PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL ON PRECISION ENGINEERING VO L U M E 4 9 – I S S U E 1

High-precision ‘flying carpet’ • Precision Fair 2008 report

The past and future of Dutch precision engineering research
The Leuven piezomotor • ColourmapTM, the absolute XYA scale
Desktop micro-machining • Accelerated reliability testing

M I K R O N I E K I S A P U B L I C AT I O N O F T H E
DUTCH SOCIETY FOR PRECISION ENGINEERING
WWW.PRECISIEPORTAAL.NL
 The face of ...

TNO Science and Industry

Within the Business Unit Mechatronics Equipment precision technology

is a familiar term. What about a highly accurate spectrometer that orbits
in space for many years in extreme conditions and can continue to spot
the polluted air in your back garden? We can provide solutions for
these and more issues with the level of accuracy that is representative
not only of our field but also of our customer focus.

TNO.NL
 1
Publication information
Objective
Professional journal on precision
2009
-
Mikroniek

engineering and the official organ of the

DSPE (in Dutch, NVPT), the Dutch Society
for Precision Engineering. Mikroniek
provides current information about scientific,
technical and business developments in the
fields of precision engineering, mechatronics
and optics.
The journal is read by researchers and
In this issue
4
5
Editorial
Prof. Hendrik Van Brussel, president of euspen, on the Dutch
precision engineering success story.

High-precision ‘flying carpet’

Since 2002, Eindhoven University of Technology has been
investigating fully contactless, magnetically levitated, xy-positioning
systems.
professionals in charge of the development

10
and realisation of advanced precision
machinery. Precision Fair 2008 report
The leading theme at the Precision Fair 2008 was machining
innovative materials. A personal impression.

17 ColourmapTM, the absolute XYA scale

A system that could potentially revolutionise current thinking with
regard to applications that require two-dimensional measurements.

20 The Leuven piezomotor

A novel type of high-precision positioning system, a piezoelectric
motor, has been developed at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Publisher
DSPE (NVPT) Belgium.
PO Box 359

28
5600 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Telefoon +31 (0)40 – 296 99 11 Desktop micro-machining
Telefax +31 (0)40 – 296 99 10 The University of Manchester, UK, in a major EU-funded research
E-mail info@nvpt.nl project, has chosen an Aerotech positioning system for desktop
Subscription costs micro-machining.
The Netherlands

32 The past and future of Dutch precision

? 70.00 (excl. VAT) per year
Abroad
? 80.00 (excl. VAT) per year engineering research
A symposium in Eindhoven last December saw the
Editor
Hans van Eerden presentation of the past (IOP projects) and future
E-mail eerd9@introweb.nl (Point-One) of Dutch precision engineering research.

37
Advertising canvasser
Sales & Services Accelerated reliability testing
PO Box 2317 The Multiple Environmental Over Stress Testing
1620 EH Hoorn, The Netherlands
Telephone +31 (0)229 – 211 211 (MEOST) method appears to be a very strong tool
E-mail sns@wxs.nl for designing and developing robust and reliable
products and systems.
Design and realisation
Twin Media bv
PO Box 317
4100 AH Culemborg, The Netherlands
Telephone +31 (0)345 – 470 500
42 Mikrocentrum
Announcements, including Vision & Robotics 2009.
Fax +31 (0)345 – 470 570
E-mail info@twinmediabv.nl

Mikroniek appears six times a year.

43 News
Including:
Announcement Summer school Opto-Mechatronics 2009.
© Nothing from this publication may be
reproduced or copied without the express Book ‘Advanced engineering design’ updated and extended.
permission of the publisher.

ISSN 0026-3699

The cover photo (an impression of

the Precision Fair 2008) is courtesy
Mikrocentrum/Sylvia van der Nol.

3 Nr.1 2009
 The Dutch precision
engineering success
story
In Europe, the precision engineering discipline is historically rooted in the
need for accurate instruments and machines for astronomy, navigation,
surveying, weaponry, metrology (standards), and manufacturing (machine
editorial
tools). Nowadays the problems are equally challenging: trying to delay
the demise of Moore’s law in microelectronics by generating ultra-preci-
sion lithography machines, providing technologies for the production of
structured (nano)surfaces and high-precision microsystems, developing
technologies for producing ground-based and space optics, etc.
The high-tech products around us are taken for granted, particularly by
youngsters; people do not realize the formidable technological challenges
behind those engineering marvels. It is also not realized by society, parti­
cularly policy makers and funding agencies, that precision engineering is
the enabling technology at the very basis of those products.

The Netherlands have been at the vanguard of the evolution of precision

engineering in Europe. The extensive and longstanding research at Philips
has been instrumental in spinning out world-leading companies, like
ASML (lithography machines), FEI (electron microscopes), Singulus
(disc mastering equipment), and many more, turning the Eindhoven
region into a future world centre of precision engineering. This evolution
is backed by a longstanding tradition of teaching and research (in what
was originally called ‘fine mechanics’) at the Dutch technical universities
(now in 3TU context), and by far-sighted actions from Dutch government
agencies to massively fund R&D in nanotechnology, embedded systems
and mechatronics (Point-One Phase 2).

euspen, the European Society for Precision Engineering and Nano­

technology, has the important mission to increase the awareness of scien-
tific policy makers, funding agencies, and academic authorities of the
importance of precision engineering and to assist industry in the develop-
ment of innovative products that satisfy the needs of society. DSPE/
NVPT has the same mission at a national Dutch level. Mikroniek is an
excellent journal, unique in its kind, spreading the precision engineering
message at a level very well tuned to its readership. euspen applauds their
initiative to publish in English and is very happy to distribute these issues
to its members. euspen and DSPE consider this as a first step towards a
more intense collaboration.

Prof. dr. ir. Hendrik Van Brussel

President of euspen

Nr.1 2009 4
 Contactless planar actuator technology

High-precision
‘flying carpet’
Since 2002, Eindhoven University of Technology has been investigating fully contactless

xy-positioning systems. These magnetically levitated planar actuators consist of a

single carrier with permanent magnets that is levitated above an array of coils and can

move fast and accurately over long distances in the xy-plane. Because the magnets

are moving, there are no cables or cooling hoses connected to the moving part.

Nevertheless, data and energy can still be transferred, using contactless links.

This high-precision ‘flying carpet’ was one of the subjects in the lecture programme at

the Precision Fair 2008.

• Helm Jansen, Nelis van Lierop, Elena Lomonova and Paul van den Bosch •

M
Most multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) positioning
systems are constructed of several single-DOF linear and
rotary actuators with air bearings. All these individual
actuators are coupled using complex mechanical structures.
options for the planar actuator configuration. The actuator
has either stationary magnets and moving coils, or
stationary coils and moving magnets. The advantage of the
second configuration is that it is truly contactless because
However, the demand for higher accuracies, higher of the absence of cables connected to the moving part.
accelerations, and vacuum compatibility triggers actuator
solutions with multiple degrees of freedom and magnetic The Electromechanics and Power Electronics (EPE) group
bearings integrated in one actuator, a concept resulting in a and the Control Systems (CS) group of the Department of
low moving mass. Electrical Engineering at Eindhoven University of
An example of such a novel actuator is a magnetically Technology (TU/e), the Netherlands, have been conducting
levitated planar actuator. This actuator has only one research into these moving-magnet planar actuators since
moving body, the translator, which is suspended above a 2002 within the framework of two IOP-EMVT projects
stator with no support other than magnetic fields. The (Innovation-directed Research Programme ElectroMagnetic
translator can move over long distances in the xy-plane and Power Technology, funded by the Dutch Ministry of
is controlled in six degrees of freedom. There are two Economic Affairs). In the first research project, the

5 Nr.1 2009
 Contactless planar actuator technology

modeling, design and control frameworks for this type of The three-dimensional magnetic fields and the lack of
actuator have been established and proven on a fully symmetries and periodicity in the electromechanical
operational prototype. Afterwards, it has been demonstrated structure of moving-magnet planar actuators, require a
that data and energy can be transferred to the translator different design approach as compared to standard linear
using contactless links. These results were so promising and rotary actuators. Moreover, all degrees of freedom are
that recently an industrial project was started to investigate intrinsically coupled. Contrary to many other magnetically
whether this technology can be used to construct a single- levitated systems such as maglev trains, the bearing and
stage, nanometer-accurate, long-stroke xy-positioning propulsion functions are not separated into different parts
system. of the actuator. Only the force production in the xy-plane
can be physically decoupled by applying rectangular coils
Planar actuator as shown in Figure 1.
Magnetically levitated planar actuators with moving
magnets are coreless actuators that are solely constructed To design the planar actuator, research in two different
of coils and permanent magnets. A schematic overview of directions was carried out. Firstly, an electromagnetic
a moving-magnet planar actuator is shown in Figure 1. modeling framework was created that can be used for a fast
This planar actuator topology has been patented by TU/e prediction of the force and torque produced by the actuator.
and has 84 stator coils which are arranged in a herringbone Because the actuator is coreless, 3D finite-element
pattern. For that reason it is named Herringbone Pattern simulation turned out to be very slow and time-consuming.
Planar Actuator (HPPA) [1][2]. Onto the translator, 385 Instead, several accurate semi-analytical models were
NdFeB permanent magnets are glued in a two-dimensional created that can be used for both design and real-time
array with a quasi-Halbach magnetization. Because only control. These models allow the derivation of simple
the coils below the surface of the magnet array effectively design rules for the coil and magnet dimensions.
contribute to its levitation and propulsion, the set of active
coils (in this case 24 coils) is switched during movement in Secondly, research was carried out into commutation and
the xy-plane. The stroke of the planar actuator can simply coil switching algorithms. Because all degrees of freedom
be increased by adding extra stator coils. are intrinsically coupled, standard decoupling algorithms

Figure 1. Overview of the Herringbone Pattern Planar Actuator.

Nr.1 2009 6
for synchronous machines cannot be applied to the planar itself. Because the inductive sensors only have a range of
actuator to decouple the force and torque components. 2 mm, the xy-robot follows the same xy-trajectory as the
Therefore, a novel commutation algorithm was derived that planar actuator during long-stroke measurements. However,
inverts a fully analytical mapping of the force and the the planar actuator and xy-robot are controlled
torque exerted by the set of active coils as a function of independently and do not make contact. At standstill the
translator position and orientation. This algorithm position and angular error of the planar actuator was
guarantees a minimal energy dissipation by the actuator approximately 0.1 µm and 1 µrad rms, and during high-
and smooth switching between different sets of stator coils. speed trajectories less than 30 µm and 0.1 mrad. During
With this algorithm the controllability of different these measurements, six SISO controllers with a 35 Hz
topologies could be tested. The combination of both the bandwidth were used to control the six degrees of freedom
electromagnetic modeling framework and the commutation of the planar actuator. The power dissipation for levitating
algorithm turned out to be an excellent tool to evaluate the translator 1 mm above the stator is approximately 40 W.
many different planar actuator topologies and to predict
performance indicators fast. In several hours, a full planar Planar actuator with manipulator
actuator could be evaluated on thousands of different Although a planar actuator with moving magnets can be
positions. applied as a position stage, many applications require
sensors on top of the stage. It would be a waste of all the
Figure 2 shows the prototype that was built to verify the effort that went into creating a fully contactless stage, to
developed theories. Its topology is shown more clearly in install power supply and data cables to these sensors. To
Figure 1. The translator has a size of 300 by 300 mm and a demonstrate that both power and data can be transferred
mass of 8.2 kg. It consists of an aluminum construction, without any contact to a moving-magnet planar actuator, a
with mechanical eigenfrequencies of 785 Hz and higher, planar actuator with a manipulator on top of it is
onto which the magnets are glued. It can move in the investigated in the still ongoing second IOP-EMVT project.
xy-plane with a stroke of 230 by 230 mm. The maximum In this actuator system, three contactless technologies have
velocity and acceleration in the xy-plane are 1.4 m/s and been combined: magnetic levitation, contactless energy
14 m/s2, respectively. transfer and wireless communication [3].

The position of the translator is reconstructed on the basis Figure 3 shows a photo of this system. Below the black
of data from eight inductive sensors that are mounted on an surface the stator coils are located. Although rectangular
external xy-robot and from the encoders of the xy-robot coils are more efficient for a planar actuator, round coils

Figure 2. Herringbone Pattern Planar Actuator and measurement frame

7 Nr.1 2009
 Contactless planar actuator technology

were chosen to simplify the contactless energy transfer. and a transmission delay of only 7 µs [4]. Also for the
Some of these stator coils are wire wound and some are VFIR link a custom communication protocol was written.
Litz wire wound. The Litz wire coils have two functions. For transmitter-receiver distances smaller than 0.7 m, the
They can be used to produce force for the planar actuator optical link is significantly more reliable than the radio link
when they are below the permanent magnets, and to and has a CRC error rate of less than 10-7.
transfer power when they are below the secondary coils of
the contactless energy transfer system. The inductive Advanced Single-stage Planar Actuator
energy transfer system is a coreless transformer with Nanometre-accurate stages often consist of a short-stroke
multiple primary coils that operates at 158 kHz. The nanometre stage on top of a micrometer-accurate long-
secondary coil of the transformer is the large coil that stroke stage. Because of the absence of disturbing hoses
overlaps several primary coils and is mounted at the side of and cables connected to moving-magnet planar actuators,
the planar-actuator translator. The transferred power is the main question after completing the first planar-actuator
rectified and used to drive a two degree-of-freedom project was if this technology could be applied to realize a
manipulator that is placed on top of the translator. This long-stroke nanometre-accurate stage with only one
system can transfer 100 W with an efficiency of 72%. moving part. In April 2008, the third planar-actuator
The controller of this manipulator is placed on the fixed project was granted by the Ministry of Economic Affairs
world. Hence, position data and current setpoints have to (‘Pieken in de Delta’ programme) to investigate the
be transmitted from and to the current amplifiers on the possibility of an Advanced Single-stage Planar Actuator
moving platform. This data is transmitted with a 1.5 Mbit (ASPA).
low latency 2.4 GHz wireless link. Because the data
transfer is in the loop of the controller, IP-based protocols In this project several industrial partners, ASML, Prodrive,
that are applied for W-LAN could not be used because of Tecnotion and VDL-ETG, will participate together with the
their large delays (several milliseconds). Consequently, a EPE and CS groups of the Electrical Engineering
new protocol for data transmission was written, having a Department and the Control Systems Technology group of
delay of 0.3 milliseconds. Furthermore, a very fast infrared the Mechanical Engineering Department of TU/e, to
link (VFIR) was designed, having a data rate of 16 Mbit investigate and realize this nanometre-accurate single-stage

Figure 3. Planar actuator with manipulator and wireless energy and data transfer.

Nr.1 2009 8
planar actuator. Whereas in the previous projects rigid- Authors’ note
body dynamics was assumed, this assumption does not Helm Jansen received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
hold in the new project as flexible modes of the moving electrical engineering from Eindhoven University of
translator should be actively compensated by over- Technology (TU/e). He is a postdoctoral researcher in the
actuation to achieve the desired accuracy. Hence, the force field of linear and planar actuators in the Electromechanics
distribution should be controlled over the surface of the and Power Electronics group at the same university.
translator as illustrated in Figure 4. Furthermore, the Nelis van Lierop studied electrical engineering at TU/e,
modeling and design of the planar actuator has to be where he also carried out his Ph.D. work. Since 2009, he is
improved and the influence of model inaccuracies and an assistant professor in the Control Systems group of the
production tolerances on the closed-loop performance has same university.
to be investigated and minimized. Another important aspect Elena Lomonova was born in Moscow, Russia. She
is the reduction of the number of amplifiers in the system. received her M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
As only a small part of the stator coils are energized engineering from Moscow State Aviation Institute (TU). In
simultaneously, it is not economic to have each coil 2001 she joined the Electromechanics and Power
connected to its own amplifier. In the project an integral Electronics group at TU/e, where she currently is an
design approach will be followed, combining associate professor.
electromechanics, control design and mechanical design. Paul van den Bosch received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
from Delft University of Technology. After his study he
joined the Control Systems group in Delft, and was
appointed full professor in 1988. Since 1993 he has been
full professor and chair of the Control Systems group of
the Department of Electrical Engineering at TU/e.

References
[1] J.W. Jansen, Magnetically levitated planar actuator
with moving magnets: Electromechanical analysis and
design, Ph.D. dissertation, Eindhoven University of
Technology, 2007.
[2] C.M.M. van Lierop, Magnetically levitated planar
actuator with moving magnets: Dynamics
commutation and control design, Ph.D. dissertation,
Eindhoven University of Technology, 2008.
[3] J. de Boeij, Multi-level contactless motion system,
Figure 4. Schematic representation of the use of over-actuation to Ph.D. dissertation, Eindhoven University of
compensate flexible modes. Technology, 2009.
[4] M. Gajdusek, T.T. Overboom, A.A.H. Damen, P.P.J.
Because the measurement system of the planar actuator van den Bosch, Infrared wireless data transfer for real-
shown in Figure 2 limits the accuracy of this actuator, it time motion control, Proceedings IFAC Workshop on
will be equipped with a laser interferometer system to Programmable Devices, 2009.
re-measure its performance. These measurements will be
the starting point of the research, which will hopefully
result in a new generation of highly accurate positioning Information
stages based on moving-magnet planar-actuator
technology. w3.ele.tue.nl/nl/epe
w3.ele.tue.nl/nl/cs

9 Nr.1 2009
 Precision Fair 2008

Precision resists
The best way to resist recession is to ignore it and continue to demonstrate your capabilities.

That is what happened at the Precision Fair (Precisiebeurs) 2008 in Veldhoven. The leading

theme this year was machining innovative materials, although this item was not so promi-

nently represented at the fair. Nevertheless, the exhibition did offer impressive proof of the

know-how in the Dutch precision technology industry. The precision industry is rapidly learn-

ing how to beat Asian competition by keeping unmanned machining equipment in operation

for 24 hours a day. And not only with the aim of earning back huge investments but also to

reproduce extreme precision in complicated product series. Again, the Technology Hotspot

showcased the ability of universities and other institutes to assist the Dutch precision industry

in its pursuit of a leading edge position.

• Frans Zuurveen •

w
Writing an even-handed report about the Precision Fair
2008 is an almost impossible task within the context of a
brief visit and the scope of this article. This is, therefore, a
very personal impression coloured by a senior scientist
bring a similar bearing onto the market. Stijn Sempels
explained that the rotational accuracy of the K.U.Leuven
bearing is 50 nm, the reason being that the bearing is to be
used in an accurate turntable for grinding components for a
with a metrological, optical and precision-mechanical miniature gas turbine generator. This generator uses hydro-
background, and delighted by seeing the fresh approach to gen as a fuel and will provide 1 kW power output within a
precision technology problems taken by younger people. very small volume. The diameters of the turbine and com-
pressor wheels are only 20 mm (see Figure 2). The highly
Technology Hotspot challenging specifications prescribe a rotational speed of
Innovation can be seen as a flywheel for making precision 500,000 rpm and temperatures up to 930 °C. The Precision
technology profitable. That is why research institutes are Fair 2008 theme was reflected clearly in the material selec-
assisting the precision industry in the selection process for tion: titanium for the compressor wheel and Si3N4-TiN
future investments. ceramic for the turbine wheel. With the extremely high
A good example of this is an air bearing in a round table temperature differences inside the turbine, innovative mate-
shown by K.U.Leuven University in Belgium (see Figure rials such as these are essential.
1). Its special design prompted Leuven Air Bearings to

Nr.1 2009 10
recession

Figure 1. An air bearing designed by Figure 2. The experimental setup for a

K.U.Leuven University, with a rotational gas turbine with 500,000 rpm, shown by
accuracy of 50 nm. K.U.Leuven.

More Hotspot surprises Figure 3. A light and stiff balance arm for
ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy the James Webb Space Telescope (to be
in Dwingeloo, develops novel and innovative technologies launched in 2013), realised by Astron’s
to make discoveries in radio astronomy. Spin-offs in the ­patented pocket milling machining
form of a range of advanced precision technologies have ­technology.
been generated by that mission. Astron’s Ronald Halfwerk
reported that the institute is taking part in a project for
building an IR spectrometer for JWST MIRI SMO, the
James Webb Space Telescope that will be replacing the
well-known Hubble telescope in 2013. The components in
the telescope have to be light and stiff, requirements that
are, in most cases, contradictory. Astron has developed an
advanced patented technology for milling special pockets
in solid aluminium. It leaves thin walls for high stiffness
and nevertheless removes more than 95% of the material
(see Figure 3). Figure 4 shows the IR spectrometer for the
JWST in a one-part aluminium frame with polished gold-
coated Al mirrors with a Ti interlayer.
3TU, a partnership between Eindhoven, Delft and Twente
Universities of Technology, showed an adaptive mirror
made of 0.1 mm thick Pyrex glass. Simon Ravensberger
explained that 61 reluctance-magnetic actuators perform
local deformations in the mirror, which makes it possible
to compensate wavefront aberrations caused by refractive
index variations in air. Figure 5 shows a miniaturised pro-
totype developed by the Netherlands Organisation for
Applied Scientific Research’s (TNO) Science and Industry
department (a Ph.D. dissertation by Roger Hamelinck) for
later application with many more actuators in EELT, the Figure 4. IR spectrometer for James Webb Space Telescope,
European Extremely Large Telescope. developed by Astron.

11 Nr.1 2009
 Precision Fair 2008

Figure 5. Miniaturised prototype of an adaptive mirror with 61 Figure 7. Stamhuis Lineairtechniek showed guiding systems in
actuators to compensate for refractive index variations in air. many variations, with Schneeberger guides prominently in the
foreground.

Also at the 3TU stand, soccer robots where shown; see

Figure 6. Eindhoven University of Technology for some
time has been engaged in international robot soccer compe-
titions, and now a humanoid soccer robot is being devel-
oped in a 3TU project.

Guiding and machining

Many sellers of precision guides and makers of precision
products were present: business as usual, one might say.
Stamhuis Lineairtechniek, for instance, showed a range of
small or large guides with or without integrated measuring
system and with or without driving system (see Figure 7).
The well-known Schneeberger guides were on display at
the Stamhuis stand and, of course, at the Schneeberger
stand. Stamhuis’ motto is ‘create and innovate together’.

Many mechanical machining firms showed their high-pre-

cision products. No great surprise really but it is always a
pleasure to see how mechanical machining pushes its limits
(see Figure 8). Figure 9 shows a complicated product
machined by Kusters Metaalbewerking.
Lowering costs can become a reality if expensive machines
are operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Peter Adema
of Wilting Components says that his firm invested both in
CNC machines and in handling equipment to move pro­
ducts from one station to an other. Figure 10 shows a com-
plicated precision product that requires long machining
times. It can only be produced at acceptable prices if
machining can go on continuously, day and night. Figure
11 shows an SMD parts feeder assembly that used to be
made in China. Recently, the manufacture and assembly of
this complicated product returned to the Netherlands
Figure 6. A soccer robot at the 3TU stand. because Wilting Components succeeded in drastically low-
(Photo: Mikrocentrum/Sylvia van der Nol) ering the cost price.

Nr.1 2009 12
Figure 8. Products machined by Bakker Figure 9. A precision product machined by Figure 10. A complicated pro­duct that
Fijnmetaal. Their specialisation is the Kusters Metaalbewerking. Wilting Components machines in a 24/7
machining of copper. working cycle.

Comfortable measuring Aart de Raad established MuRaad, a firm that specialises in

Not that long ago you had to write down two numbers and geometric measuring techniques. He showed the Schneider
subtract them to measure diameter. Mahr and Mitutoyo WMM 300 shaft measuring machine for pieces of up to
demonstrate that computer-controlled machines make 300 mm in length (see Figure 14). Schneider also supplies
measuring much easier today by automatically focusing on WMM machines for 600 and 1000 measuring ranges,
both sides of a hole in transmitted light. Automatic edge designed for measuring lengths, diameters, radii and angles
detection is the name of this trick in a MarVision MM 320 of long rotationally symmetric work pieces in one working
measuring machine with a zoom lens and a measuring cycle. Using a CCD camera, the machine works rapidly and
accuracy of 3 + L/100 µm (L in mm) (see Figure 12). The precisely with an accuracy of 2 + L/200 µm (L in mm).
Mitutoyo Quick Image (see Figure 13) is comparably easy
to use thanks to the same feature. It provides 2D measur­ Peter Schmidt of T&S Gesellschaft für Längenprüftechnik
ements using a 1.4 megapixel CCD camera. The Mitutoyo showed the ConturoMatic, a machine that measures both
has a double telecentric objective with a high depth of field
as an extra advantage.

Figure 11. An SMD-parts feeder assembly formerly pro- Figure 12. A MarVision MM Figure 13. A Mitutoyo Quick Image
duced in China, now by Wilting Components. 320 measuring machine, part measuring machine for easy 2D
of the VIBA product range. ­measurements.

13 Nr.1 2009
 Precision Fair 2008

Figure 14. A Schneider WMM 300 shaft Figure 15. Marcus Fabich explained the many features of the Olympus LEXT
measuring machine, shown by MuRaad. confocal laser scanning microscope.

surface roughness and form with an accuracy of 1.5 + At the Heidenhain stand, an interesting set-up showed the
L/100 µm (L in mm). Its speciality is that it is provided influence temperature has on measuring scales made from
with a high vertical measuring range, with the advantage three different materials. All three scales have a resolution
that the vertical distance of two profiles is easy to deter- of 0.1 µm (see Figure 16). This makes it clear that selecting
mine. A ConturoMatic T3 with air bearings will be avail- the right scale material is crucial. In general, it can be con-
able in a few months, with an accuracy of 1 + L/100 µm cluded that choosing a zero coefficient of thermal expan-
(L in mm) within a 320 to 300 mm measuring range. sion only makes sense in climatised rooms.

Miscellaneous items Hans Ott of IBS showed a frictionless gravity compensator

Olympus exhibited its LEXT, a confocal laser scanning (see Figure 17) to be integrated into IBS’ new measuring
microscope (see Figure 15). It provides two different imag- machine ISARA 400 with a measuring range of 400 to 400
es, a normal light-microscopic image and an image resulting to 100 mm. The compensator is provided with air bearings
from scanning the specimen surface with a fine laser spot. It and a linear motor to deliver the vertical force required to
can function as a roughness tester, an image microscope, a equilibrate gravity.
3D measuring instrument and as an alternative for a scan- The large number of Vision Engineering stereo micro-
ning electron microscope at low magnification. For this last scopes on display at the Sondag Optische Instrumenten
application, it has the extra advantage that no specimen stand presented a beautiful picture (see Figure 18).
preparation is needed. The resolution in vertical direction is
no less than 10 nm, and 120 nm in horizontal directions.

Nr.1 2009 14
 b

Figure 16. The influence of temperature on Heidenhain ­measuring

scales from zerodur (α = 0), glass (α = 8.10-6) and
metal (α = 10.10-6).
(a) Set-up.
(b) Detail, calculated Δl on the right.
a

Figure 18. Vision Engineering stereo microscopes represented by

Sondag Optische Instrumenten.

Figure 17. An IBS frictionless gravity compensator for the vertical

axes of the new ISARA 400.

15 Nr.1 2009
 Precision Fair 2008

NTS Mechatronics is part of the NTS Group with a range Author’s note
of companies interfacing precision technology. Emile Frans Zuurveen is a freelance text writer who lives in
Asselbergs and Hugo Timmers proudly showed examples Vlissingen, the Netherlands.
of NTS skills, i.e. vacuum assemblies and loading systems
for electron microscopes. NTS Mechatronics also manufac-
tures the new FEI Phenom, an interesting mixture of light
microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (see Figure
19).

Conclusion
As mentioned before, this selection of Precision Fair 2008
items is coloured by personal preferences, so chances are
that some visitors and exhibitors will miss references to
their particular interests and contributions. Laser machin-
ing, for instance, does not feature in this article, an omis-
sion that will probably be corrected in a next Precision Fair
review. All in all, judging by the nearly 3K visitors, a visit
to this Precision Fair was more than worthwhile – and it is Figure 19. The FEI
certainly an indispensable event for the Dutch precision Phenom, combining a light
industry. microscope and a SEM.

Busiest Precision Fair to date

The eighth edition of the Precision Fair, held on 26 and 27 With 215 exhibitors, the fair was fully booked up.
November 2008 in the NH Conference Centre Koningshof Forty ­lectures attracted a total of 1,150 attendants.
in Veldhoven, the Netherlands, was the busiest to date, The next Precision Fair will be held on Wednesday, 2 and
­organiser Mikrocentrum reports. No less than 2,850 visitors Thursday, 3 December 2009, again in Veldhoven.
were counted in two days, which is 20% more than in 2007. www.precisiebeurs.nl

An impression of the Precision Fair 2008. (Photo: Mikrocentrum/Sylvia van der Nol)

Nr.1 2009 16
 Two-dimensional position and angle measurement

Colourmap TM

the absolute XYA scale

ColourmapTM dot scale technology is a patented, absolute XY and angle scale system.

A matrix of coloured dots is used to encode both X and Y positions. At any position on

the scale the pattern of coloured dots will be unique, allowing X and Y positions and

the angle of the sensor to be calculated. Because the angle of the sensor is also

measured, there is no need to constrain the moving element orthogonally. This means

that the system could potentially revolutionise current thinking with regard to

applications that require two-dimensional measurements.

• Gavin Bailey •

T
The idea for a two-dimensional scale came directly as a
result of work designing three-dimensional co-ordinate
measuring machines (CMMs), which are the core product
of Aberlink’s business. On CMMs each axis will contain its
own independent linear scale, and then to achieve accuracy
each axis must be controlled so that its motion is perpendic-
ular to each of the other axes.

The Colourmap scale system provides a method for measur-

ing both X and Y position and angle. This not only elimi-
nates the requirement for two sets of linear scales, but also
overcomes the need for the axes to run orthogonally to each Figure 1. The principle of the Colourmap scale system is that of
other. The sensor can be a simple CCD/CMOS Camera. a sensor looking at a pattern of coloured dots that is unique at
This moves over and reads a pattern of coloured dots. For each position throughout the scale. This allows the determination
each position throughout the range of the scale, the pattern of not only the X and Y position, but also the angular position of
of coloured dots will be unique, from this information, the the sensor relative to the dots on the scale.
scale can determine not only the X and Y position of the
sensor, but also determine the angular position of the sensor
relative to the dots on the scale; see Figure 1.

17 Nr.1 2009
 Two-dimensional position and angle measurement

fact about the scale system is that it is completely scaleable.

Using standard interpolation techniques the centre position
of each dot can be determined to a small fraction of the
camera pixel size. Typically the distance between dots can
be resolved to around one thousandth of their pitch. Hence
the scale system could equally be used on a high precision
stage with microscope optics to give a resolution of nano-
metres, or on an Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) with
low-cost optics to give a resolution of millimetres.

Because the Colourmap scale is absolute, should such an

AGV lose its position temporarily, there would be no need
for it to be returned to its docking station in order to regain
its position. Moreover, because the angle is calculated, the
vehicle heading is always known even when stationary.

The ‘Project X’ vision machine

Project X is a revolutionary 2D vision measuring machine,
and was the first application that used the Colourmap scale
system; see Figure 2. Because it was important not to dis-
close the technology to any third party until the worldwide
patent for the scale system had been filed, during its devel-
opment the machine was referred to as ‘Project X’. Then,
Figure 2. Project X is the vision machine that is the first appli­ when a name for the released product was eventually
cation for the Colourmap scale system. required, this sobriquet was retained.

An important feature of the Colourmap scale system is that Within the measuring machine a ‘C’ shaped bracket is used
it provides an absolute XYA scale. Regardless of whether to float over the Colourmap scale system on an air bearing
the scale misses a reading, which may be due to incomplete/ system. The scale camera is mounted directly below the
damaged scale, excessive speed of movement, power failure measurement camera, as in the arrangement shown in
or any other reason, as soon as the sensor receives a valid Figure 3.
reading from the scale, it will know its X, Y and A position.
This means that no reference marks are required.
Coloured dots were chosen as the scale indicators because it
is simple for a CCD/CMOS camera to differentiate between Figure 3. The
colours, although equally any other type of identifiable Project X 2D
object or shape could be used to provide the same results. vision measuring
machine as it is
Applications equipped with the
Because Aberlink is a metrology company, the first idea for Colourmap scale
an application of the Colourmap scale system was as the system.
scale within a measuring machine. This lent itself ideally to
a vision machine, where the sensor for the measuring
instrument was also a camera, and therefore the measur­
ements performed are two-dimensional. The ‘Project X’
vision machine, which incorporates the Colourmap scale
system, is described in detail below. However, the exciting

Nr.1 2009 18
(a) Flatness of glass plate. (b) Error of dots in X direction. (c) Error of dots in Y direction.

Figure 4. Calibration of a Colourmap scale.

The scale, which covers an area of 400 x 300 mm, is printed measurement camera has to be moved because the compo-
simply using a high quality laser printer onto photographic nent is larger than the field of view of the camera.
paper. The dots have a nominal diameter of 0.25 mm on a
pitch of 0.5 mm. The photographic paper is then bonded in The software written for Project X is a comprehensive
clear epoxy between two sheets of float glass. The glass vision package that offers a full range of automatic edge
then acts as a perfectly smooth, flat and clear surface for the detection. The measurement camera is mounted on a motor-
assembly to float over using an air bearing system, allowing ised Z-axis that offers 125 mm of motion to provide auto-
the scale camera to read the pattern of coloured dots. focussing on a wide range of different sized components.
Also Project X can be supplied with the X and Y motion
By looking at just nine dots and using seven different col- either under manual or full CNC control.
ours, over forty million different permutations are possible.
By looking at more dots, redundancy is built into the sys- Future potential
tem, ensuring that it is robust against any difficulty in iden- So far the Colourmap scale system has only been used in a
tifying individual dots due to damage or colour fade, etc. metrology application. However, the potential to revolution-
ise two-dimensional measurement is even more exciting
Project X makes use of the Colourmap scale system not than the innovative and inexpensive measuring machine
only to get absolute X and Y position, but also because the described above. It is a technology looking to find new
scale measures the angular position of the encoder. This applications in other industries away from metrology. Pre­
means that the mechanical assembly described above does cision stages and AGVs have already been mentioned, but
not have to be constrained along each axis. If the assembly pick & place machines in the electronics industry also
rotates, then the scale reports the angle. Therefore the ‘C’ require exactly the same feedback.
shaped frame is simply guided around the scale by a set of
pulleys and cables, without the requirement for expensive Author’s note
guideways. Gavin Bailey is Sales Director and co-founder of Aberlink,
the largest UK-owned manufacturer of co-ordinate measur-
Because the Project X has an accuracy requirement greater ing machines, based in Eastcombe, Gloucestershire, UK.
than the repeatability of the printing of the dot pattern, each The ColourmapTM scale system is the invention of Marcus
scale must be individually measured in order to produce an Eales, Technical Director and co-founder of Aberlink. Eales
error map of the dot positions, which can then be easily formerly worked at Renishaw, the UK-based, high-tech
applied to any measurements reported by the scale. This is metrology company.
performed on a special-purpose measuring machine, which
is able to obtain the results shown in Figure 4.
Information
The measurement camera on Project X is then used to view
the component to be measured, and its image analysed to www.aberlink.co.uk
produce dimensions. The scale system is required when the

19 Nr.1 2009
 Novel high-precision positioning systems

Piezomotors:
A novel type of piezoelectric motor has been developed at the Department of

Mechanical Engineering of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. This ‘Leuven

motor’ can operate in several drive modes by virtue of an innovative symmetrical

design. Case studies show that the Leuven motor can be used as a core component of

a new generation of stiff, compact and non-magnetic positioning systems with a high

positioning resolution, wide speed range and a large stroke, capable of operating in

demanding environments, e.g. cryogenic and (ultra-high) vacuum.

• Wim Van de Vijver, Michaël Houben, Hendrik Van Brussel and Dominiek Reynaerts •

P
Product design and production technology in general show
a strong trend towards miniaturization. Sophisticated posi-
tioning devices that realize a controlled motion on a sub-
micron level and beyond act as an enabling technology to
realize this evolution. Examples of these devices are found
in high quality consumer goods (e.g. data storage devices
and auto-focus mechanisms for cameras), production
machines (e.g. wafer steppers and fast-tool servos), inspec-
tion machines (e.g. high-resolution optical microscopes,
electron microscopes and surface-profiling tools) and medi-
cal instruments (e.g. robotic surgery and tomography).

To understand the evolution of the requirements for posi-

tioning devices, the semi-conductor sector can be seen as
the leading industry. The technical evolution in this industry
is well illustrated by the steady reduction of the line thick-
ness in central processing units. Figure 1 shows an expo-
nential decrease, as predicted by the famous Law of Moore
[1]. According to this law, the number of transistors that can
be placed at a reasonable price on an integrated circuit Figure 1. Evolution of the circuit line thickness of Intel processors
increases exponentially in time. (data collected from www.intel.com).

Nr.1 2009 20
an enabling technology
The decrease in line thickness is realized by the evolution of machining time down, a high velocity mode with a speed
lithography machines. These machines pattern tiny circuits higher than 100 mm/s is required.
on silicon substrates by exposure to light. Since the con-
struction of lithography machines involves highly accurate Piezoceramic actuators are appropriate candidates to fulfill
lenses, positioning frames, etc., the evolution in line thick- these specifications [4]. They show a quasi unlimited reso-
ness leads to more stringent requirements for precision pro- lution, possess a high force density and have a short
duction machines. Consequently, the evolution of ultra-pre- response time. Especially in nanotechnology, piezoceramic
cise production machines (e.g. diamond turning, micro actuators offer two key properties that distinguish them
EDM, micro milling, ELID grinding) follows the pace of from other driving technologies: inherent vacuum compati-
the evolution of lithography machines. Taniguchi [2] bility and absence of electromagnetic interference. For this
showed this trend towards higher machining accuracy in his reason, piezoceramic actuators are chosen as actuators for a
famous graph, depicted by solid curves in Figure 2. How­ novel linear piezoelectric motor that has to meet the above
ever, these curves do not include an economic constraint, mentioned specifications. This motor is called the ‘Leuven
while Moore states that the increase in number of transis- motor’. The Leuven motor can be used as a core component
tors is realized at a reasonable cost. This cost constraint can for a new generation of positioning systems. This article
be added by a time constraint: the machining time does not describes the design and the performance of the motor, as
increase with increasing precision. This criterion sets two well as its implementation into two positioning systems.
extra requirements for ultra-precise positioning systems:
(i) the positioning speed must remain constant, and (ii) the Mechanical design
bandwidth must increase [3]. These requirements can be Figure 3 shows a schematic drawing and a photograph of
incorporated into an ‘extended Taniguchi graph’, as shown the Leuven motor. It consists of a metal structure, called
by the dashed curves in Figure 2. stator, which is preloaded against a slider at a contact point.
The piezoceramic actuators (P1-P4) are mounted inside the
Figure 2 thus allows extracting specifications for novel stator in such a way that they directly contribute to the stiff-
ultra-high precision machines: a total machine accuracy of ness of the Leuven motor. Elastic hinges connect the pie-
at least 1 nm, and a total stiffness of over 40 N/µm. More­ zoceramic actuators to the fixed frame and the contact
over, a large travel is needed (over 100 mm) and, to keep point. A tuning block is connected to the stator via leaf

Figure 2. Taniguchi curves (solid lines) and extended Taniguchi Figure 3. Schematic drawing and photograph of the linear piezo-
curves (dashed lines) to describe trends for required machine electric Leuven motor.
accuracy and stiffness.

21 Nr.1 2009
 Novel high-precision positioning systems

Figure 4. Working principle of the Leuven motor in the Figure 5. Comparison between measured, open-loop slider dis-
direct-drive mode. In this mode, the motor basically placement and desired displacement for tracking a 1 µm/s trajec-
imitates piezostack performance. tory with the direct-drive mode (top). The bottom plot shows
the error between desired and measured trajectory.

springs. A bolt connects the stator to a fixed frame at the with a speed of 1 µm/s is applied. The maximum error is
central point of symmetry. ± 30 nm.

By applying voltages to the piezoceramic actuators, the • Closed-loop results

drive point shifts and moves the slider by friction. The Leu- Closed-loop position control offers both an improved
ven motor offers three distinctive operational modes which tracking behavior and stability of this tracking behavior
enable it to drive the slider in a wide speed and accuracy in time compared to open-loop control. Figure 6 illus-
range. The nature of the applied voltages determines which trates the control architecture.
operational mode is active. Principle and performance of Figure 7 shows an example of the tracking behavior for
each mode is described next. a speed of 2 µm/s. The tracking error now remains with-
in the sensor noise, which is a band of about 10 nm.
Performance
Resonant-drive mode
Direct-drive mode For applications requiring a large stroke and high velocity,
The direct-drive mode inherits the advantages of a piezo­ the resonant operation mode can be used. This principle is
electric ceramic: it aims for high positioning resolution and based on the generation of an ultrasonic and thus silent
high stiffness. Figure 4 illustrates the working principle. A elliptical motion of the contact point to drive a slider
positive voltage is applied to piezoceramic actuator 1 (P1) through a friction interface. This oscillation of the contact
and a negative voltage is applied to piezoceramic actuator 2 point results in a net macroscopic motion of the slider if
(P2). The respective piezoceramic actuators are thereby
elongated or contracted over a distance ∆l. The contact
point moves to the right over a distance ∆x. If the slider is
preloaded to the Leuven motor and the Leuven motor is
rigidly attached to a fixed reference, the slider will also
move with a distance ∆x, supposing no slip. The maximum
stroke is limited to a few µm, since it directly relates to the
stroke of the piezoceramic actuators.

• Open-loop results
As is shown by Figure 5, accurate open-loop control can
be achieved by identifying a feed-forward system
model, and compensating the hysteresis of the piezo­ Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the controller for the direct-drive
ceramic actuators. A continuous triangular trajectory mode.

Nr.1 2009 22
Figure 7. Example of trajectory tracking in closed loop using the Figure 8. Finite-element calculation of the horizontal (a) and vertical
direct-drive mode. The bottom plot shows the tracking error in (b) eigenmode of the Leuven motor. Notice the oscillation of the
nanometre scale. tuning blocks in (a), while hardly any oscillation is noticed in (b).

(i) the drive frequency is high enough, and (ii) a net friction
force is present in the positive or negative direction.

To optimize the drive speed and traction force of the slider,

respectively, the horizontal and vertical oscillation ampli-
tudes of the elliptical motion of the contact point should be
maximized. This is achieved by operating the stator in reso-
nance. Figure 8 shows the results of a finite-element calcu-
lation of the horizontal and the vertical eigenmodes of the
Leuven motor. Optimal efficiency is achieved when these
two eigenmodes coincide. This can be done by altering the
tuning mass shown in Figure 3 to compensate for modeling,
production and assembly errors. Figure 9 shows how both
eigenmodes shift in response to changing this mass.

The importance of tuning is illustrated by open-loop force-

speed measurements in Figure 10. A maximum driving Figure 9. Variation of the horizontal (above) and vertical
speed of over 300 mm/s and a stall force of 12 N are (below) eigenmode when changing the tuning mass.
achieved. Careful adaptation of the tuning mass doubles
both the maximum driving speed and the stall force in com-
parison with the same motor right after the production and
assembly process.

Figure 11 finally shows the results of a closed-loop posi-

tion-tracking experiment. To minimize non-linear behavior,
a dedicated control strategy is designed. This strategy dra-
matically decreases the required complexity of the control-
ler. A triangular trajectory with a maximum slider speed of
1 µm/s is applied. The position is measured with a laser
interferometer with a resolution of 80 nm. The zoom on the
right shows that the reference trajectory is followed within
the resolution of the interferometer. A lead-lag controller
was used. Figure 10. Influence of tuning on the traction-speed
characteristic of the Leuven motor.

23 Nr.1 2009
 Novel high-precision positioning systems

Figure 11. Tracking performance in the resonant-drive mode for Figure 13. Experimental example of trajectory tracking with the
a speed of 1 µm/s when a lead-lag controller is implemented. pulse-drive mode.

Pulse-drive mode while the applied voltage to one of the piezoceramic actua-
The maximum travel for the direct-drive mode equals about tors is shown on the left. The voltage U represents the volt-
5 µm. Many industrial applications require a much larger age applied to the piezoceramic actuators P1 and P2. As the
displacement, ranging from a few mm to several hundreds driving saw-tooth signal U goes up slowly, the slider sticks
of mm. This large displacement range can be obtained by to the contact point and moves to the right over a distance
the application of the resonant-drive mode. However, the ∆L. When the driving signal U suddenly drops, the contact
maximum resolution obtained in this drive mode is limited point retracts and slips to its original position. At the end of
to 40 nm p-p. Therefore, an alternative operation mode, this cycle the slider has made one step ∆L. By repeating
denominated as pulse-drive mode, is explored. This driving this, large strokes are obtained.
method sometimes is referred to as inertial drive mode [5]
or stick-slip drive mode [6]. Figure 13 shows an experiment where the motor is used for
tracking a function with a stroke of 25 µm at a speed of 0.5
Figure 12 illustrates the working principle of the pulse-drive µm/s. The saw-tooth signal generated at the input of the pie-
mode. A sketch of the driving cycle is given on the right, zoceramic actuators is also shown. The control architecture
is similar to the one in Figure 6. The zoom window at the
right of the figure indicates good tracking behavior except
for the short spikes generated during the retraction period.
These spikes can be as large as 150 nm. The plot at the bot-
tom of Figure 13 gives an overview of the error behavior
over the full positioning cycle. The error is limited to the
measurement resolution, with exception for the spikes.

Note that the application domain of the pulse mode is limit-

ed to relatively low force applications. Indeed, for a high
traction force a large preload is needed. This leads to rela-
tively high fluctuations of the slider trajectory, compromis-
ing high-precision applications. Moreover, the maximum
drive speed is limited to about 1 mm/s.

Case studies

Linear positioning system with a stepping mode

Extending the stroke of the Leuven motor in the direct-drive
Figure 12. Working principle of the pulse-drive mode. mode always requires a retraction of the contact point. In

Nr.1 2009 24
Figure 14. Working principle of the stepping Figure 15. Experimentally measured motion of
drive. Leuven motor 1 is represented in the slider in the stepping mode.
solid black, Leuven motor 2 in dashed grey. (a) Preload force = 7 N.
(b) Preload force = 10 N.

the pulse-drive mode, the philosophy is to retract as fast as machine elements can be standardized and the integration
possible to prevent a distortion on the slider. As discussed of machine elements is facilitated. However, Van Brussel et
above, this retraction causes position spikes. Stepping al. [9] summarized that stacking 1-DOF systems to obtain a
drives on the other hand are characterized by a form-closed multi-DOF system results in a lowered bandwidth and an
contact strategy. Instead of retracting as fast as possible, the accumulation of errors. Moreover, stacking leads to a non-
strategy is to retract slow enough to allow corrective actions symmetric design. In Reynaerts et al. [10], the idea is postu-
by the controller. Because slider inertia is not used to pre- lated to combine all motion degrees of freedom into one
vent retraction of the slider during the retraction period, at parallel drive system. This approach is schematically illus-
least two motors are needed to realize the stepping behavior. trated in Figure 16b. An example of such a system is the
One motor is generating the displacement, while the other Stewart platform. By parallel integration of the various
motor breaks contact with the slider and returns to its ori­ degrees of freedom, the stiffness of the separate actuators
ginal position. Repeating this cycle results in a continuous adds up.
motion of the stepper. Figure 14 shows the conceptual lay-
out of this drive mode. Figure 17 shows the integration of three Leuven motors into
a stiff frame (the rotor), realizing a planar positioning sys-
Figure 15 shows some first experimentally obtained open- tem with parallel kinematics. The Leuven motors both carry
loop results [7]. Figure 15a shows a result for a preload
force of 7 N. When the contact switches from one motor to
the other, position spikes of 50 nm are observed. For a
preload force of 10 N (Figure 15b), these disturbances are
already considerably larger. A new suspension design is
expected to solve this issue.

Compact and stiff planar positioning system

One of the basic principles in machine design in general
and precision engineering in particular is the principle of
functional decomposition [8]. According to this principle,
each degree of freedom has to be imposed by exactly one
machine element. In a classical precision machine, each
kinematic constraint is fixed by bearings or imposed by a
linear or rotational drive. In order to achieve a multi-DOF
positioning system, the bearings and drives often are cas-
caded. The schematic layout of such a cascaded system is Figure 16. Schematic layout of (a) a classic positioning system, and
given in Figure 16a. The advantage of this layout is that (b) a parallel system with integrated drive-bearing function.

25 Nr.1 2009
 Novel high-precision positioning systems

Figure 17. Integration of three Leuven motors into a planar positioning system with parallel kinematics and combined bearing and
driving functionality.

and drive the frame, and additionally offer active bearing Conclusion
functionality. A grid encoder is used to measure the position Governed by Moore’s Law and pushed by the miniaturiza-
of the frame. Nearly-similar dynamics of the three motors tion trend, several industrial sectors currently evolve from
are essential to devise a robust system. the micrometre era into the (sub-)nanometre era. In light of
this evolution, a novel type of piezoelectric motor has been
developed. As elaborated here, this piezoelectric motor –
called the Leuven motor – can operate in several drive
modes by virtue of an innovative symmetrical design. The
direct-drive mode allows imitating the properties of a
piezoceramic actuator: high stiffness and (sub-)nanometre
resolution within a micrometre stroke. To extend this stroke
without compromising positioning resolution, a pulse-mode
and a stepping-mode control strategy have been verified.
The maximum achievable speed of these modes is about
1 mm/s. Finally, to achieve higher speeds in the order of
100 mm/s, the resonant-drive mode can be used. While
being coarser than the direct-drive mode, experiments show
that it is still possible to track a reference signal with a
maximum error of 40 nm peak-to-peak. Figure 18 summa-
rizes the Leuven motor’s characteristics.
Figure 18. Overview of the different operating modes and As shown in the case studies, the Leuven motor can be used
achieved performance figures of the Leuven motor. as a core component of a new generation of stiff, compact

Nr.1 2009 26
and non-magnetic positioning systems with a high position- References
ing resolution, wide speed range and a large stroke, capable [1] Moore G., Cramming more components onto integrat-
of operating in demanding environments, e.g. cryogenic and ed circuits, Electronics 38/8, 1965.
(ultra-high) vacuum. Current research focuses on the tribo- [2] Taniguchi N., On the basic concept of nanotechno­
logic issues related to the friction-drive mechanism [11], logy, Proc. Int. Conf. Prod. Eng., 1974, p. 18.
and devising control strategies that combine the advantages [3] Van de Vijver W., Development of a highly accurate
of the distinctive operating modes. and fast piezoelectric linear positioning system, Ph.D.
thesis, K.U.Leuven, 2008.
Acknowledgement [4] Devos S., Development of fast, stiff and high-resolu-
The research was funded by Ph.D. grants of the Institute for tion piezoelectric motors with integrated bearing-driv-
the Promotion of Innovation through Science and Technolo- ing functionality, Ph.D. thesis, K.U.Leuven, 2006.
gy in Flanders (IWT-Vlaanderen). [5] Van der Wulp H., Piezo-driven stages for nanoposi-
tioning with extreme stability, Delft University Press,
Authors’ note 1997.
Wim Van de Vijver received the Masters degree in mechani- [6] Chu C.-L., Fan S.-H., A novel long-travel piezo­
cal engineering, specialisation mechatronics, in 2003 from electric-driven linear nanopositioning stage, Precision
the Katholieke Universiteit (K.U.) Leuven, Belgium. After- Engineering, 30, 2006, pp. 85-95.
wards, he made a Ph.D., under the supervision of prof. [7] Kersschot B. and Leuridan S., Ontwikkeling van een
Hendrik Van Brussel and prof. Dominiek Reynaerts at the piëzo-elektrische aandrijving met stappende en reso-
same university. Currently, he is working as a development nante werkingsmode, M.Sc. thesis, K.U.Leuven, 2008.
engineer at Leuven Air Bearings. [8] Nakazawa H., Principles of Precision Engineering,
Michaël Houben received his mechanical engineering Oxford University Press, 1994.
degree from K.U.Leuven in 2006. He is currently making a [9] Van Brussel H., Reynaerts D., Vanherck P., Versteyhe
Ph.D. on contact mechanics and modelling of ultrasonic M., Devos S., A nanometer-precision, ultra-stiff
piezomotors under the supervision of prof. Dominiek piezostepper stage for ELID grinding, CIRP Annals,
Reynaerts and prof. Farid Al-Bender. 2003.
Hendrik Van Brussel is full professor in mechatronics and [10] Reynaerts D., Van Brussel H., Al-Bender F., Devos
automation at the Faculty of Engineering, K.U.Leuven. He S., Versteyhe M., Construction and control of an ultra-
was a pioneer in robotics research in Europe and an active stiff nanopositioning system, Proc. of 2nd Euspen Int’l
promoter of the mechatronics idea as a new paradigm in Conf., Turin, 2001, pp. 544-547.
machine design. He is president of euspen (European Socie- [11] Houben M., Van De Vijver W., Al-Bender F., Rey-
ty for Precision Engineering and Nanotechnology). naerts D., A generic study on the contact dynamics
Dominiek Reynaerts received his mechanical engineering and wear behavior of bimodal standing wave piezo-
degree from K.U.Leuven in 1986. He obtained his Ph.D. in motors, Actuator 2008, 11th International Conference
mechanical engineering, from the same university, in 1995. on New Actuators, 2008, pp. 176-179.
He now is full professor and chairman of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering of K.U.Leuven.

Information

michael.houben@mech.kuleuven.be
www.mech.kuleuven.be/micro

27 Nr.1 2009
 High-precision positioning

Desktop
micro-machining
The University of Manchester has chosen an Aerotech positioning

system for desktop micro-machining. Direct-drive linear motor driven

positioning stages, ultra-low noise linear amplifiers and software-only

G-code motion control system provide a benchmark in high-precision

positioning for a major EU-funded research project, so Aerotech claims.

A
As part of a major research project into high-precision
micro- and nano-scale manufacturing and machine design,
the Manufacturing and Laser Processing Research Group at
The University of Manchester is using an Aerotech-sup-
require sub-micron to nanometre level linear accuracy and
micro-radian level angular accuracy. This could also cover
meso-manufacturing for parts having features with a few
micrometres. The machine employs currently a milling
plied three-axis (XYZ) linear motor driven positioning sys- process but could be extended to include various processes
tem that provides a positioning resolution of 0.5 nanome- such as electro-discharge machining (EDM) and electro-
tres and a calibrated positioning accuracy to ± 0.3 microns chemical machining (ECM). Although there are several
per axis over its 50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm travel range. defined advantages for smaller-sized machines for these
applications, including space and energy savings, larger
The state-of-the-art system (see Figure 1), currently under- natural frequencies for much reduced vibration and lower
going extensive testing, includes three ALS130H direct- mass for higher throughput capability, the current offering
drive linear stages with Ndrive CL series linear technology of commercially available desktop machines generally does
servo amplifiers and the PC-based, software-only A3200 not match the accuracy and finished component quality of
motion controller. It will be used as a benchmark position- larger conventional machine tools that are adapted for
ing system within a new generation of micro-machines to micro-scale production.
help establish micro-machining accuracy capabilities and
develop new design concepts for next-generation ultra-high Micro forces
precision manufacturing. To address this fundamental issue, the work extends to
developing a greater understanding of the micro forces and
Smaller-sized machines other micro phenomena that influence precision at these
The EU grant (I*PROMS, Innovative Production Machines miniscule levels where the laws of macro-scale physics no
and Systems) funded project includes investigating and longer apply. For instance, surface forces are considered
optimising the design of ‘desktop’ micro-machines. Such negligible at the macro scale but are extremely influential
machines are used to produce small components that at the micro scale.

Nr.1 2009 28
Figure 1. Three-axis micro-milling
machine at the University of
Manchester.

Within the scope of this project, the measurement of these Element Analysis techniques in relation to actual volu­
individual and combined forces requires the development metric dimensional measurements of manufactured test
of new sensor technologies. This work is being achieved in components.
conjunction with other major research at The University of
Manchester, such as the European Commission funded Control
DYNAMITE, smart-sensing project which aims to develop Another fundamental for the project is to develop motion
sensors that will significantly advance the area of predict­ and machine control systems with two different design phi-
ive maintenance on machines. losophies. The first is to control a mechanical system
which is essentially ‘near perfect’ and will meet specifica-
Other topics tion with conventional servo controls; the second level is a
The project is also studying and innovating solutions for control system that includes error compensation, capable of
the metrology, robotic handling and the assembly require- correcting small-scale errors from a pre-calibrated look-up
ments for these small-scale components which are essen- table or in conjunction with higher-order feedback systems
tially impossible for human handling and are also strongly such as interferometry. The machine control system would
influenced by other interactive micro phenomena such as also take care of the CAD/CAM requirements and
electrostatic forces and surface tension. Some of this work advanced G-code programming which are elemental for
centres on a novel vision system based on sub-pixel edge future high-throughput production systems.
detection for inspecting micro-scale features, and also on
new laser-based sensors using the Doppler Effect for in- Stage
process inspection and error compensation of components Aerotech’s ALS130H linear positioning stage features a
while they are being machined. centre-driven, zero-cogging brushless linear motor with
There is also a dearth of information available for model- anti-cage creep cross-roller bearings for exceptionally
ling these micro forces and the research will redress this by smooth performance and excellent in-position stability; see
developing static, dynamic and thermal models using Finite Figure 2. A 4.0 micron glass scale linear encoder with 40

29 Nr.1 2009
 High-precision positioning

a b

Figure 2. Aerotech’s ALS130H linear positioning stage.

(a) A single stage.
(b) An XY stage.

MHz encoder processing provides high-speed capability of the controller but could be adjusted according the user’s
up to 300 mm/sec with a maximum acceleration to 1g (no need as in this project. This made the system commission-
load) when used with the A3200 motion controller. Cross- ing straightforward and ensured no time was wasted on this
roller technology provides the stiffness and durability extremely interesting and potentially groundbreaking
required for higher load applications with high resistance to research project.
shock loading that is essential for machining applications.
Author’s note
The choice of Ndrive CL series DSP based linear stage This article was based on a press release by Aerotech, a
servo amplifiers rather than PWM drive stage alternatives key supplier of high-precision, high-throughput motion
guarantees extremely low noise for the application – essen- systems used in manufacturing production, quality control
tial for sub-nanometre applications to minimise stage jitter and R&D. Aerotech is headquartered in Pittsburgh (PA,
that would affect in-position stability. The linear amplifier USA) and operates sales and service facilities in the UK,
technology also provides a high bandwidth allowing pre- Germany, and Japan.
cise feed control from microns per second level speeds The collaboration of Dr Samir Mekid (University of Man-
through to the high speeds required for fast traverse. The chester) in writing the press release is acknowledged.
technology also provides zero crossover distortion which is
very beneficial for multi-axis contouring – ensuring the
highest accuracy interpolation when compound axes are
reversed to machine corner details or circular paths.

Automation platform
Aerotech’s A3200 Digital Automation Platform is a soft-
ware-only motion and machine control system that runs on
a PC. It provides linear, circular, helical and spherical
interpolation, cutter compensation, normalcy, parts rota-
tion, mirroring, path retrace, polar transformations and
cylindrical transformations. Electronic gearing functions
are also available and advanced features include high-speed
registration, multi-dimensional error mapping and ortho­ Information
gonality correction, autotuning, backlash compensation and
gantry algorithms. www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/research/groups/manufacturing
www.aerotech.co.uk
The complete stages were delivered fully assembled and www.iproms.org
tested with all set-up and tuning parameters pre-loaded into

Nr.1 2009 30
 Suitable for Use in Cleanrooms!
For operation in cleanroom conditions, each individual machine
element must demonstrate its suitability separately. The same applies
for every bearing support, including the lubricant contained within.
Therefore, the Schaeffler Group tests whether its rolling bearings,
linear guidance systems and direct drives are suitable for cleanrooms
by working closely with renowned institutions. Particle emission and
outgassing behavior are tested in particular. The results of these tests
are incorporated into our product development. Special lubricants,
seals and materials are the outcome.
Do you need bearing supports which are suitable for cleanroom
conditions? We’ve got them. Test them out!

Schaeffler Nederland B. V.
Precision Fair 2008 · Booth 112
November 26 and 27, 2008 tel: 0342 - 40 30 00
NH Koningshof Hotel in Veldhoven info.nl@schaeffler.com
www.schaeffler.com
 Dutch precision engineering research

The end of IOP

For ten years, a significant part of precision engineering research in the Netherlands

was organised through the IOP Precision Engineering. This Innovation-driven Research

Programme is now coming to an end. The mechatronics part will be continued within the

Point-One innovation programme, which also covers nano-electronics and embedded sys-

tems. A symposium in Eindhoven last December saw the presentation of past (IOP projects)

and future (Point-One) examples of Dutch precision engineering research.

I
IOP chairman Lou Hulst kicked off the symposium by pre-
senting an overview of the Dutch precision engineering
landscape. Following an IOP initiative, the high-tech sys-
tems industry was recognised by the Dutch government as
IOP themes
The IOP programme has been structured around three cen-
tral themes:
System-oriented design
a key economic sector. Besides large original equipment This theme is concerned with the design and develop-
manufacturers such as Philips, ASML, Océ, Thales and ment of products and production systems for creating
Vanderlande Industries, there are a great many innovative systems that can achieve high-velocity and high-preci-
SMEs, as well as (system) suppliers. Research is concen- sion displacements. Dynamic as well as static precision
trated at the three universities of technology, cooperating are relevant in compact and stiff constructions. Subjects
within the 3TU framework, and in public knowledge insti- for study include fast algorithms for mechanics, piezo
tutes such as TNO Science and Industry and ECN. Also, actuators, precision liquid dosage and in vacuo preci-
the universities of professional education and institutes for sion displacements.
technical training, such as Mikrocentrum, make a signifi-
cant contribution to technical and theoretical knowledge The limits of manufacturability
transfer. This theme focuses on enhancing the precision of exist-
In addition, the chairman mentioned the yearly Precision ing manufacturing technologies by means of improved
Fair (see elsewhere in this issue), which plays a pivotal role process control and/or the development of new manu-
in the contacts between industry, equipment suppliers and facturing technologies that promise a significantly high-
engineering institutes. And finally, he stressed the profes- er precision. This covers classical technologies such as
sional growth of the Dutch Society for Precision Engineer- fine turning and more recent technologies such as litho-
ing (DSPE), that took the initiative, ten years ago, to nego- graphic etching, laser beam processing and chemical
tiate this IOP Precision Engineering to be sponsored by the vapour deposition. Micro connection technologies and
Ministry of Economic Affairs, through its SenterNovem laser adjustment manipulation for assembly are includ-
agency. ed as well.

Nr.1 2009 32
­– long live Point-One

The IOP symposium last December was held in Eindhoven, in

the Evoluon, once Philips’ innovation showcase and now a most
fitting meeting point for Dutch high-tech academia and industry.
(Photo: Marco Eschler)

Precision in micro systems technology

This theme is concerned with the creation of systems
made up of sensors and actuators, linked by a control
system and manufactured using semicon technologies.
This includes technologies such as wet chemical etch-
ing, thin-layer piezo deposition, MST device packaging
and micro-mounting techniques.
Chairman Lou Hulst opened the symposium by stating IOP’s ulti-
IOP projects mate goal: to make itself obsolete. (Photo: Marco Eschler)
In the autumn of 2006, a last batch of six IOP projects was
started (see next page for an overview of all IOP projects).
Various projects have already been highlighted in previous TNO Science and Industry. Companies are actively
volumes of Mikroniek, while other projects will be present- engaged through their participation in review committees.
ed in more detail in forthcoming issues. IOP research is Knowledge transfer activities such as publications and
conducted at universities and research institutes such as symposia are also organised.

33 Nr.1 2009
 Dutch precision engineering research

Overview of IOP projects

Started in 2006 Projects in 2002

• Contactless transport and positioning of vulnerable products • High-precision cutting of glassy polymers (finished)
• Pico-drift monitoring device • Dressing of super-abrasive grinding wheels
• Robot for haptic eye surgery • Lotus texture by laser ablation
• Precision positioning with vision measuring system (Fast • Multi-axis micro stage with sub-nm resolution (finished)
Focus on Structures) • Fibre-chip coupling (finished)
• Active chatter control • MST (Micro System Technology) assembly
• Plastic MEMS structures for microfluidic systems • High-speed assembly of micro components (finished)
• Laser die transfer (finished)
Started in 2004
• Microfluidic jet systems
• Adaptive mirror with high actuator density and distributed
control (Adaptive Optics)
• Non-contact measurement machine for free-form optics
(Nanomefos)
• Vibration isolation in precision machinery (Smart Mounts)
• Micro milling of dies and moulds

a a

b b

The non-contact measurement machine for free-form optics, Lotus texture, which causes lotus leaves to repel water in an
developed on the Nanomefos project. (Photos: Leo Ploeg) extreme manner, can be mimicked by micro structuring of sur-
(a) The prototype built at Eindhoven University of Technology. faces through laser ablation.
(b) Measurement of an optical flat. (a) The natural lotus effect.
(b) SEM picture of a mould surface structured through laser
­ablation.

Nr.1 2009 34
 Projects in 2000 (all finished) Point-One
• Active vibration damping using intelligent structural IOP chairman Lou Hulst had opened the symposium by
­elements (Smart Disc) stating IOP’s ultimate goal: to make itself obsolete. Frans
• Nano-dispensing van ’t Hullenaar, former manager and CEO of Philips
• Surface Acoustic Waves actuation Applied Technologies, sketched the road that was taken to
• Magnetic bearings for ultra-precision manufacturing continue IOP-like precision engineering research in the
­processes Netherlands, via plans for a new ‘precision institute’ and
• Free-form polishing with interferometric in-process the establishment of the Programme for High Tech Sys-
­measurement tems (which Van ’t Hullenaar chaired), to eventually Point-
• Sub-nm laser interferometry One Phase 2.
• Micro-abrasive blasting Point-One office director Clément Goossens went into
more detail to describe Point-One Phase 2. With the inclu-
sion of the Programme for High Tech Systems, Point-One
was transformed into an association and its scope of
nano‑electronics and embedded systems was extended with
mechatronics. Until 2012, Point-One will manage an annu-
al investment of nearly a quarter of a billion euros –
en­abled by the partners, the Ministry of Economic Affairs
and the European Committee. The research programme
will be determined by the members of the Point-One asso-
ciation, currently consisting of more than 100 companies,
universities and knowledge institutes. Approximately 75
percent of the Point-One budget will be invested in Euro-
pean co-operative programmes (Eureka/Medea-Catrene-
The Piezo Active Lens Mount, a result of the Smart Disc Itea, JTI/Eniac‑Artemis). There is also room for national
project. (Photo: Job van Amerongen) ‘bottom-up’ research initiatives, and special attention is
given to stimulating university-industry interaction and
nurturing SMEs.
Symposium presentations
At the symposium last December, researchers, i.e. (former)
PhD students, presented results from four IOP projects.
Ron Hendrix and Thijs Meenink showed work on the
design of a robot for haptic eye surgery, which is conduct-
ed at Eindhoven University of Technology in association
with TNO Science and Industry and the Amsterdam Medi-
cal Centre.
Paul Verstegen and Paul Goede discussed new concepts for
increasing the output of high-speed assembly robots for
micro components. They finished their work at the Univer-
sities of Professional Education in Eindhoven (Fontys) and
Utrecht, while Delft University of Technology was
involved as well.
Roger Hamelinck and Rogier Ellenbroek in the Adaptive
Optics project worked on the design of an adaptive mem-
brane mirror with high actuator density and distributed
control. These actuators are required to position mirror
surfaces (for application in astronomy, for example) with
nanometre accuracy. This project is a joint activity of the
Universities of Technology at Delft and Eindhoven with
TNO Science and Industry. Frans van ’t Hullenaar, as chairman of the Programme for High
Jia Wei, of the Delft University project on microfluidic jet Tech Systems (PfHTS), sketched the road that was taken to con-
systems, investigates the design and development of a reli- tinue IOP-like precision engineering research in the Netherlands,
able and robust microfluidic jet system with an accurate via plans for a new ‘precision institute’ and the establishment of
picolitre droplet volume, a high droplet placement accuracy PfHTS (which he chaired), to eventually Point-One Phase 2.
and high jetting frequency. (Photo: Marco Eschler)

35 Nr.1 2009
 Dutch precision engineering research

Based on this agenda, a Multi-Annual and an Annual

Roadmap for mechatronics research have been outlined:
• health care: reliable and robust robotic manipulators;
• energy & power: green mechatronics designs;
• semicon: new stage concepts (front-end), 3D integration
of ICs (back-end);
• industrial printing: electronics, high-tech manufacturing;
• lifestyle & leisure: domotics home care for the elderly;
• transport, logistics & security: robotics for dangerous
Jan van Eijk is a professor at Delft University of Technology events/environments.
and an independent mechatronics consultant. As a speaker
at the IOP symposium, he put Dutch mechatronics into an This agenda and these roadmaps lay the foundation for pre-
international perspective. He observed that the Netherlands cision engineering / mechatronics research in the coming
focuses primarily on high-end applications at the apex years. To start with, the IOP symposium last December
of what he called the mechatronics pyramid, e.g. nano- included three brainstorm sessions on the subjects of fast
mechatronics for high-tech equipment. But there is more and accurate positioning, high-precision, ultra-slow move-
out there than just that. Van Eijk referred to ‘consumer ments and robotics at home. This resulted in inspiring ideas
mechatronics’ (with the US leading the field), automotive for further elaboration. At the moment, Dutch researchers
applications (Germany and France) and intelligent robot- are drawing up research proposals for submission to Point-
ics (Japan). The greatest economic potential is to be found One. IOP Precision Engineering is coming to an end, long
lower in the pyramid. He urged the Dutch mechatronics live Point-One.
community to broaden its horizons and focus more on busi-
ness. From the R&D-oriented Dutch, this will require more DSPE
‘respect for operations’, integrated cost awareness and busi- In the Dutch precision engineering landscape pictured
ness acumen. Opportunities identified by Van Eijk include above, the Dutch Society for Precision Engineering
robotics at home, inkjet technologies, solar panel manufac- (DSPE, also known as NVPT after its name in Dutch)
turing and 3D integration of ICs. plays a prominent networking role. Actually, as Lou Hulst
(Photo: Marco Eschler) already pointed out, it was DSPE that in the late nineties
took the initiative that resulted in the launch of the IOP
programme. In recent years, DSPE has renewed its spirit
and grown to become a flourishing society, with an
Agenda and roadmap extended board, successful activities such as the Summer
The research is directed by Point-One’s Multi-Annual school Opto-Mechatronics, its well-rated magazine
Roadmap, which includes an Emerging Technology Mikroniek, a popular website (Precision Portal, soon in
Agenda. Mechatronic subjects on this agenda are: English as well) and an active Young Precision Network.
• distributed actuation, identification and control, At the moment, DSPE is establishing close ties with
• precision systems, Point-One regarding such subjects as research, human
• intelligent robotics, capital and roadmapping.
• transient electromagnetics design,
• smart materials,
• smart ultra-lightweight actuators,
• man-machine interfaces, Information
• mathematical systems theory.
www.senternovem.nl/iopprecisietechnologie (in Dutch)
www.point-one.nl
www.dspe.nl (at the moment largely in Dutch)

Nr.1 2009 36
 Accelerated reliability testing

MEOST,
a jump into the future

Given the demand for shorter development lead times, traditional methods of system

and product reliability testing are too time-consuming. The Multiple Environmental

Over Stress Testing (MEOST) method appears to be a very strong tool for designing

and developing a robust and reliable product.

• Jan Eite Bullema •

C
Companies are often pressured by competitors and by their
business environments to bring new products and new inno-
vations to the market as quickly as possible. This rapid
introduction of new products increases the risks associated
It has been known for at least twenty years that traditional
methods for arriving at reliable products take too much time
and have relatively little predictive value [2]. For example,
the reliability handbook of the American military, MIL-
with the reliability of new products. Traditional test meth- Handbook-217, has not been updated since the mid-1990s
ods used to guarantee the reliability of new products are not due to the limited predictive value of the traditional Mean
sufficient to reduce the time of design cycles. Time Between Failure (MTBF) approach that the handbook
uses. The handbook is much too conservative and hence
The reliability of a system is often derived from testing its often unrealistic when it comes to failure prediction.
subsystems. Subsequently, the reliability of a subsystem is
derived from the reliability of the components of that sub- New, modern quality approaches such as Six Sigma [3]
system. Often these tests are guided by ‘mission profiles’ offer little in the way of a reduction of the design cycle
that are used to model the practical conditions of use. In time. Despite claims that the ‘Design for Six Sigma’ meth-
practice, it appears to be very difficult, if not impossible, to od leads to a substantial reduction in the development lead
infer a systems’ reliability from the reliability behaviour time, the method contains no real solutions for the urgent
shown by subsystems and components. As the renowned demand for accelerated reliability testing [4].
quality guru Edwards Deming put it, “you cannot test a
­battleship” [1].

37 Nr.1 2009
 Accelerated reliability testing

According to Keki Bhote [4], Multiple Environmental board leads to a standstill of the total system. The Nether-
Over Stress Testing (MEOST) is a method that may well lands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO)
lead to robust and reliable complex systems. The MEOST has worked with the Dutch suppliers association NEVAT
method was developed in the 1960s and successfully EMS (Electronic Manufacturing Services) in a technology
applied by NASA in the development of the lunar module, transfer project on the subject of the reliability of lead-free
a complex system that placed extraordinarily high soldering [5] [6]; see Figure 1. In particular the relationship
demands on reliability. between certain choices in the design of the lead-free print-
ed circuit board and the impact on the reliability of the sol-
The main benefits of the MEOST method are (a) that it dered printed circuit board was studied. The lead-free
requires very short development cycles that enable short design work was done on a practical printed circuit board
time-to-market developments, and (b) that the design is design for the production of one of the NEVAT EMS com-
very robust. panies.

Critical subsystems Failure modes

Electronic printed circuit boards are often critical subsys- If we zoom in on electronic products, and especially on fail-
tems in mechatronic systems. Failure in a printed circuit ure modes that are associated with lead-free soldering, we
can identify numerous potential failure mechanisms; see
Table 1 and Figure 2. These become manifest under specific
stressing of a product. This is crucial for the understanding
of accelerated testing. It is often very difficult to predict the
user profile of specific individual users. Testing product
ageing at elevated temperatures does not provide an insight
into failure behaviour due to mechanical shock.

Table 1. Frequently encountered failure mechanisms in lead-free

soldered electronics.

• Thermo-mechanical fatigue
• Mismatch between coefficients of thermal expansion
• Bulk solder brittleness
• Mechanical shock
• Vibration
• Low-cycle fatigue
• Electro-migration and electro-corrosion
• Warping
• Kirkendall voiding

During the transition towards lead-free soldering in the

electronics industry, there have been numerous examples of
companies incurring financial damage because of their
ambitions to beat competitors. Well-known, in the context
of lead-free soldering, are the reliability problems Microsoft
encountered with the introduction of the Xbox, which led to
an estimated write-off of 1.15 billion Euros in 2007 [5]. The
Figure 1. The experimental set-up developed by TNO to Swiss watch company Swatch reported a loss of approxi-
test printed circuit boards according to MEOST test plans. mately 1 billion Euros as a result of ‘tin whiskers’ in lead-
Simultaneous bending, heating and electrical bias are applied [6]. free soldered watches [7].

Nr.1 2009 38
 absolute temperature in Kelvin is plotted against the loga-
rithm of the reaction rate. In many cases, the plot leads to a
straight line. According to the quality guru Joseph Juran,
straight lines are very much appreciated by scientists and
engineers.
Figure 2. An electrical capacitor crack, the result of a thermal mis-
match (mismatch between coefficients of thermal expansion) [5]. Weibull Statistics
Waloddi Weibull formulated a statistical approach [12] that
A thorough knowledge of material properties is required to has become the standard in the field of reliability engineer-
design tests that make it possible to assess the reliability of ing. In the Weibull method, the cumulative defects are plot-
a product. Many lead-free solder alloys are stiffer and less ted on a double logarithmic scale against the logarithm of
ductile than the traditional lead-tin solders. To be able to time. Again, this leads to straight lines. Depending on the
predict the expected useful life of a solder interconnect statistical parameters of the Weibull distribution function, a
based on a cyclic thermal load, it is necessary to adjust the product’s life is classified in three phases:
time that the interconnection is loaded at a higher tempera- • infant mortality, characterised by a decreasing failure
ture (i.e. dwell time) [8]. Some lead-free solders lose their rate;
ductility abruptly below a certain transition temperature, • useful life phase, characterised by a constant failure rate;
which can lead to brittle breakages at impact stresses below • wear-out phase, characterised by an increasing failure
these temperatures [9]. Specialist knowledge of these mate- rate.
rial properties is needed to develop and design meaningful
tests for lead-free soldered interconnects. This is even more These phases in a product life lead to the well-known bath-
the case for accelerated reliability tests. tub curve, which graphically represents these three phases
of the product life. Aspects such as reliability and expected
Traditional methods life can be estimated using the Weibull analysis. With a
The electronics industry traditionally uses what are known knowledge of acceleration factors and specific failures, it is
as reliability handbooks for reliability prediction, one very possible to predict reliability and expected life on the basis
well known one being the MIL-Handbook-217 [10], which of accelerated testing.
was introduced in 1962 by the American military and used
to estimate the failure rate (Failures In Time or FIT) or the HAST
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF). This handbook was As mentioned above, traditional reliability testing approach-
last revised (revision F) in 1994 and there have been no es are time-consuming and often do not correspond to the
updates since then. The Handbook-217 is still used by many practical conditions in which the products are used. In the
designers for estimating the reliability of an electronic testing of electronic products, methods such as Highly
design. Accelerated Stress Testing (HAST) are already being used.
Here, combinations of stresses are applied to accelerate reli-
Arrhenius acceleration model ability testing. A disadvantage of the HAST method is that
The most commonly used method of determining the accel- a relatively large test series is required to arrive at statistic­
eration factors in accelerated testing is based on a method ally significant conclusions.
developed as early as the 19th century by Svante Arrhenius
[11] and used to determine the effect of increased tempera- MEOST
ture on chemical reaction rates. The Arrhenius method also A method for testing reliability that differs fundamentally
can be used to predict the ageing behaviour of products. A from existing methods for testing the reliability of products
quantitative prediction of acceleration factors can be made and systems is the Multiple Environment Over Stress Test-
on the basis of measurements. In turn, these acceleration ing (MEOST) method developed by Dorian Shainin. This
factors enable a quantitative prediction of the expected life method is based on very small sample sizes and takes a
of a specific product. Measurement data is plotted using ­subtle approach to the stressing of a product in that a well-
what is known as an Arrhenius plot, in which the reciprocal designed combination of stresses is carefully applied. The

39 Nr.1 2009
 Accelerated reliability testing

Figure 3. A printed circuit board after 0 hours (above) and after Figure 4. Printed circuit boards in the climate chamber at TNO.
1,800 hours (below) in the climate chamber at TNO. The clothes pegs are used for pressing a test switch.

aim is not to arrive at a sound statistical straight line but to The conclusion drawn from both experimental studies using
develop a product that is robust and can withstand any traditional and MEOST tests was that the glass transition
stress or combination of stresses during its useful life. temperatures in the selected materials had no influence on
the failure behaviour of the soldered printed circuit boards.
The starting points that distinguish Multiple Over Stress This led to the choice of the most cost-effective material.
Testing from the traditional reliability approach are:
• Failure of the product during testing is a success. A MEOST test lasting ten hours enabled the same conclu-
• Stresses are combined, where possible, to create inter­ sion to be drawn as the traditional MIL-883 test where test-
actions that lead to product failure. ing time was one thousand hours.
• Stresses are applied preferably as far as possible above
the design specifications. It is clear that successful use of the MEOST test demands a
• Stress levels are adjusted as rapidly as possible (steep thorough knowledge of product design, material and pro-
ramp-up and ramp-down). duction technology. Moreover, an understanding of lead-
• Extremely small test series (three to five products in a free soldering mentioned in the introduction is needed to
test) suffice. design MEOST experiments and to come to meaningful
interpretations.
Because of the combination of stresses, an analysis of
MEOST data does not lead to straight lines as we have seen Conclusion
in the Arrhenius and Weibull plots, which is probably why The MEOST method appears to be a very strong tool for
acceptance of the MEOST method has been slow. designing and developing a robust and reliable product. The
MEOST method can be used to assess and improve the
Experimental work relia­bility of a technical system in very short cycles. More
In the context of the TNO and NEVAT EMS knowledge specifically, the MEOST method can be used to test the reli-
transfer project, TNO performed a series of classical ­ ability and robustness of mechanical systems, mechatronic
MIL-STD-883 reliability tests to evaluate design changes in systems and complex software. In short, this method reduc-
a lead-free soldered printed circuit board; see Figures 3 and es design cycle time (a factor 100 is possible) and enables
4. Parallel to these traditional experiments, a series of the design of more robust and more cost-effective systems.
MEOST tests was performed on the same printed circuit
boards to evaluate the different designs. The aim was to Author’s note
compare the traditional reliability test and the MEOST test. Jan Eite Bullema works at TNO Science and Industry in
Eindhoven, the Netherlands, on the development and appli-
One of the variables in the experiments was the glass trans­ cation of microsystems packaging. This article is based on
ition temperature of the printed circuit board material. As work within the framework of a knowledge transfer project
lead-free soldering leads to higher soldering temperatures, that TNO has conducted for NEVAT EMS, which investi-
the material quality of the printed circuit boards becomes gated the reliability of an existing product.
more critical. It can also drive costs up.

Nr.1 2009 40
Literature [9] Guenther Grossman, www.europeanleadfree.net, Reli-
[1] W. Edwards Deming, Out of the Crisis, ISBN ability Handbook, Elfnet, 2006
0-911379-0-10, 1986 [10] MIL-Handbook-217 Revision F, 1993
[2] Kam L. Wong, The bathtub curve does not hold water [11] Svante Arrhenius, On the Reaction Velocity of the
anymore, Quality and Reliability Engineering Sympo- Inversion of Cane Sugar by Acids, Z. phys. Chemie 4,
sium, 1988 226ff, 1889
[3] Forrest Breyfogle III, Implementing Six Sigma, ISBN [12] Waloddi Weibull, A Statistical Distribution Function of
0-471-26572-1, 2003 Wide Applicability, J. Appl. Mechanics, 1951
[4] Keki R. Bhote, World Class Quality, ISBN 0-07-
137169-9, 2004
[5] www.loodvrijsolderen.nl
[6] Jan Eite Bullema, Practical Experience with MEOST
in Evaluating Leadfree Technology, European Reliabi­
lity Summit, Tallin 2008 Information
[7] www.bits-chips.nl
[8] Werner Engelmaier, Update on lead-free solder joint www.tno.nl
reliability, Global SMT and Packaging, pp. 46-48, www.loodvrijsolderen.nl (in Dutch)
August 2008
AD-010911-NL.qxp:AD-010911-NL (Mikroniek) 28/01/09 9:06 Page 1

Newport’s TRA Series Motorized Actuators

Compact and Competitive

The TRA Series miniature motorized actuators are the latest

addition to Newport's extensive range of precision positioning
devices. They provide reliable motorized motion in a small diameter,
lightweight package and are a lower cost alternative to the popular
Newport CMA series. The TRA actuators incorporate an excellent
space saving design that allows them to be used with a wide
variety of linear stages, mirror mounts, and OEM applications.

Key Features
• Up to 25 mm travel in a light, compact design
For more information, • Replaces manual micrometer drives with similar form factor
visit www.newport.com/tra • Stepper, stepper-vacuum, and closed-loop DC-servo motor versions
or call your local sales office. • Integrated limit switches prevent component and motor damage

Belgium Netherlands
Newport Spectra-Physics B.V. Newport Spectra-Physics B.V.
Phone: +32 (0)0800-11 257 Phone: +31 (0)30 659 21 11
Fax: +32 (0)0800-11 302 Fax: +31 (0)30 659 21 20
belgium@newport.com netherlands@newport.com © 2009 Newport Corporation.

MAKE LIGHT | MANAGE LIGHT | MEASURE LIGHT AD-010911-EN

41 Nr.1 2009
 Mikrocentrum

Vision & Robotics 2009

On 16 & 17 June 2009, Mikrocentrum organizes
the eighth edition of the Vision & Robotics trade
fair. In Nieuwegein’s Business Center, the
­Netherlands, industrial robot and vision applica-
tions will be presented under one roof.

A
An inspiring lecture programme will guide visitors into a
world full of integrated robot and vision applications.
Advanced camera and lighting applications allow robots to
operate fully autonomously. In times of economic prosper­
ity as well as in the current recession, robots equipped with
fitting ‘eyes’ will enable industry to manufacture products
of superior quality at low cost.

Vision system as well as robot suppliers and system inte­

grators, united in the Robotics Association Benelux (RAB),
support the event. They also will showcase appealing appli­
cation examples in the lecture programme, which is direc­ Micro-assembly
ted at end users, original equipment manufacturers, and On 11 June 2009, Mikrocentrum organizes the interactive
system integrators. In 2008, the event attracted 46 exhibi­ seminar ‘Positioning systems for micro-assembly’. During
tors and over 600 visitors. the day, examples and applications will be be presented to
demonstrate the rationale and potential of using positioning
www.vision-robotics.nl (in Dutch) systems and other tools for micro-assembly.

Mikrocentrum

Eindhoven-based Mikrocentrum is an independent competence centre with a 40-year history of supporting companies and insti-
tutes. The main objectives are improving know-how and stimulating intercompany networking and co-operation. Mikrocentrum’s
network extends into government(‑related) organisations, as well as into scientific and educational institutes, and its High Tech
Platform comprises some 480 high-tech industrial companies.
Annually, over 20,000 people participate in events organised
by Mikrocentrum, such as 30 to 40 special-interest sessions
on topics ranging from technology, product development and
manufacturing to quality and management. Mikrocentrum
also offers a comprehensive array of short, concise practical
courses and workshops in technology and management at all
educational levels ranging from the hands-on technical up to
the academic. Additionally, Mikrocentrum organises a dozen
trade fairs a year in fields such as precision technology,
vision & robotics, and health & technology.

www.mikrocentrum.nl

Nr.1 2009 42
 News

Updated and extended: Advanced engineering design

The website www.tribology-abc. ings, lead screws and their associated mechanisms. Although the designer
com was designed to support the wind-up, backlash or hysteresis. using this book is expected to have a
calculators that were included in the Generating an overview of quantita­ good background in mathematics, the
book ‘Advanced engineering design tive data – error budget – makes it objective is that the design tools illus­
- Lifetime performance and reli- clear which factors dominate the sys­ trated by cases will be useful anyhow.
ability’. Although this book origi- tem accuracy.
nally centred on tribology-related www.engineering-abc.com/book
to­pics, later editions more and more Many books are written about
focused on the design of high-pre- machine design. Most of them are
cision and high-reliability systems. focused on selection and computation
Now, an updated and extended ver- of strength and stiffness of basic
sion has been published. machine elements. The objective of
this book is to provide guidelines for
The main components in these sys­ engineers helping them to improve
tems are typically the actuator plus machine lifetime performance and
controller, the bearings and the sup­ reliability.
porting frame. The system engineer is
faced with the many options available The first part of the book concerns the
for the subsystems and the combina­ fundamentals of design for lifetime
tions of subsystems with respect to the performance and reliability, including
system specification. Selection of the design procedures to estimate and
most promising combination of com­ improve machine reliability, failure
ponents will be successful when the analysis, fatigue strength, static and
principle of operation, accuracy, reso­ dynamic load rating of concentrated
lution, and repeatability of each com­ contacts, friction phenomena, wear
ponent in the system are clearly mechanisms, machine lubrication,
understood. material selection and coatings.

The electrical resolution for stepper The second part concerns the design
motors, as an example, relates to the of high-performance and high-reliabil­ Anton van Beek,
step size, while the resolution for ity systems, including the principle of Advanced engineering design - Lifetime
servo motors relies more on the operation, performance and design of performance and reliability,
encoder resolution. The physical limi­ hydrodynamically lubricated bearings ISBN-10 90-810406-1-8,
tations of overall system accuracy, and sliders, viscous dampers, dynamic full-colour, 534 pages, Tribos, 2009.
however, may be due to transfer sealing systems, hydrostatic bearings, Book + CD, EUR 85.00,
mechanisms such as supports, coupl­ pressurised air bearings and flexure including postage and VAT.

Motion control trade fair MOCON

8 & 9 April 2009, the next edition of end’ part of drive techniques, and solu­ Among the over 140 exhibitors that
motion control trade fair easyFairs tions for synchronising movements. have already registered, are B&R,
MOCON will be held in Den Bosch, The previous edition in Den Bosch, in Heidenhain, maxon motor, Minimotor
the Netherlands. The large variety of 2007, attracted 154 exhibitors and over and Siemens.
exhibitors will cover all facets in 2,400 visitors. This year, some 2,500
motion control, including the ‘high- to 3,000 exhibitors are expected. www.easyfairs.com/mocon-nl

43 Nr.1 2009
 News

Summer school Opto-Mechatronics

Following the success of the
Summer school Opto-Mechatronics
2008, the Dutch Society for
Precision Engineering (DSPE) and
TNO Science and Industry decided
to organize a Summer school
again. The Summer school Opto-
Mechatronics 2009, in Eindhoven,
once again is the place to be for any-
one working in the field of precision
engineering and wanting to learn
and experience from experts how to
design opto-mechanical instruments
that are actively controlled, operat-
ing in the non-perfect environment.
Professors at the Summer school include Maarten Steinbuch (left) and Rob Munnig Schmidt.

The Summer school Opto-Mechatro­ TNO Science and Industry, ASML, The preliminary course programme
nics 2009 comprises, from 29 June to Philips and Dutch Space. outlined below each day offers a com­
3 July 2009, five days of intensive During the course, students will be bination of theory and practice.
course, taught by excellent Dutch pro­ working on the design of an optical
fessors and scientists in the field of delay line for the Very Large Tele­
precision engineering, combined with scope, under the supervision of TNO
hands-on training by TNO specialists; experts.
TNO is the leading independent Dutch
institute for applied research in a.o.
high-end technical disciplines. Partici­
pants will come from universities and
high-tech large companies and SMEs.
The programme will include social
events. Venue for the Summer school
will be TNO Science and Industry at
the university campus in Eindhoven,
the Netherlands.

Scope
The scope of the Summer school is to
learn about the system design of opti­
cal instruments based on fundamental
knowledge of optical design, mechani­
cal design and actively controlled sys­
tems. Typically these systems include
semiconductor equipment, metrology
systems, microscopes, printers, space
instruments and high-tech production
equipment.
This international course is hosted by
Dutch experts, from Delft and Eind­
hoven Universities of Technology, Impression from the 2008 Summer school.

Nr.1 2009 44
 Programme
Monday 29 June: Systems Engineering design. In a team effort they are requested to design and
Opto-mechanical instruments are always co-existing assess the performance.
with other equipment. So, before starting their design, The finite-element method programme ANSYS will be
the essence of the systems engineering has to be consi­ used to gain insight in the mounting of (aberration-free)
dered.What is critical and what are the margins? How to optical components, and some smart construction princi­
approach such a project and how to gain insight in the ples. Students will learn the capability of finite-element
background of the requirements? simulations, the preparation of the required input, and
interpretation of the output.
Tuesday 30 June: Optical Design
The case starts with an introduction to the optical design Friday 3 July: Mechanics and Dynamics
and its use in optical aperture synthesis applications. Designing an actively controlled delay line that is stable
Next, in teams, several delay line designs will be com­ enough to perform interferometry over large distances,
pared, in order to select the best design with respect to is far from trivial. The system needs to operate con­
the optical requirements. After this, an effective optical stantly over long time scales. Temperature changes,
design has to be found for measurement of the optical ground vibrations, moving systems, acoustic and elec­
path differences. trical noise, these all are aspects that will influence its
In a workshop, Zemax will be used to analyse the optics performance. Students will learn to understand these
in the delay line with a focus on tolerancing. Further influences and how to deal with them in a smart, con­
work pertains to wave-front analysis and pupil imaging structive way.
while moving the delay line. Also, the accuracy of the
alignment is part of the assignment. Information and registration
www.summer-school.nl
Wednesday 1 July: Control Design
Based on the functional requirements of the optical
delay line, the challenges for control will be discussed.
These include actuation for a high dynamic range, servo
behaviour, vibration rejection, sensor noise, closed-loop
stability and others. An introduction of suitable control
design methods is presented to achieve nanometre posi­
tioning accuracy.

Thursday 2 July: Opto-Mechanical Design, statically

The trade-off made for a linear guiding of 66 meters,
with sub-millimetre accuracy, will be presented. After
this introduction, the students will go through the A tour of the TNO laboratories during the 2008 Summer school.

TValley 2009: mechatronics moves you

Mechatronics Valley Twente Founda­ tions by industry and academia will keteers, (HRM) managers and policy
tion will hold its sixth TValley confer­ show the impact of mechatronics on makers to keep moving, searching for
ence on 16 April 2009 on the Univer­ Dutch robotics. (Former) University of the technological potential and the
sity of Twente campus, Enschede, the Twente students will demonstrate their attractiveness of mechatronics.
Netherlands. This time, the conference appealing work on a humanoid.
on innovation and business in the www.tvalley.nl
high-tech manufacturing industry will The conference is aimed at the (Dutch)
feature robotics and mechatronics as manufacturing industry. TValley 2009
attractive options for business, will help researchers, study pro­
research, study and work. Presenta­ gramme directors, technologists, mar­

45 Nr.1 2009
 RPM09 Dutch adverts 133x90 Draft:RPM09 Dutch adverts 90x133 19

Comprehensive Gear Range

Brass Spur Gears
• Provide an economical balance of accuracy and load capacity
ADVERTISERS INDEX against cost
• Can be run with minimal lubrication
Precision Cut Gears
• Plain or anti-backlash
page
• Designed for high accuracy and long life
• Ideal for measurement and light instrumentation
• Qualities of up to AQ14, ISO Quality 3
� TNO Industrie & Techniek 2 • Can be modified to suit your needs
www.tno.nl
Fine Pitch Ground Gears
• Ground gears provide high accuracy and higher torque capacity
� Schaeffler Nederland BV 31 • Hardened to 49 - 55HRc
www.schaefflergroup.com • Available down to 0.5 module
• Bore modification readily available
� Newpor t Spectr a-Physics Ltd 41
www.newport.com

� Reliance Pr ecision Mechatronics LLP 46

www.rpmechatronics.co.uk

� Applied Laser Technolo gy (ALT) 47

www.alt.nl

� Heidenhain Nederland BV 48
www.heidenhain.nl

Reliance
Precision Mechatronics LLP
® NL+31 (0) 76 5040790
UK +44 (0) 1484 601060
www.rpmechatronics.co.uk
Unique Solutions from Proven Concepts

Nr.1 2009 46
IV^adgZYYdlc
idi]ZcVcdbZigZ
=Vk^c\i]Zg^\]ii^Zl^i]i]Zg^\]ihj^ibZVch
ZkZgni]^c\[^iha^`ZV\adkZVcYXdckZnhi]Z
^bV\ZndjlVci#6h^[^i]VYWZZcbVYZ[dgndj#
LdjaYcÉi^iWZc^XZid]VkZi]Vi^cndjgldg`!idd4
Jc[dgijcViZan!^cndjghZVgX][dgVegdYjXii]Vi
[^ih!Vaandj[^cY^hgZVYn"id"lZVg#

6AI^hY^[[ZgZci#6AIYZa^kZghXjhidb^hZYe^Zod
hdaji^dch[dgb^XgdcVcYhjW"b^Xgdcedh^i^dc^c\
egd_ZXih#Id\Zi]Zgl^i]djgbVcj[VXijgZg!lZ
h^iYdlcl^i]ndjid\V^cYZiV^aZY^ch^\]i^cid
egZX^hZanl]Vi^i^hndjVgZadd`^c\[dg#I]Zc!
ldg`^c\VXXdgY^c\idVhZihZg^Zhd[hiZeh!lZ
7BJ
\ZcZgViZVYZh^\ci]ViVchlZghndjgheZX^[^X EJIH
egd_ZXicZZYh#I]ZgZhjai^hVjc^fjZaniV^adgZY
egdYjXii]VilZXVchjWhZfjZcianeji^cidWViX] NDJ>C
VcYkdajbZegdYjXi^dc#
EDH>I>DC
lll#Vai#ca
How can you measure the future of
semiconductor manufacturing?

Each new generation has to measure up to new standards—this also applies to semiconductor manufactur-
ing. The wafers need to grow, the structures need to shrink. In order to be successful, you need measuring
equipment that fulfills the demands for highest accuracy and reproducibility.The encoders from HEIDENHAIN
are ideal for this. We have been involved in linear and angular metrology for 117 years, and continually invest
in the development of tomorrow’s technology. With metrology equipment from HEIDENHAIN you will easily
measure up to the standards of tomorrow. HEIDENHAIN NEDERLAND B.V., Postbus 92, 6710 BB Ede,
Telefoon: (0318) 581800, Telefax: (0318) 581870, http://www.heidenhain.nl, E-Mail: verkoop@heidenhain.nl
angle encoders linear encoders contouring controls digital readouts length gauges rotary encoders