LESSON 2: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements, Physical Science

A. The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

The Indivisible Atom

Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who
believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They
became the first proponents of the atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from the Greek word atomos meaning
uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that surrounds them, repelling each
other when they collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space inside that will make them prone to
disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.

These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but were strongly opposed by others
especially Aristotle.

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the existence of atoms proposed by
Leucippus and Democritus. He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms. Instead, he believed that everything in
the universe is made up of the four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that believing in atoms would mean
putting restriction on the gods, who have the power to divide elements smaller than the atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in Europe, where Roman Catholics were strongly
influenced by his ideas. They believed that ideas about the atoms equated to Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the
atom was dismissed for centuries. However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments were
rediscovered in France at the start of the Renaissance period. The theory of Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus'
and Leucippus' theory on the existence of atoms was proven right.

B. The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles
Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible
particles called atoms. However, their atomic theory was based only on assumptions. It was not until the early
1800s that experiments were performed to develop models for the structure of the atom.

In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He studied how the properties of
individual gases affect the properties of the mixtures of these gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of
the particles making up different gases must be different. After several experiments, he concluded that all matter is
composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken down into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of one
element are identical to each other but different from the atoms of another element.

Discovery of the Subatomic Particles

The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model. His
model consisted of negatively charged particles (plum) spread evenly throughout the positively charged material (pudding).
The small, negatively charged particles are called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the planetary model which described the
atom as small, dense, and has a positively charged core called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged
particles called the protons. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or electrons. The electrostatic
attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated in the nucleus together with the
proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike the latter, it has no electric charge.

Recent Atomic Models

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which according to the laws of physics,
will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would have electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom
unstable. Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels. An
electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher energy level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy
level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals. It
explains that it is impossible to determine the exact location of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable
location. It incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to another by absorbing or
emitting energy.

C. Understanding the Structure of Atom: The Contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley,
and Niels Bohr
J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments using a high-vacuum
cathode-ray tube that was composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom. He
also proposed a sea of positive charge for the overall neutrality of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model
known as the plum pudding model depicting a sphere of positive charge (pudding) with negatively charged particles
(plums) embedded all throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged particles called protons. He
advised his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to bombard a thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He
assumed that the alpha particles would just pass straight through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space.
However, after the experiment, some particles passed right through it, and some were deflected. He arrived at these
two conclusions: (1) The atom contained an empty space, as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom
had a very dense center of positive charge. From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed that
the electrons moved around a nucleus.
Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray in studying the structure of the atom. During this
time, a coherent structure of the atom was being developed, starting from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron to
Rutherford’s publication of his planetary model. He published results of his measurements of wavelengths of the X-ray
emissions of some elements that coincided with the order of their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up
Rutherford’s structure of the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also justified that the atomic
number of an element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since the electron and the nucleus have
opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model
by proposing that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.

D. The Nuclear Model of the Atom

As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement in the atom were developed. There was J. J.
Thomson’s plum-pudding model, which he proposed after his discovery of the electrons. Then there was Ernest
Rutherford’s planetary model, proposed after the discovery of the protons in the nucleus.

The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of the atom. It contains protons and
neutrons. Overall, it is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The electrons orbit around it.

The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.

Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and Ernest Marsden, an undergraduate student, shot a narrow
beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil and measured the scattering pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was
observed that some particles deflected, and others penetrated through the sheet of gold foil.

There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the positively charged alpha particles by a positively charged
material. If this charge existed in a sphere with the same size of the atom, the force should have been weak. This led to the
assumption that the charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were concentrated in a small part of the total
volume of the atom called the nucleus.

Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model

The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons remained in their orbit without falling into the nucleus.
Another problem is the electron's continuous centripetal acceleration and the energy lost through electromagnetic radiation.
This energy would make it approach the nucleus while increasing the electrostatic force. The increase in force would
increase the acceleration and the emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus and the electrons would collide with each other.
This means that the atom would be unstable.

E. The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the question "What are the primordial substances from which everything is
made up of?"Some of them believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air;Heraclitus supposed it was fire; Thales believed that it was water;
and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.

Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, are the primordial substances. He called them roots.
 Plato, the founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of higher learning in the Western world), first used the
term element. The word element came from the Greek word “στοιχεῖον” (stoicheion) which means smallest division.

Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named them Platonic solids. Air was an octahedron; fire was a
tetrahedron; water was an icosahedron; and earth was a cube. He also added a fifth one, a dodecahedron, which
was the shape of the Universe.

Aristotle, a student of Plato, described each element with two qualities. He stated that air was wet and hot; fire was
hot and dry; water was wet and cold; and earth was dry and cold. He then added a fifth element, aether. He thought
aether was the finest of all substances, the “quintessence,” associated with the heavenly realm. It was neither hot
nor cold and was neither wet nor dry.

F. The Contributions of the Alchemists to the Science of Chemistry

Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and Europe.

Asian Alchemy
Alchemy developed independently in India. Major accomplishments of Indian alchemists included isolation of
metallic zinc, the invention of steel, and use of flame to identify metals.

In China, alchemy was started by monks. The creation of gold was an aim, but the ultimate goal was prolonging life.
While trying to find the elixir of life, the Chinese were able to invent gunpowder. Also, through their experiments with
sulfur, mercury, and arsenic, they were able to create poisons such as mercuric sulfide.

In Baghdad, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, a famous Islamic alchemist, used controlled experiments in his investigations. He
was diligent in writing his activities and observations. His works were the first to mention silver nitrate and red oxide
of mercury (mercuric oxide). His writings also described a handful of laboratory techniques — distillation,
crystallization, reduction, calcination, dissolution, and sublimation.

Egyptian Alchemy
Alchemy probably evolved from the Egyptian metallurgy, extending back to 3500 B.C. Some of the Egyptian documents on
alchemy contained manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. They also contained recipes for dyes and procedures for
making artificial gemstones and fabricating pearls. The recipes and procedures were combined with the knowledge of the
classical elements, air, fire, water, and earth.
European Alchemy
Alchemy also thrived in Europe. One of the foremost alchemists was Paracelsus, who believed that the organs of the body
worked alchemically. He proposed that the three essentials or tria prima, salt, mercury, and sulfur, should be balanced to
maintain health. He also treated diseases with alchemical approach. He used inorganic salts, minerals, and metals to treat
illnesses. He also created laudanum, an opium tincture used as a painkiller.

The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry

As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and more cryptic. They used unintelligible names for
substances. They borrowed symbols and words from myths. Even the simplest formula read like a magic spell. Even though
they used common techniques, alchemists had no standardized scientific practice.

By the 17th century, alchemy began to decline, as the scientific method was being established. Although alchemists failed
in their lofty goals, they left behind a rich knowledge of chemical information. They contributed to the vast uses of chemicals
such as inks, paints, and cosmetics. They were able to create procedures to prepare liquors. They developed porcelain
material that became China’s most valuable commodity. Their contributions had been valuable to advancing civilization.

Nonetheless, alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of Chemistry.

G. The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements

Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy

Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of
protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element. He began his study of radioactivity in Ernest
Rutherford’s laboratory but later decided to explore more on X-rays.

In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic table based on their atomic
numbers. He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an element. He bombarded a beam of electrons
to different elements and measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of the X-rays given
off by an element was mathematically related to the position of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency is
proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number.

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the table. These gaps
corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory through
nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the
transformation of one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded alpha particles from radium directed to the
nitrogen nuclei. He showed that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the alpha particles to form an oxygen nuclei. The reaction is
written as

714N+24He→817O+11H

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each other. Therefore, instead
of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral
particles) in particle accelerators.

The Discovery of the Missing Elements

Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
Two of these elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle accelerators.

A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons and
the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a linear particle
accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named
Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word "technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with atomic number 85. They bombarded
atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses
alternating electric field to accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. Element-85
was named astatine from the Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.

The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered through studies in radioactivity. Element-61
(Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as
a breakdown product of uranium.

Synthesis of New Elements

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved
that an element having an atomic number 93 could be created. He used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium with
neutrons and created an element with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium
with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium elements. Hence,
neptunium and plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay radioactively into other elements.
All of these elements were discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic elements. They are prepared using
nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of
these transuranium elements.

H. The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New Elements

Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce new nuclei. There are two types of nuclear
reaction: nuclear transmutation and nuclear decay reaction.

Nuclear Transmutation
A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element into another element. It happens when a
nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle to produce a more massive nucleus. It occurs only on special conditions such as
the collision of the target nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.

In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford. He bombarded nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles to
form oxygen nuclei. In the next decades, other nuclear reactions were discovered by bombarding other elements with alpha
particles. However, since these particles have a strong repulsive force with the target nuclei (both are positively charged),
the progress in discovering elements was slow. Scientists then tried other particles with higher energies. In 1932, major
advancements in nuclear reactions took place. Particle accelerators, which use a projectile of high-energy particles, were
invented.

Transuranium Elements

Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than 92. They are all unstable and undergo
radioactive decay. Many of the transuranium elements were prepared using particle accelerators, and much of this work
was facilitated by a group of scientists led by the American chemist, Glenn Theodore Seaborg, and later, nuclear
scientist Albert Ghiorso in the University of California.

The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements specifically in the lower members of the series (elements 93 to
95), was through nitrogen bombardment. As for the heavier transuranium elements (96 to 101), they were generally
prepared with high-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and ions.
Examples
Neptunium (Z = 93)

The first transuranium element was identified by Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson in 1940. It was named neptunium,
bearing an atomic number of 93. They acquired the radioactive isotope of neptunium through the bombardment of uranium
oxide with slow neutrons. This reaction can be represented as

92238U+01n→93239Np+−10β

Plutonium (Z = 94)

After the discovery of 239Np, the decay of this element led to the discovery of another element, bearing an atomic number of
94. Seaborg, together with McMillan, Wahl, and Kennedy bombarded uranium with deuterons to form 238Np, with a half-life of
two days, which then decayed into 238Pu, with a half life of 92 days. The reactions can be represented as

92238U+12D→93238Np+210n

93238Np→94238Pu+−10β

Nuclear Decay Reaction

Nuclear decay reaction, also known as radioactive decay, is a reaction in which the nucleus emits radiation and
transforms into a new nucleus. The parent nuclei are unstable, and the resulting daughter nuclei are more stable, having
lower mass and energy. Transuranium elements are unstable that they undergo radioactive decay resulting in more stable
elements.

The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium elements are alpha decay, beta decay, and
spontaneous fission.

Alpha Decay

The alpha decay is a reaction that emits helium-4 nucleus or alpha particle, 42α. This decay produces a daughter nucleus
with an atomic number reduced by two, and a mass number reduced by four compared with the parent nucleus. Most nuclei
with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo this type of decay. The general reaction can be represented as

AZX→A−4Z−2Y+42α

where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents the parent nucleus, and Y represents the daughter
nucleus.

For example, neptunium-237, the most abundant isotope of neptunium, undergoes alpha decay to form protactinium-233.
The nuclear reaction is represented as

23793Ne→23391Pa+42α

Beta Decay

In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and emits an electron in the form of a beta particle. The atomic number
goes up by one while its mass number remains the same. The general reaction can be represented as

AZX→AZ+1Y+0−1β

For example, curium-249 undergoes decay by beta particle emission to form berkelium-249. The balanced equation for this
reaction is represented as

24996Cm→24997Bk+0−1β
Spontaneous Fission

In spontaneous fission, the nucleus breaks into pieces into different atomic numbers and mass numbers. This occurs in
very massive nuclei. For instance, californium-254 undergoes spontaneous fission, making various sets of fission products.
One possible set can be represented as

25498Cf→11846Pd+13252Te+40n

I. Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements: The Contributions of John Dalton

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in the development of the atomic theory. In his theory,
he proposed that elements differ due to the mass of their atoms.

The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but differ from another element’s.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, whole number ratio.
5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.

The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery of isotopes, subatomic particles, and nuclear reactions.
However, Dalton’s atomic theory has been widely recognized because it became the foundation of the modern concept of
the atom.

Dalton's Table of Elements

Dalton published his atomic theory in New System of Chemical Philosophy. Back then, he needed to propose a new set of
standard symbols for chemical elements because the Greeks' and alchemists' symbols for elements were not supported by
his theory. He first published his table of elements according to increasing relative atomic weights. The elements were
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. He assumed that the atomic weight of hydrogen was one, and
calculated the rest of the elements' atomic weights based on hydrogen. After more experiments, he listed 20 elements with
different symbols and atomic weights.

Law of Multiple Proportions

In 1806, French chemist Joseph Proust published his law of definite proportions. This law states that a chemical
compound is formed by elements in fixed mass ratios. For example, carbon monoxide (CO) is comprised of one carbon and
one oxygen. By mass, carbon monoxide can be described by the fixed ratio of 12:16 (mass of carbon:mass of oxygen), and
simplified as 3:4.

Expanding on the work of Proust, Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions. This law was based on Dalton's
observations of the reactions of atmospheric gases. It states that when two or more elements can form multiple
combinations, the ratio of the elements in those compounds can be expressed in small, whole numbers. For example,
carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In CO, the ratio of carbon to
oxygen is 1:1. It is a fixed ratio of whole numbers. In CO2, the fixed ratio is 1:2.

Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms. He published seventeen compounds in the New System of
Chemical Philosophy. He listed the compounds as binary, ternary, quaternary, quinquenary, sextenary, and septenary.

A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two atoms of azote (nitrogen) may combine to form a binary
compound.

A ternary compound is formed by three atoms. For example, when one atom of nitrogen combines with two atoms of
oxygen, then the resulting compound, nitrogen dioxide, is ternary.

Similarly, quarternary compounds are made of four atoms; quinquenary are made of five; sextenary are made of six;
and septenaryare made of seven.

Dalton’s system of naming elements and compounds were then replaced with the chemical symbols and formulae by Jons
Berzelius. Berzelius’ symbols are the ones we use today.