THE METHOD OF INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

All of the following problems use the method of integration by partial fractions. This method is based on the simple
concept of adding fractions by getting a common denominator. For example,

so that we can now say that a partial fractions decomposition for is

This concept can also be used with functions of . For example,

Of course, what we would like to be able to do is find a partial fractions decomposition for a given function. For

example, what would be a partial fractions decomposition for ? Begin by factoring the denominator, getting

Now ASSUME that there are constants and so that

( equation (*) ) .

It can be shown that such constants always exist for the rational function if the following two conditions are
met. They are

 1. both and are polynomials (constants together with positive integer powers of only)
and

 2. the degree (highest power of ) of is smaller than the degree of .

Let's proceed. So far we have

(Get a common denominator and add the fractions.)

that is,

Since the fractions in the above equation have the same denominators, it follows that their numerators must be equal.
Thus,
 ( equation (**) ) .

The right-hand side of this equation can be considered a function of which is equal to 6 for all values of . In
particular, it must also be true for specific values of . For example, if we choose to

let ,

then

so that

If we choose to

let ,

then

so that

.
We can now say that a partial fractions decomposition for is

It should be noted that and were chosen for use in equation (**) for their convenience of ``zeroing
out" terms in the equation. However, any other two choices for will lead to the exact same values for and
(after solving two equations with two unknowns). Try it. After getting familiar with this process, in order to save some
time, get in the habit of going from the step at equation (*) directly to the step at equation (**). Here is another

important point to consider when applying the method of partial fractions to the rational function . If the degree
(highest power) of is equal to or greater than the degree of , then you must use polynomial division in
order to rewrite the given rational function as the sum of a polynomial and a new rational function satisfying condition
2 above. For example, polynomial division leads to

where the rational function on the right-hand side of the equation satisfies condition 2. There are other points to

consider. Recall that the complex number so that and . In addition, if two complex
numbers are equal, then their real and complex components are equal. That is, if

,
then

and .

Now let's do another example. Find a partial fractions decomposition for . Begin by factoring the
denominator, getting

Now ASSUME that there are constants and so that

( equation (*) ) .

Since is an irreducible quadratic expression, assuming only that

is NOT GENERAL ENOUGH and will not always lead to a correct partial fractions decomposition. Continuing, we
have
(Get a common denominator and add the fractions.)

that is,

Since the fractions in the above equation have the same denominators, it follows that their numerators must be equal.
Thus,

( equation (**) ) .

This equation can be considered two functions of which are equal to each other for all values of . In particular, it
must also be true for specific values of . For example, if we ``conveniently" choose to

let ,

then
so that

If we choose to

let ,

then

so that

and .

We can now say that a partial fractions decomposition for is

If you choose to NOT use complex numbers to solve for the unknown constants in the previous example, using TWO
other real values of instead of will lead to the exact same values for and . There is one final case to
consider. How should repeated factors in the denominator be handled ? The following example illustrates the partial
fractions decomposition of a rational function, where the linear factor is repeated three times and the irreducible

quadratic factor is repeated twice. Thus,

We will assume familiarity with the following rules of differentiation.

 a.)

 b.)
 c.)