This is the teaching module for Kinematics. This module has to be followed in the class.

VK Bansal

TEACHING NOTES
KINEMATICS
INTRODUCTION:
In kinematics we define parameters of motion and we study relations between them. We do not study
the cause of motion or cause of change in motion, that will be discussed in dynamics. Here is the
discription of parameters.
Motion : If the position of particle changes with respect to choosen reference point (origin) as time
passes then the particle is said to be in motion w.r.t. that point.

(1) Position and displacement:

Change in position vector is called displacement.
Its magnitude is minimum distance between final and initial point, and is directed from initial position to
final position.
For a particle moving along x axis, motion from one position x1 to another position x2 is displacement,
x where, x = x2 – x1
If the particle moves from x1 = 4m to x2 = 12 m, then x = (12m) – (4m) = +8m. The positive result
indicates that the motion is in the positive direction. If the particle then returns to x = 4m, the displacement
for the full trip is zero. The actual number of meters covered for the full trip is irrelevant ; displacement
involves only the original and final position.

(2) Distance:
Length of path traversed by a body is called distance.
It is dependent on the path chosen, thus for motion between
two fixed points A and B we can have many different values of
distance traversed. It is a scalar quantity, as length of path has
no indication of direction in it.
Its SI unit is meter (m) and dimensions is (L).

(3) Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity:

The average velocity Vavg, is the ratio of the total displacement s, that occurs during a particular time
interval t, to that interval t. It should be noted that Vavg is independent of path as displacement is
independent of path.
 

s r2  r1
Vavg = = t t ......... (2-2)
t 2 1

The position is r1 at time t1 and then r2 at time t2.Unit for Vavg is the meter per second (m/s). The average
velocity Vavg always has the same sign as the displacement s because t in Eq. 2-2 is always positive.
 
 r2  r1
Instantaneous velocity is the value that vavg  approaches in the limit as we shrink the time
t
interval t so we are able to find instantaneous velocity about that instant. Using the language of calculus,

we may write v as the derivative

 dr
v
dt

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 It is a vector quantity, directed along tangent of path, in the sense of motion. SI units m/s.
From now on when we use word velocity it will mean instantaneous velocity
(4) Average Speed and Instantaneous Speed:
Rate of traversing distance is called speed.
Average speed, vavg gives overall effect of motion in a given period. The average speed involves
the total distance covered which is independent of direction

total dis tan ce

vavg =
t
Because average speed does not include direction, it is not written with sign.
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity, that is, Instantaneous speed is
Instantaneous velocity that does not have any indication of direction, either in words or via an algebraic
sign. (Caution: Speed and average speed can be quite different.) A instantaneous velocity of +5m/s
and one of –5m/s both have an associated instantaneous speed of 5 m/s. The speedometer in a car
measures the instantaneous speed, not the instantaneous velocity, because it cannot determine the direction.

Ex. If a particle traverses 1/2 the length on a straight line with velocity v1 and next 1/2 with velocity v2 then
what is average velocity.
2s 2s 2 v1v 2
Average velocity = t  t = s s = v1  v 2
1 2 
v1 v 2

Ex. You drive a ‘Khataara’ car along a straight road for 8.4 km at 70 km/h, at which point the ‘Khataara’
runs out of petrol and stops. Over the next 30 min, you walk another 2.0 km further along the road to a
petrol pump.
(a) What is your average velocity vavg from the beginning of your drive to your arrival at the petrol pump?
(b) Suppose that to pump the petrol , pay for it, and walk back to the ‘Khataara’ takes you another 45 min.
What is your average speed from the beginning of your drive to your return to the truck with the petrol?
[Ans. (a) 16.8  17 km/hr; (b) 9.1 km/hr.]

Ex. If a particle traverses on a semicircular path of radius R from A to B in time T then find average speed
and average velocity.

R 2R
[Ans. average speed = ; average velocity = (from A to B)]
T T
NOTE
1. If a particle moves on a straight line path without changing direction then
(a) distance = | displacement | , hence
(b) average speed = | average velocity |
2. If a particle traverses curved path or changes direction on a straight line path
| average velocity | < average speed
3. Always valid for all paths | the instantaneous velocity | = the instantaneous speed

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(5) Average speed of velocity is as a function postion and time
v = f(t)
[vavg]t = Average speed in time t
 

v avg = Average velocity in time t
t

t2

 vdt
t1
v   t
avg t
 t1
2

t2

 vdt
t1
v   t
avg t
 t1
2

(ii) v = f(x)
[vavg]x = ?

 
v avg  ?
x

x2

 vdx
x1
[vavg]x =
x 2  x1

x2

 vdx
 x1
[ v avg ] 
x 2  x1
Ex. Let, v = kt find [vavg]t and [vavg]x in first t time express the answer in terms of v only.

(6) Acceleration:
Definition: Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration and is directed along the change in velocity.

If change in velocity is  v in t time then

 v
a   
 v  v 2  v1
t
  
Direction of a is in the direction of change in v not in v

(Emphasis on vector subtraction)

Dimensions  M0L1T–2
Units  SI ms–2

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 Important points
1. It is a vector quantity
2. Direction is not along the velocity but change in velocity
3. For any change in velocity either in magnitude or direction or both accelration must be present. Without
accelration neither direction nor magnitude of velocity can be changed.

When a particle's velocity changes, the particle is said to undergo acceleration (or to accelerate).
The average acceleration aavg over a time interval t is

v 2  v1 v
aavg = = ........(2-7)
t 2  t1 t
where the particle has velocity v1 at time t1 and then velocity v2 at time t2.
The instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) is the derivative of the velocity with respect
to time.
dv
a= ........(2-8)
dt
In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the rate at which its velocity is changing at that
instant.

dv d dr d 2 r
a= = ( )= 2 ........(2-9)
dt dt dt dt
In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the second derivative of its position vector with
respect to time.
Acceleration has both magnitude and direction (it is yet another vector quantity). For motion on a straight
line its algebraic sign represents its direction on an axis just as for displacement and velocity; that is,
acceleration with a positive value is in the positive direction of an axis, and acceleration with a negative
value is in the negative direction.
*Caution: Many students think that sign of an acceleration like this : positive acceleration means that the speed
of an object is increasing, and negative acceleration means that the speed is decreasing (the object is
decelerating). The sign of an acceleration indicates a direction, not whether an object's speed is
increasing or decreasing.
For example, if a car with an initial velocity v = –25 m/s is braked to a stop in 5.0s, then aavg = +5.0 m/
s2. The acceleration is positive, but the car's speed has decreased. The reason is the different in signs :
the direction of the acceleration is opposite that of the velocity.
If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the speed of the particle increases.
If the signs are opposite, the speed decreases.


d  dv
Problem : What is meant by | v | and can these be equal?
dt dt
 
d  dv d  dv
Can (i) | v | = 0 while (ii) | v |  0 while =0
dt dt dt dt

d  dv
Sol. | v | means the time rate of change of speed and means the magnitude of acceleration.
dt dt
* When a particle moves with uniform velocity.
* When a particle moves with constant acceleration along straight line path.

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 
d  dv 
(i) | v | = 0 i.e. speed constant  0 | a |  0 may be due to change in direction.
dt dt

dv d 
(ii) = 0, | v |  0 not possible.
dt dt

Objective
*To emphasize the difference between magnitude of rate of change of velocity and rate of change
 
 dv d|v|
of magnitude of velocity | a |   ;
dt dt

Change in velocity:
Only magnitude

v

(i) accelration should be parallel to velocity a velocity will increase


v

(ii) anti parallel to velocity a velocity will decrease



(iii) corresponds to one dimensional motion

Only direction

(i) Accelration should be perpendicular to velocity

(ii) corresponds to Uniform Circular motion and any genral curved path with constant speed.
Both
Accelration should have an angle with velocity where   0, 180°, 90° etc. Here acceleration will have
two components
(a) along velocity  will change magnitude
(b) perpendicular velcoity  direction
(ii) corresponds to projectile and any genral curved path.

NOTE: Tell students again and again that when there is either a change in magnitude or direction of velocity or
both there will be non zero accleration.

Ex. Find the magnitude of average accelration of minute hand of clock (length = 20 cm) rotate an angle of
/2.

Ex. For the given equations x is in meters and t is in seconds. Find the displacement and distance traveled by
a particle in the given time interval. Also find acceleration of these as a function of time.
x = 3t2 – t3 t = 0s to t = 4s

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(7) One dimensional or rectilinear motion
(i) Motion with constant velocity
(ii) Motion with variable velocity but constant acceleration
(iii) Motion with variable acceleration.

(i) Motion with constant velocity

x0 x
v v
Origin

t=0 t

x t
dx
v   dx   vdt
dt x0 0

x xx 0  vt 0t

x – x0 = vt  x = x0 + vt, If particle is at origin at t = 0 then
x = vt
(ii) Motion with variable velocity but constant acceleration
x0 x
u v
Origin

t=0 t

 v t 
 dv   d

v

a dt  v        dr  
a  dv  a dt ;    ; v u = a  dt ; v  u  a t ; v  u  a t  dt  u  at
dt u 0

rf
  
 d r   udt   a  dt
ri

Important points:
1. These equations are used without vector sign but this does not mean they are not vectors. [as we have to
use proper signs]
2. While we are following above stated method we have to use same equation for acceleration and
deacceleration.
3. At any instant particle may be situated on – ve side of origin but still sign of velocity and accleration are
decided by the sense of + ve x direction or from the basic definitions.
 v = u + at ... (i)
dx
 u  at
dt
dx = udt + at dt
on further intergating

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 x t t

 dx  u  dt  a  t dt
x0 0 0

2
x xx 0  ut  at
2

1 2
x – x0 = ut + at
2

1 2
x = x0 + ut + at .... (ii)
2
If, particle is at origin at t = 0
x0 = 0
1 2
x = ut + at .... (iii)
2
from (i) and (iii)
v2 = u2 + 2ax
 
 v  u
Asking Question: Derive this equation s   t .............Eqn (1)
 2 

 
 vu
Asking Question: Derive this equation v avg 
2
when equation 3rd is divided by t on both side, it will give
    
s v  u t  vu
  v avg 
t  2  t 2

(8) Displacement in nth second

1 2 1
Sn = un + an Sn – 1 = u(n – 1) + a ( n  1) 2
2 2

1
S  Sn  Sn 1 = u (1)  a ( n  n  1)( n  n  1)
n th 2

1
s =u+ a ( 2n  1) ... (1)
n th 2

n and 1 in eq (1) have dimension of ‘t’. s n th means average velocity in nth second.
Very simple example: Spotting a police car, you brake a Porsche from a speed of 108 km/h to a speed of 72
km/h during a displacement of 88.0 m, at a constant acceleration.
(a) What is that acceleration?
(b) How much time is required for the given decrease in speed?
[Ans. (a) – 2.84 m/s2; (b) 3.52 sec]

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Ex. A particle starts with velocity 10 ms–1 and deacceleration of 5 ms–2. Find displacement and distance
traversed in 6 sec.
[Ans. displacement = – 30 m ; distance =50 m]

Objective :
To emphasis that in equation of motion ‘S’ stands for displacment not for distance for calculating distance
brack the motion in two parts.

Example: A car can travel at maximum speed of 180 km/hr and can have maximum accelration 5 m/s2 and
retardation of 3 m/s2. How fast can it start from rest and come to rest in travelling 300 m.

Ex. Find the velocity of block 2 second after the start.

2kg

3kg

Ex. Blocks are given velocities as shown at t = 0, find velocity and position of 10 kg block at t = 1 and t = 4.

Ex. Find velocity at t = 4 sec.

(9) Free fall:

If you tossed an object either up or down and could somehow eliminate the effects of air on its flight, you
would find that the object accelerates downward at a certain constant rate. That rate is called the free-
fall acceleration, and its magnitude is represented by g. The acceleration is independent of the object's
characteristics, such as mass, density, or shape ; it is the same for all objects.

+ve

–ve
origin

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 Take positive sign for upward vertical and negative sign for downward vertical.
For free fall a = – g.
For both upward and downward motion because g always acts in vertically downward direction.

Equation of motion in vertical direction for constant acceleration. (a = – g)

1 2
y = y0 + ut + at
2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2a (y – y0)
y = position of particle at time t
y0 = position of particle at time t = 0
u = velocity of particle at t = 0
v = velocity of particle at time t

Ex. A balloon is moving up with a velocity 7 m/s. When the balloon is 60 m above the ground, a stone is
released from it, find the total time taken by stone to reach at ground.

Some results
1. Maximum Height

u2
H=
2g
2. Time to reach maximum height
u
t=
g
B
2u
3. Total time of flight = t t
g
A

4. Time of ascent = Time of descent for motion between two specific points. ///////////////////////////////////

5. If an object is dropped ( means initial velocity is zero) from Height h. Its speed on reaching ground
2h
is v  2gh and time taken to reach grond is t =
g

6. A particle has the same speed at a point on the path. While going vertically up and down.

B
v v

///////////////////////////////////

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Very simple Example:In figure 2-11, a kid tosses a ball up, with an initial speed of 10 m/s. (g = 10m/s2)
Ball

v = 0 at y
highest point
still accelerating

During descent,
a = –g, speed
increases,
During ascent, and velocity
a = –g, speed becomes
more negative
decreases,
and velocity
becomes y=0
less positive

(a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height ?
(b) What is the ball's maximum height above its release point ?
(c) How quick does the ball take to reach a point 1.8 m above its release point ?
[Ans. (a) 1 sec; (b) 5m; (c) )0.2 s ]

Object :
1. To understand sign. connetion.
2. At heighest point velocity is zero but still acceleration.
3. a & v have opposite sign. so speed  during upwards a & v have same sign. speed .

Ex.: A person standing on a top of a 25 m high building throws aball upward at the speed of 20 m/s find time
that ball will take to come down.

Objective :
(i) No need to brake motion in to upward and downward motion.
(ii) To give the vector idea of displacement.

Explain how by using sign we can get result and how signs take care of whole path.
Taking upper side as (+)
u = 20 m/s; a = – 10 m/s2; s = – 25 m
1 2
s = ut + at
2
  10 t 2 
– 25 = 20t +  2   – 25 = 20t – 5t2  5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
 
t = 5, – 1;  t = 5 sec

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NOTE*Many answers emerged automatically with minus signs. It is important to know what these signs mean.
For these two freely falling-body problems, we established a vertical axis (the y-axis) and we chose-
quite arbitrarily-its upward direction to be positive.
We then chose the origin of the y-axis (that is, the y = 0 position) to suit the problem. In this eg, the origin
was at the top of the building, and in previous eg. it was at the kid's hand. A negative value of y then
means that the body is below the chosen origin. A negative velocity means that the body is moving in the
negative direction of the y-axis – that is, downward. This is true no matter where the body is located.
Mathematics often generates answers that you might not have thought of as possibilities, as in
this example. If you get more answers than you expect, do not automatically discard the ones that do not
seem to fit. Examine them carefully for physical meaning. Like here time is our variable, then even a
negative value (-1) can mean something ; negative time simply refers to time before t = 0, the (arbitrary)
time at which you decided to start your stopwatch.

Concept* In kinematics we may come across situations where a moving large body drops a
body. The initial velocity of the dropped body is equal to the velocity of the moving large body.

Ex.: A lift is moving up with an acceleration of 4m/s2 starting from rest. 5 sec after the start, a coin is dropped
from the lift. Find:
(a) The initial velocity of the dropped coin.
(b) The height attained by the lift till the time of drop
(c) The time when the coin reaches ground.
Ans 20 m/s (b) 50 m (c) 5.74 sec after drop.

m1
Ex. After the system is released calculate the maximum height attained by block 2 before stop 3.
m2

1
20cm
2

Ex. A ball is dropped from the top of a tower when the ball is 5m below the top a second ball is dropped
from a point 25m below the top if both ball reaches the ground simulteneously then calculate the height
of tower?

Variable accleration

If (i) a = f(t) (ii) a = f(v) (iii) a = f(s)

dv dv dv
a  f ( v) a= v
dt dt ds

dv
 dv   a dt  f ( v)   dt  d ds   v dv

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Ex. A particle is moving on a straight line path, such that v= 3t2 then find accln at t = 3 and magnitude of avg
velocity for first three seconds.

Objective :
To find average speed using integration as velocity is variable.

Ex.: a = 4 – 2t; Initial velocity at t = 0, u = 5;

Find distance travelled till 12 sec?

Objective
Equation of motion not applied if acceleration is variable.

Concept: If a is given as function of s or v we can use this equation v dv = a ds

Ex.. If a particle accelerates with a = kv2 and initial velocity = u then find velocity after s displacement.
[Ans. v = ueks]

Optional Example. a = – cos t; at t = 0; u = 0; x = 1

Position at t = 
Find distance from 0 to 2.

Optional Example: A ball is thrown vertically upwards with velocity of 20 m/s towards ceiling which is 10 m
high. Assume the collision be elastic in nature. Find time taken by ball to come back after collision?

Objective
{explain elastic collision means that velocity perpendicular to the wall will reverse its direction}

10. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION IN ONE DIRECTION

S-t curve :
If we put s on y-axis and t on x-axis for every value of t we have a value of s.

p2
s2
s
p1
s1 Q
O t1 t2 t

1. The average velocity from time t1 to t2 will be

s 2  s1
Vavg = t  t = slope of line joining p1 and p2
2 1

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 For a particle moving along a straight line when we plot a graph of s versus t, Vavg is the slope of the
straight line that connects two particular points on the s(t) curve : one is the point that corresponds to s2
and t2, and the other is the point that corresponds to s1 and t1. Like displacement, vavg has both magnitude
and direction (it is another vector quantity). Its magnitude is the magnitude of the line's slope. A positive
vavg (and slope) tells us that the line slants upward to the right ; a negative vavg (and slope), that the line
slants downward to the right.

2. Instantaneous velocity
According to definetion s2 p2

s s
v = lim
t 0 t s1
p1

In curve if t  0 the point p2 comes very close to point p1. O t1 t2 t

Note : The instantaneous velocity can be found by determining the slope

of the tangent to the displacement time graph at that instant.
Velocity at point p1 or time t1 is V
V = tan 
s1


t1 t
Cases :
(A) Uniform velocity : s
If velocity is uniform slope of curve must remain unchanged. 2
Curve wth uniform slope is st. line
If Velocity is 1ms–1  S = Vt  s = t 1
45°
tan  = 1 1 2 t

For –ve velocity

t

(B) Uniform acceleration

We have a particle moving with uniform acceleration a and initial velocity u. Its displacement s at any time
t can be represented as
1 2
s = ut + at
2
s
curve is parabola
Velocity at t1 is tan  
t1 t

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Ex.: A cyclist starting from a point A travels 200 m due North to a point B at constant speed of 5 ms–1. He
rests at B for 30 seconds and then travels 300 m due south to a point C at a constant speed of
10 ms–1. Find Avg. velocity.

V-t curve : By using dependence of v on t we can plot a V-t graph.

* Slope of V-t curve at any point represents acceleration at that instant.
tan  = acceleration at time t1

Area under V-t graph and t-axis.

p
As we know dx = Vdt and  Vdt = x = Area under V – t graph. v


t t1

V
dt
t1
t2
t

Thus area under curve will represent displacement in that time period.
Note : (1) Area above t-axis +ve displacement.
(2) Area below t-axis is –ve displacement.
Thus,
1. Total displacement will be sum of areas with appropriate signs.
2. Total distance will be sum of areas without sign.

Cases :
(1) For uniform velocity :
acceleration = 0 v
slope = 0
t

(2) For uniform st. line curve acceleration

tan  = acceleration v
For increasing velocity u 

tan  = acceleration Note  is always with

v decreasing
for decreasing velocity  ive x - axis
(slope is –ve) i.e.  > 90° 
t

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Q. A particle is travelling in a st. line. It has a initial velocity of 10 ms–1. When it is subjected to an acceleration
of –2ms–2 for 8 seconds. Find displacement and distance traversed in 8 seconds.

Objective
1. Using graph distance can be calculated directly.
2. Total displacement will be sum of areas with appropriate signs.
3. Total distance will be sum of areas without sign.
4. To plot straight line using equation of motion.

Q. A particle moves in a st. line with const. velocity of 5 ms–1 for 2 seconds. It then moves with a const.
acceleration of –2 ms–2 for 8 seconds. Draw velocity – time graph for 10 seconds of motion and find.
(a) Final velocity
(b) Dispt.
(c) Total dist.

Optional Example: A ball is thrown vertically upwards with velocity of 20 m/s. Using equation of motion make
these graphs.
(i) v-t graph (ii) a-t graph
(iii) displacement time graph (iv) speed time graph
(v) distance time graph
Sol. Equation of motion v = 20 – 10t
(1) v-t graph:

(2) a-t graph:

a
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4
t
–10 constant acceleration

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(3) Displacement-time graph:

If v change sign there is maxima

or minima at that point in x - t graph

x is proportional to t 2 so it is parabola

(4) speed-time graph:

s
40
30
20 No change in sign no max.
10 min. in distance time graph
t
1 2 3 4

(5) distance-time graph:

d
40
30
20 speed is zero Distance time graph never
10 decreasing so no max. min.
t
1 2 3 4

Note : Velocity time graph of optional example page 12. (same as above including roof)

V
–1
– 20 ms •
–1
– 10 ms •
t=(2–2) t=(4+2) t
– 10 ms–1 •
–1
– 20 ms •

* For fun sake

x x

(Smiling curve) (Crying curve)

t t
a>0 a<0
x
I II

III IV
t
(I) a < 0 (II) a < 0 (III) a > 0 (IV) a > 0

TAKE EXTRA CLASSES IF NECESSARY.

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