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HF Antennas Optimal Integration On-board the Aircraft by Using

Computational Electromagnetic Tools

Article · October 2016

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 Research Paper
NISE Funding

HF Antennas Optimal Integration Onboard the

Aircraft by Using Computational Electromagnetic Tools
Artem Saakian, PhD
Electronics Engineer

NAVAIR, 4.5.5 Radar and Antennas

Systems Division
48110 Shaw Rd., Bldg. 2187, Rm. 3140-A2,
Patuxent River, MD
E-mail: artem.saakian@navy.mil
Phone: (770) 558-1173

Abstract: A novel approach is proposed for optimal installation of common types of High Frequency (HF) (2 to 30
MHz) antennas onboard aircraft (or spacecraft). The goal is to achieve the HF antenna's optimal placement/
configuration onboard to localize maximum possible radiated energy into predominant modes of proper polarization:
Nearly Vertically Incident Sky (NVIS)-wave mode, and Long Range Sky Wave (LRSW) mode. The goal becomes
feasible by using a Computational Electromagnetic tool such as Radar Cross-Section (RCS) numerical experiment for
illumination of the antenna-on-platform system. The antenna's optimal placement and configuration is defined based on
conducting currents’ vector distribution patterns on the surface of the aircraft. A widely used WIPL-D commercial
Computational Electromagnetic software tool has been employed. Proof of concept is achieved based on radiation
pattern efficiency integral assessments.
Key Words: HF antennas, HF propagation, Antenna Computational Electromagnetic (CEM) modeling

Introduction

G
enerically, on High Frequency (HF) communication lines, the energy of a radiated signal is likely to be
localized into one of two principal modes: - Nearly Vertically Incident Sky-wave (NVIS) or Long Range
Sky Wave (LRSW) mode, or some combination of the two. Special attention is to be paid to the case of HF
antenna onboard the aircraft when the actual size of the aircraft is comparable to a wavelength. In that case,
when the platform is made of a good conductor (in whole, or partially), it (aircraft) becomes part of the entire radiating
system. It affects significantly the overall performance of the antenna. Cross-sectional and longitudinal currents are
generated on the body of the aircraft, resulting in abrupt and unpredictable changes in radiation patterns and antenna
parameters in the HF frequency domain. Parts of the aircraft, such as the fuselage, engines, stabilizers, etc., could
become randomly oriented resonating elements, causing those changes.

NAVAIR Journal for Scientists and Engineers

Vol. 1, Issue 3
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT D. Distribution authorized to the Department of Defense and U.S. DoD contractors only; administrative/operational use; 1 October
2016. Other requests shall be referred to AIR-4.5.
 Saakian: HF Antennas

In the case of HF radiating systems, one may assume approximately 0.1 ≤ D/l ≤ 1, where D is the total size of antenna-
on-platform radiating system, and l is the wavelength. When the radiating system is electrically small or comparable to
the wavelength, then the half-power beam-width (HPBW = 2  HP) may roughly be estimated as [3]:
30 degrees ≤ 2HP ≈ 30/(D/ ≤ 300 degrees. (1)
Expression (1) refers to an ideal case when radiation from a flat circular aperture of uniform amplitude and phase
distribution is considered. In reality, the lower limit of the HPBW in (1) may never be achieved due to significant non-
uniformity of the phase distribution on the surface of the HF radiating antenna-platform surface due to its arbitrarily
shaped configuration. In other words, in the HF frequency band a highly directive radiation pattern may never be
obtained with a single antenna. Nevertheless, some control over the antenna's radiation pattern, as well as over the sense
of polarization, may be achieved by proper choice of the antenna placement and its orientation on the aircraft.

The main goal of the antenna-on-platform optimal integration is to achieve a control over the radiation properties, and
hence to be able to optimize the system performance. The idea is based on the principle of reciprocity in
electromagnetism.
Assume the antenna-on-platform system in receive mode (passive mode) in free space is illuminated with the plane
wave of particular polarization and direction of incidence. Then conducting currents with a specific distribution pattern
will be generated on the surface of the system. Now if the antenna on the same antenna-on-platform system is turned
into radiating regime (active mode), it replicates the same conducting current distribution, then it will likely provide
maximum possible contribution into radiated power density (pointing vector) in the same direction and polarization as
the plane wave of the illumination in the passive mode. In the open literature, this is referred to as "antenna synthesis"
when designing the antenna with a specific configuration to meet the desired performance. Unfortunately the above
approach is not feasible by means of setting up the physical illumination experiment in free space as the experiment may
become highly expensive and its purity may not be guaranteed. However, the progress in Computational
Electromagnetic (CEM) tools design during the last decades allows setup of a virtual (numerical) experiment by using
RCS computer simulation (referred to below as "RCS-illumination"), which is simply a plane-wave illumination of the
target for the purpose of its range/direction identification. In other words, the idea is realized by taking the following
steps:
1. The body of the aircraft is illuminated with the plane wave coming from the desired direction with the desired
frequency and polarization (RCS-illumination);
2. As a result, the primary conducting current (named below as RCS-currents) distribution pattern is defined along
the surface of the body;
3. To get the desired radiation direction and polarization that is relevant to RCS-illumination, the antenna is to be
positioned in the areas of maximum RCS-current density. The antenna's orientation on the aircraft is defined in a
manner that provides the distribution pattern of the radiating currents (secondary conducting currents generated
by the antenna) in that area replicated as close as possible to the distribution obtained from RCS-illumination.
The above steps are feasible by using CEM tools only; those tools have only become widely available during the last
two decades.
1a. Skywave Propagation Modes of HF for Air-to-Air and Air-to-Ground Communications
One of the characteristics of the 2 to 30 MHz frequency band, known as the HF band, is the fact that the Earth’s
Ionosphere plays a crucial role in signal propagation conditions. From a variety of propagation modes, only two are most
commonly used for air-to-ground and air-to-air communications in military and commercial applications. Those modes
belong to Skywave type1 and are due to single/multiple ionospheric reflections that occur most commonly from the F2-
layer and are defined as follows2 :
 NVIS mode, which is used for relatively short-range communications (preferably for the tactical voice and data
transfers), at the distances of up to three hundred kilometers
 LRSW mode, which is used for the global communication scenarios, i.e. at the distances of thousands of
kilometers
1
Ground waves represent the other type of propagation mode, and are used only for ground-to-ground communications, and are not applicable for the air-to-air, or air-
to-ground communications. Hence they are not included in consideration in this document.
2
Propagation through other two reflecting layers, such as E- and F1-layer, is also possible, with shorter propagation distances. However they're not as common, as the
reflections from F2-layer.

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

Sketches of propagation paths for both principal modes are shown in Figures 1b and 1c, whereas the layered structure of
the Ionosphere is shown in Figure 1a. This is a simplified presentation, whereas in reality the incident wave partially
penetrates into the reflecting layer so the reflection point is somewhere inside the layer. The angle of incidence onto the
reflecting layer () is small enough for the NVIS mode. For LRSW, when the ray path is nearly tangential to the
horizon,  tends to its maximum value of  0 [1,2].
The general expression for the reflection condition is given by the following formula [2] :

f  MUF  f cr sec 
(2)

FIGURE 1. Ionospheric layers and predominant HF modes' propagation paths.

a). Structure of Ionospheric Layers (not to scale)

b). NVIS mode propagation path:  ≤ 0 for the "flat Earth" approximation

c). LRSW mode propagation path:  ≤ 0 (This is a maximum angle of incidence on F2-layer for the extreme -
horizontally radiated wave. For this angle, the maximum single-hop propagation distance along the "great circle" is 4000
km)
In (2), f is the frequency of the radio wave, MUF is the maximum usable frequency for j, given angle of incidence, on the
ionospheric layer, and fcr is critical frequency (plasma frequency) of the ionospheric plasma defined as [2],
f cr  80.0  N el
kHz. (3)

Here, Nel is ionospheric plasma concentration, or, in other words, the concentration of free electrons.

As seen from (1) and (2), ionospheric reflections are highly dependent on conditions of the Ionosphere, i.e., dependent
on parameters of the reflecting layers such as Nel and altitude of the layer [1,2]. The operational frequencies are usually
taken 20% less than MUF, i.e.,

fop = 0.8 MUF (4)

to avoid any violations of the reflection conditions due to ionospheric fluctuations. Some calculation results based on (2)
- (4) are given in Table 1 for reflections that occur from the ionospheric F2-layer for its average conditions.
TABLE 1. F2 Ionospheric layer's reflection conditions for predominant HF propagation modes.

As seen in Table 1, the conventional assignment of the frequency ranges, i.e., 2 to 10 MHz to NVIS mode, and 10 to 30
MHz to LRSW mode, is quite reasonable.

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

1b. Polarization Selection for the Predominant Radiation Modes

An important issue in the HF antenna design process is polarization selection. Antennas with linear polarization (LP) are
of primary use for onboard applications. However, their significant disadvantage is the fact that polarization matching
between corresponding antennas becomes infeasible due to random positioning of aircraft during the flight. This fact
creates a mechanism of the signal's deep fade along with other mechanisms 3 that usually exist on HF propagation paths.
This is essential specifically for the NVIS mode. In order to avoid those fades, it is highly desirable to have an NVIS
mode radiated/received in circular polarization (CP) by at least one of the corresponding antennas. One of the possible
solutions for the NVIS-CP antenna placement onboard the aircraft is considered below. Both right-hand circular
polarization (RHCP) and left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) are acceptable.
For LRSW mode, a horizontally polarized (H-pol) radiation is most commonly used. Note, however, that vertically
polarized (V-pol) signal of LRSW mode is also applicable, and used for ground-to-ground, as well as for air-to-ground
and ground-to-air communication in global scenarios.

Section 2
Conducting Currents’ Vector Patterns on the Platform Due To RCS Illumination: Numerical Experiments

T
he proposed novel approach demonstrated below is based on a simplified (generic) model of the midsize fixed-
wing aircraft by employing a widely used commercial CEM code known as WIPL-D. This code is considered to
be one of the most recognized and validated CEM tools for the radiation performance predictions of the large
problems such as antenna-on-platform integrated systems. The images of conducting currents distribution vector
patterns due to monostatic RCS-illumination obtained from WIPL-D simulations are shown in Figures 2 through 5. Those
results are obtained for the antenna-on-platform system made of aluminum ( = 35.5 MS/m), which is close to Perfect
Electric Conductor (PEC) material. Note that the areas of most intensive surface currents generated by the incident RCS
plane wave are considered as potentially the most appropriate areas of the HF antenna placement. These areas are circled
on Figures 2 through 5. Another important issue, as mentioned above, is that the current distribution pattern in any of the
placement areas is to be replicated as close as possible when the antenna is installed and is in active mode. Several
examples of those installations are demonstrated in section 3 below.

FIGURE 2. RCS-illumination and conducting currents in- FIGURE 3. RCS-illumination and conducting currents induced
duced on the generic aircraft with vertically incident, longitu- on the generic aircraft with vertically incident, transversally
dinally polarized plane wave at 6 MHz (NVIS mode support). polarized plane wave at 6 MHz (NVIS mode support).

FIGURE 4. RCS-illumination and conducting currents induced FIGURE 5. RCS-illumination and conducting currents induced
on the generic aircraft with along the centerline horizontally on the generic aircraft with across the centerline horizontally
incident, H-pol plane wave at 20 MHz (LRSW mode support). incident, H-pol plane wave at 20 MHz (LRSW mode support).
3
Other mechanisms of the HF signal's fades are caused by random interference of the components of multi-paths (fast fades) and random variations
of the propagation absorptions (slow fades) [2].

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

FIGURE 6. RCS-illumination and conducting currents induced on the generic aircraft with along the centerline horizontally incident
V-pol plane wave at 20 MHz (LRSW mode support).

Section 3

T
Examples of the HF Antenna’s Optimal Placement Onboard the Air Platform
he examples of the HF antenna optimal placement onboard the aircraft below are to demonstrate the main
concept, and are not attempting to cover all possible optimal solutions. The most widely used HF antennas
under consideration are:
 Towel-Bar (TB) antenna,
 Notch-fed (NF) antenna,
 Shunt-fed (SF) antenna,
 Loop antenna.
Numerical experiments are fulfilled for the center frequencies: 6 MHz - for the NVIS mode, and 20 MHz - for the
LRSW mode.
Note that it is not the goal to satisfy mechanical and aerodynamic requirements. However, the placement and the
configurations are set in a manner that is logically acceptable. The integral quantitative estimates of the optimization
efficiencies are given in section 5 below.
3a. Case 1: Onboard TB Antenna for Longitudinally Polarized NVIS Mode Excitation
As seen in Figure 2, there are three areas of most intensive currents density generated by the incident RCS wave. The
directions of currents in areas 1 and 2 are mostly longitudinal (along the centerline of the body). One of the possible
replicas for the currents’ vector distribution pattern for area 1 may be closely achieved by placing an actively radiating
TB antenna on the top of the body of the aircraft, along its centerline, as shown in Figure 7. The three-dimensional (3D)
radiation pattern for the total electric field gain is shown in Figure 7. As one may see from this figure, a fair amount of
radiated energy is pushed vertically, despite that there is also undesirable radiation along the sides and in a downward
direction. Those undesirable radiation conditions may not be eliminated with this single-antenna solution.
3b. Case 2: Onboard Loop Antenna for
Longitudinally Polarized NVIS Mode Excitation
Another way of generating a longitudinally polarized
NVIS mode is to replicate the currents vector
distribution pattern in area 3 (Figure 2) by using a
wire-loop antenna. In this case, the wires of the loop
are to follow the currents along the edges of the
vertical stabilizer as shown in Figure 8. Unfortunately,
this type of excitation is only feasible if the vertical
stabilizer is made of dielectric material (or one that
has properties close to it, such as composites, which
are widely used in aviation technologies). Otherwise,
the boundary conditions for the electric field will be
violated on the surface of the stabilizer, and the
FIGURE 7. Shorted TB antenna's optimal placement (left) for radiation will be suppressed. The dielectric part of the
longitudinally polarized (linear) NVIS mode excitation, and proper 3D vertical stabilizer is shown in red, not to be confused
radiation pattern (right) at 6 MHz. with the loop made of the narrow plates along the
edges of the vertical stabilizer.

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

Note that the 3D radiation pattern for total field gain

shown in Figure 8 (right) is fairly similar to that generated
by the TB-antenna in previous case (subsection 3a).

3c. Case 3: Onboard NF Antenna for Transversely

Polarized NVIS Mode Excitation
As stated above, the use of an NF-antenna is another
option for the HF signal’s transmission and reception.
Basically the NF antenna is a modification of the slot
antenna that is widely used in linear waveguide arrays.
With the electric field excitation applied across the slot,
the radiated field also becomes polarized across the slot.
FIGURE 8. Loop antenna's optimal placement (left) for
longitudinally-polarized (linear) NVIS mode excitation, and As seen in Figure 3, if RCS illumination is vertically
proper 3D radiation pattern (right) at 6 MHz. incident in a downwards direction, with the polarization
across the centerline (transversal), then conducting
currents excited on the surface are mostly localized on the
wings, and are directed across the centerline (Figure 3).
Then the most appropriate placement of the NF slot is
shown in Figure 9 so it crosses the current lines resulting
in intensive transversally polarized radiation.
Note that the excitation is applied across the slot at its
center line. The expected 3D radiation pattern for the
NVIS mode is shown on the right side of Figure 9.
3d. Case 4: Onboard TB-NF Combined HF Antenna for
Circularly (or Elliptically) Polarized NVIS Mode Excitation

Use of the CP in NVIS mode may become preferable in

FIGURE 9. NF antenna's optimal placement (left) for
most cases of short-range HF communication lines for air-
transversely polarized (linear) NVIS mode excitation, and proper
3D radiation pattern (right) at 6 MHz. to-air and air-to-ground links. This is to avoid polarization
mismatches due to movements of corresponding
platforms. Use of CP even on just one corresponding side
may significantly improve signal stability, despite approximately 3 dB loss on CP-to-LP polarization transition.
In order to have a CP (or Elliptical Polarization (EP))
radiated signal from the onboard HF antenna, a combination
of two cross-polarized antennas are to be used. Here, as an
example, a combination of TB antenna placed along the
centerline to excite a longitudinal component of the radiated
signal and an NF antenna placed along the wing to achieve a
transversal component of the total radiated fields (see Figure
9) is considered. It is apparent that a +90° or -90° phase shift
is to be established between those component-antennas'
excitations in order to achieve the proper sense of CP (or EP)
radiation: either RHCP or LHCP.
Figure 10 demonstrates the 3D radiation pattern for RHCP
gain for this combined HF antenna. Note that it is hard to
achieve ideal CP due to some distortions caused by platform.
In this case, the CP radiation is formed with an axial ratio of FIGURE 10. TB-NF antenna's combination for CP-NVIS
5.8 dB. To achieve the value of axial ratio closer to zero mode support (left), and proper 3D radiation pattern
(ideal case), the phasors of the excitation voltages are to be (right) at 6 MHz.
adjusted for the given particular platform based on results of
simulations in a "one antenna at a time" option. The weighting factors are to be developed from the "one antenna at a
time" numerical experiment for further adjustments of the combined antennas’ excitation setups.

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

3e. Case 5: Onboard Loop Antenna for Horizontally Polarized LRSW Mode Excitation
After referring to Figures 4 and 5, one may realize that for both RCS-illumination directions – longitudinal and
transversal – the most intensive conducting currents are generated on the horizontal stabilizer, along its contour.
Replication of that shape of currents is feasible by using the wire loop that is placed on, or in close vicinity to, the
surface of the horizontal stabilizer, covering either whole or just part of its surface. It is to be noted here that in order to
keep the electric field vector horizontally polarized, all horizontal surfaces may not be made of good conductors, but
rather of the composite materials with the properties close to dielectric. Otherwise, the boundary condition for the
electric field will be violated, which may result in significant destruction of the radiation pattern (i.e., the value of the
gain for the E  component will drop down and eliminate the radiation spread in horizontal plane). Hence, in this case
both the horizontal stabilizer and the wings are assumed to be made of composite material (shown in red in Figure 10).
As seen from the 3D radiation pattern for E  electric field component (Figure 11), it is fairly close to omni in the
horizontal plane with the variations from -2.5 dB to 1.5 dB.
3f. Case 6: Onboard SF Antenna for Vertically Polarized LRSW Mode Excitation
As seen in Figure 6, the horizontally propagating V-pol RCS-illumination generates intensive currents on the vertical
stabilizer with the vertically directed current lines. An SF antenna placed on the front edge of the vertical stabilizer as
shown in Figure 12 allows achievement of a close replica of that current vector distribution pattern. In this example,
the horizontal cut of E  gain pattern, which is of the most interest for the V-pol LRSW mode, is fairly isotropic with
variations from -1.5 dB to + 1.0 dB.
4. Integral Estimates of the HF Antenna Radiation Pattern Efficiency Onboard the Aircraft

FIGURE 11. Wire-Loop antenna for LRSW H-pol mode sup- FIGURE 12. SF antenna for LRSW V-pol mode support (left),
port (left), and proper 3D radiation pattern (right) at 20 MHz. and proper 3D radiation pattern (right) at 20 MHz.

Numerical assessments of the antenna performance are based on the expression for Radiation Pattern Efficiency [4, 5]
given below as
2  2

 ( , ) d  E ( , ) sin  d d
2

 
0 1
 
 2    90
100%
 ( , ) d
4    E
2
( , ) sin  d d
0   90
(5)
4
which shows the ratio of radiated power localized within the specified spatial angle W to the total radiated power .
Note that in (5), 4π is the whole solid angle. Angle W is shown in Figure 13 that is specific for each radiation mode. P
is the magnitude of the Pointing vector, and E is electric field, and q 1 and q 2 related to proper radiation mode as
1  60  2  90 0
 , - for NVIS mode (6)
1  30 0  2  30 0
 , - for LRSW mode

4
Radiation Pattern Efficiency is not to be confused with Radiation Efficiency that is defined by IEEE as: “…The ratio of the total power radiated by
an antenna to the net power accepted by the antenna from the connected transmitter.” [6]

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

Depending on the type of mode under consideration, the

numerical calculations of  are performed by using a
MATLAB script for the following values of the electric
vector magnitude E:
2 2
E  Etotal  E  E
- for NVIS mode
E  E
- for LRSW mode of H-pol (7)
E  E
FIGURE 13. a). Spherical coordinates, b). W spatial angle - for LRSW mode of V-pol
for NVIS mode, c). W spatial angle for LRSW mode.
Numerical results for  that are calculated from (5) for the
above cases are given in Table 2 below. The values of  for the isotropic radiator are also provided in the same table for
comparison. As one may notice, a significant improvement may be achieved by proper optimal placement of the antenna,
especially when NVIS mode is under
consideration. Note that when having to
deal with hundreds of watts (or even
several kilowatts) in the HF transmitter's
output, those radiation properties'
improvements (including improvements in
input impedances that are not covered in
this article) may result in significant
power/weight saving. TABLE 2. Numerical values for the radiation efficiencies, c of predominant HF
radiation modes in comparison with the ideal, isotropically radiating antenna.

Conclusion

W
hile using the proposed novel approach of optimal integration of the HF antenna onboard particular
aircraft/spacecraft, engineers may be very limited in the number of choices for an optimal solution
(usually no more than two or three) when a specific radiation mode is requested. It is proven by the
radiation pattern integral assessments that solution(s) is (are) considered as optimal in terms of maximum
possible radiated energy injection into the selected radiation mode. Some freedom in antenna type and placement may be
used by the designer to satisfy mechanical and aerodynamic restrictions/requirements. The proposed approach may be
supported by any CEM code that allows a virtual RCS illumination of the platform and calculation of the conducting
current vector distribution pattern on the surface of air/space platform.

References
[1] K. Davis, Ionospheric Radio. Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, UK, 1990.
[2] A.S.Saakian, Radio Wave Propagation Fundamentals. Artech House, Norwood, MA 2011
[3] C.A Balanis, Antenna Theory, Third Ed., Wiley & Sons, 2005
[4] J.V.N. Granger, J.T. Bolljahn, “Aircraft Antennas.” Proc. I.R.E., pp. 932-938, May 1955
[5] S.J. Kubina, C.W. Trueman, D. Gaudine, A.K.L. Ka, “Modeling Multiple HF Antennas on the C-130 /Hercules Aircraft, Part I.”
20-th Annual Review of Progress in Applied Computational Electromagnetics, Syracuse, NY, April 2004
[6] IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas. IEEE Std 145-1983

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 Saakian: HF Antennas

Author
Dr. Artem Saakian is an Electronics Engineer in the Antenna branch of the 4.5.5 –
Radar and Antenna Systems Division at NAVAIR in Patuxent River, MD. He holds a BS-
EE degree from the State Engineering University of Armenia (1971), an MS-EE degree
from the University of Telecommunications, St. Petersburg, Russia (1976), and PhD
degree in EE from the University of Massachusetts, Lowell, USA (2001). Dr. Saakian is
an author of more than 20 publications of journal articles and conference
presentations, including a textbook titled “Radio Wave Propagation Fundamentals”,
Artech House, 2011, for senior undergraduate and entry-level graduate EE students.
His professional interests are in the area of Applied Electrodynamics: Antennas, RF
Propagation, and Microwave Circuits and Systems. During his professional career in
Academia and Industry, Dr. Saakian actively participated in a variety of projects for US
-DON, and for the former Soviet Navy. He is a recognized expert in using
Computational Electromagnetic Tools (WIPL-D, HFSS, CUBIT, and SENTRi) for
Antennas/Microwave Systems design in Radars and Telecommunications.

NAVAIR Journal for Scientists and Engineers Vol. 1, Issue 3

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