Geology

Geology is the study of the earth (geo means earth, and ology means study of). Mainly, the materials that make
up the Earth, the structure of those materials, and the processes acting upon them. It includes the study of organisms that
have inhabited our planet.

Branches of Geology
Geology is divided into two categories: physical geology and historical geology.

Physical geology deals with the study of the physical features of the earth and the processes acting on them. This
includes volcanoes, earthquakes, rocks, mountains and the oceans; just about any feature of the earth. The following lists
some important subdivision of Physical Geology.

Engineering geology - This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering, for
execution of safe, stable and economic constructions like dams, bridges and tunnels.
Environmental geology - the study of the environmental effects produced by changes in geology, such as the
determination river flow and its connection to flooding, and conversely, how the geology is affected by
environmental problems, such as pollution and urban development.
Geochemistry-the study of the chemical composition of rocks and minerals; geochemists use this information to
determine more about the internal structure of materials.
Geomorphology-the study of landform development, such as how a river forms and develops over time.
Geophysics-the physics of the Earth, including such fields as seismology (including interpretation of the Earth's
interior), and the effects of the Earth's magnetic and electric fields.
Mineralogy - This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with different rocks and ores of the earth
are made up of. Details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association, properties uses etc.
of minerals form the subject matter of mineralogy.
Mining geology - This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of mining. It tackles the mode
and extent of occurrence of ores, their association, properties etc. It is also necessary to know other physical
parameters like depth, direction, inclination, thickness, and, reserve of the bodies for efficient utilization.
Petroleum geology-the study of how petroleum products are formed, found, and extracted.
Petrology - deals with the study of rocks. The earth’s crust also called lithosphere is made up of different types of
rocks. Hence, petrology deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and
types of rocks. This is the most important branch of geology from the civil engineering point of view.
Volcanology - the study of volcanoes and volcanic phenomena.

Historical geology is the study of the history of the earth. It focusses on what has happened to Earth since its
formation and the changes in life throughout time. The following lists some important subdivision of Historical Geology.

Paleontology- it deals with the study of fossils and the ancient remains of plants and animals are referred to as fossils.
Fossils are useful in the study of evolution and migration of animals and plants through ages, ancient geography
and climate of an area.
Stratigraphy - it deals with the study of stratified rocks and their correlation.

Development of Engineering Geology

 The concept of engineering geology has been known since the nineteenth century.
 The first to introduce the term engineering geology was the Englishman William Smith (1769–1839). He was
regarded as the “father of engineering geology”
 William Henry Penning published the first book entitled “Engineering Geology” in 1880.
 In 1888, Engineering Geology Division was established at the Geological Society of America in the United States
 Ries and Watson wrote the first American engineering geology textbook in 1914.
 The need for geologist on engineering works gained worldwide attention in 1928 with the failure of the St. Francis
dam in California and the loss of 426 lives. More engineering failures, which occurred the following years also
prompted the requirement for engineering geologists to work on large engineering projects.
 In 1964, International Association of Engineering Geology (IAEG) was set up during the 22nd International
Geological Congress in New Delhi.
 First International Congress IAEG was held in Paris in 1970

Relevance/Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering

The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials, their structure and properties.
2. The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface water helps in soil conservation,
river control, coastal and harbor works.
3. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in tunneling, constructing roads and in
determining the stability of cuts and slopes. Thus, geology helps in civil engineering.
4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology of the area where
they are to be built.
 5. The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with excavation works, water supply, irrigation and
many other purposes.
6. Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering projects.
7. If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds, solution channels are found, they have to be suitably
treated. Hence, the stability of the structure is greatly increased.
8. Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of engineering work.

Earth Structure and Composition

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (by mass) - 34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon, 12.7% Magnesium

Crust
The outermost and thinnest layer of Earth. It is a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. It has two kinds
namely, the continental crust and the oceanic crust.
Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper
down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat
the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents.
Continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The
average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Because it is
thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the
mantle to form basins.

Mantle
It is the layer between the crust and core. It usually has different temperatures depending on its location. The
inner part has higher temperature. Compared with the crust, the mantle is thicker and is denser because of the presence
of aluminum and magnesium.

Core
The center of Earth is called the core. It is believed that the core is mostly made of iron and nickel. It is divided
into two zones; the outer core and inner core. The outer core is liquid because of the high temperature that makes iron
and nickel stay in melted form. The inner core, although it has a higher temperature than the outer core, is in solid form
because of the high amount of pressure produced by the overlaying rocks that allow atoms to pack tightly together.

EARTH ENVELOPE
The gaseous envelope above the heavy elements of the Earth’s crust, the soil and seas, is often referred to as
the atmosphere. The atmosphere surrounds Earth and protects us by blocking out dangerous rays from the sun. The
atmosphere is a mixture of gases that becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is composed of Nitrogen
(78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%).
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 Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into five layers depending on how temperature changes with height. Most of the
weather occurs in the first layer. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with height until it eventually merges with
space.

Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere, where masses of air are very well mixed
together and the temperature decreases with altitude. The air is heated from the ground up because the surface of the
Earth absorbs energy and heats up faster than the air. The heat is mixed through the troposphere because on average
the atmosphere in this layer is slightly unstable. Weather occurs in the Earth's troposphere. In fact, most clouds form in
this layer.

Stratosphere
In the Earth's stratosphere, the temperature increases with altitude (as opposed to the troposphere, where it
gets colder with altitude). The increasing temperature in the stratosphere is caused by the presence of a layer of ozone
near an altitude of 25 kilometers. The ozone molecules absorb high-energy UV rays from the sun, which warm the
atmosphere at that level. The terrestrial stratosphere is the region between the tropopause, or the end of the
troposphere, and the level at which the maximum warming due to the presence of ozone takes place, which is at an
altitude of about 50 kilometers.

Mesosphere
In the Earth's mesosphere, the air masses are relatively mixed together and the temperature decreases with
altitude. Atmospheric temperatures reach the lowest average value of around -90°C in the mesosphere. This is also the
layer in which a lot of meteors burn up while entering the Earth's atmosphere.

Thermosphere
The Earth's thermosphere is the layer of the atmosphere, which is first exposed to the Sun's radiation and so is
first heated by the Sun. The air is so thin that a small increase in energy can cause a large increase in temperature. The
thermosphere also includes the region of the Earth's atmosphere called the ionosphere. The ionosphere is the region of
the atmosphere that is filled with charged particles. Elevated temperatures can sometimes cause a molecule to become
ionized, therefore, the ionosphere and thermosphere can overlap.

Exosphere
At very high altitudes, the atmosphere becomes very thin. The region where atoms and molecules escape into space is
referred to as the exosphere. This is the true upper limit of the Earth's atmosphere. The exosphere extends from the
thermosphere out to space.

ROCK CYCLE

The external and internal forces on earth result in a process by which rocks are continuously formed and destroyed. This
rock cycle demonstrates how rocks arise from other rocks. It also shows that all existing rocks may have undergone
countless alterations throughout earth’s history and will continue to change in the future.

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Diastrophism –refers to the movements of crustal plates which deform and alter the surface of the earth. It is the
process that forms structures such as mountains, valleys, and plateaus on the crust.
Magmatism- it is the process by which magma is produced by partial melting of subsurface rocks. Magma is pushed
upward by pressure through vents and can reach the earth’s surface.
Weathering – the breaking or crumbling of rocks by physical, chemical, or biological means. It reduces the size of rocks
and prepares materials for transport. Different climate conditions, temperature fluctuations, and even the
location of the rocks affect the weathering process. Weathering can occur mechanically or chemically.
a) Mechanical weathering – the process of breaking down of rocks without changing their chemical
composition. Changes in temperature between day and night, and between seasons lead to a
constant expansion and contraction of rocks that result in cracks or crevices in rocks. Wind may also
damage the rock wherein the force of blowing wind may scrape the surface of a rock or may
transport its particles.
b) Chemical weathering – the breakdown of rocks by chemical mechanisms. This usually involves water
and how it reacts with other substances in the rocks. Hydration is a reaction that occurs when the
minerals in a rock dissolve when they come in contact with water. Carbonation is the reaction
between rocks and carbonic acid formed by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. Oxidation
can cause rocks to become fragile.
Erosion – the amount of soil increases as weathering continues. The components of soil pile up and are physically
removed from their place. These materials are transported to different locations by natural elements such as
 moving water, wind, gravity, and animals. After transportation, soil may be eroded again or may be deposited as
sediment that may eventually turn into rocks.
Deformation – multidirectional forces of pressures cause deformations in the earth’s crust. These may result in changes
in the total area and overall configuration or shape of the ground and in the position or elevation of the rock
layers. The applied force that causes these deformations is called stress.
Stress is subdivided into three major types that may be observed as a single event or in a combination:

a) Tensional stress – provides a stretching pressure away from a central plane and results in an
increase in total volume;
b) Shearing stress – the pressure applied to opposite directions from a parallel central plane that
results in a significant change in the initial shape of the rock layer;
c) Compressional stress – imposes a squeezing pressure toward a central plane and results in a
decrease in total volume.

Faults are breaks in rock layers in which a significant movement going toward opposite directions
occurs. Faults may be the result of the combination of stress types, and can be categorized based on the
direction of the displacement of the formerly connected rock layers.

a) Normal or dip-slip fault – a type of fault that develops from the vertical tensional stress acting on
opposite rock slabs, resulting in one slab that is displaced upward and the other slab that is moved
downward.
b) Reverse fault – a type of fault that occurs when compressional stress is observed among opposite
rock slabs, resulting in one slab that is displaced upward and the other slab that is moved
downward.
c) Graben fault – a type of fault that is produced when tensional stress results in the down-dropping
of a central slab of a rock layer
d) Horst fault – uplifting of a rock layer that is caused by the interactions of two reverse faults.
e) Strike slip – transform fault – the horizontal movement of two rock layers that are parallel to each
other, resulting from shearing stress.

TYPES OF ROCKS
igneous rocks-These rocks form as magma (molten silicate material) from volcanic activity becomes solid. Igneous is
from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." there are two types of igneous rock. Plutonic rocks slowly crystallize at
depths far below the Earth's surface. Containing coarse crystals that can be seen with the naked eye, they include
granite, granodiorite, gabbro, and diorite. Volcanic rocks form from erupting volcanoes with most of the associated
magma quickly cooling. Containing fine crystals not obvious to the naked eye, types of volcanic rocks include
rhyolite, andesite, and basalt.

Sedimentary rocks-These rocks form as sediment-erosional products of igneous, metamorphic, or other sedimentary
rocks---crystallizes from a solution such as water. Sedimentary rocks form in three ways and are usually classified as
three types of deposits. The following lists these types of rocks. (Note: The origins of some rocks, such as limestone,
chert, and dolomite, are sometimes difficult to differentiate between chemical and organic processes):
Clastic-Sedimentary rocks that form by the mechanical accumulation of rock fragments are referred to as clastic
deposits. These include sandstones, Conglomerates, and shales. The most common constituent of clastic sedimentary
rocks is quartz.
Chemical-Sediments deposited through precipitation from solution (or particles that drop out of a liquid
solution) are called chemical deposits. For example, evaporites are chemical sedimentary deposits.
Organic-Deposits involving activity by living organisms to create sedimentary rock are called organic. They
include coal and oil shale.
Metamorphic rocks-Metamorphic comes from the Greek “meta”, meaning "change," and morph, meaning "form." These
rocks form as existing rock layers–igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic –are changed by extreme heat, pressures, and
sometimes chemical means, all while the rock remains in a solid state. These rocks are most often found around
mountain-building or volcanic regions.
There are several types of metamorphism, including some that overlap each other:
a) Contact or thermal metamorphism-Contact or thermal metamorphism, as the term implies, occurs when the
intense heat of an intruding magma changes the surrounding rock. This type of metamorphism is restricted to a
zone surrounding the intrusion called a metamorphic or contact aureole. Outside this zone, the rocks are not
affected by the intrusive event.
b) Dynamic metamorphism-Dynamic metamorphism occurs when a rock is subjected to high pressure. This type of
metamorphism is usually localized in fault zones. The resulting rock is crushed, and there are few resulting
mineralogical changes.
c) Regional metamorphism-This is the most common type of metamorphism and usually occurs over a large area.
The rock changes by an increase in pressure (often causing changes in the texture, such as the lining up of
minerals) as well as temperature (which usually changes the rock's minerals).