Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-1

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Immiscibility/Phase Separation: Glass Microstructure

Different liquids have different properties and so, when combined, some will:

• Form a single, homogeneous mixture → miscible

• Alcohol and water- alcohol is hydrophilic- -OH terminated

• Not mix, heterogeneous → immiscible or phase separated

• Oil and water- oil is hydrophobic

Similar processes occur in oxide melts: some oxide combinations are miscible,
some are immiscible.

Example
Droplet of glassy component 'A' dispersed in glassy
matrix 'B'. Shelby Fig. 4-3
(Droplet-in-matrix
Phase separation occurs in highly viscous samples, morphology)
'frozen in' on cooling below Tg. (Initial viscosity has to
be low enough for material to re-arrange into
separate regions).

Why do certain compositions exhibit phase separation?

• Thermodynamic Explanation

Slide 1:

Phase 1 and Phase 2 each have their own 'internal' or free energy (G1, G2, respectively).
Case A Case B

Component 1 Component 2
X1 X2
GA=X1 G1+ X2 G2 GB= GA+ ∆Gmix

∆Gmix=∆Hm-T∆Sm (Shelby 4.1)

∆Sm=-R[X1lnX1+ X2lnX2] (4.2)

∆Hm= α=X1X2 (4.3)

α== -ZNA[E1,2-(E1+E2)/2]
where E represents bond energies

Total free energy for case A (two separate phases) is summation of those internal
energies times respective concentrations: GA =X1G1 + X2G2.
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-2
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When mixed (case B), total free energy is changed by free energy of mixing
(∆Gm), which depends on the enthalpy of mixing (∆Hm, could be exothermic or
endothermic) and the entropy of mixing (∆Sm).

For Regular Solutions: ∆Sm = -R[X1lnX1 + X2lnX2]

Entropy is related to system disorder. Upon mixing, systems become more

disordered, ∆Sm always increases, causing ∆Gm to become more negative.
• Entropy promotes mixing.

• ∆Hm≈∆Em: change in bond energies

• to make a mixture, must break 1-1 (E1) and 2-2 (E2) bonds to create
1-2 (E1,2) bonds. Is the net energy change positive or negative?
• ∆Hm≈αX1X2 where α∼-ZNAvo[E1,2-(E1+E2)/2] (Z = coordination number)
• when E1,2>(E1+E2)/2, ∆Hm<0, 1-2 bonds are stronger than 1-1 and 2-2
bonds, so the system will prefer to mix.
• when E1,2<(E1+E2)/2, ∆Hm<0, 1-2 bonds are weaker than 1-1 and 2-2
bonds, so the system will avoid mixing- more stable as separate
phases.

Competition between entropy and enthalpy determines if ∆Gm < 0 (system will be
miscible); eq. 4-1. (Slide 2)
• Entropy of mixing always decreases ∆Gm.
• Enthalpy can either increase or decrease ∆Gm.

Example 1: ∆Hm < 0, E1,2 more stable than E1+E2.

• Complete miscibility (alcohol and water); any combination of
components leads to a reduction in ∆Gm

Free Energy of Mixing Depends on Enthalpy and Entropy:

∆Gmix= α=X1X2 -RT [X1lnX1+ X2lnX2] (4.4)
∆Gmix= -ZNA[E1,2-(E1+E2)/2]=X1X2 -RT [X1lnX1+ X2lnX2]

Example 1: ∆Hm<0; E1,2>(E1+E2)/2

complete miscibility

∆ Hm
Energy

∆Sm
-T∆

∆Gm

Composition
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-3
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Example 2: ∆Hm > 0, E1,2 less stable than E1+E2.

• Enthalpy (positive) and entropy (negative) are competing (Slide 3)
• At low temperature:
• small entropy contribution; enthalpy change is most important
• mixing causes ∆Gm to increase- barrier; phases prefer to be
separate, for most combinations
• Note that there are certain compositions for which ∆Gm < 0
• at T1, the minima are at compositions A1 and B1
• at T2, the minima are at compositions A2 and B2a
• at T3, -T∆Sm dominates the free energy and ∆Gm<0 for all
combinations (100% miscible).

Example 2: ∆Hm>0; E1,2<(E1+E2)/2

regions of immiscibility that
depend on temperature (-T∆Sm)
T1<<Tc T2<Tc T3>Tc
∆Hm ∆Hm ∆Hm

∆Gm

∆Gm
Energy

-T1∆Sm ∆Gm
A1 B1
-T2∆Sm
A2 B2
-T3∆Sm

Composition Composition Composition

Consolute Temperature (Tc): upper temperature at which separate

phases are thermodynamically stable. (Or, lowest temperature at
which a single phase liquid is thermodynamically stable.)
What are the consequences of these free energy minima?
• Free energy of the system will be reduced if the liquid separates into two
phases: with compositions A and B.
• Common Tangent (tie-line): identifies the lowest energy combinations
• How much of each phase forms? Lever Rule

Slide 4: combinations between compositions A and B have lower ∆Gmix if they

separate into A and B rather than staying as a single phase mixture.
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-4
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Using the Lever Rule to Determine Compositions

Composition Y:
fraction of phase 1 is
[P1]=(P2-Y)/(P2-P1)
fraction of phase 2 is
[P2]=(Y-P1)/(P2-P1)

∆Gmix
*
Lower ∆Gm if comp. Y *
separates into A and B:
fraction of phase A is y z
[A]=(B-Y)/(B-A)
fraction of phase B is
[B]=(Y-A)/(B-A) P1 A Composition B P2

Note: compositions not between A and B are miscible: viz., ∆Gmix is lower as a
single phase mixture than if different phases separated from the mixture

Move to composition 'z'; end up with mixture that has more B-phase.

• From slide 3, increasing temperature decreases the distance between A' and
B' (shorter tie-line)→smaller range of immiscible combinations until at T≈Tc
above which no mixtures are immiscible.
• These free energy curves 'map out' immiscibility domes in a phase
diagram (slide 5).
Phase Diagrams Are Derived from Free Energy Curves

Immiscibility
one liquid Dome
Tc or
Miscibility
Temperature

Gap
T2
two
liquids
T1

A1 A2 B2 B1
Composition

Free energy/composition analysis indicates the thermodynamic underpinnings of

phase separation, but provide no information about kinetics.
• Similar temperature-dependence on viscosity.
• If viscosity is low in an immiscibility dome: rapid phase separation
• If viscosity is high in an immiscibility dome: slow phase separation (can be
avoided if melt is quenched fast enough).
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-5
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Mechanisms for Phase Separation:

1. Nucleation and Growth

• Analogous to nucleation/crystallization
• distinctly different liquid-in-liquid compositions
• overcome surface energy barrier
• must reach critical size to remain stable
• undercooling provides thermodynamic driving force: (Tc-T)2
• material diffusion to interface to form separate droplets
• high viscosity→slow diffusion→slow particle growth

2. Spinodal Decomposition
• Compositional fluctuations (∆c) reduce ∆Gmix, promote gradual phase
separation (slide 6).
• This occurs when d2G/dc2 < 0 (between inflection points C and D)
• The compositions of the inflection points also vary with temperature
and so map out a second dome where d2G/dc2(T) < 0: Spinodal Dome

• Range of phase separated

compositions: A-B
• Small changes in comp. 1 cause
∆Gmix(c) at T1
an increase in ∆G: distinct,
separate phases preferred for
ranges A-C and D-B, Nucleated
Phase Separation
∆Gmix

• Small changes in comp. 2 cause

a decrease in ∆G: Range C-D: 2*
phase separation initiated by
small compositional fluctuations,
C D
Spinodal Decomposition
(d2G/dc2<0 for C-D)

*1
A B

Composition
A B
T1
C D
Figure 4-2
(Shelby)
1 2

(See Varshneya (Fig. 4-5, next page) for a diagram that shows shapes of the first
and second derivatives of the free energy curves).
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-6
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Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-7
R.K. Brow Immiscibility/Phase Separation

Different mechanisms lead to different topologies for phase separated systems:

• Nucleated: sharp interfaces, invariant (distinct) compositions
• Spinodal: diffuse interfaces, compositions vary with time.
 Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-8
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Shelby 4.3 or Varshneya 4-13: Shelby 4.4 or Varshneya 4-13:

"Droplet in Matrix" "Interpenetrating Phases"

Morphology Morphology

Immiscibility in Glass Forming Systems:

• common- most systems will phase separate (with proper thermal history)
• size of phase separated regions depends on quench rate- analogous to the
critical cooling rate for nucleation/crystallization.
• Quench to below Tg to avoid phase separation
• No phase separation when T>Tc or T<Tg
• Viscous melts are less prone to phase separation than fluid melts (D∼η-1)

Stable Immiscibility: Tc>Tliquidus (Tliq. is maximum temperature at which crystals

are stable in a melt).
• very common (binary RO•SiO2, •GeO2, •B2O3 systems)
• fast kinetics (low viscosity)

Metastable Immiscibility: Tc<Tliquidus :'S-shaped liquidus'

• crystals are stable, but in general, phase separation kinetics are faster
than crystallization kinetics (atomic re-arrangements necessary for
crystallization slow that process down).
• slower kinetics (high viscosity)
• binary Li2O•SiO2, Na2O•SiO2, Na-borosilicates

Stable Immiscibility Metastable Immiscibility

Tc
Temperature

Temperature

Tc

Composition Composition
Figure 4-5 (Shelby) Figure 4-6 (Shelby)
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-9
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Observations:
• electron microscopy
• 'clearing' studies (see demo from gradient furnace)
• visible scattering; phase separated glasses turn white
• confirm by x-ray diffraction
• x-ray scattering (Shelby figure 4-7).

In ternary systems, immiscibility domes are represented by contour lines which

show outer boundaries of the phase separated regions; note broader regions at
lower temperatures.
• Tie-lines indicate where the 'stable' separate compositions are.

Isothermal
Phase Diagram

Spinodal
boundaries tie-lines

Vycor (96% SiO2) Na-borosilicate

• Choose composition near center of system (wt%)
immiscibility dome to create spinodal
microstructure. Pyrex composition
• Melt at 1500°C, then process (press, (edge of dome)
blow, draw, etc.) at T>Tc.
• Heat treat at ∼600°C to develop Vycor composition
interpenetrating microstructures of (middle of dome)
phases with boundary compositions
• one phase is ∼96% SiO2 600°C
tie-line
• other phase is acid-soluble Na-
borosilicate glass
• Leach out the soluble phase in
90°C H2SO4 to leave porous,
high-silica skeleton (see
micrograph from Vogel, 6-27)
• 'Thirsty Glass' can be used as
porous substrate (filters, catalyst
supports, time-release substrate,
etc.) or can be sintered to dense
glass at 1100°C- inexpensive
substitute for pure silica.
• Key is the development of spinodal
microstructure.
Cer103 Notes Shelby Chapter 4 4-10
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Pyrex glass: another phase separated Na-borosilicate composition

• Lower B2O3, lower Na2O than Vycor; closer to edge of immiscibility dome
• Nucleated 'drop-in-matrix' morphology
• Cooled rapidly through Tg to produce 20-50Å Na-borate droplets in a
chemically inert high-silica matrix.
• Na-borate reduces process melt/temperature but the droplet microstructure
ensures outstanding chemical durability (and low thermal expansion coef.)

Finally, 'step-wise' immiscibility can lead to interesting microstructures

• Multiple heat treatments: Ba-borosilicate glass
• Phase-within a Phase-within a Phase
• Further heat-treatments yield crystallized phases.

From Vogel, Chemistry of

Glass, 1985