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Optical Time Division Multiplexing (OTDM)

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OPTICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
(OTDM)

A Seminar Report

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By
Hakani Raj A. (12MECC08)

Under the Guidance of

Prof. Dhaval Shah

Department of Electrical Engineering

Electronics & Communication Engineering Program
Institute of Technology, NIRMAUNIVERSITY
AHMADABAD 382 481
April 2013

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar Report entitled “Optical Time

Divistion Multiplexing (OTDM)” submitted by Hakani Raj Arvindkumar
(Roll No. 12MEC08) as the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of Master of Technology (semester-2) in
Communication System ,Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Institute of Technology, Nirma University is the record of work carried out
by them under my supervision and guidance. The work submitted in our
opinion has reached a level required for being accepted for the examination.

Date: 25-April-2013

Prof. Dhaval Shah

Assitant Professor
Nirma University, Ahmedbad

Prof. (Dr.) D.K.Kothari

PG Co-ordinator (Communication Systems)
Nirma University,Ahmedabad

Prof. (Dr.) P. Tekwani

HOD (Electrical Engineering)
Nirma University, Ahmedabad.

2
 Acknowledgement
The completion of any project brings with it a sense of satisfaction, but it is never
complete without thanking those people who made it possible and whose constant support has
crowned our efforts with success.

One cannot even imagine the power of the force that guides us all and neither can I
succeed without acknowledging it. My deepest gratitude to Almighty God for holding my
hands and guiding me throughout our lives.

I would also like to thank my guide, Prof. Dhaval Shah, Assistant Professor,
Institute of technology, Nirma University and faculty member of Electronics and
Communication Department for his expert guidance, encouragement and valuable
suggestions at every step.

I am extremely happy to acknowledge and express our sincere gratitude to my parents

for their constant support and encouragement and last but not the least, friends and well-
wishers for their help and cooperation and solutions to problems during the course of the
seminar.

3
 Abstract

Electrical multiplexing has limited channel capacity, Ethernet switches can only run at
most 10 Gb/s. To increase this channel capacity optical multiplexing is required. In Optical
Multiplexing, OTDM technology can be exploited, to switching at 100 Gb/s. OTDM light
path network has the ability for 100 Gb/s Ethernet switching, however, more modulators need
to be equipped in the transmitters, and only connections from the source node to its
downstream nodes in a super light path can be realized.

4
 CONTENTS

Certificates ………………………………………………………………………. (2)

Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………. (3)
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. (4)
Contents …………………………………………………………………………. (5)
List of Figures …………………………………………………………………… (7)
List of Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………. (8)
1. INTRODUCTION 09-10
1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 9
1.2 Optical Time Domain Multiplexing Concept.........................………. 9

2. ALL OPTICAL NETWORK 11-12

2.1 Introduction of All Optical Network …….......................................... 11
2.2 AON Architectures...................... …………………………………. 11
2.2.1 Optical channel layer Network................................... ………... 12
2.2.2 Optical Multiplexed section layer Network............................... 12
2.2.3 Optical Transmission section layer Network..............................
2.3 Multiplexing Techniques......................... …………………………… 12

3. WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM) 13-16

3.1 Introduction to WDM …………………............................................. 13

3.1.1 Benefit of WDM Network ……………………......................
3.2 Type of WDM Network ...........………………………....................... 14
3.2.1 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM.............. 14
3.3.2 Operation of DWDM…………………………...................... 14
3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF WDM TECHONOLOGY......................................... 15

4. OPTICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OTDM) 17-26

4.1 Advantages of OTDM ...............................................……………...... 17
4.2 Basic Principle of OTDM …………………....................................... 17

5
 4.2.1 General Description …………………………………........... 18
4.3 Multiplexing Techniques of OTDM ...........……………………….... 18
4.4.1 Bit Interleaving ……………………………........................... 19
4.4.2 Packet Interleaving …………………………………….......... 20
4.4 OPTICAL SWITCH ………………………………………................. 22

4.4.1 Characteristic of Switches ....................................................... 22

4.4.2 Key Functional of Optical Switches……………………….... 23
4.4.3 All Optical Switch................................................................... 23
4.4.4 Nonlinear Optical loop Mirror (NOLM)…………………….. 24
4.4.5 Nonlinear Optical loop Mirror (NOLM)…………………….. 25
4.4.6 Terahertz Optical asymmetric demultiplexer (TOAD) 25

5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE 27

5.1 Conclusions ………………………………………………................. 27
5.2 Scope for Future Work ……………………………………………… 27

6. References..................................................................................... 28

6
 LIST OF FIGURE

Name of Figure Page no

Figure 1.1 Schematic of Electrical Time Division Multiplexing..................... 10

Figure 1.2 Schematic of Optical Time Division Multiplexing.......................... 10
Figure 2.1 Internal Structural architecture of All Optical Network (AON)....... 11
Figure 3.1 WDM Network................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.2 Dense WDM deployment of n wavelength is an OC-192 trunk....... 15
Figure 3.3. Four-Wave Mixing effect................................................................. 16
Figure 4.1. schematic Diagram of Basic principle of OTDM............................ 17
Figure 4.2.a Function of Bit interleaved Optical multiplexer........................... 18
Figure 4.2.b Function of Packet interleaved Optical multiplexer....................... 18
Figure 4.3 a Bit interleaving Operation................................................................ 19
Figure 4.3 b Bit interleaving Operation at single node....................................... 19
Figure 4.4 Demultiplexer to extract one of the multiplexed channels from
bit interleaving OTDM.................................................................... 20
Figure 4.5. Packet interleaving Operation......................................................... 21
Figure 4.6. Detailed view of compression stage j............................................. 21
Figure 4.7. Demultiplexer to extract one of the multiplexed channels from
packet interleaving OTDM............................................................. 22
Figure 4.8. Schematic of an Optical Loop Mirror.............................................. 24
Figure 4.9 Operation of an Optical Loop Mirror............................................... 24
Figure 4.10 A nonlinear Amplifying loop........................................................... 25
Figure 4.11. Terahertz optical asymmetrical demultiplexer................................. 26
Figure 5.1 Hybrid WDM and OTDM................................................................ 27

7
 List of Abbreviations
OTDM Optical Time Division Multiplexing
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplxing
TDM Time Divsion Multiplexing
E/O Electrical to Optical Conversion
O/E Optical to Eletrical Convesion
MUX Multiplexer
Demux Demultiplexer
Tb/s Terabits per second
Gb/s Gigabits per second
nm nenometer
AON All Optical Network
OC Optical Channel
NWDM Narrowband Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WWDM Wide Wavelength Division Multiplexing
DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
CWDM Corse Wavelength Division Multiplexing
FWM Four-Wave Mixing
XPM Cross phase Modulation
SOA Semiconductor Optical Amplifier
EDFA Erbium doped fiber Amplifier
NOLM Nonlinear Optical Loop Mirror
NALM Nonlinear Amplifying Loop Mirror
TOAD Terahertz Optical Asymmetric Demultiplexer

8
 CHAPTER 1

1 .Introduction
Today, communication world like Telecommunication, Internet, Media are broaden
their horizon. The community has adopted to rely in telecommunication systems to satisfy its
needs for information and communication. Internet traffic has been double in every six to
eight month. currently deployment of broadband access technology such as digital subscriber
line (DSL) and cable modem which provide 1Mb/s data to each user. DSL among 100 million
user, so require 1Tb/s of traffic into network. At same time, Today Large corporation require
high speed network to interconnect multiple location within a company as well as between
companies for business to business transaction. Corporation uses 1.5Mb/s lease line, to
interconnect their internal sites they require 155Mb/s data-rate. To full-fill this requirement of
high data-rate and more network capacity many researchers develop new technologies, like
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) and Optical Time Division Multiplexing
(OTDM). In this process researchers encounter physical problem that impose several
limitations. Chromatics dispersion of optical fiber and optical amplifier nonlinearities are
effects to restrict the transmission capacity. If properly controlled some of the parameter then
improving performance of optical communication system.

1.1 Optical Time Domain Multiplexing Concept

Multiplexer is communication devices that can combine several channel into single
channel. and Demultiplexing is reconstruct lower dara rate signal form multiplexed signal.
There are two type of multiplexing Electrical multiplexing and Optical Multiplexing. Basic
difference between Electrical multiplexing and Optical multiplexing is shown in Figure 1
and figure 2. In figure 1. is represent the electrical Multiplexed system. In this figure Thick
line is represent Optical path and thin line is represent electrical path. In Figure 1.1
multiplexing is done before the Electrical to optical conversion (E/O). and demultiplexing is
done after Optical to electrical signal. If multiplexer carried n number of channel and each
have B data-rate then multiplexed channel have nB data rate. These high data rate is onto to
single channel. if full rate system is used then bandwidth mismatch is occur at Electrical to
optical conversion, Multiplexer, demultiplxer and Optical to electrical conversion, these
band width mismatch is known as Electronics bottleneck. i) limited speed of digital circuit,
ii) limited speed of high-power amplifier and modulator used in Electrical-to-optical
converter and in Optical-to-Electrical converter. and iii) limited modulation bandwidth of
modulator. due to this problem maximum bit rate for electrically multiplex system is 10
Gbps.

9
 Figure 1.1 Schematic of Electrical Time Division Multiplexing

Figure 1.2 Schematic of Opticall Time Division Multiplexing

In Optically multiplexed system these electronics bottleneck is remove by interchange

the position of the E/O and O/E into baseband channel so multiplexing is done after E/O
conversion and demultiplexing is done before O/E conversion. Note that Control signal is
require to drive demultiplexer . control signal is either electrical signal or optical signal.
Major difference between electrically multiplexed and optically multiplexed [1]
system is that in electrical system the multiplexing and demultiplexing is done at point,
where the signal has been amplified to large levels in the system. so, The signal-to-noise
ratio is determine by the receiver and noise associated with its. In the Optical system, the
multiplexing and demultiplexing is done on optical signal, thus optical losses are count at
receive side for signal-to-noise ratio. optical losses are small so signal-to-noise ratio is large
compare to electrical multiplexed system.

10
 CHAPTER 2

2. All Optical Network (AON)

2.1 Introduction of AON

To Overcome the bandwidth bottleneck due to optical-to-electrical or electrical-to-
optical conversion in existing network based on optical transmission and electronic switching
All Optical Network is required. The name AON indicates, information is transmitted entirely
in optical form. There are no require optical to electronic conversions within the network.
One major advantage of AONs is provide much higher bandwidth. Elimination of electronic
to optical conversion reduces delays, increases capacity, and improves flexibility of networks.
At present, optical transmission links supporting 30 to 40 [2] Gb/s are commercially available
and 100 Gb/s products have been announced. In the near future, expected throughput of over
1 Terabits per Second (Tb/s) and higher.

2.2 AON Architectures

The International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization

Sector (ITU-T) has developed functional transport architecture for optical transport networks.
They consist of an optical channel layer network, an optical multiplex section layer network,
and an optical transmission section layer network. Figure 2 show internal structural of All
Optical Network layer.

Figure 2.1 Internal Structural architecture of All Optical Network (AON)

11
2.2.1 Optical Channel Layer Network
The Optical Channel Layer Network provides end-to-end connection of optical
channels for transmit information of varying formats.

2.2.2 Optical Multiplex Section Layer Network

Optical Multiplex Section Layer Network provides functionality for networking of a
multi-wavelength optical signal.

2.2.3 Optical Transmission Section Layer Network

The Optical Transmission Section Layer Network provides functionality for
transmission of optical signals on optical media of various types such as single-mode optical
fiber and multi-mode optical fiber. This functionality also includes capabilities for
supervision of optical amplifiers or repeaters when present in the optical transmission section
layer network.

2.3 Multiplexing Techniques

In AON, Optical fiber provide a large bandwidth. there are Three major multiplexing
techniques to share this bandwidth.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Optical Time Division Multiplexing (OTDM)
 Hybrid-multiplexing techniques such as WDM + OTDM

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), two or more optical signals having

different wavelengths are combined and simultaneously transmitted in the same direction
over an optical fiber .
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a scheme that combines numerous signals for
transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each communications line or
channel is divided into many time segments, each having very short duration

12
 CHAPTER 3

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing WDM [3]

3.1 Introduction to WDM

In WDM, two or more optical signals having different wavelengths are combined and
simultaneously transmitted in the same direction over an optical fiber. WDM Technology is a
independent of rate and format, and it can support any combination of interface rates. OC-n,
OC is stand for Optical channel and n for how many channel can be multiplexed. OC-n
provide n x 51.84 Mbps datarate. So, OC–3 is provide 155.52 Mb/s, OC–12 is provide 622.08
Mb/s, OC–48 is provide 2.488 Gb/s, or OC–192 is provide 9.953 Gb/s on the same fiber at
the same time. It is already at an advanced stage of development and WDM networks can be
deployed using commercially available components and systems.

Figure 3.1 WDM Network

Figure 3.1 shows the implementation of typical WDM link. At the transmitter side
several independently modulated light sources, each emitting signals at different wavelength.
Here a multiplexer is needed to combine these optical outputs into a single fiber. At the
receiver side a demultiplexer is required to separate out these optical signals into channels for
signal processing. At the transmitter side basic design challenge is the multiplexer provide a
low-loss path from each optical source to the multiplexer output. Since the optical signals that
are combined generally do not emit any significant amount of optical power outside of the
designated channel spectral width, inter-channel cross-talk factors are relatively unimportant
at the transmitting end.

13
3.1.1 Benefit of WDM System
 Capacity upgrade :-to upgrade the capacity of existing point to point fiber optics
transmission links.
 Transparency : the lightpath can carry data any transmission format like asynchronous
and synchronous digital data, analog information etc.
 Wavelength Reuse :- Multiple lightpaths in the network can use the same wavelength
if wavelength is limited , as long as they do not overlap on any other link.
 wavelength routing.
 Wavelength Conversing.

3.2 Type of WDM Network

There are three Type of WDM:

 Narrowband WDM (NWDM),
 Wideband WDM (WWDM)
 Dense WDM (DWDM).

Generally, NWDM is implemented on two wavelengths: 1533 and 1577 nm. WWDM,
is implemented on combining a 1310 nm wavelength with another wavelength into the
lowloss window of an optical fiber cable between 1528 nm and 1560 nm in wavelength.
DWDM is advance technology of WDM. Dense wavelength division multiplexing
(DWDM) uses 1550 nm wavelength but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but
a typical system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz
spacing.

3.2.1 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Network (DWDM):

Dense WDM (DWDM) is a technology with a larger number of wavelengths coupled

into a fiber than WDM. An earlier WDM technology with a small number of wavelengths,
larger channel width, and channel spacing is termed coarse WDM (CWDM). DWDM
systems take advantage of advanced optical technology such as tuneable lasers and
narrowband optical filters to generate many wavelengths in the range around 1550 nm. ITU-T
Recommendation G.692 defines over 80 channels, from 1530 to 1565 nm, with a spacing of
50 GHz, each channel carrying an STM-64 signal at 10 Gb/s. However, systems with
wavelength channels of more than that have been introduced, and systems with many more
wavelengths are on the experimenter's workbench.Initial implementations of DWDM systems
support either 8 or 16 wavelengths. However, current DWDM systems are capable of
supporting 32 or 40 wavelengths. Recently, DWDM systems capable of supporting as many
as 80 and 128 wavelengths have been announced.

14
3.2.2 Operation Of DWDM:

Figure 3.2 Dense WDM deployment of n wavelength is an OC-192 trunk

 Transponder : The signal coming to network has to be converted to fit the DWDM
system. The wavelength and Optical Power of the incoming signal are not
standardized so, special device is needed to convert the signal for suitable wavelength.
this device carry OEO conversion is called Transponder. so, they are used to translate
the unspecified signal into standard ITU-T wavelength.
 Multiplexer : The multiplexer receives many wavelength from fiber and combine into
single fiber.
 Pre-amplifier: multiplexed signal is amplified using EDFA.
 Fiber: The biggest component of DWDM, it can carry multiplexed signal. this
introduce many effect onto signal like dispersion, attenuation.
 Preamplifier: when attenuated signal reaches the end of the fiber it has to be amplified
to get better dynamics before demultiplexing. The EDFA is used for premplification.
operation is similar to post amplifier.The only difference is the optical power level
range of these amplifiers. A booster needs to have a high output level, where
preamplifier utilizes better sensitivity.
 Demultiplexer: The main function of an optical demultiplexer is to receive
multiplexed signal from a fiber and separate it into its frequency components.

3.3 Disadvantages of the WDM Technology [3]

 Nonlinearity Effect of the fiber:

There are two way of the nonlinearity in optical fiber i) Stimulated Raman
Scattering and ii) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering. Stimulated Raman Scattering due
to interaction in between optical signal and vibration modes of silica molecules. while
Stimulated Brillouin scattering arise when optical signal scatter from acoustic waves.

15
 The resultant scatterd wave propagates principally in the backward direction in single
mode fiber.

 Fourwave Mixing (FWM):

Figure 3.3. Four-Wave Mixing effect

One of the biggest problem in WDM system is Four-Wave Mixing. As shown

in Figure 3.3. FWM occurs when two or more wave propagate in the same direction in
the fiber. This signal mixed such way they produce new signal at wavelength which
are used for transmission. so this newly generated wavelength is interfere in
transmission. A signal frequency ω1 mixes with a signal at frequency ω2 to produce
two new signal one at frequency 2ω1-ω2 and the other at 2ω2-ω1.

 self and cross phase modulation

When there are multiple signals at different wavelengths in the same fibre Kerr
effect caused by one signal can result in phase modulation of the other signal(s)! This
is called “Cross-Phase Modulation” (XPM) because it acts between multiple signals
rather than within a single signal. In contrast to other nonlinear effects XPM effect
involves no power transfer between signals. The result can be asymmetric spectral
broadening and distortion of the pulse shape. It seems obvious that you can't have
XPM without also having SPM. All this of course means added noise.

 Crosstalk

16
 CHAPTER 4

4. Optical Time Division Multiplexing OTDM

Solution of WDM is OTDM (Optical Time Division Multiplexing) which is introduce
in early 1990s

4.1 Advantage of OTDM :

 Flexible bandwidth
 Overcomes non-linear effect associated with WDM
 The total capacity of single-channel OTDM network = DWDM
 Less complex end node equipment
 Can operate at both:
 1500 nm (like WDM) due to EDFA
 1300 nm
 Offers both broadcast and switched based networks

4.2 Basic Principle of OTDM

OTDM is more powerful optical multiplexing techniques it can combine multiple low
bit rate channel in to single high bit rate channel in time basis. each channel can be
multiplexed in to multiplexer for given period of time.
In OTDM, only one wavelength of light is used instead of Different wavelength of
light in WDM.

Figure 4.1. schematic Diagram of Basic principle of OTDM

17
4.2.1 General Description

Simple OTDM is consist of Three stages i) Transmitter ii) Inline system iii) Receiver.
Transmitter is Consist of Optical source, Modulator, Channel alignment and multiplexer.
Here, Laser or LED are used for optical source, Optical signal can be modulated using
Return to Zero (RZ),Non Return to Zero (NRZ), Manchester. various length of fiber can be
use for the channel alignment or for delay signal, multiplexer is use for combine the various
optical data stream. In line system is consist of optical Amplifier, Add-drop multiplexer and
transmission fiber. Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) and Erbium dropped fiber
Amplifier (EDFA) is use for optical amplifier to amplify the optical signal in between into
network. while Receiver is consist of Demultiplxer and synchnoronous clock.
synchnoronous clock is use for to extract framing pulse or clock signal. Demultiplexer is
use for to separate out the multiplexed optical signal. The Demultiplxer comprises two
parts: an optical gate and a clock-recovery device. The optical gate is a fast switch with a
switching time that is shorter than the bit period (25 ps for 40Gb/s, 6.25 ps for 160
Gb/s,1.56 ps for 640 Gb/s) of the multiplexed data signal. The clock-recovery device
provides the timing signal for the optical gate.

4.3 Type of OTDM Multiplexing Techniques

There two way to multiplexed OTDM signal.

 Bit Interleaving (bit by bit)
 Packet interleaving (Packet by Packet)

If the data stream can be transmitted in form of bit, so it can be done on bit by bit basis, as
shown in Figure 4.2. a. and if the data stream can be transmitted in form of Packet, so it can
be done on packet by packet basis Figure 4.2. b.

Figure 4.2.a Function of Bit interleaved Figure 4.2.b Function of Packet interleaved
Optical multiplexer. Optical multiplexer.
18
 In both the bit-interleaved and the packet-interleaved case, framing pulses can be
used. In the packet-interleaved case, framing pulses mark the boundary between packets. In
the bit-interleaved case, if n input data streams are to be multiplexed, a framing pulse is
used every n bits.
If n data streams are to be multiplexed and the bit period of each of these streams is
T. if framing pulses are used, then the inter pulse width is τ = T/(n + 1) because n + 1 pulses
(including the framing pulse) must be transmitted in each bit period. Thus the temporal
width τ of each pulse must satisfy τp= τ . Note that usually τp ≤τ, so that there is some guard
time between successive pulses. One purpose of this guard time is to provide for some
tolerance in the multiplexing and demultiplexing operations. Another reason is to prevent
the undesirable interaction between adjacent pulses that we discussed earlier.

4.3.1 Bit Interleaving

Multiplexing:-
Bit interleaving operation is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The periodic pulse train is
generated by a mode-locked laser this pulse stream is split by using splitter, and one copy is
created for each data stream to be multiplexed. The pulse train for the i th data stream, i = 1,
2,...,n, is delayed by iτ.

Figure 4.3 a Bit interleaving Operation Figure 4.3 b Bit interleaving Operation
at single node

These delay can be achieved by passing the pulse train through the different length of
optical fiber. Since the velocity of light in silica fiber is about 2 × 10 8 m/s, 1 meter of fiber
provides a delay of about 5 ns. Thus, the delayed pulse streams are non overlapping in time.
The undelayed pulse stream is used for the framing pulses.

19
 Each delayed data stream is modulated by RZ,NRZ techniques, here we using NRZ
techniques for modulation. The outputs of the modulator and the framing pulse stream are
combined by using combiner and obtain the bit-interleaved optical TDM stream. The power
level of the framing pulses is chosen higher than that of the data pulses. This will useful in
demultiplexing to spread out the multiplexed OTDM signal.

Demultipelxing:-

Figure 4.4 Demultiplexer to extract one of the multiplexed channels from bit interleaving
OTDM

The demultiplexing operation is illustrated in Figure 4.4. The multiplexed input is

split into two streams using, a 3 dB coupler. If the jth stream from the multiplexed stream is
to be extracted, one of these streams is delayed by jτ. A thresholding operation is performed
on the delayed stream to extract the framing pulses. The framing pulses were multiplexed
with higher power than the other pulses in order to facilitate this thresholding operation.
Note that because of the induced delay, the extracted framing pulses coincide with the pulses
in the undelayed stream that correspond to the data stream to be demultiplexed. A logical
AND operation between the framing pulse stream and the multiplexed pulse stream is used
to extract the j th stream. The output of the logical AND gate is a pulse if, during a pulse
interval, both inputs have pulses; the output has no pulse otherwise.

4.3.2 Packet Interleaving:

In the case of bit interleaving, modulated data stream has narrow pulses. if the bit
interval T, then T separation is required to separate out two successive bit pulse. so packet
interleaving is required. The packet-interleaving operation is illustrated in Figure 4.5. In
packet interleaving,e to reduce the interval between successive pulses to τ , corresponding to
the higher-rate multiplexed signal. This can done by passing modulator the output from a
series of compression stages.

20
 Figure 4.5. Packet interleaving Operation

If the size of each packet is l bits, then output must goes through k = [log2 l]
compression stages. In the first compression stage, bits 1, 3, 5, 7,... are delayed by T - τ . In
the second compression stage, the pairs of bits (1, 2), (5, 6), (9, 10),... are delayed by 2(T -
τ). In the third compression stage, the bits (1, 2, 3, 4), (9, 10, 11, 12),... are delayed by 4(T -
τ).

Figure 4.6. Detailed view of compression stage j

The jth compression stage is shown in Figure 4.6. Each compression stage consists of
a pair of 3 dB couplers, two semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) used as on -off
switches, and a delay line. The jth compression stage has a delay line of value 2 j -1 (T - τ).

21
Demultiplexer

In Demultiplexing, a five AND gates is used to break up the incoming multiplexed

high-speed stream into five parallel streams each with five times the pulse spacing of the
multiplexed stream.

Figure 4.7. Demultiplexer to extract one of the multiplexed channels from packet
interleaving OTDM

This procedure is identical to what would be used to receive five bit-interleaved data
streams. One input to each AND gate is the incoming data stream, and the other input is a
control pulse stream where the pulses are spaced five times apart. The control pulse streams
to each AND gate are appropriately offset from each other so that they select different
pulses. Thus the first parallel stream would contain bits 1, 6, 11,... of the packet, the second
would contain bits 2, 7, 12,..., and so on. This approach can also be used to demultiplex a
portion of the packet, for example, the packet header, in a photonic packet switch.

4.4 Optical Switches

The Logical AND operation shown in fig 4.4 and 4.7 are performed optically at very
high speed. Logical AND operation between two signals can be performed by an on-off
switch if one of the signal is input to the switch and the other is used to control it. So All
Optical Switch is required. This logical AND is made from Nonlinear loop mirror optical
switch.

4.4.1 Characteristic of switches

 The extinction ratio of an on-off switch, it is ratio of output power when switch is on
condition to output power when switch is off condition. This ratio should be as
22
 possible as high.

 The insertion loss of a switch is the fraction of power loss in network because of
presence of the switch. This loss as small as possible.

 Switches are not ideal. If input x is connected to output y, then some of the input
power is goes to the another outputs this is known as cross talk. Cross talk is the
ratio of the power at desired output to power of all inputs.

 A latching switch maintain its switch state if power is turn off to the switch so traffic
can be passed if power failure is occur.

 The switch has read out capability to monitor current state and verify the right
connection.

4.4.2 Key function of Optical Switch [11]

 Services Providing: An OXC can be used to provide lightpath in a network without

adding resort to deployed network.
 Protection: OXC protect light path fiber, if fiber cut in network. The cross connect is
an intelligent network element that can find out failure into a network and provide a
new lightpath for traffic.
 Bit rate transparency: The switch has ability to transmit data in any format like bit
rate or frame.

4.4.3 All Optical Switch

• All Optical Switch are based on:
Nonlinear effect + optical interferometer
In Figure 4.4 and 4.7, logical AND gate is made from nonlinear optical loop mirror.
There are many type of nonlinear optical switch. Configuration bases on loop and others.

 Based on loop:
 Nonlinear Optical Loop Mirror (NOLM)
 Nonlinear Amplifying Loop Mirror (NALM)
 Terahertz Optical Asymmetric Demultiplexer (TOAD)

 Others
 Soliation Trapping AND Gate
 Symmetric Mach-Zehnder (SMZ)
 Ultrafast Nonlinear Interferometer (UNI)

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4.4.4 Nonlinear Optical Loop Mirror (NOLM) [9]
The Nonlinear optical loop mirror NOLM basically consist of three component i) a
symmetrical 2X2 directional coupler whose two output port (port 3 and port 4) are
connected together using fiber loop. here, 2X2 directional coupler is use as 3-db Power
divider as well as Optical switch. ii) Nonlinear element (NLE) and iii) long optical fiber
whose introduce nonlinearity in optical switch. assume that input signal is fed into port 1
and coupling ratio K is equal to .5 (50%) so, light is divided into two part and goes to
Clockwise(CW) and Counter Clock wise (CCW). Light is coupled in counter clockwise
(port 1 and port 4) is П/2 degree delay compare to light coupled with clockwise (port 1 and
port 3). so, when this two pulse (CW and CCW) travelling in fiber both have same
amplitude and same amount of phase change Ф.

Figure 4.8. Schematic of an Optical Loop Mirror

when the delay between CW and CCW is П/2 then signal is back to input port 1 and
no output pulse at port 2. Output at port 2 is the sum of a CW field of arbitrary phase Ф
and CCW field with relative phase (Ф - П). Now when the delay between CW and CCW is
П then whole signal is emerge to output port 2.

Figure 4.9 Operation of an Optical Loop Mirror

24
Transmittance signal at port 2 : Tx(t) = 1 - Cos2(Δ Ф/2)
where Δ Ф is phase delay
if Δ Ф = П then we get Tx(t) = 1.

4.4.5 Nonlinear Amplify loop Mirror (NALM)

In Nonlinear Amplify loop mirror(NALM) Erbium dopped fiber Amplifier

introduced Nonlinearity. In NALM travelling clockwise pulse the fiber loop is amplified
by an EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier), after it leave from directional coupler. The
amplified pulse has higher intensity and larger phase shift on traversing the loop compared
to the unamplified pulse.

Figure 4.10 A nonlinear Amplifying loop

Maximised transmittance

ToTwLПα = 4|β 2| [1-exp(αL)]tanh(TwL / 2To)

where To = Pulse width of the control pulse

α = fiber loss
β2 = first order dispersion parameter
αL = interactive length of the fiber loop

NOLM Demux limitation

 Intensity dependent phase change in silica fiber is a weak nonlinearity and typically a few
hundred meter of fiber are required in the loop to exploit this effect for pulse switching.
 Nonlinearity can not easily controllable.

25
4.4. 6 TOAD (Terahertz optical asymmetrical demultiplexer [8]

TOAD is all-optical switch shown in Figure 15. which can operate at frequencies in
terahertz range. The principle of operation of TOAD is, it has another directional coupler
spliced into the fiber loop for the injecting control pulse. The control pulses carry sufficiently
high power and energy so that the optical properties of the NLE are significantly altered by
the control pulse for a short time interval after the control pulse passes through it. phase shift
is occur when another pulse is passing through the NLE during this interval. here we consider
SOA (Semiconductor Optical Amplifier) as NLE which drive control pulse. For proper
operation of TOAD as a dumultiplexer, the timing between the control pulse and signal pulse
is critical. consider two case without control pulse and with control pulse. first assume that
without control pulse, CW and CCW pulse propagating within the loop with same amplitude
gain G0 , it recombine at the input coupler and emerge from the reflected port. now assume
with control pulse, also assume that NLE is located such that the clockwise pulse reach it
first, the control pulse must pass through the NLE after the clockwise pulse but before the
Counter clockwise pulse. if this case is happen, the clockwise pulse is unsaturated gain of the
amplifier, where the counter clockwise pulse with saturated gain. Because of this type of
asymmetry, pulse is do not completely destructively interfere with each other and a part of the
signal is emerge to port 2.

Figure 4.11. Terahertz optical asymmetrical demultiplexer

Note, here control pulse is also present at port 2, this pulse can be eliminated by using
different wavelength for the signal and control pulse and placing an optical fiber at the output
port to select only signal pulse.

The Output signal of the TOAD can be described by the following interferometric equation.
Pout (t) = Pin/4 {GCW(t) + GCCW(t) - GCW(t). GCCW(t) Cos(ФCW(t)-ФCCW(t))}
advantages of TOAD switches are low switching energy, a simple structure and identical
propagation paths for signals within a short length fibre loop. The width of the switching
window is determined by the offset of SOA from the central point of the loop.

26
 CHAPTER 5

5 Conclusion and Future work

5.1 Conclusion
Due to electronics bottleneck in electronics multiplexing we are used optical
multiplexer. Using various techniques of OTDM data can be transmitted upto in Tb/s. at
receiver side of OTDM, various nonlinear element is using to extract multiplexed OTDM
signal. receiver side Various nonlinear switches is used to provide nonlinearity in to the
network.

5.2 Future Work

The Combing of benefit of WDM and OTDM exploit network can
be transmitted upto few Tb/s.

Figure 5.1 Hybrid WDM and OTDM

27
 References

[1] RODNEY S. TUCKER, GAD I E ISE NSTE IN, AND TEVEN K. KOROTKY "Optical
Time-Division Multiplexing For Very High Bit-Rate Transmission, Journal of
Lightwaves Technology, vol 6, No 11, November 1988, page 1737-1747."
[2] Erwan Pincemin, N. Boudrioua, Jaroslaw P. Turkiewicz, and T. Guillossou "40 Gbps
WDM Transmission Performance Comparison Between Legacy and Ultra Low Loss
G.652 Fibers, JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 29, NO. 23,
DECEMBER 1, 2011 page 3587-3598"

[3] Gerd E. Keiser, "Tutorial Paper A Review of WDM Technology and Applications, 21, July
1998“
[4] Hans-Georg Weber, Reinhold Ludwig, Sebastian Ferber, Carsten Schmidt-Langhorst,
Marcel Kroh, Vincent Marembert, Christof Boerner, and Colja Schubert. “Ultrahigh-
Speed OTDM-Transmission Technology” Invited paper Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol.24 No.12,December 2006 page 4616-4627".

[5] Biswanath Mukherjee, "Invited paper WDM Optical Communication Networks: Progress
and Challenges IEEE Journal on selected areas in communication, vol.18
No.10,October 2000 page 1810-1824" .
[6] Mike J.Mike J. O'Mahony, "Optical Multiplexing in Fiber Networks: Progress in WDM
and OTDM, IEEE Communication Magazine, December 1995."

[7] Gerd E. Keiser, "Tutorial Paper A Review of WDM Technology and Applications, 21, July
1998“
[8] Hoa Le-Minh, Zabih Ghassemlooy, Wai Pang Ng., and Razali Ngah “Terahertz Optical
Asymmetric Demultiplexer Switch with a Symmetrical Switching Window “
[9] N. J. Doran and David Wood, "Nonlinear-optical loop mirror," Opt. Lett. 13, 56-58
(1988).
[10] Gerg Keiser, Optical Fiber Communiction, 4th Edition, Tata McGRawHill Publication.

[11] Rajiv Ramaswami and Kumar N. Sivarajn, Optical Network, A Practical Perspective,
Morgan Kaufman.

[12] Djafar K. Mynbaev and Lowell L. Schiner, Fiber-Optic Communications Technology,

Pearson Education.

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