CE 301 - GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER (AY 2019-2020)

VOLCANOES OF THE PHILIPPINES

Erupted within historical times (within the last 600 years),

accounts of these eruptions were documented by man erupted
within the last 10,000 years based on the analyses of material
from young volcanic deposits.

 ACTIVE VOLCANOES:

Item
Name of Volcano Latitude Longitude Province
No.
Babuyan Island Group,
1 Babuyan Claro 19.52408 121.95005
Cagayan in Luzon
Boundaries of Laguna and
2 Banahaw 14.06038 121.48803
Quezon in Luzon

3 Biliran (Anas) 11.63268 124.47162 Leyte in Visayas

4 Bud Dajo 6.01295 121.05772 Sulu in Mindanao

MAYON VOLCANO
Sorsogon, Bicol Region in
5 Bulusan 12.76853 124.05445
Luzon

6 Cabalian 10.27986 125.21598 Southern Leyte in Visayas

7 Cagua 18.22116 122.1163 Cagayan in Luzon

Camiguin de Babuyan Island Group,

8 18.83037 121.86280
Babuyanes Cagayan in Luzon

Babuyan Island Group,

9 Didicas 19.07533 122.20147
Cagayan in Luzon

10 Hibok-hibok 9.20427 124.67115 Camiguin in Mindanao

PINATUBO VOLCANO
11 Iraya 20.46669 122.01078 Batan Island, Batanes in Luzon

12 Iriga 13.45606 123.45479 Camarines Sur in Luzon

13 Isarog 13.65685 123.38087 Camarines Sur in Luzon

14 Kanlaon 10.41129 123.13243 Negros Oriental

15 Leonard Kniaseff 7.39359 126.06418 Davao del Norte

16 Makaturing 7.64371 124.31718 Lanao del Sur

TAAL VOLCANO
17 Matutum 6.36111 125.07603 Cotobato in Mindanao

18 Mayon 13.25519 123.68615 Albay, Bicol Region in Luzon

19 Musuan (Calayo) 7.87680 125.06985 Bukidnon in Mindanao

South Cotobato/General
Santos/ North Cotabato/ BULUSAN VOLCANO
20 Parker 6.10274 124.88879
Sarangani Provinces in
Mindanao
Boundaries of Pampanga,
21 Pinatubo 15.14162 120.35084
Tarlac and Zambales in Luzon
Lanao del Sur and Cotobato in
22 Ragang 7.69066 124.50639
Mindanao
Babuyan Island Group,
23 Smith 19.53915 121.91367
Cagayan in Luzon

24 Taal 14.01024 120.99812 Batangas in Luzon

Source: Delos Reyes, et.al. 2018, “A synthesis and review of

historical eruptions of Taal Volcano, Southern Luzon, Philippines”

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INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A VOLCANO?

HOW DO VOLCANOES FORM?

The Earth’s surface (crust and mantle) is in constant motion. This

motion causes crustal plates to move. Plates can grind into each The majority of volcanoes in the world form along the boundaries
other, slide under and over each other, or even slide horizontally of Earth's tectonic plates—massive expanses of our planet's
against each other. As this occurs, rock is squeezed, bent or lithosphere that continually shift, bumping into one another.
stretched causing stress to build in the rocks.
When tectonic plates collide, one often plunges deep below the
other in what's known as a subduction zone.

Volcanoes can occur as a result of plate movement. A volcano is

a vent in the surface of the Earth through which magma (molten As the descending landmass sinks deep into the Earth,
rock called “lava” when it reaches the surface) and associated temperatures and pressures climb, releasing water from the
gases, erupt. Volcano is also the term used to describe the rocks. The water slightly reduces the melting point of the
structure produced by material ejected through the vent. overlying rock, forming magma that can work its way to the
Materials ejected from the vent could include:
surface—the spark of life to reawaken a slumbering volcano.

• cinder—dark colored pieces of rock thrown from a volcano (4

to 32 mm diameter)
Not all volcanoes are related to subduction, however. Another
• pumice—bubbly, frothy rock that is hardened
way volcanoes can form is what's known as hotspot volcanism.
• ash—fine grained particles less than 2 mm across
In this situation, a zone of magmatic activity—or a hotspot—in
• blocks and bombs - greater than 64 mm in diameter
the middle of a tectonic plate can push up through the crust to
form a volcano. Although the hotspot itself is thought to be
Volcanoes can cause changes to the surface of the Earth in many largely stationary, the tectonic plates continue their slow march,
ways. Of course lava flows and ejection of cinder, pumice, and building a line of volcanoes or islands on the surface. This
ash build up to create cones of volcanoes and volcanic mechanism is thought to be behind the Hawaii volcanic chain.

mountains. In addition, volcanic activity, such as basalt floods,

lay thick, dense layers of rock on the landscape. Volcanoes also
trigger mudflows, avalanches, and cracks or fissures in the HOTSPOT VOLCANISM

Earth’s surface.

A hot spot is fed by a region deep within the Earth’s mantle from
More than 80 percent of the Earth's surface -- above and below which heat rises through the process of convection - transfer of
sea level -- is of volcanic origin. Gaseous emissions from heat by the movement of the heated parts of a liquid or gas. This
volcanic vents over hundreds of millions of years formed the heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the lithosphere,
Earth's earliest oceans and atmosphere, which supplied the where the brittle, upper portion of the mantle meets the Earth’s
ingredients vital to evolve and sustain life. Over geologic eons, crust. The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes through
countless volcanic eruptions have produced mountains, cracks in the crust to form volcanoes.  

plateaus, and plains, which subsequently eroded and weathered

into majestic landscapes and formed fertile soils.
Hot spot volcanism is unique because it does not occur at the
boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates, where all other volcanism

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occurs. Instead it occurs at abnormally hot centers known as

mantle plumes - upwelling of magma within Earth’s mantle.
Volcanic activity at hot spots can create submarine mountains
Scientific models depict these plumes of molten rock almost like known as seamounts - underwater mountain. Some scientists
a lava lamp, with a rising bulbous head fed by a long, narrow tail estimate that seamounts make up 28.8 million square kilometers
that originates in the mantle. As the plume head reaches the (17.9 million square miles) of the Earth’s surface, an area larger
lithosphere, it spreads into a mushroom shape that reaches than any other habitat. Depending on the amount of volcanic
roughly 500 to 1000 kilometers (310 to 621 miles) in diameter. activity, seamounts can rise hundreds or thousands of meters
These features are called diapirs - dome-shaped geologic feature from the seafloor. Hot spots can also develop beneath
(intrusion) where more fluid material is forced into brittle overlying continents.

rock.
Hot spots don't always create volcanoes that spew rivers of lava.
Sometimes, the magma heats up groundwater under the Earth’s
A volcano above a hot spot does not erupt forever. Attached to surface, which causes water and steam to erupt like a volcano.
the tectonic plate below, the volcano moves and is eventually cut These eruptions are called geysers - natural hot spring that
off from the hot spot. Without any source of heat, the volcano sometimes erupts with water or stream.

becomes extinct and cools. This cooling causes the rock of the
volcano and the tectonic plate to become more dense. Over
time, the dense rock sinks and erodes. A new and active volcano
develops over the hot spot, creating a continuous cycle of WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF VOLCANOES?

volcanism. 

Scientists have categorized volcanoes into three main categories:

active, dormant, and extinct.

1. Active volcano - one which has recently erupted (about

10,000 years ago) and there is a possibility that it may erupt
soon.

2. Dormant volcano - one which has not erupted in a long time

but there is a possibility it can erupt in the future.

3. Extinct volcano - one which has erupted thousands of years

ago and there’s no possibility of eruption.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF VOLCANOES?

Each type of volcano has a characteristic style of activity that is

partly a result of the viscosity of the magma. Viscosity - describes
a liquid’s resistance to flow, with a high viscosity indicating a high
resistance to flow. Highly viscous magmas often erupt
explosively, whereas less viscous magmas tend to flow.

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Volcanoes are grouped into four types: cinder cones, composite pyroclastic deposits is approximately 30 percent to 35
volcanoes or staratovolcano, shield volcanoes, and volcanic percent.

dome.
- Because of their explosive activity and relatively common
occurrence, composite volcanoes are responsible for most
1. Cinder cones
of the volcanic hazards that have caused death and
- circular or oval cones made up of small fragments of lava destruction throughout history.

from a single vent that have been blown into the air, cooled
and fallen around the vent.
3. Shield volcanoes
- relatively small volcanoes formed from tephra, mostly - shaped like a bowl or shield in the middle with long gentle
volcanic ash and larger particles, including volcanic bombs.
slopes made by basaltic lava flows. Basalt lava flows from
- Bombs are formed from blobs of ejected lava that spin in these volcanoes are called flood basalts.

the air and take on a rounded shape with tapered ends.

- among the tallest mountains on Earth when measured from
- often found on the flanks of larger volcanoes or along their base, often located on the ocean floor.

normal faults and long cracks or fissures.

- characterized by generally nonexplosive eruptions.

- when a shield volcano erupts, lava tends to flow down the

sides of the volcano rather than explode violently into the
atmosphere.

- the common rock type formed by the magma of shield

volcanoes is basalt.

- built up almost entirely from numerous lava flows, but they

can also produce a lot of tephra.

- Tephra, also referred to as pyroclastic debris, includes all

types of volcanic debris that are explosively ejected from a
volcano - ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs.

2. Composite volcanoes or Stratovolcano

- steep-sided volcanoes composed of many layers of

volcanic rocks, usually made from high-viscosity lava, ash
and rock debris.

- characterized by magma with an intermediate silica content

(about 60 percent), which is more viscous than the lower-
silica magma of shield volcanoes.

- The common rock type formed by the magma of composite

volcanoes is andesite, composed mostly of soda and lime- 4. Volcanic dome

rich feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals, with small - characterized by viscous magma with a relatively high silica
amounts of quartz.
content (about 70 percent).

- distinguished by a mixture of explosive activity and lava f - The common rock type produced by this magma is
lows.
rhyolite, composed mostly of potassium and sodium-rich
- composed of alternating layers of pyroclastic deposits and feldspar, quartz, and minor amounts of ferromagnesian
lava flows.
minerals.

- Their steep flanks are due to the angle of repose, or the - The activity of volcanic domes is mostly explosive, making
maximum slope angle for loose material, which for many these volcanoes very dangerous.

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VOLCANIC FEATURES
5. Geyser

- a phenomenon where the subsurface groundwater system

Geologic features that are often associated with volcanoes or involves circulation and heating patterns that produce
volcanic areas include craters, calderas, volcanic vents, geysers, periodic release of steam and hot water at the surface

and hot springs.

1. Craters WHERE ARE ALL THESE VOLCANOES?

- depressions commonly found at the top of volcanoes

- craters form by explosion or collapse of the upper portion Some 75 percent of the world's active volcanoes are positioned
of the volcanic cone and may be flat floored or funnel around the ring of fire, a 25,000-mile long, horseshoe-shaped
shaped.
zone that stretches from the southern tip of South America
- usually a few kilometers in diameter. across the West Coast of North America, through the Bering Sea
2. Calderas
to Japan, and on to New Zealand.

- gigantic, often circular, depressions resulting from explosive

ejection of magma and subsequent collapse of the upper This region is where the edges of the Pacific and Nazca plates
portion of the volcanic cone.
butt up against an array of other tectonic plates. Importantly,
- the may be 20 or more kilometers in diameter and contain however, the volcanoes of the ring aren't geologically connected.
volcanic vents as well as other volcanic features, such as In other words, a volcanic eruption in Indonesia is not related to
gas vents and hot springs.
one in Alaska, and it could not stir the infamous Yellowstone
- produced by very rare but extremely violent eruptions. supervolcano.

3. Volcanic Vents

- openings through which lava and pyroclastic debris are

erupted at the surface of Earth.
RING OF FIRE

- may be roughly circular conduits, and eruptions construct

domes and cones.
The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a
- Other vents may be elongated fissures or rock fractures, path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes
often normal faults, which produce lava flows. and frequent earthquakes. Its length is approximately 40,000
4. Hot spring or thermal spring
kilometers (24,900 miles). It traces boundaries between several
- the heated water - groundwater that comes into contact tectonic plates—including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos,
with hot rock becomes heated - that discharges at the Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.

surface

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Seventy-five percent of Earth’s volcanoes—452 volcanoes—are

located along the Ring of Fire. Ninety percent of Earth’s FORECASTING VOLCANIC ACTIVITY: CAN WE PREDICT
earthquakes occur along its path, including the planet’s most VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS?

violent and dramatic seismic events.

A “forecast” for a volcanic eruption is a probabilistic statement

The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the Ring of concerning the time, place, and character of an eruption before
Fire is caused by the amount of movement of tectonic plates in it occurs. It is analogous to forecasting the weather and is not
the area. Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at as precise a statement as a prediction.4 Forecasting volcanic
convergent boundaries called subduction zones. That is, the eruptions is a major component of the goal of reducing volcanic
plate that is underneath is pushed down, or subducted, by the hazards.

plate above. As rock is subducted, it melts and becomes

magma. The abundance of magma so near to Earth’s surface It is unlikely that we will be able to forecast the majority of
gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity.
volcanic activity accurately in the near future, but valuable
information is being gathered about phenomena that occur
A significant exception is the border between the Pacific and before eruptions.

North American Plates. This stretch of the Ring of Fire is a

transform boundary, where plates move sideways past one It is unlikely that we will be able to forecast the majority of
another. This type of boundary generates a large number of volcanic activity accurately in the near future, but valuable
earthquakes as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.
information is being gathered about phenomena that occur
before eruptions.

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vicinity of the farming community of Kapoho on the flank of

The methods of forecasting volcanic eruptions include:
the volcano, 45 km (28 mi) from the summit.

- Because of the characteristic swelling and earthquake

1. Monitoring seismic activity
activity before eruptions, scientists expect the Hawaiian
- Our experience with volcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens volcanoes to continue to be more predictable than others.

and those on the big island of Hawaii, suggests that - Monitoring of ground movements, such as tilting, swelling,
earthquakes often provide the earliest warning of an opening of cracks, or changes in the water level of lakes on
impending volcanic eruption. In Hawaii, earthquakes have or near a volcano, has become a useful tool for recognizing
been used to monitor the movement of magma as it change that might indicate a coming eruption.

approaches the surface.

- Today, satellite-based radar and a network of global
- Several months before the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruptions, positioning system (GPS) receivers can be used to monitor
small steam explosions and earthquakes began. Several change in volcanoes, including surface deformation,
months before the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruptions, small without sending people into a hazardous area.

steam explosions and earthquakes began.

- Geophysicists have proposed a generalized model for

seismic activity that may help in predicting eruptions.This
model is for explosive composite volcanoes, such as those
in the Cascade Mountains, which may awaken after an
extended period of inactivity. In a reawakening volcano, the
magma must fracture and break previously solidified
igneous rock above the magma chamber in order to work
its way to the surface. Several weeks before reawakening,
increasing pressure creates numerous fractures in the
plugged volcanic conduit above the chamber. At first, the
increase in seismic events will be very gradual, and a
seismologist may need 10 days or so to confidently
recognize an accelerating trend toward an eruption.

- However, once the trend has been recognized, there will be

several days before the eruption occurs. Unfortunately, this
short warning time may be insufficient for a large-scale
evacuation. Thus, to forecast eruptions, it may be best to
use seismic activity in concert with other eruption
precursors.

- It is fortunate that, in contrast to earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions always provide warning signs.

2. Monitoring thermal, magnetic, and hydrologic conditions

- Monitoring of volcanoes is based on the fact that, before

an eruption, a large volume of magma moves up into some
sort of holding reservoir beneath the volcano.

- The hot material changes the local magnetic, thermal,

hydrologic, and geochemical conditions.

- As the surrounding rocks heat, the rise in temperature of

the surficial rock may be detected by remote sensing or
infrared aerial photography

- Increased heat may melt snowfields or glaciers; thus,

periodic remote sensing of a volcanic chain may detect new
hot points that could indicate potential volcanic activity.

- When older volcanic rocks are heated by new magma,

magnetic properties, originally imprinted when the rocks
cooled and crystallized, may change. These changes can
be detailed by ground or aerial monitoring of the magnetic
properties of the rocks that the volcano is composed of.

3. Topographically monitoring tilting or swelling of the volcano

- The Hawaiian volcanoes, especially Kilauea, have supplied

most of the data. The summit of Kilauea tilts and swells
before an eruption and subsides during the actual
outbreak.

- The tilting of the summit in conjunction with the earthquake

swarms was used to predict a volcanic eruption in the

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4. Monitoring volcanic gas emissions

- PDCs  are mixtures of fragmented volcanic particles
- The primary objective of monitoring volcanic gas emissions (pyroclastics), hot gases and ash that rush down the
is to recognize changes in the chemical composition of the volcanic slopes or rapidly outward from a source vent at
gases. Changes in both gas composition—that is, the high speeds.

relative amounts of gases, such as steam, carbon dioxide, - PDCs range from pyroclastic flows to pyroclastic surges
and sulfur dioxide—and gas emission rates are thought to depending mainly on particle concentrations, pyroclastic
be correlated with changes in subsurface volcanic flows being denser, and therefore ground-hugging currents
processes. These factors may indicate movement of and pyroclastic surges being more dilute, more mobile
magma toward the surface.
currents.

- This technique was useful in studying eruptions at Mount - PDCs can be generated by the gravitational collapse of the
St. Helens and Mt. Pinatubo. Two weeks before the base of eruption columns, or explosion of a lava dome, or
explosive eruptions at Mt. Pinatubo, the emissions of sulfur by spalling or gravitational collapse of a lava dome or of
dioxide increased by a factor of about 10.
lava flow margins (called nuée-ardéntes). 

- A special class of PDC called base surges, mobile and

5. Studying the geologic history of a particular volcano or water-vapor-rich pyroclastic surges, are generated by
volcanic center
explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions.

- The primary tool used to establish the geologic history of a - PDCs are the most lethal of all volcanic hazards and can
volcano is geologic mapping of volcanic rocks and cause incineration, asphyxiation, abrasion, dynamic
deposits. Lava flows, volcanic mud flow deposits, pressure impact and burial in hot volcanic material.

pyroclastic deposits and ash deposits are dated (for

example dating wood buried in deposits using carbon-14) 4. LATERAL BLAST

to determine when eruptions occurred in the past.

- Lateral blasts  are laterally-directed thrusts of hot gas and
- These are the primary data necessary to produce maps ash that can be generated from an exploding dome on the
depicting volcanic hazards at a particular site.
summit vent or inside the edifice when sudden mass failure
- The real value of geologic mapping and dating of volcanic of the volcanic flanks occur.

events is that they allow development of hazard maps to - Lateral blasts travel at subsonic speeds at the onset,
assist in land-use planning and preparation for future flattening everything in their paths and causing impacts
eruptions.
similar to those of PDCs.

5. VOLCANIC GAS

VOLCANIC HAZARDS DIRECTLY ASSOCIATED WITH - Volcanic gases form a dissolved component of magma that
ERUPTION:
is released to the atmosphere in large quantities during
eruptions.  

1. LAVA FLOW
- The principal volcanic gases are water vapor, hydrogen
- rivers of incandescent of molten rock or lava moving sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
downslope or away from an eruption vent.
hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride.

- composed of low silica magma have low viscosities and - Minor amounts of nitrogen, methane, argon and helium can
tend to flow at high speeds (kilometers per hour), while also be degassed from magma.

those composed of high silica magma have high viscosities - Volcanic gases form aerosols that can both cool down the
and tend to move slowly (kilometers per day)
earth’s atmosphere and deplete its ozone concentration for
a period of time.

2. TEPHRA FALL OR ASH-FALL AND BALLISTIC PROJECTILES

- Some volcanic gases such as hydrogen fluoride are toxic
- tephra (fragmented volcanic particles) or ash (fragmented and can endanger livestock that ingest contaminated
volcanic particles less than 2 mm in diameter) propelled vegetation. 

through the atmosphere in an eruption plume or an eruption - Non-toxic species such as carbon dioxide can also be
column eventually fall or gravitationally settle over areas lethal when released in large quantities, displacing air and
downwind of an erupting volcano, forming blankets of causing asphyxiation in human and animal populations.

tephra fall or ash-fall.

- Ash-fall can also be rained out from the ash clouds of

PDCs. Large particle tephra called volcanic bombs that are VOLCANIC HAZARDS INDIRECTLY ASSOCIATED WITH
too heavy to transport in eruption columns are ejected ERUPTION:

straight out of the volcanic vent as ballistic projectiles that

fall near the vent.
1. LAHAR, FLOODING

- Tephra or ash-fall can accumulate as thick blankets of - Lahar (an Indonesian term), sometimes called volcanic
material, causing infrastructural damages, roof collapse, mudflows or debris flows, are slurries of volcanic sediment,
contamination of water resources and burial.
debris and water that cascade down a volcano’s slopes
- Ash-fall is a health hazard and a danger to aircraft and other through rivers and channels.

industrial machinery, such as those for transportation and - Lahars in tropical areas are mainly generated by torrential
power generation.
rainfall on unconsolidated deposits from a past eruption.

- These can also be triggered by the sudden draining of a

3. PYROCLASTIC DENSITY CURRENTS OR PDCs (Pyroclastic crater lake or a collapsed natural or man-made dam or the
flow, pyroclastic surge, base surge)

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movement of a PDC into a river or lake and eventual mixing RESEARCH WORK # 1:

with water.
Research the “Alert Levels” for Volcano Monitoring in the
Philippines.

2. DEBRIS AVALANCHE OR SECTOR COLLAPSE

1. Describe the criteria, interpretation, and recommendation for
- Debris avalanche or sector collapse  is the mass failure of each Alert Level.

the flanks of a volcano edifice due to magma intrusion, a 2. Describe the Stand-down Procedures for Volcano Monitoring
strong earthquake or the movements of faults beneath the Alert Levels.

edifice.

- Debris avalanche events form a horseshoe-shaped scar or (INSTRUCTIONS: Handwritten on template paper printed on
amphitheater, from which the collapse mass has detached short bond paper. Maximum of 1 page only. Please write legibly.
from the edifice to form a field of hummocks or small hills Paper will be graded on completeness and presentation of data. )

downslope of the amphitheater.

- Debris avalanches are rare phenomena but are extremely

hazardous when they do occur, endangering localities far
beyond the usual extents of more frequent volcanic
hazards.

3. VOLCANIC TSUNAMI

- Volcanic tsunami  occur in caldera lakes when water is

displaced by deformation of the lake floor caused by rising
magma or the entry of PDCs or landslides into the lake, or
in seas when water is displaced by PDCs or debris
avalanches from volcanoes.

- Such tsunamis are unlike those generated by large

magnitude offshore earthquakes, which are long-period
waves generated by fault displacement or deformation of
the seafloor.

- Volcanic tsunamis are large waves generated that are

associated with volcanic eruptions commonly thru the
following:

- Violent explosions from submarine (underwater)

volcanoes that would disturb and displace the waters;

- Voluminous pyroclastic materials flowing downslope

from a volcano, discharging into the sea, and
displaces the water, causing large waves;

- Landslides - when an eruption causes pre-existing

slopes to move into a body of water and displaces it
(e.g. flank failure or caldera collapse).

4. GROUND DEFORMATION (subsidence, fissuring)

- Ascending magma can cause the volcano edifice to swell

before and during an eruption, causing the ground to break
up into fissures, typically along weaknesses in the rock
such as fractures or faults.

- After magma has been erupted, its removal from the

subsurface can cause the ground to sink and subside and
further fissuring to occur.

- Ground subsidence and fissuring are typically accompanied

by earthquakes, and altogether can cause infrastructural
and house or building damages, loss or degradation of land
surface and re-routing of waterways and rivers.

5. SECONDARY EXPLOSION, PDCs, AND ASH-FALL

- Secondary explosions can be generated in still hot volcanic

deposits such as those of PDCs and lava flow when these
come into contact with water by erosion, rising groundwater
or rainfall.

- These can cause remobilization of volcanic material to

generate small-scale PDCs and minor ash-fall.

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RESEARCH WORK # 2: (Group Activity)

GUIDELINE FOR THE RESEARCH ESSAY:

- short bond paper

GROUP 1:
- 11, Times New Roman, single line spacing

- Research the following VOLCANIC HAZARDS: (1) Tephra - 1 inch margin for each side

fall, (2) PDC, (3) Lava flow, and (4) Lahar. Use TABLE 1 of - stapled at the upper left-hand corner

the research paper that will be given to you as your basis

and guide for your own research.
COVER PAGE (see template RP)

- Present your research using POWERPOINT and show at CONTENT:

least two examples of each hazard at work, use video 1. Introduction

clippings if possible, if not pictures will suffice.

- quick overview or introduction of the topic

- Submit a paper expounding your research systematically - review of source used and corresponding literature

and in detail.
- define terms or concepts when necessary

- brief explanation of the relevance of the research

GROUP 2:
2. Body

- Research the IMPACT OF THE FOUR VOLCANIC - detailed and thorough information about the main points
HAZARDS (i.e., tephra fall, PDC, lava flow, and lahar) TO of the topic

WATER SUPPLY NETWORK. Use TABLE 6 and SECTION 3 - use as many paragraphs as necessary

of the research paper that will be given to you as your basis - each paragraph should represent a different point

and guide for your own research.

- integrate your sources into your discussion

- Present your research using POWERPOINT and show at - utilize table, graphs, illustrations/photographs, and
least two examples of the impact of hazards, use video charts in presenting information when necessary

clippings if possible, if not pictures will suffice.

3. Conclusion

- Submit a paper expounding your research systematically - brief summary of all the main points or facts mentioned
and in detail.
in the body

- closing remark or thought

GROUP 3:
4. Reference

- Research the IMPACT OF THE FOUR VOLCANIC - APA format, 6th edition

HAZARDS (i.e., tephra fall, PDC, lava flow, and lahar) TO

WASTEWATER NETWORK. Use TABLE 6 and SECTION 3
of the research paper that will be given to you as your basis
and guide for your own research.

- Present your research using POWERPOINT and show at

least two examples of the impact of hazards, use video
clippings if possible, if not pictures will suffice.

- Submit a paper expounding your research systematically

and in detail.

GROUP 4:

- Research the IMPACT OF THE FOUR VOLCANIC

HAZARDS (i.e., tephra fall, PDC, lava flow, and lahar) TO
TRANSPORTATION NETWORKS. Use TABLE 6 and
SECTION 3 of the research paper that will be given to you
as your basis and guide for your own research.

- Present your research using POWERPOINT and show at

least two examples of the impact of hazards, use video
clippings if possible, if not pictures will suffice.

- Submit a paper expounding your research systematically

and in detail.

GROUP 5:

- Research the IMPACT OF THE FOUR VOLCANIC

HAZARDS (i.e., tephra fall, PDC, lava flow, and lahar) TO
BUILDINGS. Use TABLE 6 and SECTION 3 of the research
paper that will be given to you as your basis and guide for
your own research.

- Present your research using POWERPOINT and show at

least two examples of the impact of hazards, use video
clippings if possible, if not pictures will suffice.

- Submit a paper expounding your research systematically

and in detail.

Prepared By: Engr. Yngente | CE Department | TIP-QC 11

CE 301 - GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER (AY 2019-2020)

Prepared By: Engr. Yngente | CE Department | TIP-QC 12

CE 301 - GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER (AY 2019-2020)

Prepared By: Engr. Yngente | CE Department | TIP-QC 13

CE 301 - GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER (AY 2019-2020)

Prepared By: Engr. Yngente | CE Department | TIP-QC 14

CE 301 - GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER (AY 2019-2020)

Prepared By: Engr. Yngente | CE Department | TIP-QC 15