
that
world.
See
his
Philosophy
and
Real
Politics
(Princeton,
2008),
pp.
42ff.
281
A
similar
project
is
pursued
by
Alasdair
MacIntyre
in
Whose
Justice?
Which
Rationality?
(Notre
Dame,
1988),
in
which
he
also
takes
seriously
the
question
of
how
debates
between
rival
traditions
might
be
resolved
on
the
basis
of
where
they
are.
282
Taylor
argues
for
this,
with
regard
to
Descartes,
in
his
contribution
to
Rorty,
Schneewind
&
Skinner
(eds.),
Philosophy
in
History
(Cambridge,
1984);
and
Quentin
Skinner
argues
along
these
lines,
with
regard
to
the
defeat
of
the
‘republican
conception
of
liberty’,
in
the
final
division
of
Liberty
Before
Liberalism
(Cambridge,
2012).
283
The
following
discussion
draws
primarily
from
‘The
Origin
of
the
Work
of
Art’,
in
Heidegger,
Basic
Writings.
284
Cf.
Julian
Young,
Heidegger’s
Philosophy
of
Art
(Oxford,
2001),
pp.
52-‐60.
My
summary
is
intentionally coarse, so as to make the contrast with Gadamer stark; Young rightly emphasises
157
place
for
change,
only
loss;
the
world
does
not
develop,
but
passes
away.
Gadamer’s
conception
of
history
is
inherently
developmental:
the
past
is
constantly
being
appropriated
and
reinterpreted
in
the
light
of
the
changing
present.
The
conversation
that
we
are
is
ongoing;
the
very
structure
of
Truth
and
Method
is
not
that
of
destruction
and
return,
but
of
an
ongoing
conversation
with
an
entire
tradition,
with
the
goal
of
issuing
a
challenge
to
further
think
through
what
it
means
to
have
historical
consciousness.
So
we
now
have
a
grasp
on
the
truth
event,
truth-‐as-‐adequatio
and
truth-‐as-‐
aletheia.
But
what,
for
Gadamer,
is
an
interpretation?
As
we
have
seen,
the
truth
event
happens
prior
to
our
making
sense
of
it;
and
an
interpretation
is
an
attempt
to
make
sense
of
something.
So
we
will
need
to
explore
the
relation
between
the
two.
Every
interpretation
is
bound
to
its
hermeneutical
situation,
he
says
(TM
398);
but
this
does
not
make
it
private
and
subjective:
Being
bound
by
a
situation
does
not
mean
that
the
claim
to
correctness
that
every
interpretation
must
make
is
dissolved
into
the
subjective
or
the
occasional.
[...]
Interpretation
[...]
is
the
act
of
understanding
itself,
which
is
realised
–
not
just
for
the
one
for
whom
one
is
interpreting
but
also
for
the
interpreter
himself
–
in
the
explicitness
of
verbal
interpretation.
Thanks
to
the
verbal
nature
of
all
interpretation,
every
interpretation
includes
the
possibility
of
a
relationship
with
others.
(TM
399)
The
crucial
point
of
this
passage
occurs
in
the
second
sentence:
interpretation
is
not
distinct
from
understanding,
but
is
rather
an
‘act’
of
it.
He
emphasises
this
point:
‘[I]ntepretation
is
not
a
means
through
which
understanding
is
achieved;
rather,
it
enters
into
the
content
of
what
is
understood’
(TM
399).
Here
he
is
echoing
Heidegger,
who
in
Being
and
Time
claims
that
an
interpretation
is
that
for
Heidegger
the
life
of
a
community
consists
not
in
sticking
unchangingly
to
‘how
things
are
done’,
but
in
reinterpreting
and
reappropriating
their
history
and
practices.
However,
my
point
is
that,
for
Heidegger,
history
is
by
and
large
the
history
of
fall
and
forgetting,
which
is
not
how
Gadamer
sees
it
(his
‘forgetting
of
language’
thesis
notwithstanding).
158
understanding
becoming
itself.285
What
does
this
mean?
The
best
way
to
make
sense
of
it,
it
seems
to
me,
is
to
distinguish
between
interpretation
and
understanding
as
being
‘more
or
less
articulate’
(to
use
Charles
Taylor’s
phrase)
modes
of
the
same
thing,
our
capacity
to
understand.
Our
ordinary
understanding
of
something,
while
linguistic,
is
usually
not
very
articulate.
As
we
saw
in
the
previous
section,
understanding
occurs,
for
Gadamer,
not
when
I
‘fully’
understand
something
but
when
I
have
an
initial
grasp
of
it.
This
usually
strikes
us
when
someone
asks
us
to
explain
something
to
them
that
we
usually
feel
like
we
understand
perfectly
well:
in
trying
to
find
the
words
for
it
we
struggle,
and
often
end
up
in
hindsight
dissatisfied
with
the
result
and
feeling
like
we
have
distorted
the
thing
we
are
trying
to
explain.
What
we
have
offered
is
an
interpretation,
which
has
been
drawn
from
our
experiences
and
our
understanding
of
the
thing;
but
in
attempting
to
articulate
our
understanding
(in
interpretation),
we
come
to
realise
that
we
do
not
understand
it
so
well
as
we
supposed:
both
our
interpretation
and
our
understanding
may
be
improved
through
subsequent
reflection
or
attempts
at
articulating
it;
but
the
aim
is
not
to
divorce
it
from
our
understanding
of
the
thing
(which
is
in
turn
not
divorced
from
the
thing),
and
so
be
left
with
a
freestanding
interpretation
–
or,
as
Gadamer
puts
it,
‘interpretation
that
was
correct
in
itself
would
be
a
foolish
ideal’
(TM
398).286
He
further
observes:
The
verbal
explicitness
that
understanding
achieves
through
interpretation
does
not
create
a
second
sense
apart
from
what
is
understood
and
interpreted.
The
interpretive
concepts
are
not,
as
such,
thematic
in
understanding.
Rather,
it
is
their
nature
to
disappear
behind
what
they
bring
to
speech
in
interpretation.
Paradoxically,
an
interpretation
is
right
when
it
is
capable
of
disappearing
in
this
way.
And
yet
at
the
same
time
it
must
be
expressed
as
something
that
is
supposed
to
disappear.
The
possibility
of
understanding
is
dependent
285
BT
188.
286
He
finishes
this
sentence
‘...
that
mistook
the
nature
of
tradition’.
But
he
cannot
mean
to
limit
the
application
of
his
insight
only
to
the
interpretation
of
tradition;
the
very
idea
of
an
interpretation
that
could
be
definitive,
and
would
absolve
us
of
ever
needing
to
return
to
the
thing
it
is
an
interpretation
of,
would
run
against
the
grain
of
Gadamer’s
whole
philosophy.
159
on
the
possibility
of
this
kind
of
mediating
interpretation
[Auslegung].
(TM
399)
This
passage
is
central
to
the
interpretation
of
Gadamer’s
philosophy.
The
central
insight
is
that
an
interpretation
that
‘stands
out’
or
otherwise
calls
attention
to
itself
as
an
interpretation
is,
to
that
extent,
inadequate
to
its
purpose,
which
is
to
express
the
Sache,
the
thing
it
is
an
interpretation
of.
This
is
Gadamer’s
concept
of
truth-‐as-‐fittingness.287
From
what
we
have
said
thus
far,
we
can
draw
out
the
dialectical
structure
of
the
relationship
between
understanding
and
interpretation
in
the
following
way.
Prior
to
offering
an
interpretation,
we
have
a
more
or
less
articulate
understanding
of
the
thing;
in
offering
an
interpretation,
we
both
express
this
understanding
and
at
the
same
time
sense
the
inadequacy
of
the
interpretation
to
our
understanding.
This
inadequacy,
when
we
notice
it
and
are
attentive
to
it
(as
we
often,
but
not
always,
are),
is
uncomfortable;
and
is
finally
overcome
when
we
manage
to
‘find
the
words’
to
express
it
more
adequately.
In
this
reconciliation,
not
only
does
our
interpretation
become
more
adequate
to
our
understanding,
but
our
understanding
has
also
been
developed
by
being
articulated
(in
the
sense
of
having
been
put
into
words)
–
our
understanding
has
been
articulated,
we
could
say
(in
the
sense
of
having
been
elaborated
or
spelled
out).
This
reconciliation
is
not
ever
final,
of
course:
in
light
of
new
experiences,
or
in
light
of
new
questions,
we
once
again
find
ourselves
in
the
position
of
having
to
articulate
our
understanding.288
Thus
we
see
the
relation
between
understanding
and
interpretation.
An
interpretation
is
not
a
separate
thing
to
our
understanding,
but
is
instead
both
an
expression
of
it
and,
in
the
dialectical
relation
between
the
two,
an
elaboration
and
articulation
of
it.
287
For
a
discussion
of
this
concept
of
truth
in
Gadamer,
and
its
relation
to
Gadamer’s
reading
of
Plato,
see
Risser
(2002),
‘Hermeneutics
and
the
Appearing
Word:
Gadamer’s
Debt
to
Plato’,
Studia
Phaenomenologica
II,
1,
2,
esp.
pp.
226ff.
288
The
dialectical
relation
between
understanding
and
interpretation
is
replicated
in
the
relationship
between
the
truth
event
and
truth-‐as-‐fittingness,
as
is
noted
by
Healy,
among
others
(‘Truth
and
Relativism’,
p.
295).
160
But
there
is
an
ambivalence
in
the
concept
of
understanding,
which
we
need
to
tease
out.
When
discussing
understanding
by
itself,
in
connection
with
Erfahrung
and
the
truth
event,
it
seemed
that
understanding
was
the
immediate
grasp
of
the
as-‐yet-‐not-‐fully-‐realised
insight.
But
when
discussing
it
in
connection
with
interpretation,
it
wavered
between
this
sense
–
where
interpretation
is
the
working
out
of
a
new
insight
(e.g.
TM
484)
–
and
another
sense
–
in
which
interpretation
is
the
articulation
of
an
implicit
understanding
(e.g.
TM
399).
This
latter
sense
has
clear
roots
in
Heidegger’s
thought.
In
§§31-‐2
of
Being
and
Time,
Heidegger
lays
out
a
distinction
between
understanding
and
interpretation
(Auslegung).
Understanding,
for
Heidegger,
is
one
of
the
primordial
existential
structures
of
Dasein:
its
understanding
consists
in
the
way
it
understands
itself
as
faced
with
such-‐and-‐such
possibilities,
and
understands
itself
(in
a
pre-‐
theoretical
way)
in
relation
to
these
possibilities
as
things
it
can
or
cannot
do:
‘Dasein
is
such
that
in
every
case
it
has
understood
(or
alternatively,
not
understood)
what
it
is
to
be
thus
or
thus’
(p.
184);
‘as
understanding,
Dasein
projects
its
Being
upon
possibilities’
(p.
188).
This
understanding,
we
have
said,
is
‘pre-‐theoretical’
–
we
could
put
it
another
way,
and
say
that
it
is
not
yet
articulate,
it
does
not
yet
understand
itself.
But
understanding
can
develop
itself:
‘this
development
of
the
understanding
we
call
“interpretation”
’
(p.
188).
Interpretation,
for
Heidegger,
is
grounded
in
understanding,
and
is
the
working
out
of
its
possibilities.
It
is
also
involved
in
our
encounter
with
the
world
(‘We
never
perceive
equipment
that
is
ready-‐to-‐hand
without
already
understanding
and
interpreting
it’,
p.
190):
everything
we
encounter
has
some
involvement
with
the
world,
which
is
disclosed
by
understanding;
and
the
working
out
of
this
involvement
is
done
by
interpretation
(p.
191).
Understanding
and
interpretation
are
closely
bound
up
with
Heidegger’s
concept
of
‘fore-‐having’
and
the
‘as-‐structure’
of
experience,
as
we
discussed
above
in
relation
to
Gadamer’s
concept
of
prejudice.
There
is,
I
think,
one
level
on
which
Gadamer
simply
wants
to
follow
Heidegger
in
this,
in
particular
in
the
domain
of
‘ordinary
experience’.
But
his
concept
of
Erfahrung,
and
the
accompanying
account
of
understanding,
represents
a
break
with
Heidegger,
and
a
substantive
one
at
that.
Rather
than
understanding
being
the
basic
mode
of
my
experience,
that
which
underlies
my
161
capacity
to
find
my
way
around
in
the
world
and
to
orient
myself
towards
various
projects
and
possibilities,
understanding
is
a
disorienting
and
disruptive
event,
like
the
Platonic
Idea
of
the
Beautiful,
which
lays
hold
of
me
before
I
realise
what
is
happening;
the
accompanying
concept
of
interpretation,
is
not
the
‘laying
out’
and
articulation
of
understanding,
but
instead
an
after-‐the-‐fact
attempt
to
make
sense
of
what
was
disclosed
to
me
in
the
event
of
understanding.289
There
are
three
senses
of
the
verb
‘to
understand’
relevant
to
Gadamer’s
thought,
and
so
far
we
have
discussed
two
of
them:
there
is
understanding
as
my
capacity
to
‘find
my
way
around’
(as
in
Heidegger’s
Being
and
Time),
there
is
the
event
of
understanding
(which
I
have
argued
represents
a
break
with
Heidegger);
and
finally
there
is
understanding
as
reaching
an
agreement
in
conversation.
It
is
this
final
sense
that
commentators
often
take
as
primary
for
Gadamer,
and
there
is
no
doubt
that
it
is
important
–
coming
to
an
agreement
is,
for
him,
the
aim
of
conversation.
But
while
it
is
important,
it
is
not
primary;
if
it
is
taken
by
itself,
it
leads
us
astray.
Without
reference
to
the
Sache,
dialogue
is
reduced
to
a
free-‐wheeling
conversation
between
two
people
who
are
trying
to
agree
with
each
other,
but
not
about
anything.
The
dialogue,
that
is,
loses
its
‘rigor’,
unswerving
concern
for
the
thing
in
question.290
We
can
make
better
sense
of
Gadamer’s
notion
of
conversation,
and
the
fusion
of
horizons,
if
we
take
his
account
of
understanding
as
being
about
something,
and
his
account
of
hermeneutic
experience,
as
fundamental
to
it.
In
the
chapter
on
Erfahrung,
Gadamer
tells
us
that
genuine
conversation
means
putting
oneself
in
play,
which
means
being
open
to
having
one’s
prejudices
called
into
question:
‘Hermeneutical
consciousness
culminates
[...]
in
289
Dostal
argues
that
the
difference
between
Heidegger’s
and
Gadamer’s
concepts
of
truth
rests
in
the
latter’s
emphasis
on
dialogue
and
‘taking
time’
where
Heidegger
stresses
the
‘sudden
flash’
(although
he
also
points
out
that
sometimes
Gadamer
uses
the
language
of
‘sudden
flashes’
as
well).
What
I
am
arguing
is
that,
for
Gadamer,
‘taking
time’
(truth-‐as-‐fittingness)
and
the
‘sudden
flash’
(the
truth
event)
are
intimately
linked.
See
his
‘The
Experience
of
Truth
in
Gadamer
and
Heidegger:
Taking
Time
and
Sudden
Lightning’,
collected
in
Wachterhauser
(ed.),
Hermeneutics
and
Truth.
290
This
is
where
Wiercinski’s
account
goes
wrong:
see
again
Wiercinski
‘Hans-‐Georg
Gadamer
and the Truth of Hermeneutic Experience’, p. 11, quoted above.
162
the
same
readiness
for
experience
that
distinguishes
the
experienced
man
from
the
man
captivated
by
dogma’
(TM
355).
In
the
following
chapter,
on
dialogue,
it
becomes
clear
that
dialogue
is
not
an
attempt
on
the
part
of
one
speaker
to
get
clear
on
what
the
other
speaker
means,
but
rather
an
exchange
of
question
and
answer,
since
‘discourse
that
is
intended
to
reveal
something
requires
that
that
thing
be
broken
open
by
the
question’
(TM
357).
We
can
put
these
points
in
terms
of
the
foregoing
explication
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience
and
of
understanding.
Prior
to
a
dialogue,
I
have
some
kind
of
more-‐or-‐less
worked
out
understanding
(in
the
sense
of
‘being
able
to
find
my
way
around’,
my
settled
view)
of
something
or
other;
otherwise,
I
could
not
have
a
dialogue
about
it.
When
someone
engages
me
in
discussion
about
it,
in
order
to
have
a
genuine
dialogue
I
must
be
open
to
their
calling
my
perspective
into
question.
A
good
question
will
render
the
thing
under
consideration
puzzling
or
questionable
to
me
in
a
way
that
it
was
not
before;
this
is
both
the
genuine
experience,
the
Erfahrung
that
lets
me
see
the
thing
in
a
new
light
and
the
moment
of
understanding
in
which
my
previous
understanding
(settled
view)
is
disrupted
and
I
am
not
yet
sure
how
to
incorporate
this
new
insight
into
my
understanding
(new
settled
view)
of
the
thing.
With
the
thing
freshly
questionable,
the
conversation
proceeds
on
the
basis
of
trying
to
work
out
an
interpretation
of
the
thing.
And
so
we
have
Gadamer’s
concept
of
truth.
Its
hidden
four-‐fold
nature
has
caused
much
debate
and
confusion,
but
once
the
relevant
distinctions
are
made
one
can
see
how
it
fits
together.
The
question
remains,
however,
whether
or
not
its
lack
of
unity
is
a
virtue
or
a
failing.
One
might
be
tempted
to
say
that
Gadamer
does
not
have
a
concept
of
truth,
but
rather
leaves
it
undefined
and
thus
winds
up
bouncing
between
four
different
unrelated
ideas
in
an
undisciplined
fashion;
if
only
he’d
thought
through
the
question
of
truth,
he
would
have
tightened
the
concept
up
rather
than
leaving
it
floating.
But
against
this
it
can
be
noted
that
the
four
concepts
are
systematically
inter-‐related,
as
can
be
seen
from
the
foregoing
exposition:
the
four
concepts
fall
into
two
pairs,
and
each
pair
corresponds
to
another
important
concept
from
his
hermeneutics
(phenomenology
and
hermeneutics;
understanding
and
interpretation);
and
the
idea
of
the
‘truth
163
event’,
which
is
closely
related
to
the
genuine
experience,
serves
as
the
gravitational
centre
around
which
the
other
three
concepts
cluster.
The
virtue
of
not
insisting
on
a
unitary
concept
of
truth
is
that
what
matters
about
truth
varies
in
different
contexts:
what
matters
in
a
representational
context
is
how
well
one
thing
corresponds
to
another,
as
when
we
want
to
know
whether
this
picture
is
a
true
likeness;
but
what
matters
about
the
concept
of
justice
is
not
how
well
it
corresponds
to
something
else,
but
how
well
its
internal
content
has
been
developed.
In
some
contexts,
what
matters
is
an
account
of
truth
that
allows
us
to
grasp
the
historical
character
of
something
like
the
self
or
the
state,
where
it
is
partially
constituted
by
the
language
in
which
it
is
understood;
and
in
others,
we
want
to
know
how
well
our
understanding
measures
against
the
thing
itself.
In
not
insisting
on
a
one-‐size-‐fits-‐all
concept
of
truth,
Gadamer
is
being
true
to
his
hermeneutical
roots
by
not
trying
to
determine
a
concept
without
an
eye
to
its
application.
164
V
-‐
The
Limits
of
Erfahrung
Having
now
set
out
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience
and
its
relations
to
other
central
concepts,
we
will
now
examine
what
I
take
to
be
two
interconnected
and
crucial
weaknesses
of
it.
The
first
is
that
Erfahrung
is
an
unstable
and
disruptive
kind
of
experience,
which
becomes
a
problem
when
it
is
prized
in
the
way
Gadamer
prizes
it;
the
upshot
of
this
is
that
it
cannot
make
adequate
sense
of
conviction,
which
it
can
only
see
as
an
inadequacy.
The
second
is
that
hermeneutics
cannot
ultimately
provide
an
account
of
what
matters
–
and
why
hermeneutics
itself
matters.
I
will
then
attempt
a
tentative
reconciliation
that
finds
a
way
to
retain
Gadamer’s
insights
into
genuine
experience
without
reducing
its
power
and
force.
Before
we
proceed,
a
comment
about
method:
in
the
following,
I
have
endeavoured
to
use
literary
examples
as
often
as
possible.
The
primary
reason
for
this
is
neatly
captured
by
Bernard
Williams:
‘In
seeking
a
reflective
understanding
of
ethical
life,’
he
says,
‘[...]
[philosophy]
quite
often
takes
examples
from
literature.
Why
not
take
examples
from
life?
It
is
a
perfectly
good
question,
and
it
has
a
short
answer:
what
philosophers
will
lay
before
themselves
and
their
readers
as
an
alternative
to
literature
will
not
be
life,
but
bad
literature.’291
Unless
one
possesses
a
novelists’
skill,
examples
drawn
from
one’s
own
life
will
almost
always
fall
flat
on
the
page,
no
matter
how
interesting
or
important
they
are
to
oneself;
and
there
is
a
further
danger:
the
‘genuine
experiences’
one
winds
up
producing
will
simply
reflect
one’s
own
experience
and
priorities
–
while
one’s
choice
of
literary
examples
will
still
reflect
this,
it
is
at
one
remove;
literature
offers
a
far
richer,
more
diverse
source.
In
any
case,
as
Kathleen
Wright
has
written,
‘Gadamer
insists
on
merging
philosophy
and
literature
[…].
For
Gadamer
[…]
literature
and
philosophy
do
not
meet
now
for
the
first
time
“at
the
crossroads”,
but
instead
cross
each
other
constantly
–
for
he
knows
that,
ever
since
Plato,
theirs
is
a
“lovers’
quarrel”.’292
291
Shame
and
Necessity
(California,
1993),
p.
13.
292
Wright,
‘Literature
and
Philosophy
at
the
Crossroads’,
collected
in
Wright
(ed.),
Festivals
of
165
1.
Erfahrung
and
Conviction
The
concept
of
‘genuine
experience’
[Erfahrung]
Gadamer
has
uncovered
is
an
important
one.
He
insists
on
the
way
things
are
deeper
and
richer
than
our
concepts
can
get
a
hold
of,
and
he
succeeds
in
elucidating
the
way
our
ordinary
way
of
understanding
something
tends
to
conceal
it
as
well
as
reveal
it
–
his
emphasis
on
genuine
experience
is
precisely
an
emphasis
on
the
kind
of
experience
that
brings
the
concealed
dimensions
of
something
to
light.
It
is
noteworthy
that,
in
the
same
decade,
Adorno
published
Negative
Dialectics
(1966),
a
book
that
also
stresses
the
need
to
reveal
‘the
determinable
flaw
in
every
concept’
(in
Adorno’s
expression),293
to
‘break
through
that
which
controls
our
entire
thinking
and
knowing
like
a
closed
and
impermeable
layer
of
smoothed-‐over
opinions’
(in
Gadamer’s
expression).294
A
major
distinction
between
the
two
books,
however,
is
that
Adorno
sees
this
need
not
so
much
as
a
perennial
issue
as
directly
arising
from
contemporary
social
conditions;
he
speaks
of
‘social
conditions’
that
‘prune
and
often
cripple
the
forces
of
mental
productivity’,
and
calls
on
those
who
are
‘not
quite
adjusted
to
prevailing
norms’
‘to
make
the
moral
and,
as
it
were,
representative
effort
to
say
what
most
of
those
for
whom
they
say
it
cannot
see
or,
to
do
justice
to
reality,
will
not
allow
themselves
to
see’.295
One
does
not
get
the
impression
that
Adorno
thinks
this
kind
of
activity
will
make
one
well
adjusted,
whereas
Gadamer
attempts
to
tame
and
normalise
it.
However,
his
concept
of
genuine
experience
resists
these
attempts.
In
the
central
passages
on
genuine
experience,
Gadamer
tells
us
that
the
result
of
genuine
experience
is
to
produce
somebody
who
has
‘learned
through
suffering’
(Aeschylus)
to
be
‘radically
undogmatic’.
The
idea
is
that
having
one’s
conceptual
horizon
broken
and
remade
gradually
makes
it
more
flexible;
and
the
eventual
product
is
someone
whose
character
has
forged
stability
from
this
instability
–
just
as
flexible
material
suffers
less
damage
from
an
impact,
so
a
flexible
horizon
suffers
less
disruption
from
a
genuine
experience.
This
is
not
293
Negative
Dialectics,
trans.
E.
B.
Ashton
(Seabury,
1973),
p.
53.
294
‘What
is
truth?’,
p.
42.
295
Adorno,
Negative
Dialectics,
p.
41.
See
also
Axel
Honneth’s
essay
‘Performing
Justice’,
collected
166
wrong
–
the
very
idea
of
a
liberal
education
is
(rightly)
founded
on
the
view
that
having
one’s
intellectual
horizons
broadened
is
good
for
the
mind,
and
having
one’s
unreflective
prejudices
called
into
question
makes
one
more
reflective
–
but
it
does
not
think
the
issue
all
of
the
way
through.296
The
model
for
Gadamer
here
is
clear
–
he
has
in
mind
a
broadly
Aristotelian
account
of
the
virtues.
For
Aristotle,
to
have
the
virtues
means
(among
other
things)
to
have
a
character
that
is
appropriately
responsive
to
the
world
around
it:
the
virtue
corresponding
to
anger,
for
example,
is
the
mean
between
being
over-‐responsive
(flying
into
a
rage
at
the
slightest
provocation)
and
under-‐
responsive
(remaining
entirely
impassive).
To
have
the
virtues
is
to
be
able
to
respond
adequately
to
the
disruptions
that
life
throws
at
you
without
being
too
disrupted
yourself.
The
upshot
of
this
is
a
harmonious
and
largely
self-‐sufficient
personality.
Similarly,
for
Gadamer
to
become
‘radically
undogmatic’
is
to
have
the
virtue
of
being
adequately
responsive
to
genuine
experience.
What
causes
trouble
for
this
model
is
that
genuine
experiences
are
by
their
nature
disruptive
and
un-‐harmonious.
Contrary
to
the
image
of
the
Gadamerian
phronimos,
genuine
experience
cannot
be
incorporated
so
hastily
into
the
Aristotelian
model.
Since
genuine
experience
is
unstable
and
unpredictable,
as
himself
Gadamer
notes,
you
cannot
determine
in
advance
when
it
will
happen,
or
what
will
be
called
into
question
when
it
does;
and
anybody
who
prioritised
genuine
experience
in
the
way
Gadamer
suggests
may
well
become
‘radically
undogmatic’,
but
they
would
also
lack
stable
priorities:
their
priority
has
become
constantly
redrawing
their
horizon
by
calling
into
question
of
their
priorities.297
296
A
similar
objection
has
been
mounted
by
Decker
(2000),
‘The
Limits
of
Radical
Openness:
Gadamer
on
Socratic
Dialectic
and
Plato’s
Idea
of
the
Good’,
Symposium,
IV,
1,
pp.
5-‐32.
Decker
raises
concerns
over
what
he
calls
the
privileging
of
elenchus
over
‘consensus
formation’
(see
p.
22)
–
it
is
interesting
to
note
that,
while
his
position
differs
from
my
own,
both
are
opposed
to
the
idea
that
Gadamer
privileges
‘coming
to
an
agreement’
over
interruption
(recall
Bernasconi’s
objections,
discussed
above).
297
Nietzsche
noted
this
long
ago:
‘Everyone
has
made
at
least
this
one
simple
observation:
a
human
being’s
historical
knowledge
and
sensitivity
can
be
very
limited,
his
horizon
as
narrow
as
that
of
the
inhabitant
of
an
isolated
alpine
valley;
each
of
his
judgments
may
contain
an
injustice,
each
experience
may
be
marked
by
a
misconception
that
he
is
the
first
to
experience
it
–
yet
in
spite
of
all
these
injustices
and
all
these
misconceptions,
he
stands
there,
vigorously
healthy
and
robust,
a
joy
to
look
at.
At
the
same
time,
someone
standing
close
beside
him
who
is
far
more
just
and
learned
grows
sick
and
collapses
because
the
lines
of
his
horizon
are
restlessly
redrawn
again
and
again,
because
he
cannot
extricate
himself
from
the
much
more
fragile
web
of
his
justice
and
his
truths
and
find
his
way
back
to
crude
wanting
and
desiring.’
(‘On
the
Utility
and
167
The
virtue
thus
becomes
a
vice.
It
might
be
the
mean
between
unreflective
commitment
to
one’s
own
views
and
scepticism,
but
it
does
not
seem
productive
of
a
good
human
life.
The
‘radically
undogmatic’
phronimos
can
easily
be
distinguished
from
the
sceptic,
since
the
sceptic
does
their
utmost
to
avoid
affirming
any
proposition
or
its
negation,298
while
the
Gadamerian
phronimos
may
well
affirm
certain
views.
It
is
just
that,
if
they
really
take
Erfahrung
to
be
the
highest
type
of
experience
–
‘genuine’
experience
–
then
their
priority
is
always
to
bring
these
affirmations
into
play
so
that
they
can
be
called
into
question.
In
other
words,
Gadamer’s
account
cannot
make
any
sense
of
conviction
–
or
of
the
psychological
toll
that
can
be
wrought
by
genuine
experience.
Conviction
can
mean
two
very
different
things.
I
can
have
a
conviction
in
the
sense
of
unswervingly
holding
to
some
particular
belief,
regardless
of
any
evidence
you
might
present
to
the
contrary.
Alternatively,
I
can
have
the
conviction
that
something
is
important,
that
something
matters,
and
this
is
not
reducible
to
a
belief
about
some
state
of
affairs.
It
is,
in
fact,
an
entirely
hermeneutical
matter,
since
to
have
a
conviction
that
something
is
important
is
to
organise
one’s
experience
in
a
certain
way.299
If
I
have
a
conviction
that
caramelised
onion
is
an
essential
accompaniment
to
a
barbecued
sausage,
then
any
sausage
that
lacks
caramelised
onion
can
only
be
a
bitter
disappointment,
no
matter
how
good
the
sausage
on
its
own
terms;
likewise,
if
I
have
a
conviction
that
preserving
the
natural
world
is
important,
then
arguments
that
this
will
hamper
economic
growth
are
not
particularly
going
to
move
me
even
if
they
are
entirely
correct;
or,
if
I
have
a
conviction
that
economic
growth
is
the
ultimate
Liability
of
History
for
Life’,
trans.
R.
Gray,
The
Complete
Works
of
Friedrich
Nietzsche,
volume
2
[Stanford,
1995],
pp.
90-‐91.)
298
I
have
in
mind
ancient,
not
modern,
scepticism.
Jonathan
Barnes
makes
a
slightly
different
distinction
between
what
he
calls
‘modest’
or
‘wary’
scepticism
and
hermeneutic
‘openness’.
While
his
account
of
‘modest
scepticism’
strikes
me
as
a
slightly
platitudinous
piece
of
liberal
self-‐congratulation
(‘A
sceptic
recognises
that
he
himself
may
always
be
wrong.
[…]
A
modest
sceptic
may
have
little
hope
that
he
has
discovered
the
true
answer
to
any
question:
but
he
may
for
all
that
be
sure
that
he
has
uncovered
several
false
answers.
[…]
He
will
not
set
up
his
own
standard
with
any
great
conviction.
But
with
some
opponents
he
will
not
be
‘open’:
he
will
be
quite
sure
that
they
are
wrong’),
he
makes
criticisms
of
Gadamer’s
position
that
are
similar
to
my
own,
although
he
develops
them
in
a
different
direction.
See
Barnes,
‘A
Kind
of
Integrity’,
London
Review
of
Books,
8,
19,
pp.
12-‐13
[accessed
online].
299
This
is
precisely
how
Gadamer
defines
what
it
means
to
have
a
horizon:
to
have
a
horizon
is
to
know
‘the
relative
significance
of
everything
within
this
horizon,
whether
it
is
near
or
far,
great
or
small’
(TM
301-‐2).
168
goal
of
politics,
then
I
might
be
saddened
that
deregulating
an
industry
will
cause
disruption
for
thousands
of
families
but
it
will
seem
to
me
an
unfortunate
effect
of
a
goal
that
is
still
ultimately
worth
pursuing.
MacIntyre
notes
that
convictions
are
an
essential
part
of
having
a
‘moral
character’,
connected
with
the
virtue
he
calls
‘constancy’:
‘constancy
requires
that
those
who
possess
it
pursue
the
same
goods
through
extended
periods
of
time,
not
allowing
the
requirements
of
changing
social
contexts
to
distract
them
from
their
commitments’.300
One
does
not
always
choose
one’s
convictions:
more
often,
we
find
ourselves
with
them.
For
Charles
Taylor,
our
conceptions
of
the
good
–
on
the
basis
of
which
we
render
those
‘strong
evaluations’
that
partially
constitute
who
we
are
–
are
a
matter
of
convictions
we
find
ourselves
with,
not
a
matter
of
free
choice.301
Gadamer’s
account
of
understanding
as
prejudice-‐laden
is
in
fact
the
perfect
model
for
grasping
the
role
of
convictions.
Just
as
our
understanding
of
things
is
always
shot
through
with
prejudices,
and
adequately
understanding
understanding
means
grasping
why
this
is
no
bad
thing,
so
is
it
also
shot
through
with
convictions.
Indeed,
a
conviction
may
well
be
a
kind
of
prejudice:
a
prejudice
that
such-‐and-‐such
matters,
that
thus-‐and-‐so
is
important.
Adorno’s
project
in
Negative
Dialectics,
for
instance,
is
shot
through
with
commitments:
first
and
foremost
that
the
modern
world
is
a
miserable,
bureaucratised
place,
and
that
the
most
important
task
is
to
resist
it
becoming
the
closed
totality
it
is
ever
more
closely
approximating.
Without
a
commitment
of
this
kind,
his
project
makes
no
sense.
Adorno
expresses
another,
and
closely
related,
commitment
when
he
says,
at
the
end
of
Minima
Moralia,
that
only
in
the
light
of
hope
is
knowledge
possible
–
I
take
it
that
at
least
part
of
the
meaning
of
this
is
that
any
adequate
understanding
of
social
conditions
has
to
avoid
appealing
to
the
standards
inherent
to
those
social
conditions,
although
we
cannot
know
from
our
position
what
the
better
standards
are:
only
in
the
light
of
hope
can
the
contemporary
world
be
seen
for
how
wretched
it
is.
300
MacIntyre,
‘Social
Structures
and
their
Threats
to
Agency’,
in
Ethics
and
Politics:
Selected
Arto
Laitinen,
‘MacIntyre
and
Taylor:
Traditions,
Rationality,
and
Modernity’,
in
Malpas
and
Gander
(eds.)
The
Routledge
Companion
to
Hermeneutics,
p.
210.
169
Since
Gadamer
has
given
a
powerful
argument
that
prejudices
are
always
present
in
understanding,
we
should
also
expect
to
find
something
so
fundamental
as
a
conviction
in
his
account.
As
it
turns
out,
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
does
indeed
smuggle
in
a
conviction.
Hermeneutics
is
an
exploration
of
the
structure
of
experience
and
a
phenomenological
account
of
how
understanding
is
a
process
and
an
event;
but
it
takes
for
granted
that
understanding
others
is
something
worth
doing
–
and
it
smuggles
this
conviction
in,
it
does
not
contain
an
argument
for
it.
This
conviction
is
laudable,
but
not
neutral
–
and
in
terms
of
its
priorities
for
ethical
life,
an
ethics
that
has
understanding
the
other
as
its
centre,
that
places
a
premium
on
coming
to
an
understanding
above
all
else,
winds
up
arriving
at
some
form
of
liberalism.302
Gadamer’s
image
of
the
phronimos
–
particularly
as
he
appears
in
the
chapter
on
experience
–
is
a
liberal
who
fears
dogmatism
as
the
worst
kind
of
character
flaw.
But
praising
the
un-‐dogmatic
without
an
account
of
conviction
fails
to
understand
the
way
moral
convictions
function;
it
is
to
treat
all
conviction
as
dogmatic,
as
oppressive,
as
a
barrier
to
genuine
conversation.
(Really
this
is
just
a
rehearsal
of
Gadamer’s
rehabilitation
of
prejudice.)
My
conviction
that
the
first
priority
of
politics
is
to
ensure
that
no
person
is
starving
or
exploited
(or,
as
Adorno
put
it,
that
there
be
no
more
starvation,
torture
or
Auschwitz)303
is
not
something
that
I
am
interested
in
trying
to
call
into
question;
if
I
went
about
actively
seeking
challenge
to
this
conviction
this
could
only
suggest
that
I
were
not
particularly
serious
about
it,
or
were
perhaps
too
attached
to
the
appearance
of
liberal
open-‐mindedness.
It
is
entirely
possible,
of
course,
that
some
experiences
will
challenge
this
conviction,
or
that
somebody
may
convince
me
to
abandon
it
–
but,
from
my
present
perspective,
this
would
be
a
fall
into
disillusionment
and
nihilism,
not
consciousness-‐expanding
enlightenment.
It
is
not
clear
why
I
should
pursue
this,
or
treat
its
pursuit
as
a
virtue.304
302
I
will
discuss
what
this
ascription
of
‘liberalism’
might
mean
in
Ch.
5
§2.
303
Detlev
Claussen,
Theodor
W.
Adorno:
One
Last
Genius,
trans.
R.
Livingston
(Belknap
Press,
commitments:
‘There
are
those
nowadays
who
would
regard
faith
in
socialism
as
even
more
eccentric
than
the
exotic
conviction
that
the
Blessed
Virgin
Mary
was
assumed
body
and
soul
into
heaven.
Why,
then,
do
some
of
us
still
cling
to
this
political
faith,
in
the
teeth
of
what
many
would
regard
as
reason
and
solid
evidence?
Not
only,
I
think,
because
socialism
is
such
an
extraordinarily
good
idea
that
it
has
proved
exceedingly
hard
to
discredit,
and
this
despite
its
170
The
concept
of
genuine
experience
and
its
limitations
can
also
be
illuminated
by
contrast
with
a
pair
of
alternative
movements
of
the
spirit,
as
identified
by
Nietzsche.
In
Beyond
Good
and
Evil
(§230),
Nietzsche
describes
‘the
fundamental
will
of
the
spirit’:
The
commanding
something
that
is
called
“the
spirit”
by
the
people
wants
to
be
master
in
and
around
itself
and
to
feel
like
the
master:
it
has
the
will
to
simplicity
out
of
multiplicity,
a
binding,
subduing,
dominating
and
truly
masterful
will.
Its
needs
and
capacities
here
are
the
same
as
those
physiologists
posit
for
everything
that
lives,
grows
and
multiplies.
The
power
of
the
spirit
to
appropriate
the
foreign
reveals
itself
in
a
strong
inclination
to
assimilate
the
new
to
the
old,
to
simplify
the
manifold,
and
to
overlook
or
repulse
whatever
is
utterly
contradictory:
just
as
it
arbitrarily
stresses,
selects
and
gorges
into
shape
certain
features
and
lines
of
the
foreign,
of
every
piece
of
“external
world.”
Its
intention
in
all
this
is
to
incorporate
new
“experience,”
to
classify
new
things
under
old
classifications
–
thus
growth
itself;
more
specifically,
the
feeling
of
growth,
the
feeling
of
increased
power.
An
apparently
opposite
drive
serves
this
same
will,
a
suddenly
erupting
resolution
to
ignorance,
to
arbitrarily
locking
up,
a
closing
of
its
windows,
an
inner
No-‐saying
to
this
or
any
thing,
a
do-‐
not-‐approach-‐me,
a
kind
of
defensive
state
against
much
that
is
knowable,
a
complacency
with
darkness,
with
the
closed-‐in
horizon,
a
Yes-‐saying
and
approval
of
ignorance:
as
all
this
is
necessary
depending
on
the
degree
of
its
appropriating
force,
its
“digestive
own
most
strenuous
efforts.
It
is
also
because
one
cannot
accept
that
this
–
the
world
we
see
groaning
in
agony
around
us
–
is
the
only
way
things
could
be,
though
empirically
speaking
this
might
certainly
prove
to
be
the
case;
because
one
gazes
with
wondering
bemusement
on
those
hard-‐headed
types
for
whom
all
this,
given
a
reformist
tweak
or
two,
is
as
good
as
it
gets;
because
to
back
down
from
this
vision
would
be
to
betray
what
one
feels
are
the
most
precious
powers
and
capacities
of
human
beings;
because
however
hard
one
tries,
one
cannot
simply
shake
off
the
primitive
conviction
that
this
is
not
how
it
is
supposed
to
be,
however
much
we
are
conscious
that
this
seeing
the
world
in
the
light
of
Judgment
Day,
as
Walter
Benjamin
might
put
it,
is
folly
to
financiers
and
a
stumbling
block
to
stockbrokers;
because
there
is
something
in
this
vision
which
calls
to
the
depths
of
one’s
being
and
evokes
a
passionate
assent
there;
because
not
to
feel
this
would
not
to
be
oneself;
because
one
is
too
much
in
love
with
this
vision
of
humankind
to
back
down,
walk
away,
or
take
no
for
an
answer.’
(Reason,
Faith,
and
Revolution,
pp.
122-‐123.)
171
force”
to
speak
metaphorically
–
and
indeed
“the
spirit”
most
resembles
a
stomach.305
I
quote
at
length,
because
Nietzsche
speaks
best
in
his
own
words,
and
because
the
passage
makes
its
point
with
striking
compression.
The
spirit,
he
says,
‘most
resembles
a
stomach’:
and
the
two
movements
he
describes
here
are
digestive
ones.
The
first
is
that
of
assimilating
the
foreign,
incorporating
new
experiences
into
existing
categories
and
thus
imposing
order
on
what
was
disordered;
the
second
is
a
kind
of
digestive
rejection,
a
no-‐saying
to
new
experiences
because
the
‘digestive
force’
to
incorporate
and
order
them
is
lacking.
The
former
is
associated
with
strength,
while
the
latter
is
a
sign
of
decline.
But
what
is
striking
about
the
passage
is
what
it
leaves
out:
the
movement
Gadamer
is
most
interested
in
when
it
comes
to
genuine
experience
is
the
transformative
power
of
generating
new
categories
to
incorporate
new
material.
That
Nietzsche
leaves
this
out
tells
us
something
about
his
interests
in
this
passage.
It
is
not
that
Nietzsche
is
unaware
that
our
concepts
can
be
transformed,
or
that
this
transformation
can
be
of
deep
importance
–
his
book
On
the
Genealogy
of
Morality
is
concerned
with
the
transformation
of
various
concepts,
his
own
avowed
project
of
the
‘revaluation
of
values’
involves
conceptual
transformation,
and
in
the
very
next
section
of
Beyond
Good
and
Evil
he
declares:
‘Learning
transforms
us.’
But
this
next
section
also
gives
us
a
hint,
for
there
he
declares
that
despite
these
transformations,
at
the
bottom
of
each
character
is
a
‘granite
of
spiritual
fatum’,
which
is
‘unteachable’
and
the
source
of
our
‘convictions’;
our
convictions
lead
us
to
the
‘problem
that
we
are’
–
or:
‘to
the
great
stupidity
that
we
are’.
This
last
formulation
serves
as
a
nice
contrast
with
Gadamer’s
expression
(adapted
from
Hölderlin),
‘the
conversation
that
we
are’,
and
it
serves
to
highlight
what
is
at
stake
in
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience.
To
the
extent
that
we
are
a
conversation,
there
is
nothing
that
is
clearly
immutable:
while
we
might
sometimes
shield
our
deepest
convictions,
on
the
Gadamerian
model
of
dialogue
the
goal
is
to
have
these
convictions
brought
into
play
so
they
can
be
called
into
question.
For
Nietzsche
this
is
hopelessly
optimistic:
you
cannot
budge
the
‘granite
of
spiritual
fatum’
any
more
than
you
305
Beyond
Good
and
Evil
/
On
the
Genealogy
of
Morality,
trans.
Adrian
Del
Caro
(Stanford,
2014).
172
can
leap
over
your
own
shadow.
At
a
certain
level,
the
spirit
stops
being
plastic:
and
from
that
point,
one
either
digests
new
experiences
into
existing
categories,
or
one
rejects
new
experiences
and
refuses
to
acknowledge
them.
Gadamer
seems
here
to
be
unduly
optimistic,
while
Nietzsche
is
perhaps
too
pessimistic.
If
people
are
capable
of
transforming
even
their
deepest
convictions
through
dialogue,
as
Gadamer
seems
to
suggest
–
and
his
model
of
the
‘radically
undogmatic’
man
of
experience
seems
to
be
someone
who
has
been
purged
of
deeply
held
convictions
–
the
human
world
does
not
show
much
evidence
of
it.
Rather,
the
world
would
seem
to
evidence
Nietzsche’s
position,
that
at
their
core
people
will
be
intractably
attracted
to
certain
positions,
and
there
is
no
hope
of
reconciling
these
through
rational
dialogue.
However,
and
this
is
where
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience
is
illuminating,
it
is
always
possible
that
my
experiences
will
eventually
shatter
my
most
deeply
held
beliefs
–
it
is
just
that
the
result
will
likely
not
be
that
I
become
radically
undogmatic
but
rather
that
I
enter
into
a
kind
of
crisis,
and
if
the
dust
does
finally
settle
there
is
no
guarantee
that
the
result
is
that
I
will
henceforth
be
more
open
to
new
experience:
I
might
settle
dogmatically
on
a
new
view
(as
the
stereotype
goes
of
the
committed
Marxist
who
in
the
1980s
became
a
Thatcherite),
or
I
might
just
become
suspicious
of
my
capacity
for
judgement.
But,
regardless
of
the
indeterminacy
of
the
outcome,
it
is
not
at
all
clear
that
there
is
an
unchangeable
core
to
my
character
(as
Nietzsche
seems
to
think)
–
it
is
just
that
it
may
need
to
be
broken
to
be
remade,
and
there
is
no
way
to
be
sure
that
this
remaking
is
always
possible,
or
that
its
remaking
will
always
be
good
for
me.
Sometimes
I
may
need
to
resist
something,
in
the
face
of
experience,
in
order
to
sustain
myself.306
306
This
is
the
situation
of
the
titular
character
of
Nabokov’s
Pnin:
‘In
order
to
exist
rationally,
Pnin
had
taught
himself,
during
the
last
ten
years,
never
to
remember
Mira
Belochkin
–
not
because,
in
itself,
the
evocation
of
a
youthful
love
affair,
banal
and
brief,
threatened
his
peace
of
mind
[…]
but
because,
if
one
were
quite
sincere
with
oneself,
no
conscience,
and
hence
no
consciousness,
could
be
expected
to
subsist
in
a
world
where
such
things
as
Mira’s
death
were
possible.
One
had
to
forget
–
because
one
could
not
live
with
the
thought
that
this
graceful,
fragile,
tender
young
woman
with
those
eyes,
that
smile,
those
gardens
and
snows
in
the
background,
had
been
brought
in
a
cattle
car
to
an
extermination
camp
and
killed
by
an
injection
of
phenol
into
the
heart,
into
the
gentle
heart
one
had
heard
beating
under
one’s
lips
in
the
dusk
of
the
past.’
(Novels
1955-‐1962,
p.
394)
173
2.
Hermeneutics
as
Ethics
The
question
is
one
of
the
relation
between
hermeneutics
and
ethics;
or,
to
put
it
another
way:
what
role
does
understanding
play
in
the
good
life?
That
it
is
important
to
be
open-‐minded
one
would
have
to
be
mad
to
deny.
It
is
necessary
to
recognise
that
I
do
not
hold
such
convictions
for
no
reason;
the
give-‐and-‐take
of
conversation
can
help
to
articulate
these
convictions
and
shed
new
light
on
them
–
and
it
can
challenge
and
revise
my
unhelpful
convictions.
But
the
Gadamerian
phronimos
goes
further
than
this;
in
becoming
‘radically
undogmatic’
he
seems
to
give
up
the
idea
of
a
conviction
altogether,
preferring
open
conversation.
This
is
an
image
with
appeal,
and
it
has
a
definite
place
within
our
intellectual
lives
–
but
it
would
be
a
distortion
to
place
it
at
the
centre
of
our
ethical
lives.307
But
this
is
what
happens
when,
for
instance,
Gadamer
writes:
‘Hermeneutic
philosophy
understands
itself
not
as
an
absolute
position
but
as
a
way
of
experience.
It
insists
that
there
is
no
higher
principle
than
holding
oneself
open
in
a
conversation’
(PH
189).
This
is
to
raise
the
putting
into
question
of
one’s
convictions
to
an
absolute,
when
it
is
best
grasped
as
a
moment
in
a
dialectic
(if
one
is
feeling
Hegelian),
or
as
one
aim
among
others,
which
may
be
more
or
less
prominent
depending
on
what
one
is
trying
to
do
and
the
needs
of
the
moment
(if
one
is
feeling
Nietzschean).308
There
is
a
striking
contrast
between
the
‘radically
undogmatic’
man
one
finds
in
Truth
and
Method
and
Gadamer’s
discussion
of
ethics
in
his
essay
‘On
the
possibility
of
a
philosophical
ethics’.309
The
question
Gadamer
wants
to
work
out
the
answer
to
is
this:
‘The
reflexive
generality
which
is
necessarily
its
philosophical
metier
entangles
it
[sc.
philosophical
ethics]
in
the
307
It
is
worthwhile
to
recall,
in
this
connection,
that
Gadamer’s
primary
concern
throughout
Truth
and
Method
is
a
very
specific
context:
interpreting
a
text
or
work
of
art.
The
issue
arises
when
he
or
his
commentators
generalise
from
here.
308
Raymond
Geuss
makes
a
related
point:
‘In
some
contexts
it
is
perfectly
understandable
that
you
might
not
be
at
all
interested
in
the
way
the
world
looks
to
me
–
you
may
simply
have
perfectly
legitimate,
urgent
concerns
of
your
own
that
you
think
peremptorily
require
that
one
subordinate
all
else
to
their
satisfaction.
You
have
no
interest
in
the
shape,
structure,
and
perspective
of
my
own
map
of
the
surrounding
landscape
–
if
your
needs
are
sufficiently
pressing,
you
may
wish
to
use
whatever
you
can
get
in
order
to
enable
you
to
reach
Oinville
(like
Roland
and
Corinne
in
Godard’s
Weekend)
as
efficiently
as
possible.
On
the
other
hand,
we
do
not
generally
think
it
represents
a
very
high
level
of
intellectual
curiosity
or
human
sensitivity
to
act
in
this
way
when
not
under
the
pressure
of
events.’
(‘Outside
Ethics’,
collected
in
Geuss,
Outside
Ethics,
p.
62.)
309
Collected
in
HRE.
174
questionableness
of
law-‐based
ethics.
How
can
it
do
justice
to
the
concreteness
with
which
conscience,
sensitivity
to
equity,
and
loving
reconciliation
are
answerable
to
the
situation?’
(HRE
21)
The
claim
he
advances
is
that
both
Kant
and
Aristotle
can
contribute
to
resolving
this
dilemma.
From
Kant,
Gadamer
borrows
the
structure
of
the
categorical
imperative,
which
he
thinks
presents
the
unconditionality
of
the
Ought
in
its
purest
form;
what
is
significant
is
that,
in
this
form,
reason
does
not
propound
laws,
but
only
tests
them.
From
Aristotle,
he
borrows
the
sensitivity
to
the
conditionedness
of
human
life,
that
ethical
life
is
dependent
on
the
broader
social
and
historical
structures
(i.e.
objective
spirit)
in
which
it
is
bound
up,
and
on
the
concrete
system
of
valuations,
ideals
and
goods
that
it
lives
by
–
Aristotle
is
concerned
with
‘concretising
the
universal’.
He
also
suggests
that,
while
they
are
historically
determined,
these
valuations
and
forms
of
life
are
not
infinitely
plastic,
bound
up
as
they
are
with
human
nature
and
its
material
conditions
(he
does
not
use
those
terms),
which
provide
resistance
(HRE
35-‐6).
A
philosophical
ethics,
then,
is
a
kind
of
refinement
of
moral
consciousness:
not
‘a
theory
that
must
be
made
practically
applicable’
but
rather
a
kind
of
reflection
‘for
those
whose
education
in
society
and
state
has
brought
their
own
being
to
the
point
of
such
maturity
that
they
are
capable
of
recognising
general
rules
of
thumb
in
concrete
perplexities
and
putting
them
into
practice’
(HRE
33).
However,
the
essay
is
striking
in
what
it
lacks:
there
is
no
sense
that
these
valuations
and
forms
of
life
might
be
called
into
question
–
either
from
a
radical
perspective,310
or
even
in
the
sense
of
Truth
and
Method
where
they
are
treated
as
prejudices
to
be
put
into
question.
Indeed,
rather
than
open
310
It
is
notable,
in
this
connection,
that
Gadamer
sets
up
a
contrast
at
the
beginning
of
the
essay
between
philosophical
ethics
as
an
area
of
inquiry
akin
to
that
of
the
sciences,
in
which
its
aim
is
to
discover
new
values,
or
as
continuous
with
ordinary
life,
in
which
its
aim
is
to
explicate,
lay
bare
and
ground
the
claims
of
ordinary
conscience
(HRE
19).
The
former,
he
correctly
observes,
is
bound
up
with
an
untenable
conception
of
moral
progress;
but
one
wonders
if
we
have
been
presented
with
a
false
dichotomy.
If
the
claims
of
Nietzsche
and
his
inheritors,
on
the
one
hand,
or
of
Marx
and
his
inheritors,
on
the
other,
are
to
be
credited,
then
our
forms
of
valuation
and
ways
of
life
might
be
so
fundamentally
out
of
order
that
both
the
‘progressive’
and
‘explicative’
approaches
to
moral
philosophy
are
doomed
to
failure,
since
they
are
unwittingly
caught
in
its
orbit.
As
has
long
been
noted,
the
content
of
Aristotle’s
moral
philosophy
serves
to
reinforce
the
prejudices
of
4th
century
Athenian
gentlemen
(see
Alasdair
MacIntyre,
A
Short
History
of
Ethics
[Routledge,
1967],
Ch.
7),
and
the
content
of
Kant’s
moral
philosophy
is
very
much
that
of
an
18th
century
Lutheran
Prussian
(see
Nietzsche’s
Beyond
Good
and
Evil,
part
1);
and
the
‘moral
progressive’
viewpoint,
such
as
that
championed
in
the
present
day
by
Richard
Dawkins
or
Christopher
Hitchens,
has
likewise
been
criticised
as
an
ideological
defence
of
contemporary
liberal
democratic
capitalism
(see
Terry
Eagleton,
Reason,
Faith,
and
Revolution).
175
conversation,
Gadamer
seems
to
endorse
what
he
takes
as
the
central
moral
question
for
Aristotle:
‘What
is
to
be
done?’
(HRE
30-‐1)
There
is
a
sense
in
this
essay
that
the
guiding
question
of
ethics
is
not
‘How
do
we
understand
(or
reach
understanding
with)
the
other?’
but
rather
‘How
should
be
we
live?’311
The
tension
between
this
vision
of
ethical
life
and
the
one
we
find
in
Truth
and
Method
leads
us
back
to
the
problem
of
why
understanding
is
something
important
–
which
it
surely
is.
But
it
is
not
an
end
in
itself:
frequently,
the
goal
of
understanding
is
something
beyond
it,
as
when
I
need
to
understand
a
situation
because
I
am
trying
to
work
out
what
I
need
to
do.
Understanding
thus
finds
its
place
within
a
broader
structure
of
what
the
good
life
looks
like.
One
needs
a
more
fundamental
account
of
ethics
to
provide
that.
In
lieu
of
providing
such
an
account
(that
would
be
a
whole
other
project
than
the
one
I
am
engaged
on),
let
us
briefly
consider
a
couple
of
recent
examples
from
the
literature
in
which
this
problem
manifests
itself.
The
first
is
Monica
Vilhauer’s
book
Gadamer
and
the
Ethics
of
Play.
Vilhauer
attempts
to
develop
an
ethics
of
play
and
dialogue
out
of
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
Genuine
dialogue
is
‘open’,
rather
than
scientific
or
psychological;
and
‘openness’
means
allowing
the
other
to
address
you
‘like
a
Thou’
(in
Gadamer’s
phrase).
In
light
of
our
present
interests,
what
is
most
striking
about
Vilhauer’s
account
is
what
it
lacks.
For
a
dialogue
to
count
as
genuine,
not
only
must
it
be
characterised
by
‘openness
to
the
Other’
but
this
openness
must
also
be
‘ethical’:
‘somehow
directed
toward
“the
good”,
or
understood
as
something
valuable
for
us,
either
in
itself,
or
in
the
service
of
bringing
about
some
ultimate
“good”’
(p.
111).
In
a
note
to
this
sentence,
Vilhauer
claims
that
this
concept
of
“the
good”
need
not
be
the
Platonic
form,
since
‘the
good
as
that
which
corresponds
to
a
flourishing
life
will
do
fine
in
this
discussion’
(p.
114).
Earlier
in
the
book,
while
setting
out
what
the
criteria
are
for
a
genuinely
ethical
I-‐Thou
encounter,
Vilhauer
presents
this
as
the
fourth
and
final
criterion:
‘These
I-‐Thou
relations
ultimately
provide
for
a
process
in
which
mutual
human
growth
can
311
I
prefer
this
formulation
of
the
question
to
‘What
is
to
be
done?’
for
reasons
Bernard
Williams
sets
out
in
Ethics
and
the
Limits
of
Philosophy,
chapter
1.
In
another
essay,
Gadamer
says
of
practical
philosophy
that
it
‘expressly
asks
the
question
of
the
good
[...]
for
example,
about
the
best
way
of
life’
(RAS
93).
176
occur,
making
them
I-‐Thou
relations
that
are
ultimately
directed
toward
our
common
human
good’
(p.
76,
italics
in
original).
These
are
the
only
discussions
of
“the
good”
to
occur
in
the
book.
What
is
striking
about
them
is
two-‐fold:
(1)
the
idea
of
the
good
plays
a
central
role
in
the
account
Vilhauer
is
sketching;
(2)
the
idea
of
the
good
is
left
as
a
floating
variable
–
its
content
is
left
unspecified
apart
from
a
broad
gesture
in
the
direction
of
‘a
flourishing
life’.
Thus
Vilhauer
presents
an
account
of
one
aspect
of
ethical
life,
but
not
a
fundamental
account
of
what
ethical
life
is;
it
is
simply
presupposed
that
the
human
good,
into
which
ethical
dialogues
inquire,
includes
participation
in
ethical
dialogues.
Our
second
example
is
a
recent
essay
by
Dennis
Schmidt.312
For
Schmidt,
the
essential
thing
about
hermeneutics
is
that
it
is
not
primarily
a
theory
but
rather
a
way
of
orienting
oneself
in
the
world.
Hermeneutics
is
the
recognition
that
one
is
one’s
understanding,
and
one
cannot
help
but
orient
oneself
in
accordance
with
this
understanding.
The
goal
of
hermeneutics
is
thus
‘first
and
foremost
to
gain
an
understanding,
and
this
understanding
is,
in
the
end,
what
one
becomes’
(p.
46).
A
hermeneutical
ethics,
then,
is
one
that
prioritises
making
sense
as
its
highest
task:
making
sense
of
oneself,
making
sense
of
others,
making
sense
of
the
tradition,
and
making
sense
of
humanity;313
and
it
also
emphasises
the
always-‐incomplete
nature
of
this
understanding,314
and
the
way
articulating
our
understanding
through
dialogue
with
others
can
show
up
our
own
limitations
and
blind
spots.315
Such
a
way
of
thinking
about
a
hermeneutical
ethics
reaches
deeper
than
the
dialogical
model
(such
as
Vilhauer’s),
since
it
situates
the
need
for
dialogue
within
a
broader
picture
of
the
good,
the
more
general
goal
of
understanding
as
such.
It
is
not
immune
from
its
own
perils,
though.
The
primary
one
is
manifest
in
Schmidt’s
obvious
discomfort
at
the
idea
that
such
a
conception
of
ethics
risks
raising
the
life
of
the
(hermeneutical)
professor,
who
(in
principle)
has
the
skills
and
resources
to
best
make
sense
of
himself,
to
the
status
of
ethical
paradigm
(p.
312
Schmidt
(2012),
‘On
the
Sources
of
Ethical
Life’,
Research
in
Phenomenology,
42,
pp.
35-‐48.
313
There
is
a
potential
convergence
here
with
the
later
work
of
Bernard
Williams.
314
See
also
Long
(2002),
‘The
Ontological
Reappropriation
of
Phronesis’,
Continental
Philosophy
177
46).316
This
discomfort,
it
seems
to
me,
points
us
towards
what
is
lacking
in
this
account:
by
immediately
positing
‘making
sense’
as
its
highest
priority,
it
loses
sight
of
the
more
fundamental
motivation
of
ethical
life:
the
desire
for
a
good
life,
the
right
life,
or
a
life
that
is
oriented
towards
what
matters.
One
can
situate
making
sense
of
oneself
(and
of
others
and
of
one’s
world)
within
this
deeper
orientation;
and
situating
it
in
this
way
lets
us
see
that
the
life
of
hermeneutical
understanding
is
only
one
way
of
life
among
others
(such
as
the
theoretical
or
the
political,
to
take
but
two
other
traditional
candidates).
Someone
with
substantial
insight
into
themselves
and
into
others
may
be
admirable
for
this
reason,
but
it
is
important
not
to
lose
sight
of
the
fact
that
there
are
plenty
of
other
admirable
characteristics
with
no
connection
to
the
hermeneutic
virtues.317
Recall,
for
example,
the
remark
of
Nietzsche’s
I
quoted
earlier:
Everyone
has
made
at
least
this
one
simple
observation:
a
human
being’s
historical
knowledge
and
sensitivity
can
be
very
limited,
his
horizon
as
narrow
as
that
of
the
inhabitant
of
an
isolated
alpine
valley;
each
of
his
judgments
may
contain
an
injustice,
each
experience
may
be
marked
by
a
misconception
that
he
is
the
first
to
experience
it
–
yet
in
spite
of
all
these
injustices
and
all
these
misconceptions,
he
stands
there,
vigorously
healthy
and
robust,
a
joy
to
look
at.318
Even
where
the
hermeneutical
is
incorporated
as
a
significant
priority,
it
is
worth
noting
that
the
Heidegger
of
Being
and
Time
does
not
set
up
the
hermeneutical
life
as
the
ideal
life
in
the
way
Schmidt
does;
rather,
he
seems
to
think
that
an
existential
analysis
of
human
life319
frees
one
up
from
the
(inauthentic)
life
of
avoiding
thinking
about
one’s
death,
lived
according
to
316
Risser
(in
The
Life
of
Understanding)
takes
a
similar
stance,
but
situates
it
within
a
more
ambitious
conception
of
the
relation
between
self
and
history,
and
the
need
to
‘recover’
that
history.
317
For
the
concept
of
the
admirable
in
ethics,
see
Raymond
Geuss,
‘Virtue
and
the
Good
Life’,
in
his
Outside
Ethics,
p.
95.
See
also
his
essay
‘Nietzsche
and
Morality’,
collected
in
Morality,
Culture,
History
(Cambridge,
1999).
I
note
that
in
his
ethics
Hume
also
attempts
to
treat
the
concept
of
admiration
as
of
central
importance:
see
An
Enquiry
Concerning
the
Principles
of
Morals,
Sec.
1,
¶10.
318
Nietzsche,
‘On
the
Utility
and
Liability
of
History
for
Life’,
pp.
90-‐91.
319
That
‘Dasein’
is
not
synonymous
with
‘human
life’
is
not
important
for
the
present
point.
178
priorities
one
has
uncritically
taken
over
from
one’s
community,
so
that
one
can
instead
face
up
to
death
and
set
up
one’s
own
(authentic)
priorities
–
these
priorities
need
not
be
hermeneutical
ones.320
In
any
case,
being
able
to
make
sense
of
oneself
is
also
not
all
that
one
needs:
if
I
lack
the
habits
of
thought,
feeling
and
action
(i.e.
the
virtues)
that
enable
me
to
live
the
kind
of
life
that
I
could
affirm,
it
will
be
of
little
benefit
to
me
if
I
am
able
to
make
painfully
clear
sense
of
my
own
failures.321
On
the
other
hand,
if
all
of
my
attempts
to
live
the
right
life
meet
with
frustration,
this
failing
might
not
be
entirely
my
own:
a
hermeneutical
imagination
might
be
able
to
show
me
the
way
my
failure
to
find
the
right
life
is
bound
up
with
a
fundamental
disorder
in
the
world
in
which
I
am
trying
to
live
it.322
We
thus
have
another
case
of
a
hermeneutical
ethics
not
reaching
deep
enough
to
ground
itself.
Part
of
the
reason
for
this,
I
suspect,
is
that
the
hermeneutical
ethos
is
very
close
to
the
outlook
of
a
liberal
society,
which
we
take
for
granted.
I
suggested
earlier
that
Gadamer’s
ideal
of
the
phronimos
is
actually
a
kind
of
liberal
character,
so
I
would
now
like
to
unpack
that
a
bit.
My
goal
is
to
be
suggestive
rather
than
thorough.
I
am
interested
not
so
much
in
the
political
opinions
held
by
Gadamer
himself,
as
in
the
ways
in
which
the
direction
of
his
philosophy
aligns
or
does
not
align
with
certain
aspects
of
a
liberal
political
outlook.323
The
first
thing
to
be
said
about
liberalism
is
that,
as
an
historical
formation,
it
consists
of
several
elements
that
do
not
necessarily
have
any
internal
relation
to
each
other,
and
that
may
or
may
not
sit
together
entirely
comfortably.
Being
historical,
it
does
not
have
an
essence:
as
Nietzsche
says,
only
that
which
has
no
history
can
be
defined.
Rather,
the
best
approach
to
liberalism
in
general
(rather
than
to
some
specific
philosophical
formulation
of
liberalism,
such
as
that
of
320
Heidegger
thinks,
further,
that
an
authentic
orientation
is
also
the
only
possible
starting
point
for
adequately
asking
the
question
of
being,
but
that
need
not
concern
us
for
the
present.
321
Schmidt
makes
something
like
this
point
at
the
end
of
his
essay,
p.
48.
322
Cf.
Adorno’s
remark
‘There
is
no
right
life
in
a
false
one’
(Minima
Moralia,
§18);
MacIntyre’s
characterization
of
contemporary
moral
life
as
consisting
of
disconnected
and
incompatible
fragments,
After
Virtue
(Notre
Dame,
2007),
Ch.
1;
and
Geuss’s
suggestion
that
any
virtue
ethics
needs
to
be
situated
within
the
context
of
a
critical
theory
of
society,
‘Virtue
and
the
Good
Life’,
pp.
94-‐96.
323
For
my
present
purposes
it
is
appropriate
to
treat
‘liberalism’,
‘liberal
political
outlook’,
and
179
Rawls)
is
to
treat
it
as
an
ideal
type,
and
then
identify
its
various
historical
threads.
(Needless
to
say,
any
particular
formulation
of
liberalism
will
only
partially
correspond
to
this
ideal
type.)
To
put
things
in
another
way,
I
am
not
interested
in
how
Gadamer’s
thought
aligns
with
some
particular
formulation
of
liberal
political
philosophy,
but
rather
with
how
it
relates
to
liberalism
as
an
ideological
formation,
which
is
to
say
as
a
basic
political
outlook
(or
family
of
outlooks)
that
is
more
or
less
widely
shared
and
from
which
more
sophisticated
philosophical
formulations
proceed.
Thus,
I
take
it
that
there
are
five
main
strands
to
which
liberalism
is
committed:
(1)
toleration,
(2)
freedom,
(3)
individualism,
(4)
limits
to
the
extent
of
coercive
power
that
can
be
exercised
over
the
individual,
and
(5)
consensus.324
It
seems
to
me
that
Gadamer’s
thought
does
not
interestingly
relate
to
(2)
or
(4),
so
I
will
leave
those
to
one
side.
The
other
three
strands
I
will
discuss
one
by
one.
(1)
Toleration.
We
can
distinguish
between
three
major
political
forms
toleration
can
take.
The
first
is
its
most
minimal
form:
toleration
is
preferable
in
these
circumstances
to
open
hostility
(even
if
only
barely).
For
example,
two
groups
might
be
deeply
hostile
to
each
other,
but
evenly
enough
matched
in
power
to
make
any
conflict
potentially
extremely
damaging
to
both
groups,
so
they
might
prefer
a
course
of
mutual
toleration
(until
one
of
them
becomes
clearly
more
powerful,
or
until
the
hostility
is
just
too
great
to
be
contained).
This
first
kind
of
toleration
falls
short
of
being
‘liberal’
toleration.
Second,
it
may
come
in
a
moderate
form:
hostility
and
conflict
are
politically
very
undesirable
(even
if
your
group
would
clearly
be
the
winner),
and
a
policy
of
toleration
is
the
best
way
to
avoid
them.
This
is
the
most
minimal
form
of
‘liberal’
toleration:
difference
might
not
be
a
good
thing
in
itself,
but
conflict
is
definitely
a
bad
thing.
Finally,
there
is
what
we
might
call
‘strong’
toleration:
difference
is
an
324
My
account
of
liberalism
more
or
less
follows
that
of
Raymond
Geuss
in
his
History
and
Illusion
in
Politics
(Cambridge,
2001).
Weirdly,
although
Guess
discusses
all
five
threads,
he
only
explicitly
identifies
the
first
four
as
constitutive
of
liberalism;
the
fifth,
consensus,
is
treated
not
in
the
chapter
on
liberalism,
but
in
the
introduction,
pp.
4ff.
I
take
it
to
be
sufficiently
central
to
the
liberal
project
to
be
included
on
the
cardinal
list.
As
will
become
clear,
this
is
particularly
important
for
my
present
purposes,
as
Gadamer’s
proximity
to
the
consensus
aspect
of
liberalism
is
a
significant
one.
An
additional
point:
one
might
suppose
that
there
should
be
a
sixth
item
on
the
list,
‘justice’,
since
at
least
one
dominant
mode
of
liberal
theorising
since
the
1970s
has
made
justice
a
(or
even
the)
central
political
virtue.
Since
I
don’t
think
Gadamer
has
much
of
interest
to
say
on
the
topic,
I
will
just
leave
it
to
one
side.
180
opportunity
for
challenge
and
growth;
a
diverse
society
is
better
than
a
homogeneous
one;
and
so
we
should
not
only
tolerate
difference
but
welcome
it.
This
is
the
form
of
tolerance
one
finds,
for
example,
in
self-‐consciously
‘multicultural’
societies.
Gadamer
has
strong
affinities
with
both
the
second
and
third
forms
of
toleration.
His
affinity
with
the
second
strand
comes
from
his
emphasis
on
our
finitude.
To
be
finite
is
to
be
partially
delusional
and
prone
to
error.
Since
that
is
our
condition,
Gadamer
praises
knowledge
of
one’s
own
finitude
as
the
highest
form
of
knowledge.
In
the
context
of
social
life,
finitude
generates
a
whole
host
of
potential
issues.
Gadamer
emphasises
the
way
the
activity
of
others
always
has
the
potential
to
leave
us
puzzled:
on
his
view,
it
is
just
not
possible
to
understand
each
other,
and
the
projects
within
which
we
operate,
with
sufficient
clarity
that
we
will
always
make
immediate
sense
to
each
other.
Disruption
and
disharmony
is
thus
inevitable;
and
Gadamer’s
emphasis
on
the
need
to
always
work
to
make
understand
each
other
stems
from
this.325
On
the
one
hand,
stressing
the
inevitability
of
misunderstanding
and
conflict
seems
eminently
sensible.
It
is
this
seeming
inevitability
that
lends
liberal
political
philosophy
much
of
its
appeal.
But
on
the
other
hand,
we
should
not
lose
sight
of
what
is
thus
lost.
The
motivating
idea
behind
a
substantive
social
and
political
philosophy
like
Hegel’s
is
that
to
live
in
a
world
that
cannot
be
rendered
transparently
intelligible
is
to
live
in
a
world
in
which
one
cannot
be
entirely
autonomous.
If
not
all
people’s
projects
and
practices
make
sense
to
everyone,
then
the
institutions,
rules
and
laws
that
spring
up
to
facilitate
those
projects
and
practices
will
not
make
sense
to
everyone,
either.
One
thus
finds
oneself
bounded
on
all
sides
by
rules,
laws,
and
institutions
to
which
one
cannot
reconcile
oneself,
since
one
cannot
make
sense
of
them;
and
in
order
to
get
by,
one
must
conform
oneself
to
these
things
simply
because
they
exist.
This
is
to
live
under
what
Kant
would
call
heteronomy,
since
one
must
act
in
accordance
with
reasons
that
are
not
one’s
own.
The
radical
implications
of
Hegel’s
social
philosophy
are
therefore
lost.
For
even
if
social
life
is
not
now
rationally
intelligible,
perhaps
it
could
be
made
so.
325
This
comes
through
in
his
essay
‘Notes
on
Planning
for
the
Future’,
which
was
discussed
at
the
181
But
this
would
require
a
robust
account
of
reason,
one
with
sufficient
self-‐
confidence
to
reject
as
irrational
all
that
does
not
conform
to
itself;
and
it
is
precisely
this
kind
of
self-‐confident
rationality
that
is
denied
by
Gadamer’s
insistence
on
attending
and
listening
to
the
other
as
the
highest
priority.
Such
self-‐confident
rationality
could
only
be,
from
Gadamer’s
perspective,
arrogant
or
even
hubristic:
its
dismissal
of
the
other
as
irrational
could
only
be
an
attempt
to
shield
its
basic
presuppositions
from
criticism.
If
Gadamer
is
right,
then
conflict
arising
from
mutual
lack
of
understanding
may
be
a
permanent
feature
of
political
life;
we
should,
then,
be
suspicious
of
utopian
political
projects;326
and,
so
long
as
we
are
averse
to
conflict,
toleration
in
this
moderate
sense
will
remain
a
central
political
virtue.
So
much,
then,
for
moderate
toleration;
but
Gadamer
is
also
committed
to
toleration
in
its
stronger
sense.
He
is
placed
in
this
camp
by
his
strongly
positive
valuation
of
genuine
experience:
the
encounter
with
the
other
is
an
opportunity
to
have
my
prejudices
subjected
to
challenge.
(This
affirmation
of
challenge
is
primarily
what
I
had
in
mind
in
Ch.
V
when
I
claimed
that
the
kind
of
character
Gadamer
values
is
a
kind
of
liberal
character.)
In
a
conversation
with
Riccardo
Dottori,
he
claims
that
there
is
a
need
for
a
‘global
conversation’,
‘or
we
will
be
lost’.327
One
can
read
this
claim
as
ambivalent
between
the
moderate
and
strong
senses
of
toleration:
global
conflict
is
to
be
avoided,
and
a
global
conversation
will
assist
with
its
avoidance;
but
a
global
conversation
(on
Gadamer’s
model
of
dialogue)
would
further
develop
the
outlook
of
all
participants.
Gadamer’s
positive
valuation
of
having
one’s
prejudices
called
into
question
further
aligns
him
with
another
liberal
preoccupation,
that
of
anti-‐paternalism
–
in
certain
strands
of
left-‐liberal
thought,
this
means
not
imposing
my
own
conception
of
the
good
on
others,
but
of
being
open
to
theirs.
One
might
find
it
surprising
that
there
is
a
parallel
between
Gadamer’s
thought,
with
its
reactionary-‐sounding
‘rehabilitation
of
authority
and
prejudice’,
and
anti-‐
paternalistic
strands
in
liberal
political
thought.
However,
it
is
not
so
surprising
when
one
bears
in
mind
that
the
whole
point
of
Gadamer’s
“rehabilitation”
is
326
Cf.
Dieter
Misgeld,
‘Poetry,
Dialogue
and
Negotiation:
Liberal
Culture
and
Conservative
Politics
in
Hans-‐Georg
Gadamer’s
Thought’,
in
Wright
(ed.),
Festivals
of
Interpretation
(SUNY,
1990),
p.
170.
327
Gadamer,
A
Century
of
Philosophy
(Continuum,
2004),
p.
73.
182
precisely
not
the
authoritarian
one
of
setting
up
an
authority
one
must
obey
(whether
this
authority
is
a
person
or
the
tradition),
but
rather
to
break
us
of
the
idea
that
we
(each
individually)
are
the
authority
to
whose
judgement
others
must
submit:
we
must,
rather,
submit
our
judgement
to
the
scrutiny
and
challenge
of
others.
(3)
Individualism.
This
is
the
issue
on
which
Gadamer
is
least
liberal,
although
this
claim
needs
qualifying.
If
individualism
means
that
the
individual
is
ontologically
fundamental,
then
Gadamer
is
quite
clearly
opposed
to
it
–
he
takes
it
that
we
are
creatures
of
our
tradition
first,
and
individuals
second.328
His
concept
of
authority
and
genuine
experience
would
also
lead
to
suspicion
of
the
goals
of
individualism
as
a
political
concept:329
one
of
the
basic
claims
of
individualism
is
that
the
individual
is
the
highest
authority
concerning
his
or
her
own
good.
(This
is
connected
with
anti-‐paternalism,
albeit
in
a
way
Gadamer
would
reject.)
But
this
could
only
lead
individuals
into
the
temptation
to
treat
themselves
as
authorities,
giving
them
an
excuse
to
shield
their
own
priorities
from
the
challenge
of
others.
In
a
related
way,
Gadamer
would
also
have
to
be
suspicious
of
any
doctrine
of
rights.
Any
ontological
conception
of
rights
–
the
claim
that
individuals
simply
have
rights
–
would
be
excluded,
since
Gadamer
doesn’t
think
about
the
individual
in
that
way.
A
socially
constructive
conception
of
rights
is
still
a
possibility;
however,
anyone
who
takes
his
analysis
of
experience
seriously
has
strong
reason
to
be
suspicious
of
any
doctrine
of
rights,
since
a
right
is
a
defence
that
enables
one
to
simply
reject
a
claim
made
on
one
by
someone
else,
and
Gadamer’s
whole
analysis
(and
praise)
of
genuine
experience
runs
counter
to
that.
From
this
perspective,
a
right
is
just
an
excuse
not
to
take
another’s
claim
seriously.
However,
this
doesn’t
mean
that,
because
of
other
considerations,
one
might
not
think
a
doctrine
of
rights
is
a
good
idea
even
though
it
has
this
328
PH
7.
329
When
I
say
‘political
concept’,
I
take
it
that
part
of
the
point
of
a
concept
of
political
philosophy
is
to
make
a
kind
of
intervention;
thus
one
can
use
‘individualism’
not
only
to
describe
a
political
society,
but
also
to
justify
or
criticise
that
society.
So
when
Thatcher
famously
claimed
that
there
is
no
such
thing
as
society,
only
individuals
and
families,
she
is
simultaneously
describing
what
she
takes
to
be
a
basic
feature
of
reality,
criticising
those
aspects
of
her
political
community
that
are
not
in
alignment
with
this
reality,
and
justifying
a
project
of
their
dismantling.
(She
also
leaves
one
wondering
what
the
ontological
reality
of
the
family
is.)
183
deficiency.
One
might
think
that,
even
if
a
doctrine
of
rights
is
not
ideal,
if
the
alternative
is
arbitrary
interference
by
other
individuals
and/or
the
state,
one
might
prefer
to
have
rights.
Now,
it
should
also
be
observed
that
insofar
as
individualism
means
the
autonomy
of
the
individual,
a
slight
rapprochement
with
Gadamer
is
possible.
This
is
because
Gadamer
is
committed
to
some
form
of
the
Enlightenment
concept
of
autonomy:
the
individual
must
think
for
him-‐
or
herself
(TM
280).
It
is
just
that
his
conception
of
autonomy
is
the
result
of
an
internal
critique
of
the
ideal
of
autonomy
(and
it
is
to
this
critique
that
his
“rehabilitation”
belongs):
we
might
say
that
his
conception
of
autonomy
is
‘post-‐individualist’.
(5)
Consensus.
Gadamer’s
closest
proximity
to
liberalism
is
in
his
conception
of
the
role
of
consensus.
In
liberal
political
thought,
consensus
operates
in
a
few
different
ways.
First
of
all,
in
the
social
contract
tradition
(which
is
obviously
larger
than
just
the
liberal
tradition,
nor
does
all
of
the
liberal
tradition
involve
a
social
contract),
a
political
community
is
conceived
of
as
existing
on
the
basis
of
some
kind
of
actual
past
or
hypothetical
present
consensus:
all
(or
most)
of
the
members
of
that
community
agree(d)
to
participate
in
it.
Second,
disagreement
is
taken
to
be
relative
to
some
shared
agreement.
We
might
disagree
on
what
the
best
course
of
action
is,
but
we
agree
that
the
best
way
of
proceeding
involves
mutual
tolerance
–
there
is,
in
other
words,
a
more
fundamental
shared
agreement
that
governs
the
disagreement.
Third,
no
disagreement
is
intractable:
consensus
can
always
be
reached,
or
–
at
a
minimum
–
disagreement
can
be
mediated
away.330
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics
presupposes
equivalents
of
the
second
and
third
commitments
to
consensus.
All
disagreement
between
‘I’
and
‘Thou’,
he
says,
presupposes
a
‘deep
common
accord’.331
His
conception
of
dialogue,
too,
takes
330
None
of
these
three
views
concerning
consensus
need
be
taken
as
being
exclusively
liberal.
Any
political
society
must
have
‘consensus’
in
some
minimal
sense,
otherwise
it
would
not
be
a
single
political
society.
However,
this
consensus
need
not
consist
of
very
much:
it
may
simply
be
the
tacit
consensus
involved
in
not
actively
rebelling.
In
the
case
of
liberalism,
however,
the
more
one
insists
on
the
freedom
of
each
individual
the
more
robust
a
form
of
consensus
one
needs
–
both
to
explain
how
the
society
holds
together,
but
also
in
order
to
justify
that
society.
One
wants
to
be
able
to
say
not
just
that
this
society
happens
to
hold
together
(perhaps
through
inertia),
but
that
it
holds
together
because
of
the
free
consent
of
its
constituents.
331
PH
7
184
for
granted
that
agreement
is
always
a
possible,
if
not
actual,
outcome.
Let
us
consider
these
two
assumptions
in
turn,
with
an
eye
to
problematising
them.
The
idea
that
all
disagreement
occurs
against
the
background
of
some
agreement
is
often
justified
by
pointing
out
that
disagreement
is
only
genuine
disagreement
if
there
is
some
agreement
on
what
the
disagreement
is
about.
Otherwise,
the
two
parties
would
not
be
disagreeing,
but
merely
talking
past
each
other.
This
is
true
of
intellectual
disagreements,
but
one
wonders
whether
political
disagreement
might
be
of
a
different
variety.
Disagreement
about
what
issues
are
actually
at
stake
may
well
be
the
paradigm
of
genuinely
political
disagreement
(as
opposed
to
administrative
disagreement,
in
which
we
disagree
how
the
issues
are
to
be
dealt
with).
To
take
Marx’s
example,
the
bourgeoisie
and
the
proletariat
have
such
divergent
concerns
that
they
will
not
be
able
to
agree
on
a
conceptual
vocabulary
in
which
to
disagree:
what
for
one
is
a
contract
freely
entered
into
between
two
parties
is
for
the
other
a
coerced
extraction
of
labour
power.332
Each
is
correct
from
their
own
perspective,
so
mediation
seeking
a
shared
agreement
can
only
succeed
if
one
side
abandons
their
right.333
Thus
parties
to
a
disagreement
need
not
be
oriented
towards
reaching
consensus.
It
might
be
objected
that
if
one
looks
further
back
one
can
always
find
a
deeper
consensus
–
even
if
this
consensus
is,
finally,
a
common
language.
In
a
trivial
sense
this
is
true,
in
that
one
can
always
find
a
‘fundamental’
agreement
if
one
looks
hard
enough.
But
what
is
striking
is
the
slipperiness
of
this
fundamental
agreement
–
it
need
not
always
be
the
same.
Perhaps
both
parties
accept
the
reality
of
the
world,
though
perhaps
not
(if
the
disagreement
is
over
idealism);
perhaps
both
parties
to
a
land
dispute
(one
may
take
‘land
dispute’
as
a
euphemism
for
colonisation
or
invasion
if
one
likes)
agree
that
the
land
is
desirable,
though
perhaps
not
(I
may
just
prefer
you
did
not
possess
the
land,
even
if
it
has
no
appeal
to
me).
Even
the
language
we
speak
is
not
a
neutral
territory
of
agreement,
since
the
disagreement
may
even
be
over
what
the
correct
conceptual
vocabulary
is.
332
For
the
inability
to
agree
on
a
shared
vocabulary,
see
also
MacIntyre’s
work
on
rival
traditions:
Whose
Justice?
Which
Rationality?
and
Three
Rival
Versions
of
Moral
Enquiry
(Notre
Dame,
1991).
In
the
latter
work,
MacIntyre
does
attempt
to
work
out
an
account
of
toleration
and
consensus
on
the
basis
of
a
shared
concern
for
the
good.
333
See
Karl
Marx,
Capital
(Progress
Publishers,
1986),
Vol.
1,
Ch.10,
Sec.
1:
‘Between
equal
rights
force decides.’
185
We
will
probably
have
more
luck
if
we
see
agreement/disagreement
as
a
relative
and
shifting
distinction,
since
whether
we
can
be
said
to
be
in
agreement
or
disagreement
about
something
will
often
require
some
assumption
about
relative
to
what
we
are
agreeing
or
disagreeing.
Two
parties
engaged
in
a
dispute
over
conceptual
vocabulary
can
be
said
to
be
in
agreement
about
the
language
to
be
used
relative
to
some
other
possibilities
(perhaps
both
speak
English,
not
French),
but
in
disagreement
in
relation
to
the
meaning
and
relevance
of
‘exploitation’.
Which
is
the
more
fundamental
point
will
depend
on
the
stance
one
takes:
if
one
is
inclined
to
see
society
sub
specie
consensus,
then
one
will
be
inclined
to
insist
that
the
agreement
one
can
find
is
the
fundamental
thing,
but
I
can
see
no
reason
why
we
should
make
that
assumption.
Disagreements
may
sometimes
be
mere
surface
phenomena,
but
at
other
times
they
may
run
deep;
there
is
no
reason
to
exclude
deep
disagreements
in
advance.
The
hermeneutical
ethos,
then,
appeals
to
us
in
part
because
it
resonates
with
certain
dominant
assumptions
about
how
to
live
together;
and
these
assumptions
are
frequently
taken
for
granted
when
assessing
the
place
of
understanding
in
the
good
life.
But
this
does
not
mean
that
the
hermeneutical
virtues
art
not
admirable;
it
means
only
that
they
are
in
competition
with
other
visions
of
the
good
life
(such
as
Nietzsche’s
vision
of
the
vigorous,
spontaneous,
unreflective
person).
Hermeneutical
clear-‐sightedness
demands
that
we
recognise
this,
and
seek
to
work
through
an
account
of
the
good
life
that
is
not
so
cavalier
about
the
absolute
value
of
dialogical
openness.
This
means,
in
part,
recognising
the
role
of
the
failure
of
genuine
experience
in
the
narrative
of
our
lives.
186
myself
and
the
world
around
me
anew
–
this
is
both
the
movement
of
spirit
Hegel
traces
(‘at
home’,
alienated,
reconciled)
and
the
basic
structure
of
a
narrative
(set-‐up,
crisis,
resolution).
Narratives
have
a
well-‐established
hermeneutical
significance,334
not
least
because
they
are
vital
sense-‐making
practices;
Heidegger
noted
that
our
everyday
experience
is
shaped
by
the
way
we
project
ourselves
into
the
future,
and
such
projections
have
an
implicit
narrative
structure
(since
any
given
moment
is
in
the
middle
of
some
narrative);
and
Ricoeur
notes
that
experiences
have
a
structure
that
makes
them
(potentially)
the
basic
stuff
of
as-‐yet-‐untold
narratives.335
Charles
Taylor
has
recently
made
the
argument
that
many
of
the
insights
we
learn
through
our
lives
are
not
fully
detachable
from
the
narrative
of
which
they
are
a
part,
echoing
Gadamer’s
insistence
that
a
genuine
experience
deepens
one’s
already-‐existing
understanding
of
something.336
Since
the
locus
classicus
for
narrative
self-‐
understanding
is
MacIntyre’s
After
Virtue,
I
will
begin
by
showing
the
parallels
between
MacIntyre’s
discussion
of
narrative
events
and
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience,
and
then
proceed
to
critical
analysis.
In
a
paper
on
epistemological
crises,
MacIntyre
opens
with
a
discussion
of
what
must
count
as
‘genuine
experiences’
for
the
people
involved:
break-‐ups
of
relationships
that
lead
one
to
question
one’s
whole
reading
of
a
person,
thinking
that
one
is
a
valued
employee
and
then
being
fired,
etc.337
Our
understanding
of
others,
he
notes,
is
grounded
in
the
schemata
of
a
shared
culture,
which
underlie
both
my
ability
to
act
intelligibly
and
my
ability
to
make
sense
of
the
actions
of
others.
When
something
fails
to
go
according
to
plan
(what
I
took
to
be
a
steady
relationship
breaks
down,
I
am
fired
from
the
job
I
thought
I
was
doing
well
in)
then
these
schemata
suddenly
become
problematic
for
us
–
we
consciously
reflect
on
them,
perhaps
for
the
first
time
(p.
4).
The
task
becomes
that
of
re-‐
writing
the
narrative
in
light
of
which
we
understand
our
situation;
until
we
can
do
this,
we
remain
in
crisis
(p.
5).
When
this
crisis
is
resolved,
two
results
are
334
See
Gallagher,
‘Self
and
Narrative’,
in
Malpas
&
Gander
(eds.)
The
Routledge
Companion
to
Hermeneutics.
335
Ricoeur,
Time
and
Narrative,
Vol.
1.,
Ch.
3.
336
Charles
Taylor,
The
Language
Animal,
p.
291,
and
the
rest
of
Ch.
8.
337
‘Epistemological
crises,
dramatic
narrative,
and
the
philosophy
of
science’,
first
published
in
1977, now collected in The Tasks of Philosophy (Cambridge, 2006).
187
achieved:
the
new
narrative
allows
us
both
to
understand
our
situation
and
to
understand
how
we
could
have
gone
wrong.
The
result
is
a
deeper
understanding
–
although
not
a
final
understanding,
since
‘our
beliefs
about
what
the
marks
of
“a
best
account
so
far”
are
will
themselves
change
in
what
are
at
present
unpredictable
ways’
(p.
6).
This
closely
parallels
Gadamer’s
account
of
genuine
experience:
crisis
is
reconciled
through
a
deeper
understanding,
but
a
deeper
understanding
that
does
not
exclude
the
possibility
of
further
experience.
Then,
in
After
Virtue,338
MacIntyre
elaborates
this
insight,
concluding
that
the
basic
structure
of
a
good
life
is
a
life
spent
in
pursuit
of
the
good
life
–
its
narrative
structure
is
that
of
the
quest,
in
which
the
protagonist
sets
out
in
pursuit
of
one
thing
and
then,
in
the
course
of
events,
comes
to
understand
both
himself
and
the
thing
he
is
pursuing
better
(and
thus
differently)
than
he
did
initially.339
The
important
point
is
that
the
central
feature
of
a
quest
is
that
the
protagonist
sets
out
to
acquire
something
of
great
importance
but
which
is
not
entirely
defined,
and
along
the
way
overcomes
a
variety
of
challenges
that
lead
to
a
deepening
of
their
understanding
of
themselves
and
of
the
value
of
the
thing
pursued.
The
essential
idea
is
that
a
human
life
is
best
characterised
as
a
quest
to
realise
a
good
human
life.
This
too
can
be
read
nicely
in
terms
of
genuine
experience.
At
any
given
time,
someone
has
more
or
less
determinate
ideas
about
how
their
life
is
going
and
where
it
is
going,
but
in
the
course
of
living
it
various
disruptions
happen
–
a
promising
project
is
foiled,
a
loved
one
dies,
something
one
thought
would
make
one
happy
turns
out
not
to.
These
disruptions
call
into
question
what
one
had
taken
for
granted
–
when
a
project
fails,
I
am
forced
to
rethink
what
it
is
I
am
working
towards;
when
a
loved
one
dies,
I
need
to
restructure
my
life
around
the
gap
they
have
left
if
I
am
to
cope;
and
when
something
I
had
been
striving
for
fails
to
make
me
happy,
I
find
myself
either
looking
for
something
else
or
forced
to
re-‐evaluate
what
I
had
taken
happiness
to
be.340
Understanding
life
as
fitting
to
the
narrative
of
a
quest
is
a
way
of
domesticating
the
disruptions
that
happen
along
the
way
as
moments
in
a
broader
narrative
that
itself
has
a
coherent
and
broadly
affirmative
structure.
338
First
published
1981.
339
After
Virtue,
Ch.
15,
esp.
pp.
219-‐20.
340
A
deep
study
of
this
latter
phenomenon,
what
Hegel
would
call
the
bad
infinity
of
desire,
is
188
But
genuine
experiences
are
even
more
disruptive
than
this,
since
it
seems
entirely
possible
that
what
one
comes
to
realise
is
that
the
narrative
of
one’s
life
has
changed:
perhaps
one
realises,
too
late,
that
one
was
deluded
about
one’s
real
priorities,
concealing
a
lie
one
comes
to
see
as
reprehensible
behind
a
veneer
of
good
intentions
that
fools
even
oneself;
or,
less
pessimistically,
that
one’s
priorities
were
all
wrong.
Raymond
Geuss
has
noted
that
understanding
one’s
life
in
terms
of
a
single
narrative
may
just
be
too
restrictive:
‘A
human
life
“as
a
whole”
does
not
seem
to
me
at
all
like
a
single
huge
race
or
the
deployment
of
a
craft.
It
seems
to
me
highly
questionable
whether
my
whole
life
admits
of
treatment
as
a
single
narrative
in
any
interesting
sense,
but
even
if
I
were
to
grant
that
it
is
or
could
be
such
a
narrative,
the
kind
of
narrative
in
question
would
have
to
be
the
one
that
would
be
only
contingently
related
to
the
“story”
of
a
single
agon,
competition,
or
race.
[...]
If
we
at
any
particular
time
give
our
desires
some
minimal
order
by
reference
to
some
conception
of
a
single
overarching
good,
we
also
know
that
those
conceptions
of
a
unitary
good
change
during
our
lives.
Any
unity
of
desire
is
“necessarily”
and
unavoidably
fleeting,
transitory,
fragile,
and
imposed
on
much
more
chaotic
structures
that
are,
however,
not
just
nothing
or
“empty”.’341
The
idea
here
is
that
grasping
human
life
as
a
single
narrative,
a
single
quest,
totally
passes
over
the
way
our
projects
and
priorities
can
change
so
much
that
it
becomes
extremely
difficult
to
see
myself
as
having,
in
the
past,
been
working
towards
anything
that
is
of
real
importance
to
me
now;
and
I
can
recognise
now
that
this
contingency
means
that
I
may
in
the
future
come
to
repudiate
everything
I
am
working
towards
now.342
However,
it
is
not
at
all
clear
that
this
means
I
cannot,
from
the
perspective
of
the
present,
always
construe
my
life
in
terms
of
a
narrative
that
makes
sense
of
where
I
am
now;
past
episodes
in
which
I
pursued
things
that
appear
to
me
now
as
totally
idiotic,
misguided,
confused,
etc.,
could
be
construed
as
side
episodes
and
distractions,
or
as
the
history
of
blunders
that
brought
me
to
where
I
am.
A
narrative
does
not
necessarily
have
to
form
a
coherent
whole,
anyway;
as
Eagleton
has
noted,
understanding
your
life
as
a
narrative
‘does
not
mean
that
341
Geuss,
A
World
Without
Why,
p.
64.
342
This
is
in
opposition
to
the
Stoic
ideal
of
‘constancy’,
of
remaining
true
to
the
same
set
of
priorities
in
all
circumstances.
For
a
recent
biography
of
Seneca
that
reads
his
life
in
terms
of
his
success
or
failure
to
live
up
to
this
ideal,
see
Emily
Wilson,
Seneca:
A
Life
(Penguin,
2016).
189
everything
from
cutting
your
first
teeth
to
losing
the
lot
of
them
has
to
form
a
logically
coherent
whole.
Not
many
narratives
of
any
degree
of
subtlety
have
that
kind
of
unity.
Narratives
can
be
multiplied,
ruptured,
recursive
and
diffuse
and
still
be
narratives.’343
Nonetheless,
there
is
something
hermeneutically
very
significant
in
Geuss’s
rejection
of
the
idea
that
one
can
sum
up
a
life
in
a
single
narrative
‘in
any
interesting
sense’.
This
can
be
brought
out
by
considering
the
view
of
life
that
finds
its
expression
in
Dante’s
Divine
Comedy:
that
any
and
every
life
can
be
summed
up
in
a
single
image.
As
Geuss
puts
it:
‘The
lives
of
those
whom
Dante
encounters
are
seen
as
in
some
way
summed
up
in
a
single
image:
Paolo
and
Francesca
buffeted
by
the
unending
wind
of
desire,
the
sodomites
running
an
eternal
race
over
a
desert,
Ulysses
in
his
flame.’344
Dante’s
view,
it
seems
to
me,
only
makes
sense
if
there
is
some
kind
of
final
perspective
on
what
is
significant
in
human
life:
what
matters
in
the
end
is
how
well
one
avoided
sin
and
practiced
(Christian)
virtue;
everything
else
is
so
much
worldly
stuff,
of
no
final
importance.
But
if
there
is
no
final
perspective,
but
rather
only
an
endless
array
of
shifting
perspectives
that
reflect
one’s
present
priorities,
then
no
life
can
be
thus
summed
up
without
remainder
–
whatever
is
sidelined
or
left
out
in
this
image
or
this
narrative
may
well
be
of
fundamental
importance
for
another
narrative.
Hermeneutically,
it
makes
all
the
difference
in
the
world
whether
one
can
establish
a
final
viewpoint
or
not.
My
contention
is
that
we
cannot
establish
a
final
viewpoint,
and
that
Gadamer’s
attempt
to
smuggle
one
in
ends
in
failure.
The
trouble
with
Gadamer’s
concept
of
genuine
experience,
and
with
MacIntyre’s
notion
of
life
as
a
quest,
is
that
they
are
both
implicitly
affirmative:
genuine
experience
leads
to
reconciliation
and
deeper
understanding,
and
the
quest
transmutes
today’s
suffering
into
tomorrow’s
insight
into
the
good
life
for
man.345
Implicit
in
Gadamer’s
concept
of
the
‘experienced
man’
is
that
his
life
343
Eagleton,
After
Theory
(Allen
Lane,
2003),
p.
127.
344
A
World
Without
Why,
p.
244n26.
345
This
is
connected
with
what
Grondin
calls
‘the
truth
of
hope’
in
Gadamer’s
hermeneutics.
I
am
claiming
that
Gadamer
passes
beyond
hope
(I
can
hope
that
today’s
suffering
will
be
tomorrow’s
insight)
into
optimism
(Gadamer
does
not
really
consider
the
possibility
that
this
process
won’t
be
fulfilled).
See
Grondin
(2004),
‘Gadamer’s
Hope’,
Renascence,
56,
4,
pp.
287-‐292.
Weinsheimer
claims
that,
for
Gadamer,
experience
is
the
disappointment
of
hope,
but
this
hope
is
the
hope
that
my
current
understanding
will
be
borne
out
(Gadamer’s
Hermeneutics,
p.
201);
he
then
modifies
this
a
few
pages
later
into
the
form
I
am
offering
a
critique
of:
‘If
experience
does
not
reach
190
narrative
will
ultimately
be
affirmative:
even
though
one
wished
one
did
not
have
to
suffer
one’s
way
into
truth,
it
is
better
to
be
what
one
is
now.
My
objection
is
not
that
this
is
wrong,
but
that
it
is
incomplete.
Gadamer
would
seem
to
be
unduly
optimistic
in
his
confidence
that
a
genuine
experience
is
ultimately
a
good
thing.
As
his
reference
to
Aeschylus
makes
clear
–
pathei
mathos,
‘by
suffering
learned’
–
genuine
experience
is
to
be
understood
on
the
model
of
tragedy;
but
the
model
of
tragedy
he
has
in
mind
seems
to
be
broadly
Hegelian:
the
human
spirit
only
progresses
through
its
encounter
with
negativity,
but
progress
through
negativity
it
does.346
He
opposes
one
kind
of
teleology
of
experience
(its
completion
in
the
concept),
but
replaces
it
with
another
(the
growth
of
openness).
However,
genuine
experiences
do
not
necessarily
end
well,
nor
are
lives
necessarily
characterised
by
increasing
insight
or
openness
to
the
future.
The
upshot
of
a
genuine
experience
might
be
that
one
comes
to
see
one’s
life
not
as
a
quest
but
as
a
failure,347
or
that
one
comes
to
a
reconciliation
that
others
will
struggle
to
affirm,
or
one
might
fail
to
learn
anything
at
all.
We
might
oppose
to
Aeschylus’s
pathei
mathos348
Euripides’s
much
bleaker
picture
of
reality.
In
the
Hekabe,
for
example,
nobody
seems
to
learn
anything
through
their
suffering.
Hekabe
has
just
witnessed
the
destruction
of
her
city,
she
has
fallen
from
queen
to
slave,
her
husband
is
dead,
almost
all
of
her
children
are
dead
–
and
it
breaks
her.
One
thing
piles
on
another:
Polyxena,
her
daughter,
is
torn
away
from
her
so
that
the
Greeks
can
sacrifice
her
to
appease
Achilles’s
ghost;
and
then
she
discovers
that
her
son
Polydorus,
whom
she
had
thought
was
her
sole
surviving
son,
is
dead
–
murdered
by
Polymestor,
the
man
to
whom
closure
in
knowledge,
that
is
because
being
experienced
consists
not
only
in
preserving
hope
to
the
end
but
extending
it
beyond
every
end
and,
in
an
openness
to
new
experience,
to
the
unexpected,
to
possibility,
and
to
the
future’
(ibid.,
p.
204).
Risser,
too,
moves
immediately
from
the
pain
of
new
experience
(when
the
self
is
forced
to
accommodate
itself
to
something
other)
to
recovery
(The
Life
of
Understanding,
Chs.
2
&
3).
346
On
the
tragic
element
in
Hegel’s
thought,
and
for
further
references,
see
Eagleton,
Sweet
to
account
for,
and
come
to
terms
with,
[the]
inherent
errancy
of
life’,
which
Gadamer
does
not
adequately
account
for.
See
Schmidt,
‘The
Sources
of
Ethical
Life’,
pp.
47-‐48.
348
Had
it
been
written
by
Euripides,
I
would
suspect
parody
in
‘Seven
Against
Thebes’
when
Antigone
comments
of
her
two
brothers
that
only
now
(that
they
are
dead)
do
they
understand
the
folly
of
trying
to
shed
each
others’
blood:
‘You
have
learned
the
lesson
by
experience,’
she
says
(l.
989;
trans.
David
Grene
in
Grene
&
Lattimore
(ed.)
The
Complete
Greek
Tragedies,
4
volumes
[Chicago,
1959],
1:298).
The
Greek
does
not
contain
either
pathein
(to
suffer,
experience)
or
mathein
(to
learn),
however;
the
operative
verbs
are
oida
(to
know)
and
diaperaw
(to
pass
through).
My
thanks
to
James
Horan
for
discussion
of
this
passage.
191
she
had
entrusted
him.
All
of
this
sends
her
mad
with
grief,
and
she
takes
her
revenge
by
blinding
Polymestor
and
murdering
his
sons
in
turn.
Hekabe’s
experiences
have
driven
her
beyond
anything
a
human
can
bear,
and
so
in
the
end
she
is
turned
into
a
dog.349
Alice
Munro’s
story
‘Gravel’
also
presents
us
with
a
genuine
experience
that
has
destructive
force,
a
genuine
experience
rooted
(unlike
Hekabe’s)
in
the
experiences
of
daily
life.350
The
story
is
told
in
retrospect
by
a
young
woman
who
was,
at
the
time
of
the
events
narrated,
only
a
small
child.
Her
mother
has
just
left
her
father
(an
insurance
salesman)
for
Neal,
who
is
something
of
a
hippie,
and
represents
to
her
(the
mother)
some
kind
of
liberation.
She
takes
her
two
small
children
to
live
in
a
caravan
with
Neal,
on
the
edge
of
the
town
they
lived
in.
Near
their
caravan
is
a
gravel
pit,
perhaps
10
or
20
feet
deep,
which
in
winter
is
filled
with
water.
Caro,
the
narrator’s
older
sister,
for
obscure
reasons
(in
protest
against
her
mother?
for
the
fun
of
it?
simply
to
cause
a
fuss?)
jumps
into
the
water
after
throwing
their
dog
in,
and
the
narrator
has
to
run
back
to
the
caravan
to
get
the
adults.
Her
memory
is
confused,
but,
whatever
happened,
help
didn’t
arrive
in
time,
and
Caro
drowned.
Neal
leaves,
and
her
mother
and
father
now
avoid
talking
about
it,
but
when
–
years
later
–
she
visits
Neal,
he
gives
her
this
advice:
‘The
thing
is
to
be
happy.
No
matter
what.
Just
try
that.
You
can.
It
gets
easier
and
easier.
It’s
nothing
to
do
with
circumstances.
You
wouldn’t
believe
how
good
it
is.
Accept
everything
and
then
tragedy
disappears.
Or
tragedy
lightens,
anyway,
and
you’re
just
there,
going
along
easy
in
the
world.’
The
story
then
ends
with
this
reflection
on
the
part
of
the
narrator:
‘I
see
what
he
meant.
It
really
is
the
right
thing
to
do.
But,
in
my
mind,
Caro
keeps
running
at
the
water
and
throwing
herself
in,
as
if
in
triumph,
and
I’m
still
caught,
waiting
for
her
to
explain
to
me,
waiting
for
the
splash.’351
This
narrative
exhibits
all
of
the
hallmarks
of
a
genuine
experience.
Something
interrupts
the
normal
flow
of
life,
and
calls
a
whole
lot
of
things
into
question
(to
name
but
one,
not
indicated
in
the
plot
summary
above:
Caro’s
swimming
lessons
had
been
interrupted
by
her
moving
to
the
caravan
with
her
mother);
it
349
For
this
reading,
see
Anne
Carson’s
preface
to
her
translation
of
‘Hekabe’,
Grief
Lessons
(NYRB
Classics,
2006),
p.
93;
cf.
also
Dante’s
Inferno,
Bk.
XXX.
350
Collected
in
her
Dear
Life
(Chatto
&
Windus,
2012).
351
Dear
Life,
pp.
108-‐9.
192
changes
the
lives
of
the
whole
family.
And
it
remains
standing
out:
the
narrator,
years
later,
is
still
unable
to
make
sense
of
the
event.
The
experience
will
not
let
her
go.
Next,
let
us
consider
the
plight
of
Winston
in
Orwell’s
novel
Nineteen
Eighty-‐Four
–
in
particular,
his
ultimate
fate.
While
Winston
spends
much
of
the
novel
increasingly
gripped
by
the
conviction
that
the
true
history
of
the
world
matters,
he
is
broken
at
the
end.
The
final
paragraph
of
the
novel
runs:
He
gazed
up
at
the
enormous
face
[of
Big
Brother].
Forty
years
it
had
taken
him
to
learn
what
kind
of
smile
was
hidden
beneath
the
dark
moustache.
O
cruel,
needless
misunderstanding!
O
stubborn,
self-‐
willed
exile
from
the
loving
breast!
Two
gin-‐scented
tears
trickled
down
the
sides
of
his
nose.
But
it
was
all
right,
everything
was
all
right,
the
struggle
was
finished.
He
had
won
the
victory
over
himself.
He
loved
Big
Brother.
Winston’s
understanding
of
the
world
has
been
totally
transformed.
While
he
spends
most
of
the
novel
in
the
grip
of
rebellion
against
the
powers
of
the
world,
against
Big
Brother
and
the
Party,
running
from
them
and
thinking
himself
one
step
ahead,
it
all
comes
to
a
terrible
end
for
him.
The
transformation
is
brought
about
by
O’Brien,
the
Party
member
whom
Winston
mistakenly
thought
was
also
in
rebellion
against
the
Party,
who
breaks
him,
torturing
Winston
until
he
will
accept
that
2
+
2
=
5,
or
2
+
2
=
whatever
it
is
the
Party
wants
it
to
be.
Until
this
point,
Winston
had
insistently
claimed
that
freedom
was
the
freedom
to
say
that
2
+
2
=
4,
and
that
every
other
freedom
follows
from
that;
O’Brien
changes
his
mind
about
this,
quite
violently.
Winston
now
sees
the
world
quite
differently
–
he
even
sees
Big
Brother’s
moustache
in
a
different
light.
In
Gadamer’s
terms,
O’Brien
has
succeeded
in
affecting
a
change
in
Winston’s
prejudices:
the
prejudice
that
2
+
2
=
4
is
the
basis
of
all
freedom
is
changed
to
the
prejudice
that
2
+
2
=
whatever
the
Party
says.
Prejudices,
recall,
are
not
in
the
first
place
propositional
beliefs,
but
that
which
structures
one’s
experience
of
the
world.
A
transformation
of
a
prejudice
on
the
hermeneutical
level
(recall
our
193
distinction
between
the
phenomenological
and
the
hermeneutical
above)
changes
the
way
the
world
presents
itself.
And
for
Winston,
this
change
is
grasped
as
liberation
from
error
and
a
reconciliation
of
the
world:
he
had
returned
from
his
‘self-‐willed
exile
from
the
loving
breast’
and
‘won
the
victory
over
himself’.
In
a
grotesque
parody
of
the
traditional
narrative
form,
the
crisis
has
been
resolved
in
a
manner
that
seems
to
the
protagonist
a
reconciliation
and
to
the
reader
an
awful
failure.
But
despite
this
failure,
we
have
a
candidate
for
genuine
experience.
Winston
starts
out
understanding
the
world
in
light
of
certain
prejudices,
and
through
the
course
of
his
experience
winds
up
seeing
the
world
in
quite
a
different
light.
The
one
sticking
point
is
that,
as
I
have
tried
to
show,
Gadamer
connects
the
concept
of
genuine
experience
with
the
concept
of
truth.
However,
it
is
not
at
all
clear
that
this
disqualifies
Winston’s
transformation
from
being
a
genuine
experience.
There
are
two
crucial
elements
of
Gadamer’s
concept
of
truth
that
make
it
unhelpful
in
resisting
cases
like
this.
(1)
Truth
for
Gadamer
is
first-‐personal,
and
it
is
criterion-‐less.
It
is
a
matter
of
the
sudden
insight
that
leads
me
to
see
something
in
a
different
light
to
how
I
saw
it
before.
In
other
words,
there
is
no
way
of
telling,
at
the
time,
whether
I
have
had
a
real
insight
or
have
just
been
lead
astray
somehow.
I
have
to
hope
the
truth
will
out.352
(2)
As
we
have
seen,
truth
for
Gadamer
has
a
few
levels
to
it.
At
a
basic
level
his
account
functions
like
truth-‐as-‐adequatio,
where
a
genuine
experience
involves
discarding
false
and
misleading
prejudices
and
replacing
them
with
prejudices
that
are
more
adequate.
But
at
a
deeper
level,
there
is
no
correspondence
–
language,
tradition
and
prejudice
serve
to
make
the
world
what
it
is
–
they
do
not
correspond
to
something
beyond
it.
There
is
nothing
that
the
concept
of
democracy
corresponds
to
(although
we
might
like
to
follow
Hegel
in
suggesting
that
it
can
better
or
worse
correspond
to
itself);
rather,
a
particular
polity
can
more
or
less
correspond
to
the
concept.
What
these
two
elements
amount
to
is
that,
for
Winston,
his
transformation
can
only
seem
to
him
as
though
it
is
a
genuine
experience,
although
he
might
always
later
come
to
repudiate
it
(but
the
novel
does
not
exactly
give
us
hope
for
352
I
take
it
that
this
is
why
Grondin
is
so
insistent
on
what
he
calls
‘the
hermeneutics
of
vigilance’
194
this).
That
it
does
not
seem
so
to
us
relates
importantly
to
the
second
point.
We
do
not
live
in
a
world
in
which
2
+
2
=
5
(if
the
Party
wants
it
to),
but
–
and
this
is
crucial
–
Winston
does.
If
we
are
serious
in
supposing
that
the
world
is
brought
into
being
through
language
and
tradition
–
that
is
to
say,
through
human
activities
–
then
we
have
to
suppose
that
a
human
world
that
was
brutally
out
of
shape
would
indeed
still
be
the
real
world.
Now,
one
might
like
to
object
that
even
in
Winston’s
world
one
can
give
a
mathematical
proof
that
2
+
2
=
4,
but
there
is
an
important
sense
in
which,
in
Winston’s
world,
this
does
not
matter.
What
is
important
is
that
the
Party
says
that
2
+
2
=
5;
that
some
mathematician
somewhere
could
show
otherwise
is,
in
this
world,
irrelevant
–
so
when
he
learns
this,
he
learns
something
true.
When
Winston
says
that
all
freedom
comes
from
the
freedom
to
say
that
2
+
2
=
4,
he
is
saying
something
false
(as
he
learns
to
his
cost);
but
if
he
could
affect
the
change
required
to
make
it
true,
he
would
have
transformed
his
world.353
The
novel
is
so
affecting
for
us
because
we
live
in
a
world
in
which
what
he
says
is
(more
or
less)
true354
–
but
we
can
also
see
how
it
could
very
easily
become
false.
It
shows
up
the
contingency
of
an
important
feature
of
our
world.
355
We
thus
have
strong
reasons
to
suppose
that
Winston’s
transformation
is
indeed
a
genuine
experience;
and
if
this
is
correct,
then
it
should
give
us
pause
about
universally
affirming
genuine
experience
as
a
good
thing.
After
all,
in
Winston’s
case,
genuine
experience
is
the
destruction
of
revolutionary
potential,
353
To
put
this
point
in
other
words,
the
belief
that
the
mathematician’s
proof
of
2
+
2
=
4
is
more
important
than
the
Party’s
assertion
that
2
+
2
=
5
is,
in
this
world,
idiosyncratic
to
Winston;
its
wider
acceptance
would
be
a
revolution.
In
imagining
that
it
is
the
basis
of
all
freedom
(which
is
clearly
false,
since
his
freedom
to
say
2
+
2
=
4
lands
him
in
a
torture
chamber),
Winston
is
seeing
the
world
from
the
standpoint
of
redemption
(see
Adorno,
Minima
Moralia,
§153).
354
‘More
or
less’,
but
not
entirely
true:
no
doubt
the
Edward
Snowdens
of
the
world
will
be
very
relieved
to
hear
that
we
are
free
to
say
what
is
true
despite
the
wishes
of
the
powerful.
Perhaps
they
only
want
to
lock
him
up
to
ensure
that
he
is
as
free
as
possible.
But
nonetheless
the
hotly
contested
situation
of
whistle-‐blowers
tells
us
that
freedom
of
this
kind
is
in
dispute
–
we
are
somewhere
between
the
world
in
which
Winston
finds
himself
and
the
world
he
would
like
to
live
in.
355
The
reader
will
recall
that
I
made
a
point
of
resisting
what
I
called
the
‘idealist’
reading
of
Gadamer,
which
gives
us
an
ontology
of
language
all
the
way
down,
in
favour
of
a
reading
that
sees
language
as
elaborating
the
world.
Why
this
was
important
should
now
be
clear
–
I
cannot
see
any
way
for
an
idealist
reading
of
the
ontology
of
language
to
resist
the
conclusion
that
what
the
Party
says
goes.
On
the
other
hand,
if
we
understand
language
to
be
making
things
more
than
they
otherwise
are,
this
opens
up
the
possibility
that,
since
things
are
not
infinitely
plastic,
what
language
makes
of
things
may
be
gross
distortions
of
what
they
could
be.
The
unfree
people
of
Nineteen
Eighty-‐Four
are
gross
distortions
of
human
beings
–
just
as,
so
the
Marxists
claim,
human
beings
under
capitalism
are
gross
distortions
of
genuinely
free
human
beings,
as
they
would
be
under
socialism.
195
and
the
bringing
of
a
potential
rebel
back
into
the
fold.
If
the
world
is
fundamentally
out
of
order,
then
the
result
of
experience
may
well
be
to
give
up
hope
for
changing
it.
Consider,
finally,
another
novel:
Samuel
Beckett’s
Mercier
and
Camier.356
This
novel
presents
us
with
a
portrayal
of
the
narrative
structure
of
human
life
that
I
take
to
be
at
least
as
realistic
as
any
affirmative
one.
Mercier
and
Camier
meet
at
the
beginning
of
the
novel
to
set
out
on
a
task
that
is
never
actually
specified.
It
has,
then,
something
like
the
set-‐up
of
a
quest.
However,
the
rest
of
the
novel
proceeds
to
make
a
mockery
of
the
very
idea
of
a
quest.
M
and
C
are
slow
to
get
going
and
suffer
delays;
they
suffer
setbacks,
have
to
backtrack
and
make
side-‐
tracks;
when
they
finally
get
to
where
they
are
going,
they
fail
to
achieve
whatever
it
was
that
sent
them
there
in
the
first
place.
Their
quest
ends
in
mutual
recriminations,
and
they
do
not
see
each
other
again
for
some
time.
When
they
do
next
meet,
it
is
in
the
company
of
Watt.
They
have
lunch,
during
which
Watt
suffers
a
meltdown:
“Fuck
life!”
he
bellows,
striking
the
table
and
causing
a
great
fuss.
M
and
C,
unperturbed,
leave
him,
happily
reminiscing
about
the
failed
adventure
narrated
earlier
in
the
novel.
There
are
a
few
important
features
to
this
narrative.
The
first
is
that,
like
a
genuine
experience,
it
fails
to
go
to
plan;
the
second
is
that,
despite
this,
it
is
not
clear
that
they
learn
anything.
For
this
reason,
the
failed
adventure
cannot
be
construed
as
a
quest,
on
MacIntyre’s
terms,
since
it
failed
to
deepen
the
characters’
appreciation
for
and
understanding
of
the
good
life;
but
it
does
nevertheless
fit
with
the
later
narrative
–
as
fodder
for
fond
reminiscence,
as
Mercier
and
Camier
enjoy
being
reunited.
MacIntyre,
however,
does
not
claim
that
all
lives
do
fit
the
model
of
a
quest,
but
rather
that
a
good
life
does
have
that
structure.
To
fit
the
model
of
a
quest,
one
has
to
be
reflective
about
one’s
life
and
make
some
kind
of
effort
to
work
out
what
the
good
life
is
and
to
relate
that
to
one’s
own
life;
Beckett’s
characters
do
not
raise
to
this
level
of
reflexive
awareness.
However,
Gadamer’s
account
of
genuine
experience
does
not
seem
to
claim
to
this
normative
status.
What
is
normative
in
Gadamer
is
that
one
should
be
open
to
allow
genuine
experience
to
happen;
but
when
it
does
happen,
it
is
assumed
356
In
The
Works
of
Samuel
Beckett,
Volume
1.
196
that
the
transition
from
the
second
to
the
third
stages
(alienation
to
reconciliation)
will
necessarily
follow.
But
for
Mercier
and
Camier,
the
failure
of
their
adventure
(alienation)
is
not
resolved;
it
merely
fades
into
memory
until
it
can
be
fondly
recalled.
The
alienation
is
resolved
by
being
forgotten.
There
are,
then,
several
ways
that
genuine
experience
can
go
awry.
We
can
summarise
the
central
trouble
with
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience
thus:
it
lacks
an
adequate
account
of
unproductive
failure.
It
succumbs
to
the
wishful
thinking
that
all
failure
is
a
kind
of
delayed
success:
‘If
at
first
you
don’t
succeed,
try
and
try
again.’
There
is
certainly
something
to
be
said
for
treating
failure
as
delayed
success;
the
person
who
fails
once
and
then
gives
up
strikes
us
as
either
insufficiently
committed
or
as
a
petulant
child.
But
this
does
not
exhaust
the
range
of
possible
kinds
of
failure:
some
kinds
of
failure
cannot
be
bounced
back
from;
and
some
kinds
of
failure
are
not
the
failure
to
succeed
in
some
task
I
had
undertaken
but
rather
the
effect
of
destructive
forces
beyond
my
control.
We
have
lost
the
capacity
to
make
sense
of
a
central
range
of
human
experience
if
we
cannot
see
the
destructive
capacity
of
failure.
We
have
all
become,
this
is
to
say,
Euripides’s
Theseus
from
‘Suppliant
Women’.
Replying
to
a
pessimistic
speech
by
Adrastus,
he
says:
I
have
heard
such
arguments
before,
from
others,
And
fought
them
hard.
Somebody
said
that
life
Holds
more
of
worse
conditions
than
of
better;
But
I
oppose
that
school,
for
I
believe
That
there
are
more
good
things
than
bad
for
mortals;
If
there
were
not,
the
light
would
not
be
ours.
I
praise
the
god
who
set
our
life
in
order,
Lifting
it
out
of
savagery
and
confusion.
(Suppliant
Women,
195-‐202)357
357
Trans.
F.
W.
Jones,
in
David
Grene
and
Richard
Lattimore
(eds.),
The
Complete
Greek
Tragedies,
4:146.
197
Theseus
goes
on
to
say
that
it
is
only
by
overreach,
when
‘we
think
we
are
wiser
than
the
gods’
(l.
218),
that
we
bring
misery
upon
ourselves.
This
attitude,
that
life
holds
more
good
than
bad,
that
misery
is
our
own
fault,
is
fundamental
to
the
reason
he
gives
for
initially
refusing
to
come
to
the
aid
of
Adrastus
and
the
suppliant
women,
who
want
him
to
recover
their
dead
so
they
may
bury
them:
You
brought
this
on
yourselves,
he
says,
so
why
should
I
help?
Theseus’s
attitude
also
cannot
make
much
sense
of
the
plight
of
Iphis
at
the
end
of
the
play
(and
I
suspect
this
is
why
Euripides
included
Iphis).358
Iphis
comes
on
stage
very
briefly,
just
in
time
to
see
his
daughter
kill
herself
by
jumping
onto
her
husband’s
funeral
pyre
–
with
her
husband
dead,
she
cannot
see
the
point
of
going
on.
He
says:
In
grief
I
ask:
Why
cannot
mortals
be
twice
young,
then
reach
old
age
a
second
time?
If
anything
goes
wrong
at
home,
we
right
it
by
aforethoughts;
but
not
so
with
a
life.
If
youth
and
age
came
twice,
a
double
life
would
be
our
lot,
and
we
could
set
things
right
no
matter
what
mistakes
were
made.
(Suppliant
Maidens,
1080-‐1087)359
Iphis’s
projects
have
come
to
ruin.
There
is
no
recovery
from
this
kind
of
failure;
it
remains
a
wound,
unresolved
–
the
only
solution
would
be
to
live
life
through
again
and
‘set
things
right’.
Theseus’s
comment
that
there
is
more
good
than
bad
in
life
could
only
sound
callow
to
Iphis
at
this
point:
even
if
he
were
to
say
that
overall,
for
most
people
the
good
outweighs
the
bad,
this
is
of
no
help
to
Iphis.
One
wonders
whether
Theseus
was
tempted
to
tell
him
that
if
only
he
had
raised
his
daughter
better,
to
be
more
obedient,
she
would
have
stepped
away
from
the
funeral
pyre
when
so
instructed
by
her
father.
Similarly,
on
Gadamer’s
account
358
Theseus’s
attitude
cannot
be
Euripides’s
own;
if
Euripides
thought
that
there
is
more
good
than
bad
in
life,
he
chose
a
funny
way
to
express
it.
Lattimore
sums
it
up
with
laconic
economy
when
he
says
of
Euripides:
‘He
believed
in
a
world
he
disliked.’
(The
Complete
Greek
Tragedies,
3:vii.)
359
The
Complete
Greek
Tragedies,
4:178.
198
all
we
can
offer
him
is
the
assurance
that,
while
he
is
hurting
now,
we
learn
through
suffering,
and
he
will
be
more
open
to
experience
in
future.
Detlev
Claussen,
in
his
biography
of
Adorno,
speaks
of
Adorno’s
‘lifelong
efforts
to
glue
together
in
his
own
life
the
things
that
the
history
of
society
[…]
had
torn
apart.’360
Adorno
speaks
of
‘emigration,
the
damaged
life’,361
and
it
is
evident
that
Adorno
would
not
have
wished
the
experience
on
anyone.
When
one’s
experiences
keep
violently
interrupting
one’s
hopes
and
plans
and
projects,
it
calls
into
question
the
very
possibility
of
finding
some
kind
of
stable
meaning
and
identity
through
time;
or,
as
Claussen
again
puts
it,
for
Adorno
‘the
identity
principle
is
questioned
not
just
philosophically
but
by
the
experience
of
“a
damaged
life”.’362
Gadamer’s
concept
of
experience
brings
certain
central
aspects
of
experience
into
view,
but
while
it
appears
to
give
a
central
place
to
failure,
it
can
only
make
sense
of
character-‐forming
failure.
‘Genuine
experience’
may
be
character
forming,
but
it
may
also
be
character
destroying.
If
we
are
to
stop
being
Theseus,
we
will
need
to
better
grasp
the
human
centrality
of
the
‘damaged
life’.
360
Detlev
Claussen,
Theodor
W.
Adorno:
One
Last
Genius,
p.
244.
361
Adorno,
Notes
to
Literature,
2:24.
‘Reflections
from
Damaged
Life’
is,
of
course,
the
subtitle
to
Minima
Moralia.
Bernard
Malamud’s
short
story
‘The
German
Refugee’
is
worth
considering
in
this
context
(collected
in
Malamud,
Novels
and
Stories
of
the
1960s,
[Library
of
America,
2013]).
362
Claussen,
Theodor
W.
Adorno,
p.
244.
199
Bibliography
The
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the
text
to
refer
to
those
of
Gadamer’s
books
(and
one
of
Heidegger’s*)
that
have
been
central
for
my
interpretation.
Full
references
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in
the
bibliography
below.
BT
Being
and
Time*
GC
Gadamer
on
Celan
HRE
Hermeneutics,
Religion,
and
Ethics
IG
The
Idea
of
the
Good
in
Platonic-‐Aristotelian
Philosophy
PDE
Plato’s
Dialectical
Ethics
PH
Philosophical
Hermeneutics
PT
Praise
of
Theory
RAS
Reason
in
the
Age
of
Science
RB
The
Relevance
of
the
Beautiful
TM
Truth
and
Method
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Theodor
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B.
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2
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Shierry
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Linda
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Hannah
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200
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