FP 313 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

BY GAFUMA SAMUEL

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Classification, Composition and post harvest handling of
fruits and vegetables
2. Processing and Packaging of Fresh-cut fruits
3. Fruit Juice Processing and Preservation
4. Processing of Fruit Preserves, Jams and Jellies
5. Fruits and Vegetable drying
6. Fruit freezing and chilling
7. Canning or Thermal processing of fruits
8. Specific fruits processing technologies:
i. Processing of oranges and tangerines
ii. Processing of Bananas
iii. Processing of tropical fruits
1. Mangoes
2. Passion fruits
3. Avocado
9. Vegetable processing technologies
i. General Handling and preparations procedures
ii. Chilling & freezing of vegetables
iii. Canning of vegetables
iv. Vegetable Preserves

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 1.0 CLASSIFICATION, COMPOSITION AND POST HARVEST
HANDLING

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. As such, it should be no

surprise that agricultural industries and related activities can account for a considerable
proportion of their output. Of the various types of activities that can be termed as agriculturally
based, fruit and vegetable processing are among the most important.

Both established and planned fruit and vegetable processing projects aim at solving a very
clearly identified development problem. This is that due to insufficient demand, weak
infrastructure, poor transportation and perishable nature of the crops, the grower sustains
substantial losses. During the post-harvest glut (surplus), the loss is considerable and often some
of the produce has to be fed to animals or allowed to rot.

Even established fruit and vegetable canning factories or small/medium scale processing centres
suffer huge loss due to erratic supplies. The grower may like to sell his produce in the open
market directly to the consumer, or the produce may not be of high enough quality to process
even though it might be good enough for the table. This means that processing capacities will be
seriously underexploited.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING

The main objectives of fruit and vegetable processing are to:

1. Supply wholesome, safe, nutritious and acceptable food to consumers throughout the
year.
2. Replace imported products like squash, yams, tomato sauces, pickles, etc., besides
earning foreign exchange by exporting finished or semi-processed products.

1.3 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING

The fruit and vegetable processing activities have been set up, or have to be established in
developing countries for one or other of the following reasons (functions):

a) diversification of the economy, in order to reduce present dependence on one export

commodity;
b) government industrialisation policy;
c) reduction of imports and meeting export demands;
d) stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products;
e) generate both rural and urban employment;

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 f) reduce fruit and vegetable losses;
g) improve farmers' nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruit and
vegetables during the off-season;
h) generate new sources of income for farmers/artisans;
i) develop new value-added products.

TABLE 1: Fruit and Vegetable World Production, 1991

Crop (Fruit) Production, 1000 T
Total World Developing
countries
Apples 39404 14847
Apricots 2224 1147
Avocados 2036 1757
Bananas 47660 46753
Citrus fruits NES 1622 1231
Cantaloupes and other melons 12182 8733
Dates 3192 3146
Grapes 57188 14257
Grapefruit and pomelo 4655 2073
Lemons and limes 6786 4457
Mangoes 16127 16075
Oranges 55308 40325
Peaches and nectarines 8682 2684
Pears 9359 4431
Papayas 4265 4205
Plantains 26847 26847
Plums 5651 1806
Pineapples 10076 9183
Raisins 1041 470
Tangerines, mandarines, clementines 8951 4379
Watermelons 28943 19038
Currants 536009
Raspberries 369087
Strawberries 2469117 342009
Beans, green 3213 1702
Cabbages 36649 15569

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Cauliflower 5258 2269
Carrots 13511 4545
Chilies + peppers, green 9145 6440
Cucumbers and gherkins 13619 7931
Eggplants 5797 4608
Garlic 3102 2446
Onions, dry 27977 17128
Peas, green 4856 1038
Pumpkins, squash, gourds 7933 6245

(Dev.ping = Developing countries) Source: FAO Yearbook, 1991, FAO Production Yearbook,
1992

1.4 WHAT FRUIT AND VEGETABLES CAN BE PROCESSED?

Practically any fruit and vegetable can be processed, but some important factors which determine
whether it is worthwhile are:

a. the demand for a particular fruit or vegetable in the processed form;

b. the quality of the raw material, i.e. whether it can withstand processing;
c. regular supplies of the raw material.

For example, a particular variety of fruit which may be excellent to eat fresh is not necessarily
good for processing. Processing requires frequent handling, high temperature and pressure. Many
of the ordinary table varieties of tomatoes, for instance, are not suitable for making paste or other
processed products. A particular mango or pineapple may be very tasty eaten fresh, but when it
goes to the processing centre it may fail to stand up to the processing requirements due to
variations in its quality, size, maturity, variety and so on.

1.5. CLASSIFICATION, GENERAL PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF FRUITS

AND VEGETABLES

1.5.1 General Properties and Classification

Fruit and vegetables have many similarities with respect to their compositions, methods of
cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing.

Botanically, Fruits are plant organs that are composed of seeds surrounded by a juicy, colourful
and aromatic ovary which are consumed by humans. From a botanical point of view, some
vegetables such as tomatoes, corn, etc. are actually fruits. In fact, many vegetables may be
considered fruits in the true botanical sense. Therefore such items as tomatoes, cucumbers,
eggplant, peppers, and others would be classified as fruits on this basis. Fruits vary widely in

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their shape, size, colour, texture, flavour, nutritional properties, potential for extended shelf-life,
and ability to withstand different types processing. Fruits are extremely perishable and hence the
need to be preserved for longer shelf-life. Examples of fruits include: mangoes, pineapples,
oranges, ovacado, papaws, kiwifruits, cherries, blackberries, etc.

However, the important distinction between fruit and vegetables has come to be made on an
usage basis. Those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are
considered to be vegetables. Those that are commonly eaten as dessert are considered fruits. That
is the distinction made by the food processor, certain marketing laws and the consuming public.

Vegetables are derived from various parts of plants and it is sometimes useful to associate
different vegetables with the parts of the plant they represent since this provides clues to some of
the characteristics we may expect in these items.

1.5.2 Classification of Vegetables

Vegetables are derived from various parts of plants and it is sometimes useful to associate
different vegetables with the parts of the plant they represent since this provides clues to some of
the characteristics we may expect in these items. A classification of vegetables based on
morphological features is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2: Classification of Vegetables

Category Examples
Earth vegetables roots sweet potatoes, carrots
modified stems tubers potatoes
modified buds bulbs onions, garlic
Herbage vegetables
Leaves cabbage, spinach, lettuce
petioles (leaf stalk) celery, rhubarb
flower buds cauliflower, artichokes
sprouts, shoots (young stems) asparagus, bamboo shoots
Fruit vegetables
Legumes peas, green beans
Cereals sweet corn
vine fruits squash, cucumber
berry fruits tomato, egg plant
tree fruits avocado, breadfruit

Source: Feinberg (1973)

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1.5.3 Classification of Fruits

Fruits as a dessert item, are the mature ovaries of plants with their seeds. The edible portion of
most fruit is the fleshy part of the pericarp or vessel surrounding the seeds. Fruits in general are
acidic and sugary. They commonly are grouped into several major divisions, depending
principally upon botanical structure, chemical composition and climatic requirements/region of
growth.

a) Berries are fruit which are generally small and quite fragile.
b) Grapes are also physically fragile and grow in wclusters.
c) Melons, on the other hand, are large and have a tough outer rind.
d) Drupes (stone fruit) contain single pits and include such items as apricots, cherries,
peaches and plums.
e) Pomes contain many pits, and are represented by apples, quince and pears.
f) Citrus fruit like oranges, grapefruit and lemons are high in citric acid.
g) Tropical and subtropical fruits include bananas, dates, figs, pineapples, mangoes, and
others which require warm climates, but exclude the separate group of citrus fruits.

Fruits can also be classified according the region where they are grown. The growing regional
and environmental conditions specific to each region significantly affects fruit quality. The
following classifications are based on global regions where the various fruits originate:-

a) Temperate zone fruits

b) Subtropical fruits and
c) Tropical fruits

A ) T E M P E R A T E Z O N E F R U I T S:

The include the following groups:

a) Pome fruits such as Apples, Pears, Quince
b) Stone fruits such as apricot, cherry, nectarine, peaches and plums

c) Small fruits and berries: grape , strawberries, raspberry, blackberries, cranberries and
blueberries

B ) SU B T R O P I C A L F R U I T S :

The include the following groups:

a) Citrus fruits e.g. grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine and mandarin

b) Non-citrus fruits: e.g. avocado, figs, kiwifruit, olive and pomegranate

C) TROPICAL FRUITS
a) Major tropical fruits: e.g. bananas, mangoes, papaya, pineapples

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 b) Minor tropical fruits e.g. carambola, cashew apples, guava, lychee, passion fruits,
tamarind, sapota, mangosteen.

1.5.4 COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

1.5.4.1 Introduction
The flesh of young developing fruits contains very little sugar and the large amounts of starch,
acid and tannins make them inedible. At maturity, the flesh cells enlarge, and sugar content
increases while starch, acid, and tannins content decrease. At the same time, certain volatiles
develop giving the fruit characteristic aroma. Chlorophyll degradation and synthesis of
carotenoids (yellow and orange colours) and anthocyanins (red and blue colours) take place both
in the skin and flesh with fruit ripening. All fruits soften as they ripen due to breakdown of
pectin and other structural polysaccharides and other compounds.

1.5.4.2 Water
Fruits contain varying amounts of water ranging from 80 to 90%. Water plays a vital role in the
fruit’s reproduction cycle and in the physiological processes. It has an effect on the length of
storage life and on the consumption of the fruit tissues. Water in fruits exists in two forms:

 Bound water: which is present in the cell (membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus etc) and forms
true solution with mineral or organic substances within and can act as swelling agent for
various colloidal substances. Such water is difficult to remove during drying.

 Free water or constitution water: water that is free to form solutions and directly bound on
the chemical molecules and its also removed with difficulty.

Vegetables contain generally 90-96% water while for fruit normal water content is between 80
and 90%.

1.5.4.3 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most important and widely distributed component of fruits. The
distribution varies between 1.0 to 25%. Examples of carbohydrates found in fruit are cellulose,
starch, sugars (glucose, sucrose, fructose), pectins, etc. Such variation influences the taste since
fructose is sweeter than sucrose, which is also sweeter than glucose while starch and others are
not sweet. Carbohydrates just like other food components are made via photosynthesis in green
plants. They serve as:

 the structural components of plants for instance cellulose and pectins

 stored as energy reserves such as starch;
 essential components of genetic materials as in the case of ribose
 components of vitamins as in riboflavin
 Carbohydrates can be oxidized to furnish energy and glucose in the blood as ready
source of energy for the body.
 During fermentation of fruits, it’s the carbohydrates that are converted by yeast and other
micro-organisms to yield CO2, alcohol, organic acids and other compounds.

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Starch occurs as small granules within the cells of immature fruits. Its converted to sugar as the
fruit matures and ripens. Lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin are structural carbohydrates
and found mainly in the cell walls (upto 50%) and vary greatly among the different fruits. During
fruit softening, these compounds are broken down to simpler and more soluble molecules.
Pectins are common in fruits and vegetables and are gum-like (they are found in and between
cell walls) and help hold the plant cells together; pectins in colloidal solution contribute to
viscosity of the fruit pastes e.g. tomato paste while pectins in solution form gels when sugar and
acid are added which is the basis of jam/jelly manufacture.

1.5.4.4 Proteins and Other Nitrogen-Containing Substances

Fruits contain less than 1% protein (with the exception of those commonly considered as
vegetables/fruits such as nuts which may contain from 9 to 20% protein). Vegetables contain
between 1.0 and 5.5 % . Other nitrogen containing substances include enzymes (which catalyze
biological processes in the fruits such as ripening, and aging), amino acids, amides, amines,
nitrates etc. Proteins have a colloidal structure such that on heating above 50oC, they become
insoluble and form clouds (haze) in products like juices and wines/beers. This behavior is very
important when processing fruits.

From a biological point of view, vegetal proteins are less valuable then animal ones because in
their composition all essential amino-acids are not present.

1.5.4.5 Lipids
Lipids constitute only 0.1 to 0.2% of the fresh fruit except for avocadoes, olives and nuts.
Significant quantities are found in nuts (55%), apricot kernels (40%), grape seeds (16%), apple
seeds (20%), tomato seeds (18%). However, lipids are very important because they make up the
surface wax that contributes to fruit appearance. Lipids are also found within the cell membrane
of fruits. Upon chilling (low temps), fatty acids become denatured and hence causing changes
within the cell membrane from liquid to solid state which results in disruption of the cells
(chilling injury).

1.5.4.6 Organic Acids

Organic acids are those acids normally produced by living organisms for instance citric acid,
acetic acid, malic acid, ascorbic acid etc. Fruit contains natural acids, such as citric acid in
oranges and lemons, malic acid of apples, and tartaric acid of grapes. These acids give the fruits
tartness and slow down bacterial spoilage.

Citric and malic acids are the most abundant except in grapes which have tartaric acid. These are
important intermediates of metabolism, i.e. the Kreb’s cycle is the main channel for oxidation of
organic acids in living cells. Most fruits contain acids with a pH ranging from 3 to 5. Some fruits
such as lime, oranges, lemons may contain as high as 2 to 3% acid of the total flesh weight. The
content of acid usually decreases with ripening due to utilization of the organic acids during
respiration or when they are converted to sugars in some cases.

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We deliberately ferment some foods with desirable bacteria to produce acids and this give the
food flavour and keeping quality. Examples are fermentation of cabbage to produce lactic acid
and yield sauerkraut and fermentation of apple juice to produce first alcohol and then acetic acid
to obtain vinegar. With respect to bacterial spoilage, organic acids lower food's pH thus
hindering the growth of Clostridium botulinum at pH below 4.6. This hazard is absent from
foods high in organic acids resulting in a pH of 4.6 and less.

Acidity and sugars are two main elements which determine the taste of fruit. The sugar/acid ratio
is very often used in order to give a technological characterisation of fruits and of some
vegetables. Organic acids also influence the colour of foods since many plant pigments are
natural pH indicators.

1.5.4.7 Pigments (Colours)

Pigments are the substances responsible for the colour of the skin and flesh of fruits. The bright
green colour of leaves and other parts of plants is largely due to the oil-soluble chlorophylls,
which in nature are bound to protein molecules in highly organised complexes. These pigments
undergo changes during maturation and ripening of fruits. These changes include:

 Loss of chlorophyll (green colour) which is affected by acid levels, oxidation and
enzymes. When the plant cells are killed by ageing, processing, or cooking, the protein of
these complexes is denatured and the chlorophyll may be released. Such chlorophyll is
highly unstable and rapidly changes in colour to olive green and brown. This colour
change is believed to be due to the conversion of chlorophyll to the compound
pheophytin. Conversion to pheophytin is favoured by acid pH but does not occur readily
under alkaline conditions. For this reason peas, beans, spinach, and other green
vegetables which tend to lose their bright green colours on heating can be largely
protected against such colour changes by the addition of sodium bicarbonate or other
alkali to the cooking or canning water. However, this practice is not looked upon
favourably nor used commercially because alkaline pH also has a softening effect on
cellulose and vegetable texture and also destroys vitamin C and thiamin at cooking
temperatures.
 Synthesis and breakdown of carotenoids (yellow and orange colours). The Carotenoid
Pigments are fat-soluble and range in colour from yellow through orange to red.
Important carotenoids include the orange carotenes of carrot, maize, apricot, peach, citrus
fruits, and squash; the red lycopene of tomato, watermelon, and apricot; the yellow-
orange xanthophyll of maize, peach, paprika and squash; and the yellow-orange crocetin
of the spice saffron. These and other carotenoids seldom occur singly within plant cells
 Development of flavanoids (anthocyanins) responsible for the red, blue and purple
colours. The Flavonoids. Pigments and colour precursors belonging to this class are
water-soluble and commonly are present in the juices of fruit and vegetables. The
flavonoids include the purple, blue, and red anthocyanins of grapes, berries, plump,
eggplant, and cherry; the yellow anthoxanthins of light coloured fruit and vegetables such
as apple, onion, potato, and cauliflower, and the colourless catechins and
leucoanthocyanins which are food tannins and are found in apples, grapes, tea, and other
plant tissues. These colourless tannin compounds are easily converted to brown pigments
upon reaction with metal ions.

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Beta-carotene is a precursor to vit A and thus important in terms of nutrition. Carotenoids are
very stable pigments and remain intact in fruit tissues even when extensive senescence has
occurred. Anthocyanins occur as glycosides in the cell sap. They are water soluble, unstable and
readily hydrolyzed by enzymes to free anthocyanins, which may be oxidized by phenoloxidases
to give brown complexes.

The changes in these pigments are responsible for the colour of all fruits at any stage during their
growth and the resulting products such as juice colour, pulp colour etc.

1.5.4.8 Phenolic Compounds

These are substances with a common phenolic ring in their structure

 Amount of phenols is higher in young fruit than in mature ones and ranging from 0.1 to
2g/100g of fresh weight. These phenolic substances include chlorogenic acid, cetechin,
flavonols, simple phenols etc.

 Astringency in fruits is directly related to the content of phenolic compounds and this
usually decreases with fruit ripening because the astringent compounds are converted to
the non-astringent forms (usually insoluble phenolic cpds).

 These phenolic compounds are involved in the enzymatic browning which occurs in
fruits due to oxidation in the presence of O2 by an enzyme called polyphenoloxidase.

 The ability of fruits to act as anti-oxidants is directly related to the content of phenolic
compounds.

Enzymatic browning occurs due to oxidation of phenolic compounds and is mediated in the
presence of oxygen by the enzyme polyphenoloxidase (PPO). The initial product of oxidation is
O-quinone, which is highly unstable and undergoes polymerization to yield brown pigments of
higher molecular weight. Below is the reaction:

PPO

1. monophenol + O2 2O-quinone + H2O

PPO

2. O- diphenol l + O2 2O-quinone + H2O

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 polymerization

3. O-quinone + O2 + amino acids dark polymers (melanin)

PPO is released when the cells are opened which sets off the above reaction leading to tissue
browning common in fruits and vegetables.

1.5.4.9 Volatiles
Volatile compounds are those that change to gaseous form at very low temperature. They are
responsible for the characteristic aroma and flavour of fruits. They are present in very small
quantities (less than 100µg/g of fresh fruit. Volatile compounds include esters, alcohols, acids,
aldehydes and ketones which are basically low molecular weight. The major volatile formed in
climacteric fruits is ethylene (C2H4) -50 to 75% of total volatiles. Ethylene does not have a
strong aroma and does not contribute to typical fruit aromas. More volatiles compounds have
been identified using chromatographic techniques, but only a few are important for aroma of
fruits depending on the concentration. Volatile compounds are largely esters, alcohols, acids,
aldehydes and ketones. Some volatiles at as low as 1 ppb can influence the aroma of the fruit
depending on its potency or strength and interaction with other compounds.

1.5.4.10 Vitamins
Fruits are rich in water soluble vitamins such as Vit C, riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, vit B6, vit
B12, Biotin, and pantothenic acid. Fruits also contain fat-soluble vitamins which include Vit A,
D, E, and K. Note: Fat soluble vitamins are less susceptible to losses post- harvest. However,
ascorbic acid is very susceptible to destruction when subjected to higher temperatures, extended
storage, low relative humidity which may cause wilting, physical damage. Vitamins A and B are
susceptible to degradation at higher temperatures in the presence of air (O2).

1.5.4.11 Minerals

Vegetables are richer in mineral substances as compared to fruits. The mineral substance content
is normally between 0.60 and 1.80% and more than 60 elements are present; the major elements
are: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Al, P. Cl, S.

 The most important minerals found in fruits include those that form bases such as
Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium and those that form acids such as
Phosphorus, Chlorine and Sulphur. Potassium is the most the abundant and occurs in
combination with acids. It is often associated with increased acidity and improved colour
of fruits.
 Calcium is the second most abundant and mainly found in the cell wall. Its responsible
for fruit firmness, delay of ripening and extend the shelf-life of apples. Its deficiency
causes physiological disorders such as bitter pit in apples.
 Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll which is responsible for the green colour in
fresh fruits.

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  Phosphorus is a component of proteins found in the cytoplasm and nucleus and plays a
major role in the metabolism of carbohydrates and energy transfer. High phosphorus
content may lead to decreased acidity.

Among the vegetables which are especially rich in mineral substances are: spinach, carrots,
cabbage and tomatoes. Mineral rich fruit includes: strawberries, cherries, peaches and
raspberries. Important quantities of potassium (K) and absence of sodium chloride (NaCl) give a
high dietetic value to fruit and to their processed products. Phosphorus is supplied mainly by
vegetables. Vegetables usually contain more calcium than fruit; green beans, cabbage, onions
and beans contain more than 0.1% calcium. The calcium/phosphorus or Ca/P ratio is essential for
calcium fixation in the human body; this value is considered normal at 0.7 for adults and at 1.0
for children. Some fruit are important for their Ca/P ratio above 1.0: pears, lemons, oranges and
some temperate climate mountain fruits and wild berries. Main iron sources are apples and
spinach.

1.5.4.12 Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that promote most of the biochemical reactions which occur in
fruit aand vegetable cells. Some properties of enzymes important in fruit and vegetable
technology are the following:

 in living fruit and vegetables, enzymes control the reactions associated with ripening;
 after harvest, unless destroyed by heat, chemicals or some other means, enzymes
continue the ripening process, in many cases to the point of spoilage - such as soft
melons or overripe bananas;
 because enzymes enter into a vast number of biochemical reactions in fruits and
vegetable, they may be responsible for changes in flavour, colour, texture and
nutritional properties;
 the heating processes in fruit and vegetables manufacturing/processing are designed
not only to destroy micro-organisms but also to deactivate enzymes and so improve
the fruit and vegetables' storage stability.

Enzymes have an optimal temperature - around +50°C where their activity is at maximum.
Heating beyond this optimal temperature deactivates the enzyme. Activity of each enzyme is also
characterised by an optimal pH. In fruit and vegetable storage and processing the most important
roles are played by the enzymes classes of hydrolases (lipase, invertase, tannase, chlorophylase,
amylase, cellulase) and oxidoreductases (peroxidase, tyrosinase, catalase, ascorbinase,
polyphenoloxidase)

1.5.4.13 Vitamins

Vitamins are defined as organic materials which must be supplied to the human body in small
amounts. Fruits and vegetables contain a number of vitamins both water soluble and some are fat
soluble. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and several members of the vitamin B
complex.

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Vitamin A or Retinol precursor. Plants contain the precursor of Vitamin A, beta-carotene. Man
needs either vitamin A or beta-carotene which he can easily convert to vitamin A. Beta-carotene
is found in the orange and yellow vegetables as well as the green leafy vegetables, mainly
carrots, squash, sweet potatoes, spinach and kale.

Vitamin C. Excellent sources of vitamin C are citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage and green
peppers. Potatoes also are a fair source (although the content of vitamin C is relatively low)
because we consume large quantities of potatoes. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is
easily destroyed by oxidation especially at high temperatures and is the vitamin most easily lost
during processing, storage and cooking

1.5.5 NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF FRUITS

Fruits serve several nutritional functions to the human body. These include vitamins, energy,
minerals, and dietary fibre.

Energy: Energy is derived from the carbohydrates, proteins and fats contained within the fruits.
Examples of carbohydrate fruit sources are bananas, jackfruit, plantain, date, raisins. Fruits
which provide proteins include nuts, dried apricots and figs. Sources of fats include ovacado,
olives and nuts.

Vitamins: fruits provide about 98% of vit C, 48% of Vit A, 27% f Vit B6, 17% of thiamin, and
15% of niacin.

 Vit A sources: apricot, peaches, oranges, mangoes, papayas, pineapples, watermelon.

 Vit C sources: Oranges, Strawberries, pineapples, bananas, apples etc
 Niacin sources: Bananas, peaches, oranges and apricots
 Riboflavin sources: bananas, peaches, oranges, apples, avocado.
 Thiamin: Oranges, bananas, apples

Minerals:

 Potassium from bananas, peaches, oranges, apples, apricots

 Phosphorus from bananas, oranges, peaches, figs and raisins
 Calcium from tangerines, grapefruits, oranges
 Iron from strawberries, bananas, apples and oranges

Dietary fibre:

 all fruits contribute to dietatary fibre which consists of cellulose, hemicelulose, lignin,
and pectic substances.
 Dietary fibre ranges from 0.5 to 1.5% of fresh weight.
 Dietary fibre is important in relieving constipation by increasing water-holding capacity
of feces.
 It also decreases the incidence of heart diseases and colon cancer.

Anti-oxidants

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Fruits contain such cpds as flavanoids and other phenolic compounds which are generally anti-
oxidants and help in reducing risk of cancer, heart disease, etc.

1.6 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF FRUITS

AND VEGETABLES

1.6.1 PRE-HARVEST FACTORS

A) Genetic Factors
Genetic factors refer to the inherent abilities of the plants to influence the quality and safety of
the produce. These genetic factors cause a range of genotypic variation in composition, quality,
and post-harvest-life potential. Plant breeders have been successful in selecting fruit cultivars
with comparably high content of preferred components such carotenoids, vitamin A content;
including longer shelf-lives, sweet corn cultivars that maintain their sweetness longer after
harvest; watermelon cultivars with higher sugar content and firmer flesh, and pineapple cultivars
with higher contents of ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and sugars. Opportunities exist for applying
biotechnology to improving the post-harvest quality and safety of fresh fruits

B) Climatic Conditions
Climatic factors, in particular temperature and light intensity, greatly impact on the nutritional
quality of fruits. Consequently, the location of production and the season in which plants are
grown can determine their ascorbic acid, carotene, riboflavin, thiamine, and flavonoid contents.
In general, the lower the light intensity the lower the ascorbic acid content of plant tissues.

Temperature influences the uptake and metabolism of mineral nutrients by plants, since
transpiration rates increase with increasing temperature which also increases the mineral uptake
in form solutions. Rainfall affects water supply to the plant, which may influence the
composition of the harvested plant part and its susceptibility to mechanical damage and decay
during subsequent harvesting and handling operations.

C) Cultural Practices
Cultural practices such as pruning, thinning, irrigation, mulching, and fertilizers application
determine the crop load and fruit size, which can in turn influence the nutritional composition,
water content and nutrient supply to the plant, which can in turn affect the nutritional quality of
the harvested fruit part.

Application of fertilizers affects the mineral content of the fruit; pruning and thinning may
influence nutritional composition by changing fruit crop load and size.

The effects of mineral and elemental uptake from fertilizers e.g. Selenium and sulfur can
influence the concentrations of organosulfur compounds in some plants. High calcium uptake in
fruits has been shown to reduce respiration rates, and ethylene production, to delay ripening,

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increase firmness, and reduce the incidence of physiological disorders and decay, all of which
result in increased post-harvest shelf-life. Absence of calcium will cause 1) bitterness of pit in
apples; 2) blossom-end rot of tomatoes, peppers, and watermelons; 3) cork spot in apples and
pears; 4) red blotch of lemons

1.6.2 MATURITY AT HARVEST IN RELATION TO QUALITY

Maturity at harvest is the most important determinant of composition, storage-life and final fruit
quality.
Immature fruit are highly susceptible to mechanical damage, and are of inferior flavor quality
when ripe. Overripe fruit are likely to become soft with poor flavor soon after harvest. Fruit
picked either prematurely or too late, are more susceptible to post-harvest physiological
disorders than are fruit picked at the proper stage of maturity.
Although most fruits reach peak eating quality when harvested fully ripe, they are usually picked
mature but not ripe to decrease mechanical damage during post-harvest handling. Harvesting
may also mechanically damage fruits; therefore, choice of harvest method should allow for
maintenance of quality.

1.6.3 POST-HARVEST FACTORS

a) Environmental such as temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric gaseous

composition have a serious influence on the quality and composition of fruits.
Temperature management is the most important tool for extension of shelf-life and
maintenance of the quality of the fresh fruit. Relative humidity influences water loss,
decay development, incidence of some physiological disorders, and uniformity of fruit
ripening. Optimal relative humidity for storage of fruits is 85% to 90%. Finally,
atmospheric composition (O2, CO2 and C2H4) can greatly affect respiration rates and
storage life.

b) Whether the fruits are climacteric or non-climacteric: Fruits can be divided into two
groups based on ability to continue ripening after harvest:

Climacteric fruits: Climacteric fruits which when harvested mature can continue the
ripening process off the plant for instance apples, pears, peaches, avocado, banana,
plantains, mangoes, papayas, guavas, passion fruits etc. These fruits produce large
quantities of ethylene and exposure to ethylene will bring faster and uniform ripening and
undergo more rapid and uniform ripening upon exposure to ethylene.

Non-Climacteric fruits: those that are incapable of continuing their ripening process once
removed from the plant such as berries, grapes, cherries, pineapples, citrus fruits etc.
These produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment
except in terms of de-greening (removal of chlorophyll); these should be picked when
fully-ripe, if good flavor quality is to be ensured.

15
 c) Handling methods: The handling procedures and systems through which fruits are
channeled to the processing facility or final consumer should be chosen such that they
maintain fruit quality and avoid delays.

d) Time period between harvesting and consumption: Delays between harvesting and
cooling or processing may result in direct losses due to water loss and delay and indirect
losses such as decrease in flavour and nutritional quality.

1.6.4 METHOD OF HARVESTING

The method of harvesting (hand vs. mechanical) can significantly impact upon the composition
and post-harvest quality of fruits. A method that causes mechanical injuries (such as bruising,
surface abrasions and cuts) can accelerate loss of water and vitamin C resulting in increased
susceptibility to decay-causing pathogens. Most fresh fruits are harvested by hand whereas other
can be such as tomatoes, and tree nuts are mechanically harvested.

1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FRUIT MATURITY, RIPENING AND QUALITY

Maturity –is the most important factor that determines the storage and final fruit quality.
Immature fruits are more subject to shriveling and mechanical damages, and are of inferior
quality when ripened. Maturity indices include one or a combination of: - fruit size, shape, color
of skin and flesh, firmness, soluble solids content, starch content, acidity. Over ripe fruits are
likely to become soft and with poor flavour. Fruits picked either too early or too late in the
season are more susceptible to physiological disorders and will have a shorter storage life than
those harvested at mid-season.

With the exception of e.g. the pears, avocadoes and bananas, all fruits reach their best eating
quality when allowed to ripen on the mother plant. In general, fruits become sweeter, more
colorful, and softer as they mature. However, some fruits are sometimes harvested mature but
unripe so they can withstand the postharvest handling system when shipped long distances. Most
currently used maturity indices are based on a compromise between those indices that would
ensure best quality to the consumer and those that provide the needed flexibility in transportation
and marketing.

Maturity indices used vary among fruits and often among cultivars within a specific fruit, but
generally include one or several or a combination of: fruit size and shape; overall color, ground
of the skin, flesh color, flesh firmness, soluble solids content, starch content, acidity etc.

1.8 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN POST-HARVEST DETERIORATION

OF FRUITS

1.8.1 Respiration

16
Respiration is the process of by which stored organic materials such as carbohydrates, protein
and fats are broken down into simple end products with the release of energy. Oxygen is used in
this process and Carbon dioxide is produced.

 C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2870kJ

The loss of stored food reserves in the fruit during respiration increases the rate at which
senescence sets in due to depletion of these reserves needed for the living fruit. High respiration
will lead to loss of food value in terms of flavor, sweetness, salable dry weight etc. The rate of
deterioration of fruits is generally proportional to their respiration rate. High temperatures will
increase rate of respiration while low temps will decrease the rate of respiration.

1.8.2 Ethylene Production

Ethylene (C2H4) is the simplest organic compound affecting the physiological processes of
plants. It is a plant hormone that regulates growth and development and senescence and is
essentially responsible for ripening in fruits and vegetables. Its active in small amounts (less than
0.1 ppm). It’s a natural product of plants produced by all tissues of higher plants including some
micro-organisms. Ethylene production increases as the fruit matures especially at harvest,
physical injury, disease, increasing temperatures, and water stress. However, ethylene production
decreases at low temp, reduced O2 and increased CO2.

1.8.3 Water Loss (Transpiration)

Water loss is the main cause of fruit deterioration due to quantitative loss (salable weight) and
loss in appearance (wilting and shriveling), textural quality (softening, flaccidness, loss of
juiceness) and nutritional quality. Water loss is controlled by the outer skin which includes the
cuticle, epidermal cells, hairs etc. The cuticle contains wax, chitin and carbohydrate polymers.
Water loss is influenced by the size of the fruit (surface-to-volume ratio), the thickness &
composition of cuticle, surface injuries, maturity and external factors such as temp, relative
humidity, air movement, and atmospheric pressure. Water loss can be controlled by applying
wax, other surface coating and or wrapping in plastic bags. Alternatively, increasing relative
humidity by spraying water and reducing air movement.

1.8.4 Physiological Disorders

These are abnormalities that may occur within the fruit system. These include:

 Freezing injury due to freezing temp when fruits are held below their freezing
temperatures leading to disruption of fruit tissues and this leads to collapse of tissues and
total loss cellular integrity. Fruits are generally high in water content, and possess large,
highly vacuolate cells. The freezing point of their tissues is relatively high (ranging from
-3 °C to -0.5 °C) and at this or below this will cause disruption of tissues.

 Chilling injury as a result of holding fruits (mainly tropical and subtropical fruits) above
their freezing point and below 5-15oC depending on the fruit. These fruits respond

17
 unfavorably to storage at low temperatures which are well above their freezing points, but
below a critical temperature termed their chilling threshold temperature or lowest safe
temperature. Symptoms of chilling injury include surface & internal discoloration,
pitting, water-soaked parts, uneven ripening, or failure to ripen, off-flavours, occurrence
of surface moulds etc.

 Heat injury resulting from exposure to direct sunlight or excessive temps. Symptoms are
scalding, uneven ripening, excessive softening and burns. High temperatures result into
transpiration. Transpiration is vital to maintaining optimal growth temperatures in
growing plants. Organs removed from the plant, however, lack the protection from the
effects of transpiration, and direct sources of heat, such as sunlight, can rapidly elevate
the temperature of tissues to above the thermal death point of their cells, leading to
localized bleaching, necrosis (sunburn or sunscald) or general collapse

 Bitter pits due calcium deficiency

1.8.5 Physical Damage

These include surface injuries, bruising. These also lead to water loss, high respiration, high
ethylene production and decay.

1.8.6 Pathological Breakdown

Refers to apparent decay of the fruit tissues due to attack by micro-organisms. This may be due
to injuries sustained on the fruits or physiological breakdown leading to microbial entry into the
fruit.

1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING DETERIORATION OF FRUITS

AND VEGETABLES

1.9.1 Temperature

Temp is the most important factor in the deterioration of harvested fruits. Every increase in temp
by 10oC, deterioration increases by two to three times. High temps will lead to scalding, uneven
ripening, excessive softening and burns. Whereas low temps will lead to effects of freezing
injury and chill injury. Temps also influences the rate at which pathogens grow and spoil the
fruits e.g. Rhizopus rot will be less prevalent at low temps below 5oC.

1.9.2 Relative Humidity

The speed at which water is lost depends on the difference of vapour pressure between the fruit
and the air around it which is influenced by the temperature and relative humidity

18
1.9.3 Air Movement

Air movement around the fruit will influence the temp and relative humidity within and around
the fruit environment. This will affect water loss from the fruit in turn

1.9.4 Atmospheric Composition

The tendency during storage to intentionally reduce oxygen and increase carbon dioxide can
increase reduce deterioration and vise versa. This is called Modified Atmospheric Packaging
(storage).

1.9.5 Ethylene

Ethylene (hormone) can have both desirable and undesirable effects: The undesirable effects
include:

 removal of green colour and ripening (desirable effect)

 Softening and shorter storage (undesirable effect)

Ethylene effects are cumulative during post-harvest period. Effects depend on temp, exposure
time, ethylene concentration. E.g. in avocado, 1ppm will increase chill injury symptoms.

1.10 POST-HARVEST HANDLING PROCEDURES FOR MAINTAINING THE

QUALITY AND SAFETY OF FRUITS

1.10.1 Dumping

Fruits that withstand wetting should be dumped in water or in floatation tanks. If dry dumping is
used, then action should be taken to reduce bruising. Bin covers can be used but be sure to
regulate fruits in and out.

1.10.2 Washing

To clean the fruit, water alone or with added cleaning agents such as chlorine (at 100 to 150ppm)
can be used. Rinsing should be done with clean, fresh water. Cleaning surface water is necessary
and can be done by blotting or blowing air over the fruit.

1.10.3 Sorting

Sorting is usually carried out to eliminate fruits having defects or decay. Fruits may be sorted
into different groups according to maturity or ripeness according to their colour and firmness. It
may be done according to size and shape before further processing. Sorting can be done either
manually or by a machine (mechanical sorters).

19
1.10.4 Sizing

Sizing the fruits into two or more size categories may be required before processing. Sizing can
be done mechanically on the basis of fruits dimension or by weight. Mechanical sizing can be a
major source of physical damage to the fruit if the machines were not adequately padded and
adjusted to the minimum possible fruit drop heights.

1.10.5 Packing and Packaging

Packaging refers to the containment of the produce for purposes of protecting and promoting its
sale. Packaging protects the produce from mechanical injury, and contamination during
marketing. Packing and packaging methods can greatly influence air flow rates around the
commodity, thereby affecting temperature and relative humidity management of produce while
in storage or in transit.

Before packing, the fruits are prepared either in the field or at the packing house and this
involves cleaning, sanitizing, and sorting according to quality and size, waxing and, where
appropriate, treatment with an approved fungicide prior to packing into shipping containers.

Corrugated fiberboard containers are commonly used for the packaging of fruits and vegetables.

Packaging accessories such as trays, cups, wraps, liners, and pads may be used to help
immobilize the produce within the packaging container while serving the purpose of facilitating
moisture retention, chemical treatment and ethylene absorption.

1.10.6 Ripening

Ripening for some fruits may be required before processing e.g. avocado, bananas, mangoes,
papayas, melons etc that may have been picked immaturely. Ethylene (bout 10ppm) can be
applied to the fruits to obtain faster and uniform ripening. This is common in developed
countries. Best temperature for ripening is between 15 and 25oC and the higher within this range
the faster the ripening. Adequate relative humidity should be maintained at 90 to 95% during
ripening. There should be adequate air circulation within the room to ensure uniform distribution
of ethylene. Proper air will prevent accumulation of CO2 since it counteracts the effect of
ethylene.

20
Inhibition of ripening: In some commodities, it may be needed to stop the ripening of some fruits by
stopping ethylene action. Hence, application of ethylene inhibitor called 1-Methyl Cyclone Propene
gas (MCP) is used. This gas is sold under the trade name “SmartFresh”. Used at concentrations of up
to 1 ppm on apples, apricots, avocados, mangoes, nectarines, papayas, and tomatoes. The yellowing of
cucumbers can, for example, result from exposure to either 1 ppm ethylene over 2 days or to 5 ppm
ethylene over 1/2 day at 10 °C. MCP retards softening and scald development and hence extends the
shelf-life after harvest. Reduction of temperature, time of exposure, and ethylene concentration.

1.10.7 Cooling

Cooling is utilized to remove field heat and lower the fruit temperature to near its optimum
storage temperature. Cooling can be done using cold water (hydrocooling) or cold air (forced air
cooling or pressure cooling). Highly perishable fruits such as strawberries, bush berries and
apricots should be cooled near 0oC within 6 hours of harvest, while others it can be done within
12 hours.

Cooling methods

Temperature management is the most effective tool for extending the shelf life of fresh
horticultural commodities. It begins with the rapid removal of field heat by using a selected
cooling methods.

 Use of flaked ice: Packing fresh produce with crushed or flaked ice provides rapid
cooling, and can provide a source of cooling and high Relative Humidity during
subsequent handling. This is limited to produce that is tolerant to direct contact with ice.

 Hydro-cooling: Clean, sanitized water is used as the cooling medium for the hydro-
cooling (shower or immersion systems) of commodities that tolerate water contact and
are packaged in moisture-resistant containers.

 Vacuum cooling is generally applied to leafy vegetables that release water vapor
quickly, thereby allowing them to be rapidly cooled.

 Forced-air cooling on the other hand, uses refrigerated air which is is forced through
produce packed in boxes or pallet bins. Forced-air cooling is applicable to most
perishables.

Postharvest fruit and vegetable handlers need to adopt a cold chain. A cold chain is a series of
handling activities designed to maintain the produce at low temperature and thus encourage
preservation of the produce quality. The cold chain encompasses all the critical steps and
processes that foods and other perishable products must undergo in order to maintain their
quality.

Major limitations a cold chain

 Poor temperature management due to either the lack of, or limitations in, refrigeration,
handling, storage, and humidity control.
 High investment cost in terms of infrastructure

21
Advantage of a cold chain:

It ultimately leads to a reduction in the level of losses and quality degradation in fresh
produce,

And leads to overall net positive economic returns.

1.10.8 Storage

Short term storage may be needed to regulate the product flow and extend the processing season.
Relative humidity in the storage facility should be kept between 90% and 95%. To reduce decay,
CO2 levels can be elevated to 15 – 20% by adding it within pellet covers for the fruits; SO2 at
200 ppm as fumigant. Temperature should be left as low as possible between 2oC and 0oC.

1.10.9 Control of Temperature and Relative Humidity

Temperature is the most important environmental factor that influences the deterioration of
harvested commodities. Most perishable horticultural commodities have an optimal shelf-life at
temperatures of approximately 0 °C. The rate of deterioration of perishables however increases
two to three-fold with every 10 °C increase in temperature. Temperature has a significant effect
on how other internal and external factors influence the commodity, and dramatically affects
spore germination and the growth of pathogens. Temperatures either above or below the optimal
range for fresh produce can cause rapid deterioration.

Water loss: Water loss is directly proportional to the vapor pressure difference between
commodity and its environment. Relative humidity (RH) is defined as the moisture content (as
water vapor) of the atmosphere, expressed as a percentage of the amount of moisture that can be
retained by the atmosphere at a given temperature and pressure without condensation. The
moisture holding capacity of air decreases with increase temperature. RH can influence water
loss, decay development, the incidence of some physiological disorders, and uniformity of fruit
ripening. Condensation of moisture on the commodity (sweating) over long periods enhances
decay

An appropriate RH range for storage of fruits is 85 to 95% while that for most vegetables varies
between 90 and 98 %. The optimal RH range for dry onions and pumpkins is 70 to 75 percent.
Some root vegetables, such as carrot, parsnip, and radish, can best be held at 95 to 100 percent
RH.

Control of Relative humidity

RH can be controlled by one or a combination of the following:

 adding moisture to air using sprayers or humidifiers;

 regulating air movement and ventilation;
 maintaining the air temperature at about 1 °C during storage;
 insulation against moisture loss;
 adding polyethylene liners in packing containers and using perforated polymeric films
for packaging;

22
  wetting floors in storage rooms;
 adding crushed ice in shipping containers or in retail displays for commodities that
are not injured by ice;
 sprinkling produce with sanitized, clean water during retail marketing e.g. for leafy
vegetables, and immature fruit/ vegetables (such as pond beans, peas, sweet corn, and
summer squash)

A precise temperature and Relative Humidity are required to provide the optimum
environment for fresh fruits and vegetables during cooling and storage.

1.11 POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS TO MINIMIZE CONTAMINATION AND

MAXIMIZE QUALITY

1.11.1 Treatments to Reduce Microbial Contamination

Treatments which can be used include:-

Washing the fruits and vegetables using clean water containing an appropriate concentration
of sanitizers to minimize the potential transmission of pathogens from water to produce, and
from one lot of produce to another, over time. Natural plant surface contours, natural openings,
harvest and trimming wounds and scuffing can provide points of entry as well as safe harbor for
microbes. It is essential that the sanitizer concentration is sufficient to kill microbes before they
attach or become internalized in produce.

Sanitizers include chlorine compounds such as Calcium hypochlorite; Sodium hypochlorite;

Chlorine gas; Chlorine dioxide; Peroxyacetic acid and Hydrogen peroxide

1.11.2 Treatments To Minimize Water Loss

Transpiration can be controlled either through the direct application of post-harvest treatments to
the produce (surface coatings and other moisture barriers) or through maintaining a high relative
humidity.
Treatments that can be applied to minimize water loss in fruits and vegetables include:
1. Curing of certain root vegetables, such as garlic, onion, potato, and sweet potato.
2. Waxing and the use of other surface coatings on commodities, such as apple, citrus fruits,
peach, plum, and tomato.
3. Packaging in polymeric films that act as moisture barriers
4. Careful handling to avoid physical injuries, which increase water loss from produce.
5. Addition of water to those commodities that tolerate misting with water, such as leafy
vegetables.

23
1.11.3 Treatments To Control Decay

A major cause of losses in perishable crops is the action of a number of microorganisms on the
commodity such as Fungi and bacteria. Sanitation practices include treatment to reduce
populations of microorganisms on equipment, on the commodity, and in the wash water used to
clean it.

 Water washes alone are effective in removing nutrients that allow microorganisms to
grow on the surfaces of produce as well as in removing inoculum of post-harvest
pathogens.

 The addition of sanitizers to water dumps and spray or dip washes, reduces inoculum
levels of decay-causing organisms from fruit surfaces, inactivates spores brought into
solution from fruit or soil and prevents the secondary spread of inoculum in water.

Treatments for decay control include:

1. heat treatments, such as dipping mangoes in water at a temperature of 50 °C, for 5

minutes in order to reduce subsequent development of anthracnose;

2. use of post-harvest fungicides, such as imazalil and/or thiabendazole on citrus fruits;

3. use of growth regulators such as gibberellic acid or 2, 4-D to delay senescence of citrus
fruits;

4. use of 15-20 percent CO2 in air or 5 % O2 on strawberries, cran berries, figs, etc;

5. use of SO2 fumigation (100 ppm for one hour) on grapes.

24
 2.0 PROCESSING AND PACKAGING OF FRESH-CUT FRUITS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The consumption of fresh fruits including fresh cuts has grown by over 26% over the past 2 ½
decades in developed countries (Pollack, 2001). In Uganda, the consumption of fresh cut fruits
has developed and is steadily growing due to the growth of middle and high class consumers.
The main reason for this developing trend is due to:

 Health benefits of diet rich fruits and vegetables

 Rising income
 Increasing production of fruits
 A diversity of fruits both imported and local
 Product convenience
 Storage, transportation among others
The growing trend is one of consumption of fresh and frozen fruits rather than the canned.

Fresh cut fruits: these are fruits that have been physically altered from
its original form, but remains in a fresh state. Such fruits have been
trimmed, peeled, washed and cut into 100% usable product that is
largely bagged or pre-packed to offer consumers high nutrition,
convenience and value while still maintaining.

Such products are meant for direct immediate consumption. Fresh cut fruits can also be referred
to as minimally processed, lightly processed or prepared products. The idea of freshly cut
produce has been around for some time but not a purely commercial scale. Examples of these
products include: shredded onions, cabbage, lettuce. Packed jackfruits, sliced apples, whole
apples, sliced pineapples etc.

Economic benefits of fresh cut fruits

 Requires little labour

 Absence of waste material since 100% is consumed

2.2 EFFECTS OF FRESH CUT PROCESSING ON THE PRODUCE PHYSIOLOGY

Cutting the fresh fruit will lead to a number effects namely:

25
1. Increased perishability of the fruits due to physical wounding/injuries during preparation
(cutting, slicing, peeling etc.)
2. Increased respiration and ethylene production which impacts on the fruit quality and shelf-
life. Respiration increases with degree of injuries, and storage temp.
3. Increased water loss due to removal of protective skin and gas diffusion and this negatively
impacts on the appearance
4. Undesirable reactions such as browning and softening due to release enzymes and their
interaction with substrates
5. Microbial contamination which increases deterioration

2.3 UNIT OPERATIONS IN FRESH-CUT FRUIT PROCESSING

Unit operations are a combination of procedures used to

achieve the intended changes to the raw material in food
processing. Unit operations are grouped together to form a
process.

The combination and sequence of the operations determines the nature of the final product. Each
of these unit operations has a specific, identifiable and predictable effect on food. Examples of
unit operations include- Cleaning, sorting, peeling, size reduction, mixing, filling, sealing,
heating (sterilization/pasteurization) for canned fruit slices. The following are the unit operations
involved in preparation of fresh cut fruits:

2.3.1 Receiving, Inspection, and Storage of the Raw Material

Fruits for fresh-cutting are received in a good and sound state which is free from diseases or any
other contamination. Fruits are properly inspected for their conditions and required quality
specifications. Before processing, the received fruits are stored under low temperatures
preferably refrigeration. Ensure those that are sensitive to refrigeration/chilling are stored at
appropriate temps.

2.3.2 Cleaning and Disinfection

Clean water is used for this purpose. The water could be treated with disinfectant such as
Chlorine to kill micro-organisms or pathogens. Other disinfectants are Hydrogen peroxide,
sulphur dioxide. Fruits can be scrubbed and dipped in the solution for proper disinfection

2.3.3 Peeling, Deseeding, Trimming, Coring and Cutting

Removal of skin and other parts may be done by hand using sharp knives due to the soft texture
and sensitive nature of fruits. This can be done using sharp knives. The use of blunt blades
causes excessive tissue injury which accelerates deterioration. Avoid tissue serious injury to the
fruits e.g. crushing which may accelerate tissue deterioration. Enzymatic peeling has been
developed for citrus fruits as an alternative to peeling. Whole citrus fruits can be vacuum infused
with solutions of pectic enzymes that will eliminate the flavedo and albedo, with limited damage

26
to the juice vesicles. After this treatment, the peeled fruit has to be rinsed by immersion in water
for removal of enzyme solution.

2.3.4 Washing and Cooling

Washing is done to remove tissue fluids that may have been released during cutting to avoid
microbial and chemical reactions. It is imperative to wash the surface of the fruit. Cold water (at
0oC) is used to wash the cut surfaces of the fruit. It also cools the fruit. Chlorinated water at 50
to 100ppm may be used for purposes of killing any germs. Some fruits may be dipped in anti-
browning solutions to avoid browning and softening. Ensure that all equipment used are
disinfected

2.3.5 Dewatering

It basically involves removing the excess wash water from the surface of the fruit before
packing. This helps to prevent growth of micro-organisms that remained after disinfection. For
dewatering, clean air blowers may be used to remove the moisture

2.3.6 Packaging and Distribution

In order to ensure the longest storage life for the fresh cut fruit, select an appropriate packaging
material and storage condition. Plastic wrapping or sealing films are desirable for packaging
wrapped around disposable plates. Temperature during storage and distribution is critical in
extending the shelf-life. A cold chain should be maintained through out the storage life of fresh
cut produce to avoid faster deterioration. 0-1oC is preferable and should not exceed 5oC. Avoid
rough handling (shock and vibration) during transportation as it may cause injury thus leading to
faster spoilage.

2.4 QUALITY ASPECTS OF FRESH-CUT PRODUCE

Fresh-cut fruits combine the convenience of a 100% usable product with other fresh quality
characteristics of fresh fruit such as:- appearance & other sensory qualities, flavor, texture, color,
shelf-life, cost, safety and nutritional value. These quality parameters are influenced by the
following:

1. Fruit cultivar
2. Degree of ripeness at processing
3. Microbial spoilage
4. Control of browning
5. Prevention of loss of texture
6. Relative humidity

27
 3.0 FRUIT JUICE PROCESSING

3.1 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT JUICES

Juice and juice products represent a very important segment of the total processed fruit industry. The
consumption per person in Uganda is increasing. Juice products are being marketed as refrigerated, shelf
stable and frozen in a variety of packages with increased emphasis on functionality, health attributes,
new flavours or blends and in some cases fortified with vitamins and enzymes.

Definition: Juice is defined in the most general sense as the fluid extracted from the contents of cells or
tissues. Alternatively, juice is the fluid expressed from plant material by crushing, comminuting and
pressing. It can be clear, cloudy or pulpy. Juice can be classified as puree, if the resulting consistency is
fluid that pours very slowly or pulp if it pours even more slowly. Although many fruit juices are the
obvious result of pressing the liquid from the whole or cut fruit, there are some fruits where the
distinction is not so apparent. For example, squeezing peeled mango flesh yields little juice, until the
flesh is comminuted. Even then a thick puree is the end result. In contrast, comminuted apples yield a
readily expressible juice. The fluid expressed from lemons, limes and excessively acid fruits, is certainly
juice, but the liquid is too sour to consume directly without dilution with sugar and water to produce
lemonade or limeade.

Juices may be turbid (cloudy / pulpy)) or clear. The juice may have been concentrated and later
reconstituted with water suitable for the purpose of maintaining the essential composition and quality
factors of the juice.

3.2 TYPES OF JUICES

a) Squashes. These are drinks that are diluted to taste with water and are thus used a little at a time.
The container must therefore be re-closeable and these products may contain a preservative, usually
sodium benzoate, to prevent spoilage after opening. Squashes are made from at least 30% fruit juice
mixed with sugar syrup.

b) Cordials are simply crystal-clear squashes. Although food dyes are used by some processors, these
are not necessary for most products. Regulations on the composition of squashes are in force in some
countries.

c) Syrups Syrups are filtered juices that are concentrated by boiling until the sugar content reaches 50-
70%. The heat and high solids content preserves the syrup and it is used in place of sugar or honey.
Syrups can be made from a wide range of fruits, but the most common type is made from grapes.

d) Nectars. Are pulpy juices improved with added sugar and water provided they contain a proscribed
minimum of the juice. This minimum varies from country to country, ranging from 25% to 50% by
weight.

e) Juice Punch: are juices or purees diluted down to 10 percent (or less) juice with added ingredients.

f) Fruit Juices: derived from 100% fruit juice without added water

28
3.3 FRUIT QUALITY AS AN INDEX OF FRUIT JUICE QUALITY

High-quality juice operations depend on high quality fresh fruits. No matter how good the process,
starting with poor quality fruits will result in poor quality juice products. Often, the quality of the fruit
depends on the stage of maturity or the level of ripening. Fruit ripening can be measured based on the
following:

 Sugar concentration
 Acidity
 Starch content
 Colour
 Flavour
 Firmness
In addition to the above, a number of precautionary measures need to be taken into account i.e.:

 Handling must be carefully done to avoid bruising and contamination of the fruits as it
encourages microbial infection and contamination of the fruit. Therefore, transportation should
be optimized to avoid injury both at the plant and elsewhere.
 Storage facilities must be optimized in terms of conditions for the type and maturity of fruit. For
instance general cooling can be done at predetermined temps and relative humidity that will
encourage proper ripening and at the same avoid spoilage and extend the shelf-life. Modified
atmospheric storage can also be used for extending the shelf-life.
 Ensure the cleanliness of the process and the fruits to ensure high quality of all operations. Daily
cleaning and sanitation of the plant is important. Sometimes, shutdowns may be conducted to
allow daily or weekly cleaning and sanitation and this will maintain clean operations and prevent
buildup of trouble spots.

3.3 GENERAL UNITS OPERATIONS FOR FRUIT JUICE PRODUCTION

3.3.1 Introduction

The process of juice production starts with sound fruit, freshly harvested from the field or taken from
refrigerator or frozen storage. Thorough washing is usually necessary to remove dirt and foreign objects
and may be followed by a sanitation step to decrease the load of contaminants. Sanitizing is especially
important for minimally processed juices that rely on hygienic conditions to ensure the safety of
perishable products.

The general unit operations include washing, sorting, peeling, cutting or grinding and blanching,
extraction, heat-treatment, packaging among others. The raw material must be processed as soon as
possible (between 4 and 48 hours after it is harvested), to prevent spoilage. These preliminary operations
are required for the processing of all fruits and vegetables, which must generally be washed before
anything else takes place (onions and cabbages, for instance, will be washed after the removal of the dry
outer layers and external leaves, respectively). The extracted juice is treated according to the
characteristics of the final product. For cloudy juices, further clarification is not necessary but may be
centrifuged or filtered to remove only larger insoluble particles. For clear juices, complete
depectinization by addition of pectic enzymes, fine filtration or high-speed centrifugation may be
required to achieve visual clarity. The next step is usually a heat treatment or equivalent nonthermal
process to achieve a safe and stable juice and final packaging if single strength juice is desired. For a
concentrate, the juice is fed to an evaporator to remove water until the desired concentration level is
29
obtained. Other processes used for water removal include reverse osmosis and freeze concentration,
which are best suited for heat-sensitive juices. The concentrate is then ready for final processing,
packaging and storage. We shall in turn examine the operations in detail.

Figure: Process flow for fruit juice production

-Receive fruits -Sort and clean Inspect, peel, slice

/wash and core
-inspect and
analyse

-Pulp or crush

Analyse, adjust and

blend the juice -Filter (strain), sediment -Press and extract
or clarify

Pasteurize -Cool, Pack In-bottle

pasteurization

3.3.2 Selection Of The Fruits

Fruits should be fully ripe and of good colour and flavour. They should not be overripe. Rotten, moldy
or diseased fruits should not be used to ensure that the final juice does not have . However, in some
fruits like apples, the colour is of no consequence. Selection and blending of juices demands
considerable skill and judgment.

3.3.3 Washing

Washing is an operation that generally is the point of departure of any fruit and vegetable production
process. In a small-scale operation, this activity is normally carried out in basins with re-circulating
water, or simply with still water that is continuously replaced. The operation consists of eliminating the
dirt sticking to the material before it enters the processing line, thus avoiding complications deriving
from the possible contamination of the raw material. The washing must be performed using clean water,
which should be as pure as possible, and if necessary should be made portable by adding sodium
hypochlorite, 10 ml of 10%, solution for every 100 litres of water, to decrease microbial load. Sanitizing
is critical for the juice that will not be pasteurized i.e. minimally processed juice.

30
3.3.4 Sorting

Once the raw material is clean, it must then undergo the selection phase. At this stage, the material that
will be used in the process is separated from material presenting some sort of defect, which will become
second-choice and will be used for a different purposes, or will simply be eliminated. The selection can
be carried out on a table suitable for this process or on a conveyor belt. It entails the removal and
separation of fruits that do not have uniform characteristics in terms of ripeness, colour, shape and size,
or which present mechanical or microbiological damage (moldy, decayed etc). The function of the
sorting process is precisely that of securing homogeneity of the fruits for processing. Decayed and
moldy fruits are removed to assure the quality of the final juice product i.e. with low microbial load and
mycotoxin contamination

3.3.5 Peeling

This operation is commonly performed manually. It consists of the removal of the skin of the fruit or
vegetable. It may be performed by using physical devices like knives or similar instruments, abrasive
peelers, by using heat or chemical methods. Peeling allows for better presentation of the product, and at
the same time fosters sensory quality, since the material with a firmer and rougher texture is eliminated.
The skin often presents a colour that is often affected by the thermal processes which may subsequently
affect the quality.

3.3.6 Cutting and Pitting

Cutting is an operation which makes it possible to achieve different sizes of the fruit for better juice
pressing or extraction. Cutting enhances the surface/volume ratio, which increases the efficiency of the
extraction process. The cutting operation must not cause excessive damage to the tissue, to avoid
detrimental effects like a change in colour, and subsequently a change in the product's flavour.
Moreover, the cutting must be performed in such a way as to allow for a viable industrial performance.
Pitting is the removal of pits and cores of the fruit such as the pineapple core, apple pits etc.

3.3.7 Blanching

It is a form of heat treatment, the aim of which is to condition the material in several ways:
 to soften it to facilitate the filling of the containers and
 to inactivate enzymes which cause an unpleasant smell and flavour, as well as changes in
the natural colour of the product.
This operation must be properly controlled and the temperature and time of application are to be closely
monitored. For juices, this treatment can be applied to fruits such as pineapples where the stability of
juice depends on the presence of pectin. Blanching is used to inactivate the enzyme pectinase, which
degrades pectin, which would make it unavailable for stabilizing the juice. A high-temperature treatment
(80-90oC) for a brief period of about 3-10 minutes is preferable. The most common method used to
perform the treatment is the immersion of the fruit packed inside a metal basket in a bath of boiling
water. Some operations are intended for more specific applications, such as -the removal of pits, -coring,
-pulp extraction. Blanching is only applicable to a limited number of fruits such as pineapples and others
where colour and other components may not significantly be affected.

31
3.3.8 Crushing

The aim of crushing is to disrupt the cells of the juice bearing tissues so as to release the juice. Crushing
is done to breakdown the tissue cells to ease the release of the entrapped juice. In case of apples, soft
fruits, berries etc, the fruit is milled or grated into a paste or pulp. Note that some fruits may not to be
crushed before the juice can be extracted and hence this stage is skipped as a result. Fruit crushing
equipment range from hand operated crushers to mechanical extractors such as hammer mills, grinding
mills, crushers etc. Disintegration is done by a variety of machines namely;
 Hammer mills: used to crush the whole fruit before pressing. They consist of heavy stainless
steel bars spinning from a common axis under high-speed rotation. The fruit is disintegrated until
it passes out through a screen of specific size mounted in the bottom of the mill. The small
screen pore size ensures finer particle size. Firm fruits produce a mash that easily presses during
juice extraction than the soft ones.
 Grinding disk mills: where the fruit is transported by a feed screw to the grinding area. The
screw pressurizes the fruit against a rotating disk equipped with grinding knives in a star pattern,
and the milled fruit exists via an adjustable discharge slot. The process can be controlled by
adjusting the feeder speed, rotating speed of the grinding disk, the width of the product discharge
slot (upto 10 mm), or by changing the knife size.

3.3.9 Juice Extraction

Juice extraction is a critical operation. Juice extraction should be performed as fast as possible to
minimize oxidation of the juice by naturally present enzymes. The aim is to extract as much juice and
the desirable components from the fruit as possible without extracting the undesirables. A compromise
between juice yield and quality dictates the method of juicing and subsequent steps. However, some
fruit must be carefully peeled and deseeded or cored prior to juicing.

Extraction Processes
Extraction of juice is achieved through various methods namely; pressing, enzymatic treatment, hot
break process, and mash liquefaction.

A. Pressing:

a) The main application of pressing is the extraction of fruit juice from fruits such as pineapples,
apples, grapes etc. the juice in these fruits is located within the cell structure of the fruit. Pressing
ruptures the cells and expresses the liquid. The press should remove the maximum amount of
juice present without extracting unwanted compounds such as phenolics from the skin, which
cause bitterness and browning.
b) Pressing is done for a number of fruits depending on the nature of the mash. Some fruits present
difficulties in extracting the juice.
c) The pressing operation can be done using manual or mechanical presses to obtain the juice.
Kitchen-scale juicers are effective for small quantities, but for larger multi-kilogram amounts,
mechanical presses such as hydraulic presses, belt presses and screw presses can be used.
d) The fruit paste is pressed to release the juice from the tissue cells. In case of apples, the milled
fruit is pressed in a hydraulic or screw press.
e) For citrus fruits, extraction is done by revolving reamers on which the traverse halved fruit is
pressed.
32
 f) For pineapples, because of their fibres, a screw press is used.
Some of the press extraction equipment are given below:

a) Rack and frame press: is a very common batch press system found in small juice operations.
Heavy cotton or nylon cloths are filled with a set of mash and then folded to produce what is
called a cheese. The individual cheese is the stacked and separated by a wooden stainless steel or
plastic spacer. The combined stack is then compressed using a hydraulic ram, during which the
juice is expressed. The process delivers good juice but its expensive.

Press direction

Piston
Cheese

Cylinder

Racks

Perforated base

b) Horizontal piston press

This press is capable of pressing berries, stone fruits and vegetables. It operates in a batch mode with
loads of up to 14 tones. Has flexible drainage elements covered with a nylon filter cloth which carry the
expressed juice out of a rack and frame press. It consists of a rotatable basket of cylinder with a
hydraulic system used for expressing the juice. Within the cylinder are fabric –covered flexible rubber
rods with longitudinal grooves in them that allow the juice to transport easily to the discharge port.

Piston

Cylinder

Juice outlet

c) Screw press: Is another continuous type of press used for fruit juice extraction. The screw press or
expeller has a robust horizontal barrel containing stainless helical screw similar to an extruder. The pitch
or squeezing area gradually decreases towards the discharge end, to increase the pressure on the material
33
as it is carried through the barrel. The final section of the barrel is perforated to allow expressed liquid to
escape and presscake is discharged through the barrel outlet. The pressure in the barrel is regulated by
adjusting the diameter of the discharge port. Extraction capacities or rates range from 40 – 8000kg per
hour.

Figure shows a Screw press

feed

Pressure adjus

Solid res
Juice extract
Screws sqeezers
Other presses include bladder press, and the belt press.

B. Enzyme Treatment of the Mash:

For some fruits it may be difficult to release juice by mere pressing. Some juice may still be bound up
within the cells by pectin thus preventing its release from the tissues. On the other hand, there is soluble
pectin which presents difficulty in extraction due to increased viscosity and the lubrication it affords the
press cake, resulting in reduced extraction effectiveness. Sometimes, the presence of pectin and other
colloids leads to formation of gels and flocculent precipitates which carry down the suspended particles
plus insoluble coloring matter which changes the character of the resulting juice. Therefore, to prevent
this, a stage of mash enzyme treatment is incorporated.
1. The milled fruit mash / material is treated with a commercial pectolytic enzyme preparation
containing the enzymes Polygalacturonase (PG), Pectin esterase and Pectin lyase. The enzyme
preparation has a high activity.
2. The enzyme hydrolyzes the pectin partly into soluble reducing sugars and partly into insoluble pectic
acid. The pectic substances that need to be broken down are the structural polysaccharides in the
middle lamella and primary cell walls of the fruit tissue. These pectic substances are polymeric
chains with a backbone consisting of straight sections of α-D-1, 4-galacturonan regions with a
dispersion of 1,2 linked α-L-rhamnosyl residues with alternating rhamnogalacturonan chain. These
alternating side chains composed of neutral sugars give the pectin structure a ‘hairy’ character. The
predominant sugars of pectin are D-galactose and L-arabinose.
34
3. The treatment is done at about 45 to 50oC in a tank for 1 to 2 hours.
4. Depectinization will reduce the viscosity and slipperiness of the pulp and this permits the effective
use of decanters and presses with proper press aids as needed. It especially useful in processing
mature and stored fruit that results in low juice yield. Several depectinizing tanks may be used to
ensure continuous flow to the decanters and presses.
5. This treatment results in –
a. Increased juice yield
b. Reduced processing or extraction time
c. Improved extraction of important fruit components

Disadvantage: The enzyme cost is almost 1/3 of the profits gained form the increased juice yield

C. Hot Break Process

Involves subjecting the crushed fruit or mash to temperatures of about 50 – 60oC in a heat exchanger.
The purpose is to extract a large amount of colour and Increase juice yield from tissues. A pectolytic
enzyme can be added to the hot fruit mash. In order to aid subsequent pressing, press aids such as rice
hulls, wood may be added to provide coarseness and channels for the exit of juice.

NOTE: The enzyme used is critical as it may destroy the color of the juice. The press aids should not
impart off—flavours nor remove fruit flavours. Alternatively, instead of pressing, the fruit mash can be
decanted or centrifuged.

D. Enzymatic Liquefaction of the Fruit Mash

This is mainly applicable to fruits like bananas, apples whose mash is hard to press and release juice
from. Instead, the mash or pulp is first hydrolyzed by a combination of pectolytic and cellulolytic
enzymes to form a liquid in which are suspended particles, a process called enzymatic liquefaction. A
commercial enzyme preparation from Aspergillus niger are available with a high pectinase activity.
About 120g to 150g of enzyme preparation may be added per tonne of fruit pulp. The preparation
contains both cellulolytic and pectolytic enzymes in combination for complete liquefaction. They act
synergistically. Specifically, the pectolytic enzyme preparation will contain Polygalacturonase (PG),
Pectin/Pectate Lyase (PLs) and Pectin Esterase (PE). The activity of PG targets the elimination of the
glycosidic bonds, pectin esterase targets the methyl ester bonds as shown in the diagrams below:-

35
COOCH3 COOCH3

O O
OH O
OH

OH OH

Pectin Esterase

COOH COOH

O O
OH O
OH

OH OH

Pectin lyase

COOH COOH

O O
OH O
OH
OH H
OH OH

36
COOH COOH

O O
OH O
OH

OH OH

Polygalacturonase + H2O

COOH COOH

O OH O
OH O
OH
OH
OH OH

COOCH3 COOCH3

O O
OH O
OH

OH OH

Pectin lyase

COOCH3 COOCH3

O O
OH O

37
 OH
OH H
OH OH
The remaining solids consisting of mainly cellulose and other non-polysaccharides such as glucans,
xylans are broken down by cellulase enzymes (also commercially prepared) thus liquefying the
remaining solids. Finally, the juice can be decanted or centrifuged

RESULT:
There is a significant increase in the sugar content and yield of juice due to complete hydrolysis of the
macro-molecules

Disadvantage: The Resulting juice has a relatively poor flavour compared to that extracted by pressing.

3.3.10 Juice Clarification

Clarification is the process by which the colloidal particles that may produce insoluble cloud material
of freshly pressed juice is broken down and separated to reduce the viscosity, cloudiness and opacity of
the juice. The resulting juice has an open splotchy look. Clarification is meant to produce a clear juice
free of clouding and sedimentation.

Clarification can be done in several ways:

By use enzymes: Involves use of commercial pectinase enzyme preparations which break down the
colloidal suspensions in juice leading to aggregation and settling of the particles at the bottom of the
tank. The clarification is as follows:
That various protein particles exists in the emulsion surrounded by a pectin coat creating a stable pectin
suspension and held apart due to the electrostatic forces of repulsion resulting in a stable pectin
suspension. By use of pectinase enzymes, the pectin coat surrounding the protein particulates in the
emulsion is broken and this exposes the charged surfaces. As a result, the particles aggregate via
electrostatic attraction and leading to formation flocculants which then drop to the bottom of the tank

Diagram showing the enzymatic mechanism of clarification

Protein

Pectolytic enzyme aggregation

Pectin

Stable pectin suspension juice treated with pectic enzymes Formation of floc due to
38
Due to electrostatic forces Exposure of opposite charges agglomeration via
electrostatic
 1. Decanters and finishers for high solids. This involves use of separators or decanters in form of
drums to separate juice containing a high stream of solids. These decanters and finishers operate
by spinning around a central cone or drum and a set of paddles pushing the juice through a
micro-screen of some sort. Total suspended solids may be reduced to 1% or less during operation
depending upon the characteristics of the feed stream and operating conditions.
2. Centrifugation: where the juice is placed under a high rotational and gravitational force leading
to settling of the insoluble solids at the bottom of the centrifuge. This leaves a juice that may be
opaque but free of visible solids (supernatant).

3. Filtration using diatomaceous earth

Filtration is the separation of solid particles from the bulk of juice by passing the mixture
through a bed of a porous material. It is used to clarify juices by removal of small amounts of
solid particles. Filtration ensures production of a clear juice and the prevention of clouding after
filtration. Filtration can be done in several ways i.e. pressure and vacuum filtration.

Filtration makes use of filter aids in order to achieve a clarified juice.

 It involves a three step operation in which a pre-coat of filter aid is built up on a filtration
element which may be a paper, cloth or screen
 Then the filtration is conducted using the continuous addition of filter aid (diatomaceous earth)
to the juice. This helps to renew the filter surface in the filter frame. As the filtration continues
the filter aid deposits on the pre-coated layer. The deposition is permeable and prevents the
extended build up and subsequent clogging of the filter by suspended solids. There is a
continuous addition of the filter aid the so called body feed.
 Filtration is achieved through the application of pressure. As a result, various pressure filters
exist e.g. filter press, vertical leaf filter, a rotating leaf filter, a horizontal rotating leaf filter etc.
 Finally, the built-up cake is removed and the entire cycle is started again.
 The basic elements used include: a filter feed pump; a body feed injection pump, the precoat
mixing tank, the body feed mixing tank, the filter element, connecting pipes and openings for
filter removal.

Figure: Components of a Diatomaceous earth filter

39
 Flow of
Flow of juice
filtered liquid
to be filtered

Filter aid particles

Filter cloth
Filter cake:
removed impurities
and filter aid particles

Other means of clarification include; use of heating which coagulates some of the colloidal substances
and precipitates them and stabilizes the juice by destroying pectolytic enzymes; use of gelatin etc.

3.3.11 De-Earation

De-earation should be done as early as possible in order to prevent the possible development of off-
flavours and loss of vitamin C through the action of oxidizing enzymes or chemicals. The juice is
sprayed into a vacuum chamber where air is extracted from it. It requires that about 95% of air is
removed in order to prevent oxidation.

3.3.12 Concentration

Concentration may be achieved by a number of methods:

1. Concentration by freezing
2. Concentration by vacuum evaporation
3. Concentration by open boiling

Concentration by freezing: It’s based on the principle that when water containing dissolved solutes is
progressively cooled, pure ice is formed at first and the concentration of the dissolved substances in the
liquid phase increases. By removing the ice at a suitable stage, it is possible to obtain a highly
concentrated juice. Usually, the juice is put in cans and put in a freezing room surrounded by cold brine.
The juice is allowed to freeze to a semi-solid cake, which is then moderately crushed and placed in a
slow rotating basket to allow the liquid (juice) to pass while leaving the ice behind. The ice is then
washed with a fine spray of water to remove residual juice solids. The ice is then discarded. The
operation can be repeated a few times. This process produces better flavoured juice since there is no loss
of volatiles and aromas. The chemical changes are also minimized greatly unlike in heating operations

40
Success depends on having large ice crystals enough to be held up by the basket of the centrifuge and to
permit the free passage of juice concentrate.

Concentration by vacuum evaporation

Fruit juices are concentrated by controlled evaporation of water through use of vacuum industrial
evaporators. The first step is the removal of the volatiles (stripping) from which the aroma can be
recovered. Stripping is done by partial evaporation. The removed volatiles are concentrated 100 to 150
fold and added back to the concentrate prior to storage. The evaporators used are of different types:-
Single effect evaporators and Multiple effect evaporators. Effect describes the path of steam through the
system. The 1st effect of an evaporator system receives steam from a boiler and the 2nd effect receives
steam and vapors boiled off from the 1st effect and so on.

Advantages of concentration: Fruit juice concentration offers significant advantages to the processors
through 1) reducing bulk of juices 2) reducing storage volume and 3) reducing transportation costs

Disadvantage of concentration: During concentration, volatile compounds or aromas are lost

especially under uncontrolled processes.

3.3.13 Heat (Thermal) Processing

There are mainly two forms of thermal processing of juice i.e. pasteurization and sterilization.

 Pasteurization: Is a relatively mild heat treatment performed below 100oC (usually between 65-
88oC sometimes upto 95oC) for a given period of time in order to extend the shelf-life of juices
for several days by destroying vegetative cells (pathogenic micro-organisms). It’s used for
bottled fruit juices. Pasteurization preserves foods by:-

a. Inactivation of deteriorative enzymes

b. Destruction of relatively heat-sensitive micro-organisms (pathogenic or non-spore

forming bacteria, yeasts and moulds) that would spoil the juice.

c. Improve the drinking quality of the juice

d. Although spores conceivably can survive at a pH less than 4.6, outgrowth is unlikely. In
contrast, at a pH greater than 4.6, higher process temperatures (above 100oC) are more
important for destruction of spore forming micro-organisms.

 Sterilization: Refers to the application of temperatures above 100oC for a short while ensuring
the complete destruction of micro-organisms (either vegetative or spore formers). Sterilization is
applied at above 100oC for a given period of time normally in seconds. It prevents the survival of
pathogenic or disease-causing organisms whose presence in the food and accelerated
multiplication during storage may be a serious hazard to the health of consumers.

Forms of sterilization:

 Canning: The purpose of canning, which is based on commercial sterilization, is to destroy any
existing pathogenic microorganisms and prevent the development of those that may cause the
product to deteriorate.
41
 Aseptic processing: Is where juice is handled, heated and rapidly filled in containers in an
environment completely free of micro-organisms. In an aseptic system juice is rapidly heated, in this
case by sterilization and cooled immediately before filling into sterile packaging materials such as
laminated paper/plastic containers. Some machines are designed to create these asceptic conditions
e.g. a Tetra Pak packaging lines. The rapid heating and cooling of the product guarantees microbial
and enzyme destruction. It is absolutely essential to pasteurize or in some cases sterilize the juice,
cool adequately and pack into sterile containers in a sterile environment, since the presence of a
single viable organism can spoil an entire lot of juice. The acidic nature of fruits makes them safe
from bacteria. This degree of acidity does not provide the micro-organisms with suitable conditions
to produce the toxic substances, which are highly dangerous and deadly to humans. Note that low-
acid products like most vegetables may be contaminated by the micro-organism and produce toxins
during storage.

NOTE: Pasteurization and sterilization can be integrated with either one of the following operations:

o Hot filling
o Aseptic processing
o Canning

 Hot filling: Hot filling of juices is done by rapidly heating the juice in a heat exchanger and filling
containers with the hot juice measuring around 95ºC which is followed by sealing and inverting, thus
pasteurizing the container. This should be followed by rapid cooling. This is known as flash
pasteurization and can be achieved almost instantaneously. However, once in a container, cooling
cannot be as rapid. A plate heat exchanger is an example. A plate heat exchanger with a regeneration
section by which the cool entering product is preheated by the exiting hot product stream can be
quite energy efficient.

o Quality problem: The major quality problem is scorching, due to holding the juice hot,
either before or after filling.

o Advantage of hot filling is that it -drives air from the juice and ensuring a partial vacuum in
the sealed container as vapour condenses upon cooling

3.3.14 Cooling:

Most products will require to be cooled to relatively lower temperatures e.g. below 80oC in order to
avoid burning the containers in case of plastics. On a small scale, it’s normally done by allowing the
product in its boiler to cool slightly before it can be packed. Industrial pasteurizers and sterilizers have
both a heating and cooling system such that as the juice leaves the system, its also cooled. When filling
is done into glass containers or cans, it is done at high (hot) temperatures in order to kill any surviving
microbes.

3.3.15 Packing

Finally, packing is the final step in most processing procedures to ensure that the product is protected
from post-processing contamination. Packaging can be done in a variety of containers such as:
42
  Glass : are chemically inert, clear and heat resistant. The transparency offers advantages during
marketing where it directly conveys the image and quality of the juice to the consumer.
However, they are highly susceptible to heat shock.

 Cans: which are made of stainless steel or aluminium to prevent corrosion from acidic juices.

 Flexible films

o Plastic bottles

 Laminated paper (e.g. brick/tetrapak)

The primary function of packaging is

1. to prevent loss of quality due oxidation and microbial degradation
2. Contain the juice adequately
3. Protect the juice against environmental contamination
4. Provide consumer with needed information about the juice product.
5. To add convenience

3.4 BLENDING OF FRUIT JUICES

3.4.1 Reasons For Blending Juices

Juice blending refers to the mixing of two or more original juices to form a single juice product. Juice
blends are a mixture of two or more juices.

There are several reasons for doing this,

1) Blending of different juices to overcome the high cost of some juices (exotic fruits),

2) Overcoming scarcity and/or seasonal availability of certain juice components,

3) Balancing out excessively strong flavours, primarily high acidity, astringency, or bitterness,

4) Correcting low soluble solids level,

5) Improving poor colour or colour stability, of otherwise desirable juices attributes,

6) Blending offers the opportunity to adjust sugar/acid ratios and compensate for other imbalances
in juices from certain fruits. In a similar sense defects in many juice quality or nutritional
attributes can be overcome by proper combination of juices.

3.4.2 Brix/Acid Ratio – as a Blending Strategy

Brix / Acid Ratio refers to the ratio between the amount of total soluble solids (in this case Sugar) to the
amount of acid present in the juice.

Choosing the appropriate Brix/Acid ratio. One of the primary consideration in choosing individual
components and preparing juice blend is 0Brix/Acid ratio (oB/A). Depending upon the juices involved,

43
this ratio determines the sugar - acid balance and influences the perception of each. For example, a 10
percent solution of sucrose is moderately sweet. Adding 1 percent citric acid for a oBrix/A of 10
produces an intensely sour sensation. This solution requires a few percent more sugar before the
sensation of sweetness is once again dominant. Orange juice at a oBrix/A of 12 is standard in North
America, while in the tropics 15 or more is deemed acceptable.

Although a given 0Brix/A can be obtained by modifying either Brix or acid (or both), juice blends or
beverages with less than about 70Brix are deemed weak and watery. Those containing more than 1.2
percent acid are sour, independent of 0Brix/A.
oBrix/Acid ratios of some common fruit juices

Fruit 0Brix/Acid Remarks

Orange 10-14 ~ 12 ideal

Banana puree 40-60 Acidified or blended
Guava 5-12 ~ 15 ideal
Mango 30-50 Often acidified
Papaya 40-70 Often acidified
Passion fruit 8-15 Sweetened and diluted
Pineapple 10-16 ~ 16 ideal
Watermelon 10-20 ~ 12 ideal

3.5 PRESERVATION AND STABILIZATION OF FRUIT JUICES

3.5.1 Spoilage of Fruit Juice

Freshly expressed juice, is highly susceptible to spoilage, in fact more so than whole fruit. Unprotected
by skin or cell walls, fluid components are thoroughly mixed with air and microorganisms from the
environment. Thus, unheated juice is subject to rapid microbial, enzymatic, chemical and physical
deterioration. The aim of processing is to minimize these undesirable reactions while still maintaining
and in some cases enhancing, the inherent quality of the starting fruit.

Table Shows the Various Forms of Juice Spoilage

Hazard or form of deterioration Result

Microbial contamination Survival and growth of pathogens leading to spoilage

Aflatoxins on fruit Unsafe and illegal product

Pesticide residues Unsafe and illegal product

Spurious dissolved matter Unsafe, and off-flavours

Spurious particulates Unsafe and reduced quality

44
 Enzymatic activity Browning, consistency and flavour changes

Dissolved oxygen Browning, nutrient loss and reduced quality

Colloidal instability Sedimentation/precipitation/haze

Extended holding Quality deterioration

a) Microbial deterioration. The ubiquitous nature of microbes dictates that no matter how sanitary
the raw material, juicing equipment and facilities are, the normal fruit microflora represents
inevitable spoilage potential. The low pH of most juices favours yeast that rapidly initiates an
incipient fermentation. If left uncontrolled it represents spoilage. Furthermore, the presence of
aflatoxin producing mould contamination on the surface of fruits generally ends up in the juice
some of which cause cancer.
b) Biochemical deterioration of juice upon juicing is common. The mixing of fruit enzymes with
substrate and air can rapidly initiate enzymatic browning. Plant phenols, polyphenol oxidase and
oxygen react to darken many juices. There are many other enzymes active in juice capable of
destroying ascorbic acid, modifying pectin and affecting colour, flavour and texture. So rapid
processing and the use of heat or enzyme inhibitors are necessary with some juices.
c) Maillard browning of juices: Is a kind of browning which involves the reaction between sugars
and proteins or amines. It affects most juices due to common sugar-amine reactions. Reducing
sugars and amines, slowly go through a series of steps to form brown pigments or colouring
materials (complexes). A clear example is in baking of bread Maillard products are responsible
for the desirable crust colour and flavour, but in juices this reaction is deteriorative. Low
temperature greatly retards Maillard browning, but does not stop completely these
undesirable reactions.
d) Chemical contamination of juices can also occur from the environment. The unauthorized or
excessive use of pesticide chemicals is the most common and avoidable source, readily
preventable by Good Agricultural Practices. Such contamination is particularly serious in organic
juices where no pesticides are permitted. Even trace amounts of innocuous substances present in
soil, water, or wind drift can cause rejection. Sometimes, mistakes in the food chain are made
resulting in addition of lethal white powders having been mistaken for food ingredients and
added to juice, resulting in fatal poisonings.
e) Physical changes such as sedimentation can also take their toll on juice quality. Separation of
dispersed particles can help or hinder appearance. Clear juices can turn cloudy or result in
precipitates.

In view of the numerous pathways to juice spoilage and delicate nature of juices, it is an impressive
testimony to food technologists that juice stabilization techniques be used.

3.5.2. Preservation of Fruit Juices

Despite the many pathways to deterioration, there are a number of effective preservation methods that
have evolved to combat spoilage. The main principle tenant to food preservation is to maintain the
quality and nutritional attributes while preventing spoilage. In general, the fresher the juice, the higher

45
the quality, so the standard of excellence is often freshly prepared unprocessed juice. The following are
some of the methods that can be used to preserve juices:

A) Refrigeration + Sanitation

Two practical "processes" capable of extending storage life of fresh unpasteurized fruit juice are
rigorous attention to good sanitation from production through juice preparation and low temperature
holding or refrigeration.

1. The number of micro-organisms can be reduced by good handling and sanitary practices, but can
not be eliminated completely. Therefore, holding juices at refrigerated temperatures as close to
the juice freezing point as possible i.e. -1 to -3ºC, depending on soluble solids, combined with
proper sanitation during processing and packaging can extend storage life of unpasteurized juice
up to a month. However, there may be several accompanying difficulties such as the possibility
of enzymatic reactions, oxidative reactions and the challenge of maintaining minimum
refrigeration temperature throughout distribution. Temperatures at 2ºC to 5ºC can reduce shelf
life from greater than a month to less than 3 weeks. One rule of thumb specifies each 10ºC
increase in temperature roughly doubles reaction rates.
2. Refrigeration can be combined with pasteurization and hermetic packaging to further increase
storage life with minimum quality changes, but then the juice cannot be labelled "fresh". Heat
processing removes the need for refrigeration and inactivates enzymes. However, it leads to heat-
induced reactions due to over heating or holding the product at too high a temperature
before or after pasteurization. This results in scorched flavour and colour change and reduces
consumer appeal.

B) Freezing

Freezing of juices usually done at less than -1 to -3oC which helps in slowing down the deterioration of
the juice. For frozen juices, the closer to thawing temperature they become, the faster the deteriorative
reactions occur. "Fresh frozen" is the appropriate designation for frozen juices.

Note: Unpasteurized juice will undergo slow deterioration (over months) exhibited by decline in
nutrients, primarily loss of ascorbic acid, enzymatic activity as well as flavour, colour and viscosity
changes.

C) Combined Methods: Hurdles Principle

In circumstances where thermal processing is impractical, minimal processing employing the hurdles
principle is called for. The hurdle principle is based on the fact that while any single barrier to
microbial growth may be inadequate for desired protection, a number of barriers together can enhance
product stability. These barriers may include:

1. Storage temperature
2. Proper handling
3. Pasteurization time and temperature
4. Hygiene of the personnel
5. Sanitary environment
6. Addition of inhibiting additives such as preservatives
46
 7. Exclusion of oxygen
8. Protective packaging
9. Low pH (moderately high acidity )

These conditions will provide hurdles or barriers to microbial growth. Thus good sanitation is the first
barrier to reduce microbial load; low storage temperature further retards growth. An acid environment of
pH less than 4.5 (ideally less than 3.5) restricts the growth of many organisms. Fortunately most juices
are acidic or amenable to acidification. The exclusion of oxygen is an additional barrier. (Although
anaerobic conditions are dangerous with low acid foods and can even set the stage in high acid products
for anaerobic spoilage organisms, i.e. yeast, lactic acid bacteria, etc.) Antimicrobial substances, either
natural or chemical preservatives, also assist in reducing deterioration.

Therefore, proper use of hurdles principle can appreciably lengthen shelf life of unpasteurized juices
without unduly affecting quality. Minimal processing is the strategy by which a number of hurdles are
combined to effect near "fresh" juice characteristics.

D) Heat or Thermal Processing

There are mainly two forms of thermal processing i.e. pasteurization and sterilization. The acid nature
of most juices permits pasteurization.

1. Pasteurization can be defined as the use of temperatures near 100ºC to effect destruction of
spoilage organisms. Although spores conceivably can survive at a pH less than 4.6, outgrowth is
unlikely. In contrast, at a pH greater than 4.6, higher process temperatures (above 100oC) are
more important for destruction of spore forming micro-organisms. Thus the need for use of
sterilization temperatures for a short time.

2. Sterilization refers to the application of temperatures above 100oC for a short while ensuring the
complete destruction of micro-organisms (either vegetative or spore formers).

These processing conditions can be integrated with either one of the following operations:-

i. Canning

Sterilization is applicable during canning operations. Standard canning procedures specify filling cans or
jars with hot juice (~70 to 80ºC), sealing and processing at 100 to 105ºC for up to 10 minutes and
cooling immediately.

47
 A Canning / Retorting Machine

ii. Hot filling

Hot filling of juices is done by rapidly heating the juice in a heat exchanger and filling containers with
the hot juice measuring around 95ºC which is followed by sealing and inverting, thus pasteurizing the
container. This should be followed by rapid cooling. This is known as flash pasteurization and can be
achieved almost instantaneously. However, once in a container, cooling cannot be as rapid. The major
quality problem is scorching, due to holding the juice hot, either before or after filling.

A plate heat exchanger is an example. A plate heat exchanger with a regeneration section by which the
cool entering product is preheated by the exiting hot product stream can be quite energy efficient.

Plate heat exchanger.

Advantage of hot filling is that it -drives air from the juice and ensuring a partial vacuum in the sealed
container as vapour condenses upon cooling.

iii. Aseptic processing

Is where juice is handled, heated and rapidly filled in containers in an environment completely free of
micro-organisms. In an aseptic system juice is rapidly heated, either by pasteurization or sterilization
and cooled immediately before filling into sterile packaging materials such as laminated paper/plastic

48
containers. Some machines are designed to create these aseptic conditions e.g. a Tetra Pak packaging
lines. The rapid heating and cooling of the product guarantees microbial and enzyme destruction. It is
absolutely essential to pasteurize or in some cases sterilize the juice, cool adequately and pack into
sterile containers in a sterile environment, since the presence of a single viable organism can spoil an
entire lot of juice.

Tetrapak Aseptic package formation lines

E) Use of Chemical Preservatives

Chemical food preservatives are those substances which are added in very low quantities (up to 0.2% i.e.
2g per kg) to inhibit microbial growth and which do not alter the organoleptic and physico-chemical
properties of the foods. Many chemicals will kill micro-organisms or stop their growth but most of these
are not permitted in foods. Preservation of food products containing chemical food preservatives is
usually based on

o the combined or synthetic activity of several additives,

o intrinsic product parameters (e.g. composition, acidity, water activity)

o extrinsic factors (e.g. processing temperature, storage atmosphere, and temperature).

Preservatives are only one of several hurdles that can be used to maintain quality and extend shelf life.
Examples include Sulphur dioxide which is quite effective in inhibiting both microbial growth and
enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. However, a small number of individuals are quite sensitive to
SO2 (e.g. asthmatics), so correct labelling and minimum levels are required. SO2 is delivered as a gas or
in the form of sodium or potassium metabisulphite with about 60 percent by weight as SO2. Levels of
30 to 100 ppm, at a pH below 4.0 are effective.

Common juice preservatives and additives.

Ingredient Use

Sulphur Dioxide Retards microbial and enzymatic activity

Benzoates Antimicrobial @ pH <4.5
Sorbates Antimicrobial @ pH <6.5
Carbon Dioxide pH reduction, anaerobic atmosphere
Ascorbic Acid Retards enzymatic browning
Dimethylpyrocarbonate Antimicrobial

49
Other preservatives such as benzoic acid, sorbic acid and to a lesser extent, CO2 can be used
individually or synergistically. Sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate are the preferred forms given
greater solubility of their salts. Both function best below pH 4.0. U.S. Federal regulations limit
benzoates to 0.1 percent and they are most effective against yeasts and moulds. Sorbic acid is effective
over a broader range, up to pH 6.5. Benzoates and sorbates are often used together in combination with
low temperatures to extend the shelf life of minimally processed juice drinks.

F) Concentration
Juice concentration involves the removal of water through various ways such as evaporation, freezing
and vacuum concentration.

 Open atmosphere concentration of juices has long been practiced; done simply by boiling off
water. Its done at the expense of product quality due to heat damage.

 Concentration by freezing where water freezes out at about 0oC and leaves mainly fruit solids
(pulp) behind.

 Vacuum concentration. Done under vacuum and reduced pressure. Under reduced pressure, the
water will boil at low temperature and thus will be evaporated easily resulting in a concentrated
juices. The application of vacuum concentration reduces the boiling point of juice and, when
combined with short exposure to high evaporation temperatures, reduces heat damage.

The removal of water to effect concentration simplifies juice handling, storage and transportation. Some
juices can be concentrated to over 70ºBrix, thereby increasing the juice solids up to 10 times. Further
concentration (high Brix) is limited by increased viscosity due to the presence of pectin substances and
insoluble solids or pulp. Concentrates must be maintained cool, if not frozen to prevent quality loss
mainly due to Maillard browning type reactions affecting colour and flavour.

Important quality factors for fruits meant for juice

Attribute Rationale

Soluble solids (ºBrix) Defines juice strength

Titratable acidity and pH Defines acid balance
Colour Visual appeal
Freedom from defects- decay, insects/damage, Aesthetics, susceptibility to spoilage and
mechanical injury, etc contamination
Maturity Optimum quality
Size, shape and uniformity Ease of juicing
Flavour Defines quality
Absence of pathogens, chemicals and extraneous Defines safety
matter
Low microbial load Quality, shelf life

50
 4.0 PROCESSING OF FRUIT PRESERVES, JAMS AND JELLIES

4.1. DEFINITIONS AND COMPOSITION

Jams, jellies and marmalades and fruit preserves are fruit products primarily preserved using sugar and
the acid naturally present in fruits. They are produced using a combination of sugar, pectin and acid in
their proportionate amounts capable of forming gels which characterize these products. However, they
can be differentiated by the form in which their fruit component is incorporated:

o In jellies, only strained fruit juice is used

o Jams are with crushed fruit pulp or material

o Preserves are made with whole fruit (for small fruits) or large fruit pieces.

o Marmalades are basically clear jellies in which fruit slices, shreds of citrus peels are
suspended.

Jam is made using pulp from a single fruit or from a mixture of fruits. The combination of high acidity
(pH of around 3.0) and high sugar content (68-72%), prevents mould growth after opening the jar.

51
Jellies are crystal-clear jams that are made using filtered juice instead of fruit pulp and marmalades are
produced from clear citrus juices (lime, orange, grapefruit, lemon or orange) that have fine shreds of
peel suspended in the gel. Ginger may also be used alone or mixed with the citrus fruits.

Regardless of their form, all are Sugar-acid-pectin gels. Sometimes, calcium may be used instead of
sugar to form the gels in case of low sugar jams (e.g. for diabetic jams). Their structure, appearance, and
mouth feel result from a complex interaction between pectin level and functionality, pH, sugar type and
content, setting temperature and in case of low methoxyl pectin gels, calcium content.

Jam is a fruit preserve derived from sugar and fruit pulp that is cohesive in nature with a
spreadable texture and is preserved primarily through the use of the high content of sugar and
the low pH

4.2 FRUIT PECTIN

Pectin is naturally present in some fruits and therefore can be used directly for manufacturing jams, fruit
preserves, jellies and marmalades. However, in some fruits, pectin is not enough for manufacturing these
products and therefore, commercial pectin powder may be added. Pectin is an important structural
component of the middle lamella and primary cell walls of higher plants in particular fruits and
vegetables. It acts as an intercellular adhesive.

Pectin is available commercially either as a powder or a liquid concentrate. It is stable if stored in cool,
dry place and it will only lose about 2% of its gelling power per year. Powdered pectin is added to fruit
pulp at 3-6g per kg of final product, but it should first be mixed with about five times its weight of sugar
to prevent lumps forming when it is added to the pulp or juice. Liquid concentrate can be added directly
to the juice.

4.2.1 Occurrence of pectin in fruits

Pectic substances exist in plants as pectose, pectin and pectic acid. Pectose commonly called protopectin
is insoluble and the precursor of pectin into which it can be changed by enzymatic action or acid
hydrolysis. It is associated with cellulose in the cell walls especially in the middle lamella of all plant
tissues which are not yet woody or corky. Its abundant in fleshy roots, fruits and leaves. Chemically, it
has been suggested that pectose is formed by a union of pectin and cellulose with elimination of water
molecules.

Pectin is a soluble product formed from pectose either by acid hydrolysis or enzyme hydrolysis.
Chemical formula is C39H58O33.

Pectic acid is derived from pectin either by acid or alkaline hydrolysis or by enzyme action. Prolonged
heating causes the pectic acid to break down.

4.2.2 Chemical Structure of Pectin

52
Pectin is a plant polysaccharide (polymer) made up of a linear chain of D-galacturonic acid residues
linked via α-1-4 glycosidic bonds. The chain is usually described as homogalacturonan chain meaning
that the linear chain has is only galacturonic acid units, making 95%. At certain intervals, the chain is
interrupted by alternating units of galacturonic acid and rhamnose sugars. These regions are described as
hairy where short chains of xylose and arabinose with galactose occur. Xylose residues in the hairy
regions are attached to galacturonic acid residues while most galactose side chains are attached to
Rhamnose residues of the backbone. The molecular weight of pectin varies from MW 5 x 10 4 to 1.8 x
105.
Galacturonic acid units are esterified with methanol groups at varying degrees. The extent to which
methanol is attached to the pectin molecule is called the Degree of Esterification (i.e. methoxyl
content). The bonds formed are called Ester bonds because they occur between an alcohol and an acid.
These esterified sites are thought to be repeating at given intervals suggested at five esterified
galacturonate residues and one free acid residue. The degree of esterification determines most of the
gelling properties of pectin. High degrees of esterification will give higher gelling power while low
esterification will give low gelling power.
The processing of many food products is affected by the presence or absence of pectin. For instance,
consistency and cloud behavior of many juices during processing or storage are in general attributed to
pectin.

4.2.3 Industrial Applications of Pectin

1) Pectin is used as gelling agent to impart a gelled texture to foods e.g. fruit based products such as
jams, jellies, preserves etc.

2) Stabilization of products such as juices, ice creams, yogurts etc due to its gelling ability

3) Pectin is also used as an emulsifier, and thickener in production of food products.

4) Used in the production of adhesives and gums

4.2.4 Effects of Methylation on the Function of Pectin

The degree of methylation influences gelation. The Degree of Esterification (DE) and gel formation can
be affected by: Temperature and pH

Therefore, high methoxyl pectins (DE 55 – 80%) and the medium methoxyl pectins of 50 and less i.e. 20
to 50%. Pectins with excessively low DE will precipitate out rather than gelling. High methoxyl pectins
gel only under acidic conditions and when sugar content is at least 55%. Low pH suppresses dissociation
of free carboxylic acid groups thus reducing their electrostatic interactions between the methyl ester
groups. Standard free energy of gelation increases as the DE increases being proportional to the square
of the DE. As the DE lowers to 50%, jelly strength increases but only at progressively lower pH values.

53
Low methoxyl pectin - Are those pectins with a DE of 50% or less. Are able to form gel though under a
different mechanism. These pectins do not require high sugar concentration and low pH to initiate
gelation. They gel in the presence of divalent cations e.g. Ca2+. These cations form associations between
charged species on adjacent chains. Pectins with DE in the upper range of 45 – 50% exhibit properties
intermediate between high & low methyl pectins. Thus, can form acid – sugar gels. Low methyl pectins
with Des near the upper limit of the range require some sugar for gelation. Ability to form gels with less
sugar allows the production of dietetic jams and jellies. Their ability to gel with calcium at high pH
enables low DE pectins to produce gels in acid sensitive foods like milk.

The free carboxylic groups available on the galacturonic acid residues of low methoxyl pectin may form
calcium bridges with adjacent pectin polymers. This results in a stronger gel network and firmer
structure and less occurrence of syneresis.

Generation of low methoxyl pectins - These can be generated from high methoxy pectins by:

1) Acid treatment – de-esterification can be done during the initial extraction of pectin from the raw
material. Such treatment lowers the MW of pectin.

2) Enzyme catalyzed de-eseterification – can be done using methyl esterase which cleaves
esterified sites nonrandomly producing blocks of completely de-esterified galacturonic acid units
interspersed with unmodified original material.

3) Base treatment

Categories of commercial pectins - Rapid set pectins – 72 – 75% DE ; Medium set - 68 – 71% DE ;
Slow set pectins – 62 – 66% DE

Setting time = f (DE).

Rapid set pectins are used for manufacture of jams and ensure uniform dispersal of fruit pieces and
prevent floating. Slow set pectins are preferable in clear in clear jellies where floatation is not a problem.
Slow set pectin allow air bubbles to rise before gelation.

4.2.5 Pectin and Gel Formation (Gelation)

Pectin when combined with a correct amount of sugar and acid will form a gel. The gel is formed only
when sugar concentration has reached 55%. This gel is a network of cross-linkages of pectin and sugar.
The presence of water, H ions (from acid) and sugar lead to the formation of intermolecular bonds
resulting in a cross-linked network of these molecules. As a result of the cross-linkages, the movement
of these molecules is slowed down resulting into a state of a more viscous (very thick) mixture. This
viscous mixture is the gel. This gel structure will prevent water and other components from separating.

The intermolecular bonds that are involved in the network linkages include:

 Non-covalent bonds between the adjacent polymer chains

 Hydrogen bonding

 Hydrophobic interactions between the chains and these re the most important for gel formation.

54
In high methoxyl pectin solutions, gelation occurs between non-covalent bonding between adjacent
polymer chains. H-bonding and hydrophobic interactions between adjacent chains from junction zones
with 18 to 250 galacturonic acid units. Though H-bonding is double that of hydrophobic interactions,
they are insufficient to initiate gelation. Thus hydrophobic interactions are important between adjacent
methyl groups. These are interactions are enhanced by solutes e.g. sucrose which is essential for gel
formation.

4.2.6 Interactions with Sugar Co-Solutes

High Methoxyl pectin will not form gel with less than 55% sugar. As pectin DE falls below 50%, the
amount of sugar becomes less significant because low methoxyl –calcium gelation becomes the
predominant gelling mechanism. Even with low methoxyl pectin gels, addition of sugar can increase gel
strength and reduce syneresis.

Complete or partial replacement of sucrose with other sugars alters the water activity of the system and
can modify the hydrophobic interactions contributing to gelation. For example, addition of maltose
reduces the setting time and extends the pH range of gelation whereas fructose delayed setting time.

4.2.7 Effect of pH

Control of pH is critical to successful gelation with pectins especially high –methoxyl pectins. Low pH
increases the % of unionized carboxyl groups, thus increasing electrostatic repulsion between adjacent
pectin chains. High DE (rapid set) pectins will gel at relatively higher pH than lower DE (slow set
pectins) though the difference is small. Optimum pH for slow set pectins being 3.1 and for rapid set
pectins about 3.4. Substitution of other sugars for sucrose by modifying hydrophobic interactions
between chains, allows gels to be formed at higher pH. Because Low methoxyl pectins rely on calcium
bonding to gel, they can form gels at higher pHs than high Methoxyl pectins.

4.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF FRUIT JAMS,
JELLIES & PRESERVES ETC

4.3.1 Important Principles

There are several important points to remember when making jams, jellies or marmalades:

1) There must be a correct balance of juice, sugar, acid and pectin in order to form a good gel. In
general, slightly under-ripe fruits contain more acid and pectin than do overripe fruits, but there
are differences in the amounts of acid and pectin in different types of fruit.

2) Water must be boiled off quickly to concentrate the mixture before it darkens. If whole fruit is
used, there are two heating stages:

a. at the start, the fruit is heated slowly to soften it and to extract pectin;

55
 b. then the mixture is boiled rapidly until the sugar content reaches 68- 72%. This change in
heat output requires a large and easily controllable heater.

3) The mixture should be constantly stirred to prevent it from burning onto the base of the pan,
particularly towards the end of boiling when it thickens. Production in industries uses double-
jacketed pans because they give more even and faster heating and do not risk burning the
product.

4) The jam mixture is heated and boiled until it sets by forming a thick gel. Methods to test for the
correct setting point include a) the flake test, b) wrinkle test and c) boiling point.

5) Jams should be hot filled (at around 85oC) into glass jars and sealed with a new lid. If the
temperature is too high, steam condenses to water on the inside of the lid and dilutes sugar at the
surface of the jam, which can cause mould growth. If the temperature is too low, the jam
thickens and is difficult to pour into containers.

6) Jars should be filled to approximately 9/10 full of the packing jars, to help a vacuum to form in
the space above the product as it cools. The jars are kept upright during cooling until the gel has
formed. Proper packaging will prevent re-entry of spoilage microbes.

7) The high sugar content of jams and the high acid (low pH) endures preservation of jams, jellies
and fruit preserves: High Sugar concentration exerts osmotic pressure on the microbes hence
denying them of the water needed for growth and multiplication. While the acid interrupts with
the cell membrane of the microbial cells thus interrupting with cell metabolism and the microbes
will not be able to grow and reproduce.

4.3.2 Acid and Pectin Contents of Some Fruits

1. The mixing ratio for fruits with sufficient pectin and acid is usually 1:1 sugar to fruit ratio.
Fruits with sufficient acid and pectin include unripe apples, lemons, grape fruits, passion fruits,
guavas, gooseberries.

2. The mixing ratio for fruits with inadequate pectin and acid i.e. sugar to fruit is 0.75: 1. Fruits
with inadequate pectin and acid include very ripe fruits i.e. very ripe apples, mangoes etc.

3. Fruits that do not have enough pectin and acid include melons, bananas, strawberries, pineapples
etc. the mixing ratio is 0.51: 1 sugar to fruit.

4.3.3 Raw Materials for Jams and Jellies

Jellies and jams are made from these ingredients i.e. fruits; Sugar; Citric acid (lemon juice if available).
Others include spices, buffering agents, preservatives.

1) Should be free from any extraneous matter i.e. presence of any foreign material such as rubbish,
insects, dirt or dust, rat droplets, specks etc.

2) Sugar and other powders should not be wet at all.

56
4.3.4 Selection of Fruits.

1) Select fruits that are free from moulds and yeasts.

2) Should be just ripe or a mixture of ripe and under ripe. The fruits should not be over ripe
as such fruits will have lost their pectin through conversion to pectic acid. Under ripe
fruits still have the protopectin from which pectin can be obtained by hydrolysis.

3) Should be free from black specks and blemishes;

4) Wholesome (not rotten). This is because the processes involve in fermentation, mould
growth and over-ripening quickly brings about destruction of pectin and deterioration in
colour and flavour especially in soft fruits.

5) Should be clean and free of extraneous matter.

4.3.5 Principle of Jam Making

The basic principle of jam making involves the interaction between pectin and sugar on heating in
presence of acid, all in their right proportions (content) to form a stiff gel. This forms the basis ‘setting
of jam’.

4.3.6 Factors to Consider when Selecting the Process

a. Required total soluble solids in the final product

b. Percentage of fruit

c. Fruit particle integrity

d. Production rates

e. Ingredients

4.3.7 Process of Jam Production

1. Preparation of the fruit by washing, removal of extraneous matter, stalks and the undesirable
parts.

2. Some fruits may be need to be reduced in size by cutting /slicing to facilitate subsequent
processes.

3. Some fruits may need to be heat treated to soften them and destroy pectlytic enzymes that may
degrade the pectin during cold processing. This also serves to release pectin from the cell walls.

4. The fruit, both the blanched and unblanched as above, is crushed to produce a smooth puree.
This also serves to further free the pectin from the cell walls. Some fruit pulps like that of

57
 strawberries can be sieved to remove seeds and the cores. The exact steps will depend on the
nature of raw materials available and the end product to be manufactured.

5. Blending the ingredients together such as sugar, pectin, fruit, and others. However, some may be
added later such as flavour agents to avoid loss and citric acid to have proper control over the
pH.

6. Thermal treatment to evaporate the mix to the desired total solids level. One of the methods
includes open-air evaporation. The other methods are Vacuum batch process and the plate
evaporation process. Modern production processes use the low temperature vacuum evaporation
process, which may necessitate the addition of a pasteurizing step to give a product of suitable
microbiological quality to allow prolonged storage. Open air evaporation is a batch process done
in one vessel, but:

i. Its not economical,

ii. Not consistent,
iii. Slow and reduced throughput,
iv. Low quality,

We shall concentrate on the vacuum batch process.

THE VACUUM BATCH PROCESS

This process is suitable for the production of high quality jam containing fruit pieces or whole fruit.
Evaporation is carried out at low temperatures, thus reducing thermal degradation of the fruit
components. At the end of evaporation, the jam is also treated to a pasteurizing step in a heat exchanger
just to kill vegetative microbial cells.

Continue the steps from 6 above. Note that steps 1 to 6 are common to all processes
whether open boiling, vacuum or high pressure processes.
7. The various ingredients are weighed and mixed in a premixing vessel which is steam jacked to
allow the preheating of the mix and dissolution of sugar. The mixing vessel is equipped with
baffles and agitators to allow thorough mixing of the ingredients and good heat transfer through
out the mix.

8. Then the premix is drawn under vacuum into a vacuum cooking vessel or vat. The vessel is also
steam jacketed to provide for heating of the mix. The vacuum allows boiling to take place at 60 -
65oC. The vapour is separated in a cyclone separator and if there is any product carryover, it is
returned to the vessel. The system is some times also equipped with a recovery unit for volatiles
flavours, which may be returned to the product later. A Temperature test is done to establish if
the setting point of 104 to 105oC is reached. This is when the jam is ready and the
concentration at this point is about 65%. At this point, it makes a faint knocking noise.

9. When this process is completed, the product is then transferred to a temporary reservoir or
holding tank using filtered air pressure.

10. The product is then pumped to a scrapped surface heat exchanger for flash pasteurization of the
product prior to filling. This flash or rapid pasteurization process usually takes place at 85 to
95oC depending on the total soluble solids contents and acidity of the product. The pasteurizing

58
 is done under pressure to avoid the loss of any volatiles flavours.. This enables the elimination of
spoilage microbes. This is necessary since the low-temperature vacuum process may not be
effective in killing the spoilage microbes present in the ingredients.

11. This is immediately followed by a rapid cooling step to the filling temperature of about 75 -
80oC.

12. Finally, the product is filled into sterile containers and sealed. Filling is done upto 95% of the jar
volume (just below the brim) and leave a “head space” above the jam. The jars are finally
labeled.

Figure shows the Vacuum Batch Process

Vacuum vapour evaporator

Sugar syrup

Pectin cooling

Filler

Fruit pulp Heating

Metering premix vacuum boiling reservoir Scrapped surface

Pump vessel pan (vat) tank heat exchanger

Note That the Process for Jams, Jellies and Marmalade is almost the same
except for a few parts which involve the obtaining of the pulp, juice for jellies
and strained orange juice for marmalade.

4.3.8 Preservation and Storage of Jam

The high concentration of sugar, acid content assist in the preservation of the jam.. Usually, the high
concentration of sugar in the jam, jellies and marmalade is relied on for the preservation of the jam due
to the high osmotic pressure it exerts on the microbial cells and its tendency to bind water thus reducing
the water activity of the product. The acid content or low pH level is also very important in stopping
microbial spoilage. This must be accompanied with airtight (hermetic) sealing of jars with metal caps as
soon as the product is filled. The product is hot filled which also ensures that microbes in the jars are
also killed. Other factors which play a role in preserving the jam include; amount of boiling and absence
of water in covering and storing it. Air should also be excluded.

Jam storage problems usually arise from:

59
 a) Availability of conducive conditions on the surface of the jar to allow growth of moulds and
mites unless the storage room is dry.
b) On the hand, if conditions are too dry, undue evaporation and subsequent surface graining and
shrinkage may occur.
The relative humidity needs to be less than 80% usually between 72 to 73% which makes it
unfavourable for fungal growth.

4.3.9 Quality Checks

a) Total soluble solids using the refractometer, by reading directly as oBrix. The Brix should be
between 62-68o.

b) Contamination. Ensure that the jam does not have any contamination such as black specks
or spots, burnt matter, presence of filth such as insects and insect fragments, and presence of
any extraneous matter.

c) Mouth feel: taste a cool sample of jam to examine the taste and texture. Should be smooth
and characteristic of the product. It should spread well on bread.

d) Spreadability: Ensure that the jam is of the right consistency and able to spread easily on the
bread when applied.

5.0 TOMATO PRODUCTS

5.1 TOMATO PUREE

5.1.1 Introduction

60
Tomato puree is an important ingredient used in the manufacture of ketchup, chutney, thick sweet pickle
and brown fruit sauces. In tomato chutney whole tomatoes are generally used but use of tomato puree in
part gives a better product. Tomato puree should not contain less than 9% of salt free tomato solids.

5.1.2 Manufacture

1. Tomatoes must be fully ripe, shiny and of good quality

2. Washing: The tomatoes are washed thoroughly in a rotary washer.

3. Sorting and trimming: The tomatoes are sorted and trimmed on sorting tables

4. Pulping: The tomatoes are pulped in a pulping machine. The machine consists of stainless steel
perforated screen or sheet in the form of half cylinder which forms the lower half of the cylinder of
the pulping machine. Its is attached to a similar upper part also a perforated screen. It’s equipped
with heavy paddles resolving inside the cylinder and crushing the tomatoes and the juice and pulp
pass though the screen into a collecting tank or bucket. The seeds and skin and fibres pass through
the residual opening at the lower end of the pulper. This pulping is known as cold pulping. In the
hot pulping process, the tomatoes are boiled in their own juice in steam jacketed cooking vats
(kettles). Hot pulping releases the colour present in the skin, makes the juice thick due to extraction
of natural pectin from the seeds and the skin, sterilizes the juice and gives better yield than the cold
pulping. But the cold pulping juice is more acidic and has a good fresh flavour.

5. Concentration: The raw pulp is too thin to be used without concentration and must be evaporated to
the desired consistency before canning or using for tomato ketchup or other tomato products.
Concentration of the pulp is done in two types of vessels namely: a) open cooker b) vacuum pans.

o Open cookers used for concentrating tomato pulp are water jacketed cooking pans made
of stainless steel, fitted stainless steel heating coils or basically steam jacketed. Its done in
the open normal atmospheric pressure. Open cooker process suffers from air oxidation
resulting in loss of vitamin C and development of a brownish colour.

o Vacuum pan process gives a superior quality product due to lower boiling point of 70oC
or less and elimination of air thus minimizing oxidation. Vacuum pans are used mainly
for highly concentrated purees or pastes. In large plants, 2-effect or 3 –effect vacuum
evaporator pans are used to give increased output and reduced steam consumption. In
order to sterilize the product, the vacuum is broken towards the end of the process and the
temperature is raised to 100oC and the product heated for about 10 minutes.

o Foaming can be stopped by using edible oil or silicone antifoaming agents.

o Colour and flavour retention: Concentration is done quickly in order to retain the red
tomato colour and fresh flavour. A boiling of 30 minutes is usually sufficient in a tank
equipped with a good flash coil with adequate supply of steam under sufficient pressure
to get the product of required consistency.

6. Testing for Solids Content: Medium tomato puree contains 10.7 – 12% of salt free tomato solids.
Heavy tomato puree contains 12-25% total solids and the light puree contains 8.37 to 10.7% salt free
tomato solids. The total solids are determined by a specific gravity hydrometer or refractometer.
61
7. Testing the Texture and Finishing: The tomato puree should be smooth in texture and fine grained.
The pulping machine may allow large particles of pulp or fibre unpulped and the cooking process
sometimes coagulates or granulates the pulp more. Therefore, before canning the puree, finishing is
necessary which is done with finishing machines similar to the pulper with fine stainless steel sieves
of about 0.033” in diameter. The product is normally passed through the finishing machine to break
the large particles or sieve them out.

8. Filling and Sealing: The puree is filled and sealed in enameled cans. The sealed small cans are
passed in sterilizing retorts (cookers) at temperatures of 100oC for a few minutes to kill any residual
yeasts, moulds and bacteria.

5.2 TOMATO PASTE

A tomato paste is a concentrated tomato puree containing 25 to 40% salt free solids. Being highly
concentrated, tomato paste is economical from the point of view of cost of space, packing and transport.

1. Pulping: For making tomato pastes, tomatoes are hot pulped.

2. Concentration: The pulp is concentrated in single, double or triples –effect vacuum evaporators
to the desired concentration.

3. Pasteurization: The concentrated product is then pasteurized at 90oC for 2-3 minutes. In open
cooking method, it is not possible to concentrate the juice to more than 14-15% solids.
Therefore, upto 14-15% solids concentration may be carried out in open pans and thereafter in
vacuum pans.

4. Canning: Canning is done in 5 kg cans, sealed and processed for 2-4 minutes at or near boiling
point and cooled immediately. It may also be canned at 60-65oC, followed by processing at
100oC for 15 minutes and cooling.

5. Classification (grading): Canned tomato paste or puree may also be classified as single
concentrate (18-20% solids); double concentrate (28-30% solids) and triple concentrate (38-40%
solids0. These terms represent approximately 4-fold, 6-fold and 8-fold concentration of the
original pulp.

5.3 TOMATO KETCHUP

5.3.1 Introduction

Ketchup is a descriptive term for a number of different products which consist of the pulp, strained and
seasoned, of various fruits; the variety made from tomatoes being the most popular. A good ketchup is
judged by – Flavour, Consistency, Uniformity, Attractiveness of colour.

62
Ketchup is a clean, sound product made from properly strained tomatoes with spices, salt, sugar and
vinegar with or without onions and garlic and contains not less than 12%of tomato solids. It is the most
important product of tomato and is consumed extensively.

5.3.2 Characteristics of Good Quality Tomato Ketchup

The desirable characteristics are:-

 bright red tomato colour

 a smooth but slightly granular appearance
 free from specks
 a consistency which is neither too runny nor too stiff.
 Mild clean characteristic flavour
 The consistency should be such that after removing the cap and inverting the bottle, a desired
amount of ketchup can be dispensed without undue shaking or spattering the ketchup leaves it as
a coherent mass.
 There should not be any phase separation as a result of syneresis in the bottle after prolonged
storage.

5.3.3 Manufacturing Process

Vacuum boiling is used because tomatoes are heat sensitive. Ketchup is manufactured starting from raw
tomato pulp or tomato puree. Both puree and paste can be derived from the raw tomatoes.

In all cases, clean wholesome tomatoes of intense colour, pulp and not juicy type should be used for this
purpose. High acidity and rich tomato flavour are additional desirable qualities.

Spices used should be of good quality (cloves, cinnmon, paprika, oleoresins etc). Good ketchup requires
acetic acid (or vinegar). The quantity of spices used should be such that they do not dominate over the
natural of tomatoes. Spices may be incorporated in the juice during boiling by dipping them in a muslin
bag. The bag is removed before bottling the product. Note: the disadvantages of using a muslin bag :

o is that if it is torn, the spicing material will pour in and spoil the whole product.

o Fine particles of the spices may sieve through the bag and mixing with juice which may
darken the product.

If conditions are not properly controlled, the taste and quality may vary each time due to variation in
boiling and composition of spices used.

Onions are added in the minced form or onion powder free from dark specks. Formulations used vary
and amounts of ingredients to be added depend on the concentration of the juice and also the desired
product quality.

Process:

1. Tomatoes are washed and trimmed

2. They are pulped in the same way as for tomato puree using hot pulping or cold pulping methods.

63
3. The juice is then concentrated to a specific gravity of 1.06

4. The juice may be mixed directly with ingredients and cooked.

5. The pulp which may partially be concentrated depending on how it was produced is heated to
boiling point in open steam jacketed stainless steel kettles (vats) and cooked for a short time to
the desired solids content with the required quantities of salt, vinegar, onions and mixed spices.

6. Salt and sugar should be sprinkled into the boiling puree and not added in the lump so as to
dissolve quickly without sinking to the bottom. Salt bleaches the tomato colour and to some
extent reacts with the copper of the cooking pans. Thus it’s better to add the salt towards the end
of boiling. Salt content varies from 1.3 – 3.5%.

7. A little (1/3) of sugar is added at the start so as to avoid elevating the boiling point of the juice
which would increase the cooking time and hence spoiling the colour through maillard browning
reaction and caramelization. The remaining sugar is added at the end. Sugar content of ketchup
varies from 10-26%.

8. Adding pectin: Insufficient pectin may lead to separation of ketchup into juice and pulp which
can be prevented by adding 0.1 to 0.2% pectin. Hot pulping may help prevent this where pectin
is extracted form the seeds.

9. The mass of spices contained in the muslin bag is cooked with the product till it is about 1/3
when most extracts are removed after which the bag is removed

10. Add the remaining ingredients

11. Concentrate further until the desired concentration is reached when the concentration of total
solids is between 20-37%. A ketchup with 28-30% solids gives better flavor. But one with more
solids content has better keeping quality.

12. The cooked ketchup is passed through a finishing machine to remove coarse particles.

13. Preservation: ketchup may be preserved with 750ppm of sodium benzoate (0.75g/kg). Vinegar
has anti-microbial properties including some spices such as cinnamon, and cloves exhibit some
antiseptic action on moulds and yeasts. 1.25% acetic acid will preserve the ketchup for 2 weeks
under normal conditions.

14. Filling: Hot finished ketchup is directly filled into washed glass bottles at about 90oC and sealed
immediately.

15. In-bottles pasteurization: If the ketchup is filled at lower temperatures around 70oC or below,
then pasteurization in bottles (in-bottle pasteurization) of the product is done. Temperatures of
85oC for 45 minutes is sufficient.

16. In case bottles are not pasteurized, they must be sterilized before by using chlorine and after
filling and sealing, any stuck paste on the surface should be washed away.

17. NOTE: blackening of ketchup is due contact with iron because of the presence of tannins when
in contact with equipment and bottle caps. Caps should be lined with lacquered paper to avoid
contact of ketchup with the metal of the cap. Gradual discoloration will occur over a period of
several months.
64
Multiple effect evaporators

Unlike single-stage evaporators, these evaporators can be made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects. The energy
consumption for single-effect evaporators is very high and makes up most of the cost for an evaporation system. Putting
together evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy. Adding one evaporator to the original decreases the energy
consumption to 50% of the original amount. Adding another effect reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat saving % equation
can be used to estimate how much one will save by adding a certain amount of effects.

The number of effects in a multiple-effect evaporator is usually restricted to seven because after that, the equipment cost
starts catching up to the money saved from the energy requirement drop.

There are two types of feeding that can be used when dealing with multiple-effect evaporators. Forward feeding takes
place when the product enters the system through the first effect, which is at the highest temperature. The product is then
partially concentrated as some of the water is transformed into vapor and carried away. It is then fed into the second effect
which is a little lower in temperature. The second effect uses the heated vapor created in the first stage as its heating
source (hence the saving in energy expenditure). The combination of lower temperatures and higher viscosities in
subsequent effects provides good conditions for treating heat-sensitive products like enzymes and proteins. In using this
system, an increase in the heating surface area of subsequent effects is required. Another way to proceed is by using
backward feeding. In this process, the dilute products is fed into the last effect with has the lowest temperature and is
transferred from effect to effect with the temperature increasing. The final concentrate is collected in the hottest effect
which provides an advantage in that the product is highly viscous in the last stages so the heat transfer is considerably
better.....

6.0 DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEEGTABLES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Drying is a processing method whereby the water activity of fruits (food) is reduced to low levels
appropriate for extending the shelf-life life of the product from months to 1 year and beyond if packed
properly. Or Drying, in general, usually means removal of relatively small amounts of water from the

65
 material. In drying the water is usually removed as a vapour by moving air. The commonest way of
drying foods is by directly subjecting the food to heat or warm air at normal atmospheric pressure,
where the water is removed by the air. Fruit drying changes the physical and biochemical form or
properties of the fruit leading shrinkage, change of colour, texture, taste etc. Fruits may be dried as
whole e.g grapes, berries, plums; in sliced form e.g bananas, mangoes, papayas; in puree form e.g
mangoes puree, apricots etc; as leather or as powder by spray or drum drying.

Different types of driers can be used to achieve this.

Fruits

Whole Sliced, chopped,

particulate Pastes/ Drying fruit
suspensions form

1. Sun drying 1. Circulation

drying 1. Spray drying
2. Solar drying
2. Conveyor 2. Drum drying
3. Circulation drying
drying 3. Solar drying
3. Freeze drying Method of drying
4. Tray drying

5. Vacuum drying

6.2 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF FRUITS VS. DRYING OPERATIONS

The important characteristics of fruits that influence the drying process include:-

1. The high initial moisture content

2. The high temperature sensitivity (colour, flavour, texture and nutrients)
3. High susceptibility to microbial attack
4. High sugar content (problems of sticking and fermentation.)
Fruit drying is a slow process carried out under very gentle conditions. Where possible, solar dryers
always provide the most cost-effective drying technique although open sun drying is practiced widely in

66
most parts in the tropics. Pretreatment of the fruits to speed the drying process and use additives to avoid
biochemical damage during extended drying periods are often necessary. Fruits will generally be stable
at moisture contents below 15%.

6.3 PURPOSES OF DRYING

The purpose of drying foods or food products is to:

1. Allow longer periods of storage with minimized packaging requirements and reduced storage.
Dried foods can be stored for extended periods of time.

2. Preserve the fruits. Micro-organisms that cause food spoilage and decay cannot grow and
multiply in the absence of water. Also, many enzymes that cause changes leading to spoilage of
the food cannot work without water. When the water content is reduced below about 10% wt, the
micro-organisms are not active. However, it is usually necessary to lower the moisture content
below 5 wt % n foods to preserve flavour and nutrients.

3. Minimize transportation costs. Reduced bulk vs space and packaging materials.

4. Improve the quality of dried product. The quality of the dried product and its cost are greatly
influenced by the drying operation. The quality of a food product is judged by the amount of
physical and biochemical degradation occurring during the drying process. The following quality
aspects are worth noting:

a) Minimal browning/ darkening of the product.

b) Selective removal of water over other salts and flavor and aroma substances
c) Maintenance of product structure (for a structured food)- Control of density
d) Rapid and simple re-hydration or re-dispersion
e) Storage stability: less refrigeration and packaging requirements
f) Retain desired color
g) Lack of contamination or adulteration
5. Ensure economics of the drying process: The following aspects are important:
a) Minimal product loss
b) Rapid rate of water removal (high capacity per unit amount of drying equipment)- few
drying hours, thus lower energy
c) Inexpensive energy source e.g. sun vs. solar vs. electric
d) Minimal solids handling problems
e) Facility of continuous operation- repeated use of the process/facility
f) Simple drying equipment (reliable and minimal labour requirement).

The advantage of drying over other fruit preservation methods is that drying reduces the bulk and weight
of the product thereby reducing the storage and transport costs.

6.4 MECHANISM OF FRUIT DRYING

During drying, water must travel to the surface which is limited by internal resistance. Once at the
surface, water must be vaporized and transferred to the drying air. This is limited by some external
resistance based on difference between water vapour pressure in air and at the surface of the food.

67
Drying ceases when vapour pressure at the surface equals vapour pressure in the air (See figures.
below).

Warm Air Internal

Food mass
transfer

External
Heat Transfer mass
Figure above: Drying of a food material.
transfer
Cool wet air out
DRYER
Mass of water from Warm dry air in
food
Wet cool food in Dry food out

Energy to heat food

and vaporize water
Heat losses

Figure above shows a flow diagram for a continuous-type dryer where the drying gas flows in opposite
direction to the flow of the food.

In general, increased air speed and air temperature increases the speed of drying while increased water
content of air and solid thickness decrease the drying speed.

Therefore, 3 factors must be available for successful food drying:

a) Heat – high enough to force out moisture but not hot enough to cook the food

b) Dry air – to absorb the released moisture

c) Air movement – to carry the moisture away

6.5 MOISTURE MOVEMENTS IN SOLIDS

Moisture movement in fruits can be explained by the diffusion theory.

Diffusion Theory

68
When drying occurs by evaporation moisture move from the depths of the solid to the surface. In the
drying of many food materials the movement of water in the falling rate period occurs by diffusion.

Capillary movement

When granular or porous solids are being dried, unbound/free moisture moves through the capillaries or
voids of the solids by capillary action not by diffusion. Liquid water is formed in the interconnecting
pores and channels of different pore sizes. Interfacial forces between the water and solid sets up
capillary forces

6.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING SPEED OF DRYING AND THE FINAL PRODUCT QUALITY

Drying of the food depends on the movement of air from one part of the food to another and this
movement depends on:-

1. The difference in water contents between drying air (atmosphere) and food surface.
2. The temperature of the drying air (surrounding air) and the food. Low temperatures
generally have a positive influence on the quality but require longer drying times. High
temperatures may cause case-hardening that may limit water movement from the inside
of the drying fruit.
3. Moisture content in air (relative humidity) .
4. Speed at which air is flowing
5. Amount of exposed area of the food material.
6. The physical nature of the food material e.g. size and water content governs the speed of
water movement.
7. The duration of drying i.e. drying time
8. Length of the path of water from the inside of the food to the surface which is increased
by food thickness

Points to note

 Many dried foods are re-hydrated (water is added again e.g. through soaking) before consumption
usually called reconstitution. The structure, density, and particle size of food plays an important role
in reconstitution.

 Low moisture content retards or eliminates the growth of micro-organisms. Storage stability or
preservation period of the dried fruit (food) increases as the water content decreases.

 Dried foods must be stored in packages which cannot be penetrated by water and air (oxygen).

6.7 DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS

6.7.1 Drying Kinetics of Fruits (the drying cycle)

The typical drying cycle consists of three stages:

a) Heating or Warm Up Period when the food warms up to the drying temperature e.g. 40-50oC.
69
 b) Constant Drying Rate Period – during which evaporation of the water from the food surface
takes place at a speed of equivalent to water content, and rate at which water moves to the
surface.

c) Falling Drying Rate Period – during which the rate of drying drops - Once the critical water
(moisture) point is reached, the falling of the drying speed starts. The critical moisture content
point depends greatly on the drying speed since high drying speeds will raise the critical point
and low drying rates will decrease it.

A B
Moisture content

Drying rate
C

Critical moistu
D Equilibrium content
D moisture

(a) Drying time (b) Moisture content

Figure a) and b) show the drying cycles for fruits and other foods

A) Warm up Period
The phase when the food is heating or warming to the drying temperature e.g. 40-50oC

B) Constant Drying Rate Period

While the surface of the fruit being dried remains moist, water is considered to evaporate as from a free
water surface. The evaporation rate is thus controlled by the conditions of the drying air, namely speed
over the surface, its temperature and its humidity.

The surface of the solid is initially wet. Continuos film of water exists on the drying surface and this
water is unbound water and act as independent of the solid food. The water supplied to the surface is as
fast as it is evaporated. Constant rate period ends when evaporation occurs more quickly than the surface
can be replenished with liquid water

70
C) Falling drying Rate Period
As evaporation takes place at the fruit surface, water travels to the surface by diffusion and via the
capillaries formed by structural components. When the movement of this water through the fruit can no
longer keep pace with the evaporation rate, the surface becomes dry and this point in the drying
sequence is referred to as the Critical Moisture Content. Thereafter, the drying rate depends on the rate
at which water vapour, evaporating from the ever-receding wet interface within the fruit, travels to the
surface to be carried away in the air current. Hence, the rate of drying falls progressively and given the
requirement that there must be air movement over the fruit surface for this air to be capable of taking up
moisture, is dependent upon the permeability of the already dry part of fruit. Temperature is the only
aspect of process control which, because it affects diffusion rate, can purposefully be adjusted during the
falling rate period. Internal moisture migration is the limiting factor during this stage of drying

• Falling rate period (C-D): At Xc (critical moisture content) there is insufficient water at the
surface to maintain a continuous film

• Falling rate period (D-E): Surface is completely dry , vaporised water moves through the solid
into the air stream

71
6.7.2 PROPERTIES OF FRUITS

6.7.2.1 Sorption Equilibrium

Fruits are highly hygroscopic materials. The water contained in a fruit is bound to the solid matrix such
that the vapour pressure it exerts is lower than that for pure water at the same temperature. In drying,
desorption equilibrium moisture content determines the final moisture content to which a material can be
dried using the specified drying conditions. Sorption isotherms curves relate the moisture content of
the material and the humidity of the atmosphere with which it is at equilibrium at different temperatures.
Sorption isotherms of foods are also expressed as moisture content vs. water activity.

Sorption behavior of foods is important in:

1. Studying mechanisms of drying and designing dehydration processes,

2. Predicting storage stability of dried foods.
Water activity (aw) is the ratio of water vapor pressure in a food material to that for pure water at the
same temperature. Sorption equilibrium is the relationship between the activity of the solid with its
water content and temperature. Aw = aw (X,T)
Values of aw as functions of X (water content) and T (temperature) for various fruits & fruit powders are
available in literature. A typical plot of the equation above for food stuffs exhibits a sigmoidal shape.

30 C
Moisture
content 25 Desorption
(%)
20
Adsorption
15
A B
10

0
20 40 60 80 100
Relative humidity (%)

72
Other factors that affect the sorption isotherms are;- 1) chemical composition, physical structure, and
pretreatment of the sample among others related to the way of handling and drying the product.

The first part of the curve to point A, represents monolayer water, which is very stable, unfreezable and
not removed by drying. The second, relative straight part of the curve AB represents water adsorbed in
multilayers within the food and solutions of soluble components. The third above point B is ‘free water’
condensed within the capillary structure or in the cells of a food. Its mechanically trapped within the

The movement of water vapor from a food to the surrounding air depends upon both the food (its
moisture content and composition) and the condition of the air (temperature & humidity). At constant
temperature, the moisture content of the food changes until it comes in equilibrium with the water
vapour in the surrounding air. The food then neither gains nor losses weight on storage under these
conditions. This is termed “Equilibrium moisture content” of the food and the relative humidity of the
storage atmosphere is known as the equilibrium relative humidity. When different values of relative
humidity and versus equilibrium moisture content are plotted, a curve known as a “Water sorption
isotherm” is obtained. Each food has a unique set of sorption isotherms at different temperatures. The
precise shape of the sorption isotherm is caused by differences in the physical structure, chemical
composition and extent of water binding within the food, but all sorption isotherms have a characteristic
shape similar to that shown above

food and held by weak forces. It is easily removed by drying and easily frozen as indicated by the
steepness of the curve. Free water is available for microbial growth and enzyme activity and a food
having moisture content above point B is likely to be susceptible to spoilage.

6.7.2.2 Density and Thermal Properties

Knowledge about the density of the material to be dried is important in design and optimization of the
process in which heat transfer is involved. The density of fruits is in the range 865 to 1067 kg/m3,
whereas for frozen fruits it is between 625 and 801 kg/m3.

The product composition as well as temperature change during drying. Also the chemical composition
of fruits will vary with parameters like the variety, maturity or the location where they are grown. Heat,
density and thermal conductivity of fruits is a function of water content, concentration and temperature.

5.7.2.3 Shrinkage
Considerable changes in the physical structure of the product such as reduction in volume and decrease
in internal porosity can be found during drying. Shape and size changes during drying modify both
dimensions and transport properties of individual particles and thickness and porosity of the packed bed
in the drier.

Volume changes of individual particles are usually expressed as a bulk shrinkage ratio of sample volume
at any time to the initial volume, (v/Vo). Shrinkage of different fruits (foods) depends on (is a function
of):
 the total water content,
73
  porosity,
 fruit surface area- to – volume ratio (av) and
 drying conditions.

All these are important factors to know when designing dryers.

The solid state of water during freeze drying protects the primary structure and the shape of products
with minimal reduction of volume. Less than 10% of shrinkage is normally expected in the final
products due to freeze – drying as compared to 80 to 90% when air dried. Volume changes due to freeze
drying can be as low as 8% for strawberries and less than 2% for slices.

There is a tendency for the products to collapse if the process conditions are not well set especially in
high sugar content food stuffs in freeze and spray drying. This phenomenon occurs when the solid
matrix of the food stuff can no longer support its own weight, leading to drastic structural changes
shown as a marked decrease in volume, increase in stickiness of dry powders, loss of porosity, and
change in color etc. In case of air drying, volume reduction is accompanied by wrinkles, deformation,
and even change in color, indicating a certain degree of collapse in air dried products.

Effect of Shrinkage
Fibrous materials such as vegetables shrink during drying. A harder layer develops on the surface and
prevents the flow of liquid water or vapour and slows the drying rate. This presents a barrier to moisture
migration and is known as case hardening.

6.7.2.4 Mass Transfer

Diffusion coefficients are used to characterize mass transfer during drying. There is a tendency towards
reduced diffusibility of materials resulting from movement of the non-aqueous material due to
shrinkage. Reduced diffusibility depends (is a function of ):

 temperature
 water content
 shrinkage
 the water transport mechanism.

In practice, its hard to measure reduced diffusibility due to lack of instruments. A mathematical model
by Arrhenius can be used to determine Dr.

Dr = Dro exp [ - Δ E)]

RT
Δ E = Activation energy for diffusion

74
6.7.2.5 Dielectric Properties
Moist solids such as food stuffs are classified as lossy dielectric materials. Such materials absorb
electromagnetic energy and convert it into heat. There are two properties that characterize dielectric
heating:

 The relative dielectric constant (ε’)

 The loss factor (ε”)

The Dissipation factor (loss tangent) is given as

tan δ = ε”
ε'
The values of loss factors are important if microwave or radio frequency heating is used to enhance
drying rates.

6.7.2.6 Radiation
Radiation properties of both radiator and the food material to be dried must be matched in order to
obtain the most efficient results. Again, quality parameters determine the suitability of radiant heating.
The four key radiative properties of food include: -

1. Emissivity (ε)
2. Absorptivity (α) – absorption of wavelength
3. reflectivity (ρ)
4. transmissivity (τ)

The emission of electromagnetic waves is a material property. The magnitude of each of the above
properties depends on:
 the material
 material thickness
 surface finish
 wavelength of the radiation applied.

Points to note:

1. The material to be dried should have low reflectivity in order to minimize the energy required to
heat it.
2. In drying moist foods, its necessary to have a reasonable level of transmissivity in order to avoid
excessive heating and thermal damage to product surface
3. The higher the aborptivity, the lower the transmissivity and vice versa.
4. As drying continues, the material being dried undergoes a change in its radiation properties, i.e.
increasing its reflectivity and consequently lowering its absorptivity at low water content.
5. Transimissivity decreases with increase of layer thickness, while absorptivity is increased. At
low wavelength, transimissivity is high for many materials.

75
6.8 SYSTEMS / METHODS OF DRYING FOODS

6.8.1 Hot Air Drying

The heat needed is supplied by convention with hot air in contact with the food. The most common of
these dryers are:-

 Kiln
 Cabinet
 Tunnel
 And continuous belt dryer

The kiln dryer is basically an oven heated by gas burners in which the product is placed in slotted trays.
The equipment is operated in a batch mode and is still used widely used to dry slices of apples and
several other fruits. It takes from 6 to 8 hours to dry a batch of slices or rings of apples to a final
moisture content of 14%.

The cabinet dryer is also a batch dryer using forced air flow through the trays where food is placed. Air
is heated usually by coils after entering the cabinet. Drying is more uniform as heat is controlled than in
the kiln dryer. Suitable for small scale operations. Cost is low while operating labour cost is high.

The continuous belt dryer is formed by an endless belt on which the fruit leather is placed and carried
through a counter current flow of hot air. The automatic operation minimizes labour costs.

Bottlenecks of hot air drying

1. Slow drying kinetic

2. High browning level
3. High shrinkage
4. Low porosity
5. Significant colour changes
6. Has low sorption capacity

6.8.2 Solar Drying

Refers to use of solar radiation (sun energy) as the heat source for drying. Solar drying uses numerous
sytems namely: -

1. flat-plate collectors to heat air

2. polyethylene films as energy absorbers

Solar dryers can be divided into three groups:-

1. Absorption or hot box type dryers in which the product is directly heated by sun. Is a direct
sun drying often called open sun drying where the product is put directly on the trays in the open
air where the incident sun rays are used in drying.

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Fig: Direct absorption dryer (hot box dryer)

Disadvantages:

• May be hard to control degradation of the product

• İnability to control microbiological reactions
• İnsect infestations

2. Indirect or convection dryers in which the product is exposed to warm air which is heated by
means of a solar absorber, or heat exchanger. These use solar energy to heat the drying air in a
special heat exchanger or solar collectors and then the heated air flows over the food by natural
or forced convention. The heat generated and other drying conditions depend on the time of the
day and weather.

• Advantage: -Energy source is free, renewable and non-poluting

• Disadvatage: -Requires hot climates,

-Relies on weather

Fig: Indirect / convection dryer

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 3. Dryers combining the principles of the above two, where the product is exposed to the sun and
a stream of pre-heated air simultaneously

Important Operating Conditions For Solar Dryers

• inlet air temperature
• air velocity
• relative humidity
• product dimensions
• system dimensions (collector and drying section)
• Slow drying
• Low control of processing conditions
• Microbial risks (mycotoxins)
• High level of enzymic browning

6.8.3 Spray Drying

Uses pumpable liquid foods resulting into dry powder. Droplets range from 10-200 min diameter. The
liquid food is sprayed into a current of heated air at 150-300°C. Outlet air temperature of 90-100°C, and
a product temperature of 40-50°C. The spray-drying operation is easily divided into three distinct
processes;

• atomisation,
• drying through the contact between the droplets and the heated air
• collection of the product by separating it from the drying air.

6.8.4 Vacuum Drying

Food slurry is spread or sprayed onto a steel belt (or band), which passes over two hollow drums, within
a vacuum chamber at 1-70 Torr. The food is dried by the first steam-heated drum, and then by steam-
heated coils or radiant heaters located over the band. The dried food is cooled by the second water-
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cooled drum and removed by a doctor blade. Rapid drying and limited heat damage to the food make
both methods suitable for heat-sensitive foods

Care is necessary to prevent the dried food from burning onto trays in vacuum shelf dryers, and
shrinkage reduces the contact between the food and heated surfaces of both types of equipment.

Both have relatively high capital and operating costs and low production rates.

Vacuum band and vacuum shelf dryers are used to produce puff-dried foods. Explosion puff drying
involves partially drying food to moderate moisture content and then sealing it into a pressure chamber.

The pressure and temperature in the chamber are increased and then instantly released. The rapid loss of
pressure causes the food to expand and develop a fine porous structure. This permits faster final drying
and rapid rehydration. Sensory and nutritional qualities are well retained. The technique was first
applied commercially to breakfast cereals and now includes a range of fruit and vegetable products.

6.8.5 Freeze Drying

Is characterized by heating of a moist frozen food (using radiation, conduction, microwaves) in a

vacuum chamber maintained at a low pressure (absolute) below vapour pressure of ice within the food.
When the food is heated, the ice sublimes. The low temperatures also decrease the speed of degradation
by enzymes. Final product has to be packaged in containers that do not allow water uptake, thus
increasing the cost of the final product. High quality products are obtained.

Objectives of Freeze Drying Technology

• Partial dehydration at ambient temperature
• Water removal without phase or state transition
• Possible modification of food composition and food functional properties
• Improvement of some food characteristics like texture and colour
• Limited tissue damage
• Potential energy saving process in respect to evaporative dehydration

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Effect of Freeze Drying
 Porous structure
 Little or no shrinkage
 Superior taste and aroma retention
 Better rehydration properties
 Flavour and texture are maintained
 Retention of nutritional value

Disadvantage

 High capital investment and operating costs

6.9 SELECTING FOODS FOR DRYING

6.9.1 Fruits

If you’re new to drying, start with the fruits you like best. Think also about how you will use the dried
fruits. For instance, are they for lunch box snacks, for tossing into cake batters or bread? Most fruits are
easy to dry.

High-quality fruits make the best dried products. Choose

1. Firm, fully ripe fruit that is heavy for its size.

2. Handle fruits gently and process them immediately because fruit ready for drying is very fragile.

3. Don’t use overripe or bruised fruits in for direct drying. You can use them for other products for
example, as fruit leathers.

4. Select fresh and fully ripened fruits. Immature produce lacks flavour and color.

5. Over mature fruits can be tough and fibrous or softy and mushy. Drying does not improve food
quality.

6.9.2 Vegetables

1. Vegetables for drying should be fresh, tender, and just mature.

2. Avoid immature vegetables because their color and flavor tend to be weak or poor.

3. Also avoid excessively mature vegetables, which are inclined to be tough, woody, or fibrous.

4. For the best quality and nutrition, dry vegetables as soon s possible after harvest.

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6.9.3 Preparing Foods For Drying

A) Fruits
1. Gently wash all fruits in cold water just before drying to remove dirt, bacteria, and insects.

2. Thoroughly wash fruits that have skins you will not peel off, such as berries, apples.

3. Do not soak fruit because extended soaking can cause nutrient loss and water log the fruit, which
increases drying times.

4. Remove fruit stems and peels.

5. Peels may be left on some fruits, such as apples and peaches, but may become bitter or discolor
during drying.

6. Core or pit the fruit and cut it into uniform halves, quarters, or slices.

7. Trim away diseased or soft spots.

8. For vegetables

a. Wash vegetables in cold water just before drying. If vegetables are covered with soil,
wash them under clean running water to prevent the dirt from resettling on the food. Do
not allow vegetables to soak in water.

b. Most vegetables should be peeled and trimmed then cut, sliced, or shredded into uniform
pieces. Although peeling some vegetables such as carrots is optional, unpeeled vegetables
tend to be tougher when dried.

c. Remove fibrous or woody portions and damaged areas.

9. Pre-treat the Fruits and Vegetables to prevent browning by inhibiting enzymatic activities.
Although you can dry and store many foods without pretreatment, pretreatment generally
improves quality, particularly for vegetables. Five major reasons for treating foods before drying
are to:-

 Preserve color and flavor

 Minimize nutrient loss
 Stop decomposition (enzyme action)
 Ensure more even drying
 Extend storage life
i. Pre-treating helps keep light colored fruits from darkening during drying and
storage and it speeds up the drying of fruits with tough skins, such as grapes.
ii. Research studies have shown that pre-treating with an acidic solution or sodium
metabisulfite dip also enhances the destruction of potentially harmful bacteria
during drying, including E. coli and Salmonella species.

6.9.4 Pre-Treatment Methods For Fruits And Vegetables

 Ascorbic acid/citric acid dips

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  Steam blanching
 Salt solution dip
 Water blanching
 Syrup blanching
 Honey dip
 Sulfiting

For pre-treatment of fruits, you can use ascorbic acid/citric acid dip, a salt solution dip, syrup blanching,
a honey dip, or a sulfiting procedure. Place the cut fruit in the ascorbic acid solution. Stir the fruit to
ensure even coating. Leave the fruit in the ascorbic acid solution for about 5 minutes. However, citric
acid is a weaker acid than ascorbic acid and is less effective as a pre-treatment.

6.9.5 Pre-Treating Vegetables

Blanching (heating in boiling water or steam) is the pre-treatment method of choice of vegetables.
Almost all vegetables should be blanched before drying to destroy the enzymes that make vegetables
deteriorate. Blanching keeps vegetables from browning, becoming bitter, or developing off flavors.
Blanching also cleans and softens vegetables and makes them easier to rehydrate later. Although you
can use either boiling water or steam for blanching, vegetables lose more nutrients during boiling.

6.9.5.1 Water Blanching.

1. Fill a kettle with enough water to cover the food.

2. Bring the water to a rolling boil and gradually stir in the food.

3. Cover the kettle tightly and boil. You can re-use the water when blanching more of the same
food, adding more water as necessary.

4. If the water appears dirty, replace it with clean water.

Determining Blanching Times.

1. Blanching times vary depending on the type and the texture of the vegetable, the amount of
vegetable, and the thickness of the pieces. Generally, vegetables should feel and taste firm yet
tender. They should not be fully cooked, but they should be heated all the way through. Test the
food by cutting through a piece. If sufficiently blanched, it will appear cooked (translucent)
nearly to the center. Under-blanching may cause deterioration in storage, poor re-hydration, or
bad color. Over-blanching makes vegetables lose color, flavor, and nutrients and gives them poor
texture after re-hydration.

After Blanching
1. Drain vegetables by pouring them directly on the driving trays.

2. If you can plan to rescue the water, place a large pan under the trays. Wipe the bottom of the
drying tray with a clean towel to remove excess water.

3. Immediately transfer the blanched vegetables into the dryer so drying can begin while the
vegetables re still warm.

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6.9.5.2 Drying Time
1. Many factors affect drying time, including type of food, size and moisture content of the food
pieces, pre-treatment method, dryer type, dryer temperature, relative humidity of the air, and the
amount of air movement in the dryer and in the surroundings. Generally, you can figure on
drying times of 6 to 36 hours for fruit and 3 to 16 hours for vegetables, which will take less time
due to their lower sugar contents, depending on the type of dryer and temperatures applied.

2. When you think the food is sufficiently dry, remove a piece and allow it to cool completely.
Then check for dryness. When you are in doubt about the dryness of a food, continue to dry it.
Foods dry more quickly towards the end of the drying period, so check them frequently, and
avoid leaving them in the dryer after they are done.

6.9.5.3 Testing For Dryness

1. Foods should be dry enough to prevent microbial growth and subsequent spoilage.

2. Dried fruits should be leathery and pliable. To test food for dryness, remove a few pieces and let
cool to room temperature. When warm or hot, fruits seem more soft, moist and pliable than they
actually are. Squeeze a handful o the fruit. If no moisture is left on the hand and pieces spring
apart when released, they are dry.

3. Vegetables are sufficiently dry when they are brittle or leathery. Leathery vegetables will be
pliable and spring back if folded. Brittle vegetables such as corn and peas will shatter when hit
with a hammer.

4. Fruits are sufficiently dry when they are pliable and leather like and have no pockets of moisture.
erbs are sufficiently dry when they are pliable and leather like and have no pockets of moisture.
Herbs are sufficiently dry when brittle. Their leaves will shatter when rubbed together.

6.9.5.4 Precautions During Drying Process.

1. Don’t over blanch.
2. Dry foods as quickly as possible without raising the temperature so high in dryers for the
remaining drying time. Dry herbs, coconut, and mushrooms at lower temperatures.
3. Do not overload the dryer.
4. Keep food on the drying trays well spaced with no overlapping.
5. Keep good air circulation to quickly move moisture away from the drying food.
6. If possible, dry when the relative humidity is low.
7. Check to be sure foods are sufficiently dry.
8. Condition dried fruits.
9. Store dried foods in packages that do not admit moisture or oxygen.
10. Store dried foods in a cool, dark, dry place.

6.9.5.5 Conditioning Fruits

When drying is complete, some pieces will be moist than others due to their size and placement
during drying. Conditioning is a process used to evenly distribute the minimal residual moisture
throughout all pieces:-

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 1. Some pieces of fruit will be moist than others after drying so it is a good idea to condition
fruits before long- term storage. Conditioning distributes moisture evenly in the fruit. It
reduces the chance of spoilage, particularly from mold.

2. To condition, loosely pack cooled, dried fruit in plastic or glass containers to about two-
thirds full. Cover the containers tightly. Shake them daily for about 2 to 4 days. The excess
moisture in some pieces will be absorbed by the drier pieces.

3. If you notice water forming on the container lid, place the fruit back in the dryer. Because
vegetables dry to a nearly waterless state, conditioning vegetables is not necessary.

6.9.5.6 Packaging of Dried Food Products

1. Good packaging and storage techniques are crucial. Packaging protects your dried food from
oxygen, moisture (gain or loss), light, microorganisms, and pests.

2. After you have checked foods and found them to be thoroughly dry and cool, pack them
immediately for storage.

3. The packaging of dried foods requires the use of a package which will prevent or at least
minimize the transfer of moisture, and in certain instances, oxygen.

4. Exclusion of air prevents spoilage to a great extent.

6.9.5.7 Functions of Packaging for Dried Foods

1. Most food is consumed far removed in time and space from the point of its production, hence the
need for the preservation process. A necessary aid for the storage and distribution is packaging.
The functions of packaging are several.

2. Packaging serves as a food (material) handling tool containing the desired amount of food within
a single container and may facilitate the assembly of several such units into bigger units. For
example, dried fruits may be packaged in polythene bags and then assembled in may in turn be
placed in boxes, and these boxes in turn can be assembled into easily handled bigger boxes.

3. The package is a convenience item for the consumer. A beer can, for instance, serves as the
drinking utensil as well as the process, storage, and distribution container. A variety of packages
aid in handling, preparation, and consumption of foods by the consumer.

4. The package is a marketing tool in terms of sales appeal and product identification and product
design. The package must identify and provide useful information about the product. It is
customary (and may be required in some cases) to provide information such as the produce
name, brand size, grade variety, net weight, count, grower, shipper, and the country of origin,
nutritional and other information.

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 5. Packaging when properly used can be a cost saving device. Certain packages have obvious
economic benefits, such as prevention of spills, ease of transporting, prevention of
contamination, reduction of labour cost.

6. Protection of the product is the most important aspect in packaging. The package must protect
the produce from mechanical damage and environmental conditions during handling and
distribution. To product buyers, torn, dented, or collapse produce packages usually indicate lack
of care in handling the contents. Produce containers must be sturdy enough to resist damage
during packaging, storage, and transportation to market.

Packaging can be categorized as follows:

(i) Primary: The package in contact with food material (e.g. cereal mix inside plastic
bag)

(ii) Secondary: The package that is sold as a unit (e.g. cereal mix box). Package
provides consumers with legally required information about the food product

(iii) Tertiary: The carton of secondary packages (e.g. case of cereal mix boxes)

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 7.0 THERMAL PROCESSING OF FRUITS – FRUIT CANNING

7.1 INTRODUCTION – HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Thermal processing is one of several techniques used to preserve fruits and their products besides others
like drying, fermentation, concentration, freezing and chemical preservation by use of sugar, vinegar,
wine, spices etc..

Thermal processing has proven to be one of the most effective. A French man, Nicholas Appert in 1809
was awarded a prize by the French Government for developing a new method for heat preservation of
food. The method has since been recognized as Appertization (after Appert), now called sterilization or
more commonly canning. Appert used this method to preserve a number of foods like fruits, vegetables
and meat. He could fill the foods in wide mouthed glass jars and bottles and carefully corked and cooked
in boiling water, the process time varying according to the type of food. The scientific basis for this was
not known until another Frenchman, Louis Pasteur discovered that food spoilage was caused by micro-
organisms which can be destroyed at high temperatures;- as a result of his work, we now have
pasteurization- as a mild heat treatment of foods intended to destroy pathogenic micro-organisms in
foods, providing short term extension of shelf-life.

By the turn of the century, significant progress had been made towards understanding and control of
microbial food spoilage; thermal destruction kinetics of micro-organisms and the heating behavior of
various foods. Thermal processing equipment such as retorts, UHT sterilizers, continuous and batch
pasteurizers have since been developed.

Canned fruits and vegetables products are widely consumed worldwide. This session will mainly focus
on canning of fruits.

7.2 THERMAL PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR FRUITS

Canning is the most commonly used technique to heat sterilize foods in order to prevent microbiological
and enzymatic spoilage. Heat processing of fruits depends on (a) the type of fruit; (2) chemical
composition of fruits; (3) type of spoilage micro-organism in that particular fruit product/or of public
concern. Others are (4) container material (5) size and shape of the container in which fruits are
processed (6) the heating medium such as syrup, water, juice etc all of which may have different heat
conductivities.

Any thermal process for food should be designed to achieve three basic objectives:

a) Reduce the number of micro-organisms to small levels.

b) Create an environment in the container that would suppress the growth or activity of spoilage
micro-organisms by Oxygen removal, pH control, storage temperature control.
c) Assure adequate or hermetic seal of the container to prevent recontamination after
processing/during storage.

With the aspects of textural & nutritional quality aspects in mind, thermal processing is done to
selectively to destroy micro-organisms of spoilage and health concern.

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7.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE HEAT TREATMENT OF FRUITS

1. The type and heat resistance of target micro-organisms, spores and enzymes in the food.

2. The pH of the food

3. Storage conditions after processing

4. The heating conditions

5. Thermal physical properties of the food and the container shape and size

6. Oxygen, pH and temperature sensitivity

The most important factor affecting growth and activity of micro-organisms is the pH / acidity.
Accordingly, foods can be categorized as

a) Low acid foods like most vegetables with pH > 4.5

b) Medium acid foods with pH 3.7 < pH < 4.5 ( pH 3.7 – 4.5)

c) High acids foods with pH 3.7 under which most fruits fall.

N.B Organic acids are detrimental to bacteria due to the H+ ion and the undissociated molecules which
are toxic to the bacteria. Thus low pH is more toxic to bacteria. This explains why lowering pH also
reduces the time and temperature required to destroy bacteria.

The most important bacteria to control is clostridium botulinum which grows in low acid food to
produce toxins leading to the deadly Botulism. However, botulinum does not grow in foods with a pH
less than 4.6, which is the pH of most fruits and fruit products. (pH less than 3.7). Thermal processing
for acid foods (fruits products) is usually based on the destruction of heat resistant spoilage –type
vegetative bacteria, yeast and molds or the inactivation of enzymes at temperatures below 100oC

Examples of heat – resistant enzymes in fruits are peroxidase, pectinesterase, lipoxygenase, catalase and
polyphenol oxidase. These may cause undesirable changes in the final canned or pasteurized fruit
products vs. color, texture and flavour. Therefore, for fruit products, thermal processing is based on the
inactivation of these enzyme systems.

Peroxidase is known to have a very high heat resistance and hnce its destruction is used to
indicate adequate processing adnd destruction of all heat resistant enzymes in fruits. Heat
resistance of enzymes in fruits will vary depending on variety of fruits, ph and total soluble
solids (tss). Although most raw fruits possess a protective barrier that prevents penetration
of pathogenic microbes, its recognized that thermal processing may destroy this barrier,
hence allowing potential pathogens to penetrate the product and develop in conditions
favourable for their growth. Therefore, prevention of recontamination is critical .

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7.4 MICRO FLORA IN CANNED FRUITS

Spoilage of fruits in cans is mainly caused by micro-orgnisms that are heat sensitive in humid conditions
and are readily destroyed at temperatures between 60 – 100oC within a few minutes.

 Spore forming bacteria such as Bacilus thermoacidurans and clostridium pasteurianum may be
found in fruit products but these are destroyed at sterilization temperatures. Bacillus
thermoaciduran is an aerobic thermophile which causes a flat sour taste in fruit products – juices,
purees etc. whereas clostridium pasteurianum is a sporeformer anaerobic saccharolytic gas
producer

 There are also non-sporulating bacteria which include Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc that occur
in stewed fruits, sweet and sour cucumbers produce CO2 and cause can-bulging. These require
heat treatments between 65 and 88oC for 10 minutes

 Yeasts are also a major concern but have low heat resistance and mainly cause spoilage in
canned fruits where there is serious underprocessing or can leakage due to faulty seams.
Exposure at 66oC for 5 minutes destroys living cells while the spores are destroyed at 80oC for
the same time.

 Moulds in canned fruits are insignificant since ost are destroyed with spores between 65 – 70oC
especially for the anaerobes. However, there are some heat resistant molds such as the
Paecilomyces, phialophora and Byssochlamys. Byssochlmys breaks down pectic materials thus
disintegrating the fruit and producing gas. Its anaerobic and grows in sterilized products like jam,
and other fruit preserves.

7.5 IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF FRUITS W.R.T CANNING

 Acids: The acids present in fruits are good for preservation due to their bacteriastatic effect.
Acids present are citric, malic, tartaric acids. Lactic and acetic acids are also variably present.
Organic acids reach peak levels towards ripening. Normal pH values in fruits correspond to
organic acid content of 0.3 -3.1% . the acid content decreases towards end of ripening as the
acids are converted to sugars and other by-products during respiration.

 Sugars: Fruits are also rich in sugars depending on variety, location and ripening stage. Sugars
range from 0.5 – 25%. In a maturing fruit, total sugar content increases due to (1) hydrolysis of
polysaccharides (2) formation of sugars as secondary products due to acid conversion.

o These two compositional factors are important for preservation of fruits.

7.6 TIME-TEMPERATURE COMBINATIONS FOR MICROBIAL DESTRUCTION

(KINETICS)

Enzyme systems and microbial systems in fruits and fruit products have specific temperature – time
combinations within which they can be destroyed. Therefore, the enzyme and microbial destruction rates
or speeds in fruits should be known for effective thermal inactivation and destruction.
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(refer to your food processing and microbiology notes for microbial servival curves, thermal death
times, thermal inactivation times, and lethality concepts in foods/microbial/enzyme systems)

7.7 FRUITS CANNING OPERATIONS

Despite some variations in the canning process for various fruits, the following operations are described
in general for all fruits which are canned. Specific reference may be made to specific fruits wherever
appropriate.

7.7.1 Raw Material Selection

a) Fruits for canning should be harvested at proper maturity. For instance plums, gooseberries,
grapes should be harvested at their “firm-ripe” stage. Exceptions are bananas, pears and some
apples which when harvested at a mature stage, produce higher quality products than those
harvested at the “soft-ripe” stage.

b) Most fruits are canned in the “mellow-ripe” stage to capture maximum natural nutrients, flavor,
aroma and color. Therefore, appropriately ripe fruits that will ,maximize these parameters should
be selected for canning

c) Fruits that are needed to produce canned juices, purees and preserves and sauces are processed in
the “soft-ripe” stage because flavor and aroma are more important than fruit texture.

Therefore, fruits for canning must be selected in accordance with the purpose in order to maximize the
above quality attributes.

7.7.2 Washing

1. Fruits are washed with water to remove dust, dirt and mold spores that will affect their color,
aroma and flavor. Washing should remove the heat-resistant mold i.e. Micromycete – N. fischeri,
which is linked to mold spoilage of canned fruits.

2. Fruits should be washed before peeling to avoid recontamination and loss of nutrients through
leaching to the wash water.

3. Detergents and disinfectants should be used for microbial removal. Chlorine at 10 30ppm can be
used.

4. Low temperatures for washing water are important to keep the fruit firm and reduce leaching.

5. Avoid rupturing the fruit as it may cause browning due to exposure of enzymes and their
substrates.

6. The effectiveness of washing depends on (1) water hardness (2) acidity (3) temperature and (4)
mineral content of water (5) the force at which the water is applied.

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7.7.3 Sorting and Grading

 The sorting operation is done to remove inferior and damaged produce therefore, proper
inspection by trained personnel to detect poor quality produce unsuitable for canning.

 Magnetic sorters may be used to remove metals. In many cases, the produce may be sorted
according to their optical properties for the determination of the various chemical & physical
properties / measurements such as chlorophyll, yellow pigments, Brix.

 By use of high resolution magnetic resonance, the glycoside content of raw fruits may be
estimated which is associated with cynogenesis in the final canned products.

 Acceptable fruits are then size sorted using mechanical screens with different sizes. Manual
sizing is slow and suffers accuracy problems. Under sized fruits may be used for
concentrates or baby foods or juices, purees etc

7.7.4 Peeling/Preparation

Some fruits may require peeling before cannning especially those with a firm structure e.g. peaches,
apples, tomatoes, pears. The various methods of peeling are:

 Lye peeling: this involves the use of caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide) solution at a 10 – 15%
concentration and a temperature of 60 -90oC for a short time of about 30 seconds. The solution is
put in a tank in which fruits are passed; the lye solution loosens and dissolves the skin through a
chemical reaction. The skin may be completely removed by use of high pressure water sprays to
wash of the skin and at the same time wash off the caustic soda. Or the skin can be removed by
hand. Factors that affect this process are (1) the concentration of the solution (2) holding time (3)
agitation (4) temperature and (5) size of the fruits. Fruits which can be peeled using this method
include peaches, apricots, sweet oranges etc. The lye – dipping equipment vary from simple open
iron pans with baskets or cages for holding fruits, to fully automatic machines. Stainless steel
equipment are used to avoid corrosive reactions with sodium hydroxide.

 Advantages: Little loss in the amount usable fruit material

 Mechanical peeling: This involves the use of equipment termed peelers – such as Abrasive
peelers. Suitability depends on the various fruits – apples, potatoes, pears etc. the fruit needs to
be free of bruises and blemishes for an efficient operation. The peeled fruits may be washed with
high pressure water sprays before coring. The fruit is sliced immediately after coring.
Intermediate treatment with anti-browning agents may be required.

o Hand peeling: is very common though time consuming and may be costly in terms of
labour.

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7.7.5 Pretreatment to Prevent Browning

Note that some fruits may not be subjected to blanching due to their delicate tissue structure that
may be disrupted. As a result, these may be treated using alternative measures to control browning
due to exposure to oxygen during peeling and slicing operations. Oxidative browning in fruits is due
to the action of oxidase with catechol tannins. This is important in fruits like apples, bananas,
peaches, grapes etc. To prevent browning in fruits, the following are done:

1. Treatment with SO2 (sulphite) at 2000 – 4000ppm. A solution can be used to dip in the fruits for
approximately 2 – 5 minutes. SO2 gas may also be used directly in fumigation chambers. The
residual SO2 content in juices is set at 300ppm.

2. Acid treatment to raise the acidity of the fruits e.g. use of citric acid, fumaric acid, ascorbic acid
etc. Sliced fruits are usually better treated with citric acid at 1 to 2% solution.

3. Use of anti-oxidants – Ascorbic acid is commonly used in most fruit juices and canned fruits. It
effectively inhibits peroxidase enzyme in many fruits. It may be used alone or in combination
with sugar/citric acid. Small amounts will not affect the taste of the canned product. Ascorbic
acid acts to reduce quinines generated by polyphenol oxidase catalyzed oxidation of polyphenols
back to phenolic compounds, preventing their conversion to brown pigments. Its scavenges the
oxygen.

4. Use of sugars. Sugars act by excluding air in the tissues thus inhibiting oxidation

7.7.6 Blanching

The blanching of fruits (or partial cook) is important in canning fruits due to the following effect:-

a) Inactivation of enzymes that cause flavour and textural changes. Brief heat treatment of some
fruits inactivates oxidative enzymes like catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, ascorbic acid
oxidase and lipoxygenase. In the unblanched tissue, when disrupted, these enzymes come in
contact with air and their substrates causing softening, discoloration and off-flavors. This can
potentially occur during the period prior to hat processing.

b) Blanching also cleanses the product thus decreasing the microbial load and preheats the product
before processing

c) The mild heat treatment also softens the fruit which facilitates compact packing in the can.

d) The operation also expels /removes intercellular gas present in the raw fruits, thus preventing
excessive pressure build in the container and allows for improved heat transfer during heat
processing at a later stages. As a result, a high vacuum can be achieved in the final product as
well as a reduction in the can corrosion.

To blanch the fruits, they are immersed in hot water at 88 -99oC or exposed to steam on a conveyor belt
passing through a steam chamber. Adequacy of blanching is usually assessed based on the inactivation
of one of the heat-resistant enzymes i.e. peroxidase or polyphenol oxidase.
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7.7.7 Filling into the Cans

Cans for filling in the fruits or vegetables can be washed by using steam jets to remove any adhering
dust or foreign matter. Compressed air or water may also be sued. Cans can also be washed in open
tanks using hands.

Filling fruits into washed cans can be done automatically by machines or manually by hands. Hand
filling is best for soft fruits that bruise easily. The cans are filled with a pre-determined quantity of fruits
and a given amount of syrup or juice. The quantities must be uniform to ensure accurate and constant fill
weights for the final product. It also affects thermal processing.

Filling can be done hot for some fruits at sufficiently high temperatures of approximately 80-85oC. In
such a case, a preheating stage known as exhaustion may be required. Exhaustion drives out much of the
air/dissolved gasses in the product. This is intended to effectively create a vacuum during seaming
(sealing). In such cases, a head space is not necessary and such products may not be treated at high
sterilization temperatures and hence head space is not needed for the expansion of the can contents
which may cause a strain on the seal. Example is the canned apple sauce.

In some fruit products, a head space is required especially those processed in an agitating retort since
this is crucial for the movement of the can contents during agitation. Insufficient headspace may cause
under-processing and collapse of the cans during processing/plus can corrosion due to insufficient
vacuum.

Fruits can be filled in various forms namely: (1) whole fruits (2) fruit slices (3) halves (4) sauces (5)
purees (6) juices or a mixed fruit packs.

Liquid covering: Liquid covering may include syrups, water, mixtures of fruit juices and water. This
enables heat to be conducted from the container surface to the liquid cover (liquid medium) and finally
to the fruit product being processed. The covering medium also serves to sweeten the product and
improve the quality characteristics such as color, odor and fortification. Examples of syrups are corn
syrups, sucrose syrup, dextrose high-fructose corn syrup etc. The syrups may be light or heavy. Light
(14 – 18oBrix); heavy (18 -22oBrix) and extra heavy (22 – 35oBrix).

Can lacquer – Most fruits are high in acid thus requiring acid tolerant / resistant lacquer. Even high
colored fruits such as straw berries, cherries require acid resistant lacquer. Other lacquered cans are
sulphur resistant especially for canning low acid foods like vegetables.

7.7.8 Lidding or Clinching

At this stage, the cans are loosely covered with lids or the lids may be partially clinched or seamed on to
the can loosely enough to allow escape of air, gases and steam formed during exhaustion.

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7.7.9 Exhausting and Vacuumization

Exhaustion is the expulsion of practically all air and gases from the filled fruits in cans by way of
heating. The reason for exhaustion and vacuumization is for creation of anaerobic conditions in the can
to inhibit microbial spoilage. The vacuum treatment also removes occluded gasses from the fruit tissue
necessary to increase the specific gravity. The exhaustion temperatures range between 79 to 87oC for
about 5 to 25 minutes depending on the product.

Three methods are used:

 Thermal exhaustion involves passing the filled cans through a steam chamber on a moving
conveyor belt. The steam replaces the air inside the can and its while still hot. Vacuum is created
on condensation of steam. In hot water exhaust tanks, the water is kept about 1.3 to 2.5cm below
the tops of the cans to avoid water entering the cans.

 Steam vacuum closing where live high pressure steam is injected into the can head space just
prior to closing 5 to 8 minutes at high temperatures. All the air is quickly replaced with steam
which condenses and forms a vacuum. When this is combined with hot filling, the operation
becomes more efficient.

 Use of high speed mechanical vacuum sealing: where the cans are filled with cold fruit and
syrup and then passed via a clincher machine which clinches the cans in a 1st operation but does
not for an airtight seal. The cans are then subjected to a vacuum for a short time. This removes
only the free headspace air but does remove all dissolved gasses in the product. Advantage – It
eliminates the need for exhausting thus reducing the costs. Disadvantage – The machines may
suck the covering liquid during vacuumization thus reducing the contents. To avoid this, the fruit
fill can be vacuumized before filling the liquid cover. This helps to remove all the air.

The removal of air and gases from the can performs various functions namely

1) prevents the corrosion of tin pate cans due to oxygen and pinholing during storage.

2) Prevents discoloration of the fruits through preventing oxidation. Its also prevents the loss of
vitamins like vit C.

3) Prevents the creation of excessive pressures during retorting (sterilization) which can cause the
bulging of cans as the gas and air expand. Also when can are stored at high altitudes where
pressure is low may lead to bulging and exhaustion prevents this.

4) Exhausting assists in avoiding overfilling or underfilling the cans. For example, corn and peas
expand on heating in brine while straw berries shrivel when heated in sugar syrup.

7.7.10 Sealing

After exhausting, the cans are sealed by special closing machines – double seamers to create
hermetic seal that is impermeable to any molecules. Faulty seaming may result in deformations in
the cans during processing and eventually recontamination.

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7.7.11 Processing – (Heat Processing)

Processing here means heating and cooling of the canned product to inactivate the bacteria, yeasts and
molds. Absolute sterilization is difficult to achieve as many bacteria can form very minute and highly
heat-resistant spores which can not be killed only by the very high or low temperature treatment or
prolonged cooking. Such a drastic treatment injures the quality of the canned fruit product. Therefore,
processing requires determining the temperature and the time combinations sufficient to eliminate the
bacterial growth or spores. Over-cooking should be avoided as it spoils the flavor as well as well as
color/appearance of the product. Since fruits and vegetables vary significantly in their composition and
texture, it is difficult to a fixed rule about time-temperature combinations.

However, almost all fruits can be satisfactorily be processed at temperatures of 100oC (boiling water) as
the presence of the acids retards growth of bacteria and their spores. Further more, they do not survive in
the high sugar conditions normally used in canning fruits. Vegetables (except acidic ones like tomatoes),
which are non-acidic in nature require about 115 to 121oC processing temperatures. The centre of the
can should reach these temperatures for effective sterilization.

Brines, acidified with a small amount of acetic acid or citric acid greatly reduce the heat resistance of
bacteria spores and hence level of time-temperature combinations is reduced.

Methods of heat processing

1. Open cookers – these cookers are simple in construction and consist of wooden tubs or
tanks of any desired capacity. The sealed cans are placed in crates of galvanized iron and
immersed in jets of steam through perforated pips placed underneath the bottom of the
tank.

2. Continuous agitating tanks: the sealed cans move as in the non-agitating cookers, but
are at the same time rotated by special agitators to mix the can contents; this reduces the
processing time. These cookers may be filled with ¾ with water which is kept hot by
steam. They are fitted with temperature control devices to control the temperature of the
water.

3. Aseptic packaging: In aseptic or Ultra high temperature (UHT) processing, the fruit
product and the packaging material are sterilized separately and then assembled under
sterile conditions. The product is first subjected to heat by passing the liquid fruit product
through a shell and tube or plate heat exchanger and held for sufficient time for complete
pasteurization. The product is then passed through another heat exchanger for cooling.
The filling and sealing operations are then performed under aseptic conditions. One type
of packaging material used for aseptic packaging is the paper board foil –plastic laminate
or “tetrapak” with six layers of materials with polypropylene as the outermost followed
by aluminum foil, and other materials and the innermost is again polypropylene. This
composite package acts as a barrier to O2, light, moisture, micro-organisms and it meets
the heat stability and strength requirements. H2O2 is used in combination with heat and
ultraviolet radiation for sterilization.

For fruits that are to be pasteurized at below 100oC especially for acid fruit and vegetables products,, the
cans are put in crates and the full crates containing fruits in syrup or fruit juices are placed in steam –
heated water in large steel tanks. After the required process, cold water is added to the tank for cooling
or crates are ejected and put in a cold water tank for cooling.
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7.7.12 Cooling

Contents of the can should be cooled to 35 – 40oC to avoid long high temperature holding leading to
loss of colour (darkening). If cans are cooled below average temperature, they will remain wet and
rusting may result due to insufficient surface drying.

Water for cooling should be non-corrosive, low in bacterial count and yeast with low residual Cl2. the
cooling water can be chlorinated at 2ppm.

7.7.13 Labeling And Storage

Cans are labeled for identification and finally stored.

Storage of canned.

 Conditions during storage should be favorable. High storage temperatures of 37oC or higher
cause browning of the fruit products and corrosion of the cans.

 Proper storage temperature is 20oC with a good ventilation to protect the cans from condensation
that may result into can corrosion.

 Freeze storage of canned products cause deterioration of can seams leading to microbial
spoilage.

 During storage – slow chemical changes resulting in loss of nutrients, flavor, color and texture.

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 8.0 PROCESSING OF TROPICAL FRUITS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Tropical fruits are those fruits that grow well in a tropical region i.e. the region that lies between the
tropic of Cancer at 23o27’N and the Tropic of Capricon at 23o27’S where frosting scarcely occurs and
the temperature and the day length vary little through out the year. Most tropical fruits are cultivated for
fresh consumption though a few others such as avocado, bananas, guavas, mango, papaya, passion fruit
and pineapple are processed into consumer products.

8.2 MANGO

8.2.1 Introduction

The mango (Mangifera indica L., family Anacardiaceae) is native to South and South East Asia. It’s one
of the most important tropical and subtropical fruits in terms of production, acreage, and popularity. The
worldwide production of mangoes in the year of 2001 is approximately 23 million metric tons according
to FAO statistics. The largest mango producing country is India, where this crop has been cultivated for
about 5000 years. India produces 10 metric tons of mangoes annually, which is more than 40% of the
world’s production. Other major mango-producing countries are China, Mexico, Thailand, Indonesia,
Pakistan, Nigeria and Brazil.

Mangoes can tolerate a wide spectrum of soil and climate conditions, as long as there is no frosting
problem. Mangoes are climacteric fruits. They are usually harvested in a mature but unripe stage and
allowed to ripen in a few days for fresh consumption or for processing into various products, except
green mango slices and their derivatives that use unripened fruit as the starting material.

8.2.2 Mango Slices

These are slightly heat treated mango slices, with a slight reduction in water activity and pH insome
cases and the addition of anti-microbial agents. The slices are finally immersed in acidified sugar syrup
at a pH of about 3.3. Potassium benzoate may be added at 1400 ppm and sodium bisulfite at 150ppm.

8.2.3. Mango Puree

Mango puree is the most common semiproduct of mangoes. It can be used in the preparation of jams,
jellies, beverages including nectar and various dairy and bakery products that contain mango as an
ingredient.

8.2.3.1 Characteristics of a Good Mango Puree

 Mango fruit that is good for puree processing has flesh with a good taste and color, and is
without any objectionable odor.
 The consistency of the puree needs to be appealing to the consumer
 Should not contain strong fibres . A blend of various cultivars may produce a better puree.
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8.2.3.2 Operations For Mango Puree Production
Peeling

 Complete peeling of the mangoes before pulping may not be necessary for some cultivars with a thin
peel which is yellow to yellowish – orange in color.

 The peel contains polyphenols wjhich if contaminates the puree may cause unacceptable off-taste
and discoloration in puree plus accelerated detinning in canned product

 Mangoes should be thoroughly washed to remove adhering dirt, latex, and other foreign materials
before peeling. The washing can be done in a soaker-washer fitted with brushes using a detergent
and chlorine wash at 20-60ppm of active chlorine, followed by a rinse.

 The most commonly applied methods of peeling include hand peeling, lye peeling, freeze peeling,
hot water peeling, and steam peeling. Among these methods, hot water peeling and steam peeling are
the most often used. Hot water or steam peeling is the most practical method for peeling mangoes.
The traditional way is to submerge the fruit in hot water, which needs to be changed intermittently to
avoid cross-contamination, at approximately 90oC for 5min in a batch type operation. The steamed
fruit is cooled in water and a small slit is cut in the peel and finally, the peel is peeled off.

Pulping

 Different pulpers are used for obtaining pulp from mangoes and other fruits. The commonest one is
one that is a paddle pulper (or a pulper-finisher) that is normally used for disintegrating the flesh of
the sliced mangoes. The mangoes are usually sliced with their skins on while the seed is removed.
The paddle pulper will disintegrate the fruit during which the pulp is separated from the skins and
fibres which remain behind while the semi-liquid pulp is sieved through the sieve. The sieve or
screen has small pores of diameter as small as 0.5mm or smaller which remove virtually all the
fibres and makes the puree smoother and easier to be heat-treated. The puree yield varies with the
thickness of the peel and the size of the seed. Generally speaking, it is about 70% of the weight of
the fruit.

 The composition of the mango flesh for making the puree varies depending on the cultivar,
cultivation practice, climate condition, ripeness at harvest, and postharvest storage and treatment of
the fruit. Normally, the total soluble solids is in the range of 15o Brix and 20oBrix. The titratable
acidity varies between 0.1% and 1.1% and the pH between 2.6 and 5.8. For safety and quality
preservation purposes, it is advisable to lower the pH of the puree prepared from fruit with low
acidity to below 4 by adding citric acid before heat treatment.

Preservation

 Mango puree is often preserved by heat treatment, followed by frozen storage. Sometimes, it may
also be preserved by freezing without a heating pretreatment, or by aseptic processing and packaging
followed by ambient temperature storage.

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 Prior to heat treatment, the mango pulp may be vacuumed to drive out air that encourages oxidation.
The commonest heat treatment given to the pulp is by heating it at 95oC for about 2 minutes in a
heat exchanger (or about 5 minutes in open batch pasteurizers) followed by cooling immediately.
Then the pulp is packed in drums lined with polyethylene liners (or other containers) and rapidly
frozen and stored at -18oC or below. NOTE that thermal processes based on the inactivation of
pectinesterase will ensure microbiological safety and organoleptically acceptable mango puree.
98.5oC and holding for 1 minute is sufficient to destroy pectinesterase.

 Mango puree may also be processed and aseptically packaged in bag-in-box and stored at ambient
temperatures.

 Alternatively, the pasteurized pulp or puree may be preserved chemically by the use of chemical
preservatives such as sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate at a rate of 1-2g/kg and stored at
ambient temperature.

 Points to note:

o Freezing of unpasteurized mango puree is not advisable for long term storage due to the
activity of residual enzymes. Acidification may help to maintain the quality to some extent

o Mango puree can be concentrated by evaporation to 30-32oBrix without severe loss of flavor.

8.2.4 Mango Nectar

Mango Nectar can be processed directly from the fresh mango fruit or from the mango puree that has
been prepared as a semi-product. Other ingredients added are water, sugar and citric acid. A typical
mango nectar should have 20-30% puree content, 12-18oBrix (total soluble solids), a pH of 3.5; an
acidity of 0.20 to 0.30% titratable acidity. It may also contain carboxymethylcellulose or some other
gum added as a cloud stabilizer. The water used should be free of heavy metal ions and nitrates to avoid
browning reactions.

Steps

 Mixing the ingredients thoroughly

 The mixture may be filtered through a fine screen to produce a nectar of smoother consistency.
 Thermal processing which may be either
o By canning where the nectar may be filled into cans at room temperature, sealed under
vacuum, heated in a spin-cooker (autoclave) at 100oC at a speed of 125 rpm for 30
minutes; followed by cooling
o By Flash pasteurization of the nectar in a plate heat exchanger at 92oC for 1 minute, then
filled into containers or can and sealed and inverted and held for about 5 minutes before
cooling
o Pasteurized in a plate heat exchanger at 95oC for 1 minute and then aseptically packed in
containers.

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8.2.5 Mango Leather

Mango leather is a popular food in India. The mango leather is prepared by

 Peeling the mangoes and squeezing or pulping the mangoes to obtain the pulp (puree).
 The pulp is then sieved to remove the fibres. (The method used for obtaining the untreated puree
can be used as above)
 The puree obtained is mixed with cane sugar (sugar) to a Brix of about 25o – 35o.
 The puree may be mixed with potassium metabisulphite to induce a SO2 content of about 1000 -
2000 ppm
 The puree is then spread evenly on mats (fine cloth ) for easy draining to a thickness of about
1cm. The mesh or mat may be smeared with glycerine to avoid sticking.
 The puree is then sun or solar -dried (or dried by any other means such as dehydrator drying etc)
for some days or hours depending on the dryer type. The temperatures will also vary depending
on the dryer type. The final moisture content may be between 15 – 20%.
 The dried slabs obtained are cut into uniform sizes and wrapped in cellophane and finally
marketed.

Other products that can be derived from mangoes include:

 Mango jams (refer to notes on fruit preserves and jam making)

 Mango preserves
 Canned mango slices

Canned mango slices may be produced by:

 Selecting ripe but firm mangoes

 The mangoes are hand peeled and sliced into rectangular uniform pieces
 The slices are put into water or a solution of 1.5% salt to avoid discoloration
 The slices are rinsed of the salt and put into cans.
 Syrup of 18 – 22o Brix and containing citric acid at 0.2% acidity is added to fill the cans
 The pH of the product is adjusted to no higher than 4.1
 The cans are vacuumed and sealed
 The cans are then processed in boiling water for some time and finally cooled to 38oC and
stored.

8.3 PAPAYA

8.3.1 Introduction

The papaya (Carica papaya) is native to eastern Central America and now distributed throughout the
tropical areas in the world. According to FAO, World production of papaya was approximately 5.5
million metric tons 2001. The leading producers are Brazil, followed by Nigeria, Mexico, India and
Indonesia.

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There are many cultivars of papaya which can be processed. The most popular is the solo cultivar known
for its good quality (taste). The Pusa Giant cultivar in India is also reported being suitable for canning.

8.3.2 Compositional Analysis

Papaya contains on average 86.6% water, 12.1 % carbohydrates, 0.7% fibre, 0.5% ash, 0.5% protein,
0.3% fat, 0.45% Vitamin A, 0.074% Vit C, 0.005% Niacin, 0.0004 % riboflavin, 0.0003% thiamin,
0.204% potassium as the predominant mineral. The total soluble solids content range from 5 to 19%. It
is relatively low in acid content approximately 0.1% and the pH ranges between 5 and 5.5. The
predominant acids are malic acid, ascorbic acid, and alpha-ketoglutaric acid.

Papaya fruit can be used for various purposes. For example, the proteolytic enzymes extracted from the
papaya latex, papain is used as a meat tenderizer,; the papaya pulp is a basic component of some facial
creams, and shampoos.

The various products that can be processed from papaya include:

 Papaya pulp
 Papaya pickles
 Papaya slices
 Canned papaya
 Candied papaya
 Papaya chutney

These will not be covered for now.

8.4 BANANAS

8.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Bananas are considered the fourth most important food crop in the world after the three main cereal i.e.
rice, wheat and corn. World production figures are not very accurate since in most parts of the world,
bananas are produced on small plots mainly for subsistence which may not be reported. According to
FAO (1999), world production stood at 58,400 metric tons.

In many countries Uganda inclusive, bananas have acted as a staple food for many centuries. Banana
breeding and selection has been used for improving the various cultivars. Tissue culture is widely used
at present.

The consumption of processed bananas is less than that of fresh bananas worldwide as well as other
processed fruits. Therefore, the volume of processed bananas has developed slowly. Processed bananas
are still produced mostly from rejects of fresh banana trade. Therefore, the varieties used for processing
are the same as for fresh consumption though there has been a decline in the varieties being grown. The
subvarieties of the Cavendish type is being used for processing. One such a variety is the Grand Nain,

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literally called Large Dwarf in French. The number of varieties and subvarieties of bananas is large and
the nomenclature may be confusing.

8.4.2 BANANAS FOR PROCESSING

8.4.2.1 Factors Affecting World Availability

The availability of bananas for processing worldwide maybe affected by a number of factors:

 Seasonality and supply/demand situations. Seasonality is due to weather and indirectly by other
fruits indigenous in export countries. For instance when apples, pears and peaches etc are
abundant, the demand for bananas declines and vise versa. Production area restrictions may be
due to weather e.g. stormy weather reduces the harvests.

 Strikes may affect world supply of bananas especially from producing countries

 Import quotas and other restrictions that influence normal supply. E.g restrictions on which
countries should export too which countries; restrictions on the quantity of bananas to be
imported in importing countries.

 Internal demand in the exporting countries which places considerable constraints on avialbility of
bananas for processing. Internal fresh consumption of bananas is sometimes huge and may
greatly impact on the amounts available for processing.

8.4.2.2 Logistics and Handling of Bananas

In many cases, the processing facility for bananas may be located in production areas. In such cases, the
bananas may be transported using tractor –drawn carts. Collections of bananas from distant places can
be done by lorries and tractors, railroads. Most bananas destined for processing are transported in bulk
by trucks. Whole trucks are weighed before and after unloading to determine the amount received.
Using modern trucks, the unloading is done by lifting the front end of the truck and letting the bananas
slide down into a water tank. The bananas should be sorted immediately to avoid leaving the bananas
too much in the sun that may cause problems during ripening. Mechanical problems at the processing
plant may cause a chain of reaction in the ripening, green banana reception and gathering of the fruit.
Large amounts of the fruits may end up being discarded and many quality problems may result.

8.4.2.3Ripening
Most bananas are ripened at the markets before selling them. Bananas may stay green for upto two
weeks before ripening which makes it favorable to ship them overseas. Generally, in the tropics,
ripening is done at higher temperatures and there is no need to control humidity and the temperature as
is in developing countries compared to developed ones. In developed countries with automated stores,
the use of ethylene is taken advantage of to fasten the ripening process.

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  The length of ripening may vary from 4 to 8 days by adjusting the banana core temperature in the
range of 15 to 24oC. Ripening is triggered with ethylene after removing the field heat.

 Then the bananas are aerated to remove the ethylene-containing air, the rooms are closed, and
the normal temperature control and air recirculation procedures maintained.

 Good temperature and air circulation control is important for good ripening, therefore
overloading is avoided as it results in poor air circulation causing eratic ripening.

 Presence of water leaking at some points such as under coolers which may result in uneven
ripening. If ripe and underripe bananas are mixed, there could be problems of consistency in the
banana puree.

 Index of ripening:

1. Fruit peel color index. Color charts are readily available from banana companies.
2. Fruit firm determined by pressing
3. Smell
4. Taste
5. Starch conversion index vs. sugar (brix) by looking at the original starch converted to
sugars (by use of refractometers). During ripening, sugar content rises from almost zero
in green bananas (PCI = 1) to about 23% soluble solids in the fully ripe fruit (PCI = 7) –
PCI = peel color index. The reading is done by taking equal quantities of pulp and water
to dilute the pulp and the read value from the refractometer is multiplied by a factor of 2
to correct for dilution.

8.4.2.4 Banana Puree Processing

This is probably the most important processed banana product.

 The ripe bananas are peeled mostly by hands though some mechanical peelers are also available.
Mechanical peeling requires close supervision and continuity of operation to reduce
discoloration of the resulting puree. Hand peeling is the most widely used because its cheap.

 Once the peels are separated, the bananas are mashed using pulpers to produce a banana pulp.

 The mashed bananas are passed through screens that vary in size and type depending on whether
or not a deseeded puree is desired. This is to reduce the size of the puree particles and also to
remove the seeds where desired. Some varieties have seeds whereas other do not have. The black
specks one sees are the seeds.

 The puree is then homogenized to reduce the particle size and improve on the particle size
distribution. At the same stage, the puree ay be acidified by addition of citric or malic acid.

 The next step is de-aeration of the puree as it critical in determining the color of the finished
product. This is done under vacuum. During the same process, the banana volatiles are removed
and condensed to produce banana essence.

 After de-aeration, the puree is held under vacuum in vacuum tanks from where it is filled
aseptically into tins or cans.
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  For concentrated puree, a vacuum evaporation step is be carried out to reduce the moisture
content and increase total solids.

 In the aseptic process, scrapped – surface heat exchangers are normally used, both for heating to
the holding temperature and for cooling to the filling temperature.

 The puree is aseptically filled into pre-sterilized containers mostly drums or bags in box. Filling
temperature is usually 40-465oC to prevent growth of heat resistant thermophilic bacteria. The
filling should also be done at higher than ambient temperature to prevent condensation on the
boxes or drums/cans.

Banana puree can also be frozen to produce frozen banana puree. Frozen banana puree has the best fresh
banana flavor retention.

8.2.4.5 Dehydrated Banana Products

A) Banana Flakes
These are made by drum drying in large plated drum dryers heated internally with steam.

 The puree extracted as above is fed directly to the dru dryers.

 The water evaporates as the drum turns, forming a film of dried material on the drum surface.

 The dried film is carefully removed by carefully adjusted knives on the drums as a continuous
sheet, which passes to an air conditioned room

 In the air conditioned room, the film is broken into flakes

 Its then sifted for classification

 Finally packed in box containers.

 The fine solids resulting as by-products of this operation are sold separately as dehydrated
banana powder.

B) Banana Powder
The banana powder covered here includes that derived from:

 As by-product fines from the banana flakes production

 Spray dried banana powder.

Banana powder is produced through the same process as banana flakes. However, in case of banana
powder, the grinding fineness is adjusted to produce a more or less powder. The dry powder is packed in
the same bag-in-box packagng as the flakes. The bags need to have good moisture barrier
characteristics. Of course, cost pressure in the industry has made the use of lower cost polyethylene bags
more common even though the shelf-life itself is reduced with this packaging.
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 C) Freeze-Dried Banana Slices
The slices obtained have a nice appearance, but when one attempts to rehydrate them in water or milk,
they take too long and form a chewy mass that sticks to the teeth in an unpleasant way.

Therefore, marketing of this product has proven difficult. However, it is now being marketed as a
survival food which can be used during emergencies and long treks.

D) Banana Flour
These products are made from green bananas or plantains. The green fruit is normally blanched to
loosen the peels, then peeled, chopped, dried, ground and classified or sifted. Since banana has a high
starch content, the drying is easy. Drum drying is commonly used.

E) Aggregates For Breakfast

These are products made from banana flakes mixed other ingredients. These aggregates are quite porous
and have an acceptable mouthfeel, but little banana flavor. They do hydrate readily either with water or
with milk. The aggregates are used for breakfast.

F) Concentrated Clarified Banana Juice

Refer to notes on fruit juices.

Juice extraction is done by the use of either:

 Calcium oxide and sulfuric acid or
 Enzymatic hydrolysis of pectin
o Enzymatic hydrolysis allows for ready separation of the clear juice from the pulp.

Concentration leads to loss of the fresh aroma of banana juice especially when concentrated to 65% or
higher soluble solids.

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Process flow chart

Fruit receiving & sorting

Ripening

Manual or mechanical peeling

Coarse filter

De-earation & vacuum holding essence recovery

Digestion

Heat treatment evaporator essence recovery

Filtration vacuum evaporation

Filling & freezing

Frozen storage

Concentrated clear banana juice

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 G) Banana Chips
This is a deep fried banana product similar to potato chips. It has a high fat and carbohydrate content.

Banana chips are made from green cooking bananas.

 They are peeled and sliced thin

 They are then deep-fried to an intermediate moisture content
 They are then dipped in or coated with cane sugar solution. Other chips may not be sugar dipped
or sugar-coated. Alternatively, they may be coated with banana puree and sugar before the
second fry.
 They are then finally hot oil fired to their final moisture content. The banana chips should have a
light color when finished.
 The chips are normally packed in bulk with two separate plastic bags per carton with a combined
net weight of about 8kg. they may be repacked at retail points in moisture resistant plastic
pouches made from laminated material.
The problem with this product is mainly browning

Other products include

1. banana starch
2. sliced bananas in syrup
3. freeze-dried granulate

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 9.0 VEGETABLE PROCESSING

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The term vegetables includes a wide range of plants and structures. These may be classified as follows:

a) leaves – leafy vegetables, such as cabbages, sprouts, lettuce

a. stems , such as asparagus
b. specialized leaves such a s leeks, onions and celery
b) Legumes – seedes within pods, such as peas, beans, and lentils. Seeds, when dried are termed
pulses.
c) Tubers – such as potatoes and yams
d) Roots – such as carrots, turnips and beetroot
e) Miscellaneous – cucumber, tomato and mushrooms

9.2 NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Most vegetables contain at least 60% water and usually more than 80%. Their value as a source of
macronutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrates is limited but there are important exceptions.
Legumes, for example, are rich in starch and protein; tubers are rich in starch. Apart from legumes and
tubers, the main nutritional value of vegetables is their content of micro-nutrients such as vitamins and
minerals; and poorly digestable complex carbohydrates mainly dietary fibre, which has little nutritional
value but very important for the bowel function. Individual vegetables can not provide all the requisite
nutrients, but by different combinations – that is, by eating a variety of vegetables. This is of particular
importance with respect to two nutrients, protein (the 20 essential amino acids) and essential fatty acids.
Out of the 20 essential amino acids, four most important are lysine, methionine, cystine and tryptophan.
A varied diet will make good of intake. For essential fatty acids, the two most important are linoleic
(18:2n-6) and linolenic (18:3 n-3). These are used in the synthesis of messenger substances that
influence arterial tone and blood coagulability and also coronary heart disease. Some vegetables such as
peas, potatoes are good sources. Meat is also a good source. All essential fatty acids are polyunsaturated
and hence vulnerable to oxidation with possible production of peroxy free radicals which cause tissue
damage. Hence vit E is essential and available in most vegetable oils including meat.

9.3 VEGETABLE PROCESSING

Processing of vegetables is undertaken for three reasons:

i) to render the produce edible
ii) to reduce the content of plant toxins
iii) to preserve the produce – that is, to prevent spoilage due to autolysis or microbiological
degradation

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9.3.1 Edibility

The application of heat – cooking – is the commonest form of processing. It fulfils all the objectives of
processing but for vegetables, is used to mainly render the produce edible. The application of heat can
be in aqueous medium (boiling, pressure cooking), in oil (frying), or by microwave. In each case, the
effects of gelatinization of starch granules, the hydrolysis of hemicellulose and the protopectins are
rendered soluble by depolymerization. In addition, the cell walls become permeable, the cells lose water
and the leaching of nutrients, lectins and other components occurs. These effects are accentuated or
brought out at alkaline pH. In microwave and oil processing, loses are minimized since water content is
low.

9.3.2 Reduction of Toxins

Plants produce toxins, probably as a defense against insect predators. They also contain compounds
which are part of the normal plant chemistry but which are potential toxic to man. Examples are
phenolic and cyanogenetic glycosides. Some potentially toxic compounds that occur in vegetables but
which are destroyed or leached by heat processing are:-

a) Proteins: phytohaemagglutinins that cause clumping and destruction of red blood cells which
occur in beans. Some of these compounds are also toxic to cells of the intesitinal mucosa. They
are normally destroyed by soaking the beans overnight followed by thorough cooking.

b) Lathyrogens: Aminonitriles and diaminobutyuric or propionic acids that cause spastic paralysis
as a result of prolonged consumption of inadequately processed chickpeas in excessive amounts.
This arises usually as the result of the unavailability of other foods.

c) Glucosinolates: sulphur compounds that occur in brassicas (cabbage and turnips etc) which
cause goiter – enlargement of the thyroid gland.

d) Enzyme inhibitors; mainly trypsin inhibitors that occur in soya and lima beans.

e) Cyanogens: classically in cassava root but of more relevance to western diets, also found in lima
beans

f) Phenolics

g) Oxalates

A group of enzyme inhibitors, the anticholinesterases – which include glycoalkaloids α-solanine and α-
chaconine – are resistant to heat processing. They occur in the potato and are mainly associated with
green skins and shoots but on storage may migrate throughout the flesh. They are detected by their bitter
taste. Peeled potatoes have no problems since residual concentrations are too small.

Control: the levels of plant toxins in edible plants have been reduced by plant breeding.

9.3.3 Preservation

The most important preservation technique is by heating, followed by drying (grains and pulses etc).
Food spoilage is due to two distinct processes:

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 (1) Autolysis – the digestion of food by enzymes present within the tissues which are released when
the cell membranes lose their integrity as a consequence of death.

(2) Microbial attack – the invasion by bacteria and fungi.

The nature of these processes requires that actions are taken to protect the foods. Preservation techniques
are directed at four biological properties:

a) Enzymes are essential biological catalysts without which living processes are impossible.
Enzymes are specialized proteins.

b) All organisms require water

c) The hydrogen – ion concentration must be within a fairy narrow range of pH (6 to 8 for most
organisms, some can survive at pHs less than 4).

d) Nucleic acids are essential to the metabolic processes of active life. If disrupted, the cell dies.

The main preservation processes depend on:

 Reduced enzyme activity, either by heat denaturation of protein or by chilling

 Exclusion of water, by osmosis or freezing or drying
 Reduction of pH
 Irradiation which disrupts nucleic acids
 Atmospheric control

9.3.4 Effects of Processing on Vegetables

1.3.1 Nutritional: Any form of processing affects the nutrient content of foods especially with respect
to vitamins. Macronutrients may be broken down to their component parts, but this is a process
continued by digestion and loses occur as a result of leaching. These can be recouped if the water
or stock is usd to prepare sauces and gravy. Thermal treatment leads to degradation of amino
acids. Vitamins content of vegetables is reduced during processing (1/3 to 1/2 ) during cooking
and storage.

1.3.2 Socio-economic: processing makes vegetables available in various parts of the world which also
makes the cost of food to decline. Availability of chilled and frozen vegetables has increased due
to ready availability of these processing facilities. A variety is available as well. More convenient
foods are now available including the ultimate domestic convenience of eating out. Processing
has also reduced waste, demand has also increased e.g. for leafy and root vegetables.

1.3.3 Aesthetic: processing causes the various vegetable products develop unique taste characteristics
thus making vegetables more popular. When cooked, vegetable develop good organoleptic
properties which stimulate the consumers.

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9.4 PREPARATION PROCEDURES DURING PROCESSING OF VEGETABLES

9.4.1 Introduction

The preparation of vegetables for processing is the most important if quality products are to be
manufactured. The deterioration of vegetables starts at the time of harvest and this can only be
minimized by correct handling and pre-processing techniques.

a) Receipt of vegetables into the factory: when vegetables are received at the factory, the load
is weighed to determine the payment to be made to the supplier and the amount of vegetables
waiting to be processed. Samples of the vegetables are taken for analysis to determine the
quality. The vegetables must comply with factory standards such as vegetable maturity, time
and temperature of transport, extraneous matter, amount of adhering soil, damage to
vegetable tissues and presence of harmful materials such as glass or metal. The time and
temperature between harvest and blanching is the most important for many vegetables to
maintain quality. Bulk transport of mechanically harvested vegetables such as peas, beans
and sweet corn present problems with self-heating due to respiration and may require cooling
before transport. Delays must be avoided.

b) Conveying: conveying systems may be used to move vegetables from one process to another
depending on vegetables and the processing line. Conveying systems must not damage the
vegetables e.g. by having large drops from conveyor into machines. For conveying
vegetables,

i. Flumes may be used. These are troughs containing running water. Vegetables are
dropped into the water stream and transported by suspension until they are
screened out at a dewatering station. Water may be pumped back to the start of
the flume for recycling. The water acts as a cushion to prevent damage to
vegetable tissues. Raffles or baffles may be placed at the bottom of the flume to
trap stones and other objects. These flumes may be used to cool vegetables after
blanching.

Disadvantages of flumes

1. Leaching of solutes from vegetables

2. there could also be microbial buildup in the flume water

3. Flume water is a source of high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

effluent due to large amounts of soluble solids and finely divided insoluble
solids.

ii. Pumped systems: pumped systems involve the use of machines situated a
distance from the central operations for blanching and final processing. Are used
in cases where products have to be transported over relatively long distances
within the factory. The vegetables are mixed with water on the inlet side of a
specially vaned centrifugal pump. The mixture is pumped through a pipeline
network to a dewatering station where the vegetables are separated from water.

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 iii. Mechanical conveyors: involve belt or vibratory systems. Examples are the
inspection belts running on two drums, one of which is driven. The colour of
inspection belts is important and it should give proper contrast with the vegetable
to prevent eye strain. Smooth belts are used to transport the vegetables while
bucket elevators are used for elevation of products to a high level. Other systems
include rollers. Precaution: hygiene is critical as vegetable soils lodges on the
drive drums and is squashed onto the underside of belt contaminating all the
supporting slides.

c) Dry Cleaning: vegetables harvested from parts above the ground often have large amounts
of extraneous matter which must be removed before processing. Dry cleaning methods such
as -Air cleaning can be used – this involves passing a streak of high speed air through the
product so that the lighter unwanted material is taken up in the air system and removed. Its
useful where vegetables are heavier than the extraneous material. Mobile pea and bean
harvesting systems are fitted with this type of cleaner. Vegetables harvested from the soil are
passed through a series of rotating brushes which remove adhering soil. Inclined gravitational
vibrating separator systems can be used to clean beans and peas contaminated with volcanic
porous stones of similar density and size.

d) Washing: there are three classes of vegetables – those grown under the soil such as root
crops, leafy vegetables like spinach and the vegetable fruits and flowers such as peas, beans,
and cauliflower. The methods for washing all these differ. Root crops contaminated with soil
are washed using immersion systems in which carrier belts are used to carry them through
the water/tank. A rotary brush washer may b easier which may be followed by rinsing.
Alternatively, after flume delivery, the vegetables may be spray rinsed. Leafy vegetables
create a washing problem as they layer when bulk stored. All sides must be washed. Agitated
tanks may be used for washing for effective cleaning. Tomatoes since they are fragile, are
tipped into a tank of water and suspended. The denser material like dirt, sinks and leaves
float. The tomatoes are then elevated from the tank on a roller conveyor under water sprays.

e) Inspection: manual inspection and picking of vegetables on inspection belts or rollers is the
traditional way of removing unwanted material from the production line. Its labour intensive
and is the rate limiting factor along the production line as it takes a lot of time. An optical
sorting system for potatoes and carrot dice can be used. Defective dice are removed from the
stream using air jets. Automatic defect removal (ADR) machines are used for French fried
potato strips.. colour sorting of green and red tomatoes is currently automated and frequently
used in industries.

f) Trimming: some vegetables may require trimming before processing. E.g. fibrous stalk is
removed from asparagus, ends are snipped from green beans, stalks of cauliflower are
removed and carrots crowns are removed. A knife may be used for some trimming operations
while machines are used predominantly. Trimming may involve e.g. stalking the asparagus
with the crown ends together and cutting it to length while taking care not to damage the
fragile crowns. Any unwanted parts should be removed.

g) Peeling: there are various methods employed for peeling vegetables (potatoes, carrots etc: -

i. Mechanical methods: this may involve the use of abrasive peelers which
remove the skin by rubbing action. These machines have many conformations,

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 most common of which is one that uses sets of abrasive rollers as shown below.
The amount of skin removed depends on the residence time in the peeler which
can be adjusted by the speed. This allows water sprays from the centre of the
auger to clean those abrasive rollers not in contact with the vegetables. As this
method abrades a plane surface only, crevices such as potato eyes must be
removed by hand or the vegetable is abraded until all imperfections are worn
away, which results in large peeling losses. Generally, the yield of product from
abrasive peelers is lower than from other mechanical methods. Other peelers
include those with mounted knives in the outside walls of the revolving drum in
which the product is tumbled, which also has a similar effect as abrasive peelers.
Peeled skins are removed from the water stream by straining, settling or
centrifuging or by mechanical means if a dry system is in operation. The disposal
of the material as a solid (dry) reduces the BOD of the factory liquid effluent.
This waste can be used as animal feed, fertilizer or for other byproducts. For
onions, modern peelers are used which clamp the bulbs in a machine so that the
top and the base can be removed by rotating knives. A slit may be is made in the
skin after topping and tailing and the onions are rotated past a set of high pressure
water sprays to remove the skin.

Fig: Abrasive peeler

ii. Lye peeling: involves the immersion of certain vegetables such as roots in hot
sodium hydroxide solutions which affects the peeling by chemical erosion of the
skin and the underlying tissue. The lye peeler consists of a bath of sodium
hydroxide solution, a heat exchanger to heat the caustic solution and a means of
transporting the vegetables through the bath. A paddle system ensures that
vegetables are totally submerged in the solution. The peeling will depend on the
temperature of the solution, the concentration of the solution and the time of
immersion. A wetting agent may increase the initial penetration of caustic soda
solution into the vegetable skin. The temperature ranges from 60 – 95oC
depending on the vegetable (carrots, potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, tomatoes);
the concentration may range from 5% to 20 % depending on the vegetable.
Finally, the vegetables are passed through a high water spray to remove the
weakened skin. The disadvantage of lye peeling is the problem of disposal of
sodium hydroxide. The use of potassium hydroxide makes it possible to use the

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 residual liquid as a fertilizer. The solution is also corrosive to the bodies of the
operators and their clothes. Using protective war can alleviate this.

Fig: Lye peeler

iii. Hot water peeling: hot water is used to prepare beetroot and tomatoes for
peeling. Beetroot is cooked in near boiling water for about 30 min depending on
size at which time the skin may be removed by gentle rubbing in a rubber-tipped
scrubber. Tomatoes are scalded in boiling water for about 30 seconds which
causes the ski to become loose and baggy looking. The tomatoes are then passed
over a machine with many fine rollers which pinch the skin and drag it from the
tomato. This is an alternative to lye peeling for tomatoes.

iv. Steam peeling: vegetables are held in high pressure steam for a short time during
which the skin and underlying tissue are superheated. When the pressure is
suddenly reduced, the tissue moisture boils instantly hence blowing the skin from
the vegetable. This principle is used in steam peeling of root vegetables. Modern
peelers use about 17 atmospheres before releasing the pressure for 30 seconds.
Steam peelers are usually batch type. Steam peeling is the most efficient peeling
system for potatoes and carrots. Some vegetables such as small potatoes and
carrots for canning do not require blanching after steam peeling.

Skin removal for both steam peeling and lye peeling can be done by the use of high
pressure jet rotary washers in tumblers. The skin is removed by the action of vegetables
rubbing together and the water jets remove the material from the crevices and surface.
The water also cools the product and washes away the caustic soda from the su rface.

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 h) Slicing and dicing: some vegetables require reduction in size while others may be packed
whole. Size reduction makes the vegetable more acceptable to the consumer. Vegetable
slicers are used to do this activity. The vegetable (potatoes, carrots etc) may be sliced or
diced into slabs, cubes, strips similar to French fries. Slicers contain a gang of blades which
may be a mixture of horizontal and vertical cutters to carry out the task. After slicing, dicing
or stripping, the product may be inspected and the remaining unwanted parts can be removed
on inspection belts. The product may be washed to remove the starch granules adhering on
the surface to avoid degrading the blanch water.

i) Blanching: vegetable products are living parts of plants which continue to respire after
harvest. When vegetables are harvested, deteriorative changes, often initiated by enzymes
plant enzymes start to break down the plant tissues. The time between harvesting and
inactivation of these enzymes is critical for the quality of the final product. This is important
for the actively growing leafy vegetables such as spinach, green peas and beans which may
be damaged during harvesting than carrots and potatoes which are derived from the plant’s
storage system. The juices released from the plant’s tissues are an ideal substrate for
microbiological growth. Blanching can be done in a tank containing boiling water (for hot
water blanching) using blanching baskets to contain the vegetables and hence facilitate the
dipping in hot water and removal of the vegetables. Rapid heating and cooling is used to
minimize the softening and of the tissue due to thermal damage. The different types of
blanching are steam blanching, hot water blanching (consult your notes on fruits). Blanching
is important for the following:

i. To prevent enzymatic and microbiological deterioration through inactivation of

enzymes and kills the plant tissue. Discoloration, softening and off-flavors are
brought about by enzymes.

ii. Shrinking and softening the vegetables to obtain a correct fill weight if vegetables
are to be caned

iii. To remove gasses from the intercellular spaces which would otherwise cause
oxidation of the product, corrosion of the can and lower vacuum for canned
products.

iv. Blanching helps to cleanse the vegetable tissue

v. Also reduces the microbial load of vegetative cells on the vegetable.

1. Care must be taken to avoid growth of thermophilic bacteria as the

temperature favours their growth.

2. Enzymes such as catalase, peroxidase and lipoxygenase are heat resistant

and are used to determine the effectiveness of the blanching operation.
Their denaturation assures denaturation of all others which are less
tolerant to heat.

Steam blanching

The main advantage of this blanching is to reduce leaching of solutes from the vegetable. This improves
retention of soluble nutrients and reduces the effluent from the blanching operation. Vegetables that are

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normally steam blanched are sweet corn and broccoli. These products have exposed surfaces easily
leached by blanching water.

Steam blanchers consist of a mesh belt traveling through a steam chest or tunnel. The tunnel blancher
loses steam at the entry and exit of the blancher – energy loss. The most efficient blanching system is
use of the Individual Quick Blanch (IQB) concept. In this system, pieces of vegetables are spread in a
thin layer on a rapidly moving mesh belt passing through a steam chest. Because there is only a single
layer of vegetable, the heating is unobstructed and therefore rapid compared to other systems where a
bed of vegetable pieces several layers thick is heated. Pieces are the deposited on a slow moving belt,
where the thicker bed of vegetable is allowed to thermally equilibrate before cooling.

Fig: the two designs of steam blanchers

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Texture of Blanched Vegetables and Loss of Nutrients
Texture of cooked, blanched and frozen vegetables is sometimes inferior to that of cooked fresh
vegetable. The change in texture of the processed food compared to the fresh depend on the conditions
of blanching, freezing, storing and cooking. As processors endeavor to speed up operations, use of short-
time-high- temperature blanching techniques to inactivate enzymes is becoming important.

 In particular, cooked frozen green beans lose the characteristic crispness of the fresh product
 Cooked frozen carrots tend to be rather rubbery

Hot Water blanching leads to:

 Loss of vitamins C and other water soluble vitamins due to leaching.

Control of Softening and Nutrient Loss in Blanched Vegetables

1. The firmness of the banched vegetables can be improved by adding calcium salts.

2. Calcium salt together with acidification and a little brining improves the firmness.

3. nutrient loss can be minimized by use of steam blanching in contrast to hot water blanching

b. Canning of the vegetables (REFER TO NOTES ON CANNING OF FRUITS &

VEEGETABLES IN THE PREVIOUS TOPIC COVERED)

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 10.0 FREEZING OF VEGETABLES

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Many vegetables are seasonal crops, abundant at certain times of the year and scarce at other times of
the year. Therefore, its important to extend their shelf-life all year around. There are various methods
that can be used to preserve the vegetables, some of which may alter the characteristics of the vegetable;
some to a small extent; some to a large extent. Their effectiveness and duration of extension varies from
a week to years. Changes on the physical tissue characteristics of the vegetables may be marked
especially if the vegetable is to be preserved for quite long. The various methods include: Canning,
drying, fermentation or pickling, salting, freezing, chilling and many others.

Freezing is one of the most commonly used in which the vegetable product is cooled down to
temperatures below -20oC and maintained at these temperatures. Freezing is often preferred over
canning because the alterations to tissues, such as softening and colour changes may be less marked.

The basic principle utilized in freezing is that the rate of enzymatic and microbial activities are reduced
or slowed down at lower temperatures. Rates of physical changes may also be reduced at sufficiently
low temperatures. However, the freezing process itself may result in change.

Because freezing involves separation of some of the water in the product as ice, leading to increase in
concentration of solutes in the unfrozen phase, and potential crystallization or precipitation of other
components, the rate of deterioration may be affected by factors other than low temperature. High solute
concentrations may induce increased rates of change of some chemical processes. Also, low
temperatures may enhance the rates of some crystallization processes. The rates of change in frozen
systems could then be a complex function of temperature. There may be a temperature region with
enhanced rates of change just below 0oC in some systems. However, at sufficiently low temperatures,
rates of change will reduce.

Fig: rates of reaction as they may be affected by freezing

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The upper line indicates rate enhancement due to freezing; the lower ine indicates rate inhibition due to
freezing; the central line indicates the rate that is to be expected according to Arrhenius rate expression.

10.2 THE FREEZING PROCESS

To maintain vegetables in frozen storage, first they must be frozen. Freezing requires the removal of
heat. Different methods can be used to remove heat at different rates which will result in different rates
and patterns of freezing. The characteristics of vegetables such as size, internal structures, cell wall
thickness etc will affect the pattern of freezing. The cellular nature of tissue and the characteristics of the
cell wall, can affect the movement of water within the tissue during freezing process which in turn can
be an important factor affecting the location and size of the ice crystals in the frozen tissue.

10.2.1 Factors Affecting Rates of Heat Removal during Vegetable Freezing

1. Heat exchange materials

 Thermal conductivity of the vegetable and the temperature of heat exchange material::
vegetables with high thermal conductivity or high volumetric heat capacity, will be more
effective at removing heat than one of low thermal conductivity or volumetric capacity under
same conditions. A material with a low heat capacity will increase in temperature quite
rapidly with relatively small increase in heat content and so it may be hard to maintain low
temperature in a heat exchange medium with this characteristic. Air has a low volumetric
heat capacity and low thermal conductivity and therefore for it to be effectively used as a
heat exchange agent, it must be at a lower temperature and the food must be brought in
contact with a large volume of air. the lower the temperature, the greater the driving force for
heat exchange and the more rapid the heat exchange.

 Liquids have a high volumetric heat capacity and thus good heat exchange mediums. Low
temperature liquid can be effectively used to freeze vegetables. Examples are cold brine;
other materials which undergo phase change at low temperatures can be very effective as
cooling agents (nitrogen bpt -194oC, solid CO2 bpt -80oC, Freon which is a
chlorofluorocarbon boils at -40oC.

2. Characteristics of the vegetable

 Properties such as the size of the item to be frozen i.e. the heat exchange surface in relation to
the volume of the item. This will affect the rate at which temperatures changes within the
material and the rate of heat removal. Vegetable materials may be different sizes. -

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10.3 The process of freezing

Vegetables contain water with dissolved solids (solutes). The removal of heat from an aqueous system
causes temperature to reduce. Before freezing can happen, a process of undercooling can occur. Before
ice can separate out, a seeding process known as nucleation must initiate crystallization. Ice crystals then
propagate from these seeds. See figure below. As heat is removed, the temperature drops below the
freezing point at A, and undercooling persists to B where nucleation initiates growth of ice crystals. The
release of latent heat then brings the temperature up to C. Further cooling produce ice as shown.

The process of nucleation and propagation of ice depends on the rate of heat removal. Rapid heat
removal allows a large undercooling to develop and nucleation take place at many points or centers
within the vegetable. Small ice crystals form and these will lead to maintaining the structural integrity of
the frozen vegetable product. However, slow heat removal allows much less undercooling and
formation of fewer but larger ice crystals. The large ice crystals may lead to rupture of the tissues and
hence structural degradation and loss of flavors, color etc. (NB greater undercooling will lead to rapid
propagation of ice crystal leading to more nucleation sites within the tissues).

Cause of undercooling: In intact tissues, the ice may form in the intercellular space while the cell
contents may remain unfrozen. This leads to development of osmotic pressure leading to dehydration of
the cell leaving a more highly concentrated unfrozen phase in the cells. This will be affected by the cell
permeability. If the extracellular medium continues to cool, and concentrate its fluid component, there
will be a need for continued water removal from the cell in order to maintain an osmotic balance. If this
does not occur, or occur sufficiently rapid, the cell undercools.

Therefore, depending on the cooling conditions and the characteristics of the cell, the cells may
dehydrate or freeze internally.

N.B: The texture and initial color of rapidly frozen raw tissue are often superior to those of the slowly
frozen raw tissue. However, just like in slow cooling, rapid cooling may also lead to generation of off-
flavors and off-colors during extended frozen storage.

10.3.1 Steps in Industrial Freezing of Vegetables

The steps involved in industrial freezing of vegetables include:-

1. Harvesting and transportation of the vegetable to the processing plant. This must be done as fast
as possible to avoid loss of quality under inappropriate conditions.

2. The material is cleaned immediately using clean water as indicated in the previous preparation
procedures for vegetables.

3. The vegetables are sorted and graded. This can be done at the processing line or even at the farm.
Grading may be done on basis of size, color, maturity etc.

4. After sorting and grading, further cleaning may be needed as the vegetable may have been
contaminated during grading

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 5. The vegetable may be peeled (if necessary) and then cut up into appropriate sizes.

6. Some vegetables may require blanching, when blanched they must be cooled prior to further
processing. The blanching will vary according to the size and characteristics of the vegetables.

7. The vegetable should now be cooled to remove some of the heat from the product to storage
temperature or below. This can be done using cool water or air. The vegetables can be cooled
using any of the various types of freezers such as immersion freezers using brine in which the
vegetables are dipped; blast air freezers; batch plate freezers; tunnel air blast freezers; etc.

8. Frozen storage of the vegetable usually at -20oC or below for long time storage of frozen
vegetables. Avoid temperature fluctuations during storage as this can reduce storage life.
Temperature fluctuations acceleration of physical processes especially those involving migration
of water leading to water build up on the internal surfaces of the packaging material. In some
cases, freezer burns result which is a combination of surface dehydration, followed by surface
oxidation. Other changes are growth of ice crystals within the product, color changes,
dehydration of the products.

The steps undertaken will actually depend on the vegetable in question and the intended product.

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