An Investment Casting Institute Publication

Atlas of
Casting
Defects
Introduction 3
Positive Defect Identifier 4
Negative Defect Identifier 6
List of Defects 60
December 2017
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 An Investment Casting Institute Publication

The Atlas of Casting Defects was updated and reformatted based on feedback
from our members. This restructured Atlas combines the previous versions of the
Atlas of Shell Defects and the Atlas of Casting Defects into a single publication.
We have addressed all the potential causes of a casting defect broken down
by Wax, Shell or Foundry. In addition, there is a new tool, the Defect Identifier,
which can assist in pinpointing a particular defect. The only defects which are
not included in this Atlas are wax defects that should be caught and corrected in
the wax department. These defects are still covered in the Atlas of Wax Pattern
Defects publication.

The ICI has also launched an on-line version of this publication which provides
increased ease and flexibility thus reducing the time necessary to identify and
resolve casting defects.

Acknowledgments Publications Committee Barry Dahlin

Westech Products
The Investment Casting Institute Chairman
wishes to thank all of the members Julie Markee Wayne Gayford
of the Institute’s Publication Com- Key Process Innovations, LLC DePuy
mittee who provided information,
photographs and valuable resourc- Members Manuel Guerra
es. The individuals on this commit- Russ Gallagher Remet
tee worked hard to create this Atlas Bescast, Inc.
of Casting Defects. Without their Mike Hendricks
support, time and effort, we would Noor Alam Ransom & Randolph
not be able to provide this valuable DePuy
updated publication. Mark Oles
Erin Almaleh
Pine Tree Castings
Investment Casting Institute
Chris O’Rourke
Matt Cavins
DePuy
O’Fallon Castings
Al Torok
Tim Sullivan
Yamaha Marine
Hitchiner, Inc.
Precision Propellers
Naum Cherepakhov
Industry Retiree

December 2017 Introduction 3

Defect Identifier: An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Positive

Smooth Jagged Rough

Casting thicker Surface has Surface faceted “Coffee ring” Thin fin of metal
than expected; “coastline” with spots located at located at
Spherical flat, featureless bottom of part as wax injection
appearance distinct “ridgeline”
surface or slot shell built parting line

Bulge Prime Coat Buckle Etch Wax Flash

page 11 Lift page 9 Spotting See Wax Atlas
page 44 page 22

Location
1/8” Diameter Spherical difficult to wet
or less with tail during
shell building

Wax Drip Bubbles

page 59 page 8

Wax Wax Stuck

Splatter Bubbles Shot
See Wax Atlas See Wax Atlas page 58

December 2017 Defect Identifier: Positive 4

Defect Identifier: An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Positive

Smooth Jagged Rough

Linear fin of
metal located on Located in Irregular surface
Areas formed tight fillets, lettering located in slots and “Sandpaper”
an outside by ceramic core texture
diameter or or score lines holes
sharp edges

Finning Core Spall Excess Penetration

page 25 Breakage page 56 Metal page 40
page 14 page 23

The information pertaining to this defect is available as part of the Wax Atlas. The Wax Atlas can
be accessed at www.investmentcasting.org or ordered by contacting (201) 573-9770

December 2017 Defect Identifier: Positive 5

Defect Identifier: An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Negative

Smooth Dented Jagged Rough

Mostly smooth “Threadlike” Faceted,

with possibly a Linear irregular located on flat
Spherical Round Dished in
positive fin or wavy shadow surfaces

Leaker Delamination
page 40 page 18
Anywhere Rat-tailing
page 45

Slag Thick
Sink page 52
page 53 Located Shot areas Shrink* - Internal page 49
at top of
casting
Defect of Shrink* - Surface page 51
Gas page 47 casting
page 27 Shrink* - Gate page 48
*low yield strength alloys such as Al
Located in
Pinholes thick areas
page 42 last to solidify
Located Non Fill Wax
in thin See Wax Atlas
sections or
Incomplete Located in
sharp edges Non Fill
areas difficult page 35
Burn-out to burn-out
page 33 Located Cold Shut
where two page 47
metal fronts
Very shallow
defects in alloys
rejoin Wax Knitlines
Pitting such as 400 See Wax Atlas
page 43 series and PH
Stainless Steels
Shallow Wax Flowlines
anywhere See Wax Atlas
on part
Chill
Breakout
See Wax Atlas

December 2017 Defect Identifier: Negative 6

 Defect Identifier: An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Negative

Smooth Dented Jagged Rough

Overblast Areas Parallel grooves, Dendratic void

page 38 exposed grind marks Flake
or in hot spots
to near gates, Irregular
such as gates
Handling blasting missing wafer like
or fillets
media features
Damage
page 30
Grinding Non-Metallic
Damage Inclusions
page 29 (caused by
gating undercuts)
Cut-off page 36
Jagged, Damage
fractured page 17 Shrink - Internal
page 49

Shrink - Surface
Jagged surface page 51
Cracked with one surface
or having the same
missing Spall shape as letter, Shrink - Gate
features page 56 number or fillet page 48

Jagged surface
Non-Metallic typically located
at the bottom
Inclusions of the casting
page 36

Crack Hot Wax Wax in

page 15 Tear Crack Die
page 31 page 15 See Wax Atlas

The information pertaining to this defect is available as part of the Wax Atlas. The Wax Atlas can
be accessed at www.investmentcasting.org or ordered by contacting (201) 573-9770

December 2017 Defect Identifier: Negative 7

Bubbles An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Air trapped against Area Possible Potential
the wax pattern by the Cause Correction
primary slurry layer
Wax Bad mold Re-orient the part to prevent
design air from being trapped during
Description dipping
Defect Type
Positive Shell Poor dipping Immerse the pattern slowly
technique in the slurry, use vibration or,
Appearance compressed air or vacuum to
Small, smooth spherical, pop any trapped air bubbles
oval or elongated tubular
shaped positive
Shell Poor draining Back drain slurry into areas
Size technique that cannot be wet out during
1/8” or less dipping
Typical Location
Difficult to wet out areas Shell Incomplete Use a pre-wet or use a lower
during shell building pattern wetting prime coat viscosity
Similar to
Wax bubbles (see Atlas Shell Insufficient Insure the correct amount of
of Wax Pattern Defects), slurry wetting wetting agent is in the slurry
Stuck Shot

Aliases Shell Incomplete Insure the silicone is removed

BBs, Air Bubble pattern cleaning from all surfaces of the pat-
terns and no air bubbles are
Method for defect preventing proper cleaning
determination
Visible to eye. Smooth
surface of defect Shell High air level in Insure air is not being sucked
the slurry into the slurry by the mixer.
Conduct antifoam test and
adjust if necessary

December 2017 Bubbles 8

Buckle An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
The bond strength of the Area Possible Potential
primary layer to the wax Cause Correction
patter is insufficient and the
primary layer buckles (lifts)
off the pattern. The bond Wax Temperature change Ensure the wax pattern has
strength can be insufficient in wax causes the stabilized in temperature
for a number of reasons wax to move and before applying shell layers
including stress on the disrupt the primary
primary layer as it shrinks layer bond. Wax pat-
during drying. tern temperature not
stable

Description Wax Pattern cleaning Increase etch strength or,

inadequate. Poor time in etch. Reduce the time
Defect Type adhesion of the from etch to primary layer
Positive primary coat to the
wax pattern
Appearance
Faceted or pyramid like
surface with a distinct Wax Pattern flexing during Add additional
ridgeline often associated dipping pattern supports
with flash

Typical Location Shell Large temperature Control the dipping area to

Flat featureless change +/- 3 F
surfaces

Similar to Shell Drying too long Set a maximum dry time

Prime coat lift

Method for defect Shell Drying too short Insure the primary layer is
determination completely dry before
When a shell buckles, it only applying backup layers
separates from the pattern.
With prime coat lift, the shell Shell Poor prime coat Confirm the prime slurry is
also fractures, allowing the wetting wetting the pattern
backup layers to fill the gap
between the primary layer
and the wax pattern
continued on next page

December 2017 Buckle 9

Buckle An Investment Casting Institute
Publication
continued
continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Shell Low adhesion binder Increase polymer level

Shell Drying too fast (high Slow down (Increase) the

pattern shrinkage & drying by reducing airflow or
drying stress) increasing room humidity or
reduce airflow

Shell Pre-wet is lifting Eliminate pre-wet or reduce

prime dry time between pre-wet and
slurry application

Shell Too much slurry on Decrease slurry viscosity or

interior surfaces increase drain time

Shell Too little slurry on Increase slurry viscosity or

interior surfaces decrease drain time

Shell Insufficient stucco Don’t let slurry surface dry

on interior surfaces or over drain before stucco
application

Shell Primary slurry in Employ proper slurry controls

poor condition

Shell Soaking (saturating) Vibration used during dipping

the mold promotes can cause the primary coat to
lifting. Vibration too separate from the pattern
high

Shell Pattern flexing Add additional

during dipping pattern supports

Shell Soaking (saturating) Stucco molds immediately

the mold promotes after slurry has drained
lifting

Shell Thermal expansion Change shell composition

mismatches within
the shell

Other (Mold Pattern is too flat Add ribs or dimples to

design) and featureless break up flatness and
create features

Other Pattern flexing during Add additional pattern

dipping supports

December 2017 Buckle 10

Bulge An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Permanent defection of Area Possible Potential
the mold wall either during Cause Correction
dewaxing or casting.
Wax Patterns too close Use spacers during assembly
causing premature to produce consistent pattern
Description bridging spacing
Defect Type Shell Shell too thin Add shell layers or add stiff-
Positive ening feature
Appearance Shell Mold hot strength 1) Increase refractoriness
Gradual thickening of the cast- too low (mold of the shell
ing wall. May have finning in creeping during 2) Ensure optimal SiO2
the area of the bulge. May not casting cooling) levels in the backup slurry
be detectable by the naked eye 3) Ensure uniform mold
but can be caught by gauging. thickness
Typical Location Shell Slurry not wetting 1) Use vacuum dipping or
Parallel surfaces, deep holes, out area re-orient pattern.
or slots. Adjacent patterns on 2) Use a thinner slurry
assembly. Large flat feature-
less surfaces Shell Slurry/stucco not Use a “poured core”
getting into area
Similar to
Similar in appearance to shell
buckle but it doesn’t have the Shell Stucco not getting 1) Rainfall, hand pour or
definitive shape of a crack in into area re-orient pattern
the casting. 2) If bridging in slots or holes,
use a finer stucco or make
Aliases sure hole is open prior to
Bulging, bulging cracking, applying subsequent dips
bulging overheating, until sufficient slurry/stucco
shell bulge has been applied
Method for defect
determination
Shell bulge generally has a
more rounded surface
continued on next page

December 2017 Bulge 11

Bulge An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Shell Slurry is being Ensure sufficient intra-coat

washed away when dry time and conditions for
subsequent coats hard to dry areas of the mold
are applied

Shell Green strength of 1) Increase the dry time

the shell is too low to between each layer
withstand dewaxing 2) Apply additional coats
3) Increase final dry time
4) Redesign assembly to
permit a more rapid heat
transfer to all parts of mold
5) Vent pattern cavities
6) Check dewax process for
optimal performance and that
it is in control

Shell Deformation during See “Finning”

dewaxing

Foundry Solidification time Decrease metal temperature,

too long decrease mold temperature,
speed casting cooling rate

Foundry Ferrostatic pressure Reduce vacuum level, reduce

too high spinning rate (centrifugal)

Foundry Ferrostatic pressure Reduce the metal height

too high above the part

December 2017 Bulge 12

Cold Shut An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Incomplete joining of Area Possible Potential
two metal fronts Cause Correction

Description Foundry Metal not hot enough Increase metal superheat

Defect Type
Negative Foundry Mold not hot enough Increase mold temperature/
increase or add mold
Appearance insulation
Smooth, linear, shallow, rounded
edged impression extending into Foundry For air cast, mold not Reduce shell thickness or
feature wall. This defect takes the permeable resulting gating design to fill pattern
form of a crack or discontinuity in in backpressure/trap- cavity from more locations.
the surface with rounded edges ping air that slows Add vents. Increase shell
indicating the freezing or solidifi- metal fill time permability
cation of two or more streams of
metal before they had time to com-
pletely fuse together. Foundry Poor metal fluidity Consider modifications to
alloy composition
Size
varies Foundry Slow metal pour rate Increase pour rate
Typical Location
Thin sections or areas furthest Foundry Interrupted pour Maintain a steady pour
away from gate where two metal rate until mold is full
fronts meet.

Similar to
Wax knitline (see Atlas of Wax
Pattern Defects)

Aliases
Cold Shot, Short Fill

Method for defect

determination
Penetrant inspection, visual in-
spection, metallographic inspection
for evidence of non-bonding along
line below cast surface. A wax knit
line will have not extend below cast
surface
December ceramic
2017in the junction. Cold Shut 13
Core Breakage An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Core breaks either during Area Possible Potential
wax injection, during mold Cause Correction
heating, or metal pouring
Wax Mold design creates Examine need for core
Description stress on core upon print relief or core supports
clamping or wax to reduce stress
Defect Type injection
Negative

Appearance Shell Poor core slipping Examine for too many

Metal fin across an area that method core locks or “prints”
is formed by a ceramic core.
In the case of core break
and shift, missing metal Other (Mold Too high of wax Reduce injection pressure
where a wall should be. design) injection pressure
Size
varies

Typical Location
Can only occur on casting
made with ceramic core

Method for defect

determination
Visual, X-ray in case of
hidden from view

December 2017 Core Breakage 14

Crack An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Typically, internal stresses Area Possible Potential
from solid-state cooling or Cause Correction
rapid cooling can caused
cracking.
Wax Major sectional Modify gating to prevent
changes in the cast- strong gates or runners from
Description ing design preventing the casting from
contracting
Defect Type
Negative Wax Restriction of Modify the design to avoid
casting contraction contraction restriction and
Appearance at elevated strengthen the weak areas
Jagged crack with temperature by the use of webs
irregular path

Typical Location Foundry Premature Allow time for the casting to

Geometry involves seriously movement of mold solidify before moving
restrained contraction or in a after casting
local volume of unfed metal.
May occur at the intersec-
tion of thick and thin section. Other (Post-cast Uneven cooling rate Avoid rapid cooling methods
operation) -The use of water to
Similar to cool a hot casting
Hot Tear can sets up high
internal stress
Method for defect
determination
Visual inspection and Other (Post-cast Removal of cast Add a stress-relief thermal
Penetrant inspection machining) material can create cycle to as-cast part prior to
typically reveal cracks. an imbalance of metal removal operations
Cracks form roughly 90° the internal stress
to stress direction. leading to cracking.

Other (Casting Restriction of Modify the design to avoid

design) casting contraction contraction restriction and
at elevated strengthen the weak areas
temperature by the use of webs

continued on next page

December 2017 Crack 15

Crack An Investment Casting Institute
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continued
continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Other (Casting Major sectional Modify gating to prevent

design) changes in the strong gates or runners from
casting design preventing the casting from
contracting

Other (Casting Sharp internal angles Ensure adequate fillet radii

design)

December 2017 Crack 16

Cut-off Damage An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Blade or plasma torch Area Possible Potential
deflects into casting or Cause Correction
continues into casting
after cut
Other (Gating Castings too close Increase gate length
Design) to the runner bar/
Description variable distance
from runner bar
Defect Type
Negative
Other (Post-Cast Incorrect part loading Mistake proof the holding
Appearance operation) in cutoff fixture fixture
Slot or beveled face with
characteristic grooves running
the direction of the cut-off Other (Post-Cast Cut-off blade flex Use different blade,
wheel operation) during the cut-off change gate shape
Typical Location
Anywhere but typically near
a gate contact

Method for defect

determination
Visual inspection

December 2017 Cut-off Damage 17

Delamination An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Failure of bond between 1st Area Possible Potential
and 2nd layer of shell. The first Cause Correction
layer is pushed or pulled into
the mold cavity usually during
dewax. Sometimes the shell Shell Incomplete wetting Blow off loose primary coat
cracks and metal fills the gap between 1st and 2nd stucco. Ensure immersion
between the layers producing layer time in 2nd layer slurry is ad-
a scab. equate to wet-out the primary
layer

Description Shell Etch too strong – too Reduce etch strength or time
tacky
Defect Type
Negative Shell Drying rate of 2nd Increase drying room
layer too high humidity
Appearance
Faceted metal indentation
sometimes accompanied by Shell Poor bond between Ensure adequate keying
a positive metal scab prime and backup between the primary and
layer first backup coat. Use a
Typical Location coarser or more angular
Flat featureless surfaces primary coat stucco blow off
loose or excess stucco
Aliases
Scabbing, Reverse Buckle Shell Moisture trapped be- Ensure adequate drying of
hind the primary coat the mold prior to dewaxing
Method for defect
determination
Visual, appears as scab with Shell Differential expan- Ensure the thermal
indentation under scab sion stresses be- expansion of the primary
tween the primary coat is compatible with
and secondary coats that of the shell coats

Shell Rapid pressure Autoclave blowdown

release during auto- should be gradual and take
clave dewaxing 2 minutes or more

continued on next page

December 2017 Delamination 18

Delamination An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Additional
examples

December 2017 Delamination 19

Distortion An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Figure 1
Raised pads are
witness to gating
locations on the
outside of the
tube casting.

Figure 2
Depressions on
the interior of the
tube are created
during the casting
process.

Mechanism
Distortion of the casting Area Possible Potential
occurring at wax injection, Cause Correction
pattern assembly, or
casting cooling.
Other (Casting Geometry of the Minimize uneven stresses
design) casting and or run- that develop with solid-state
Description ning system causing metal contraction occurs
uneven contraction
Defect Type
Shape
Other (Mold Improper gating Design the gating and runner
Appearance design) system design system to prevent uneven
The geometry does not stresses
conform to the drawing

Size Other (Mold Ingates contracting Examine the runner system

varies design) and pulling part of and modify to reduce stresses
the casting
Typical Location
Opposite gate locations Wax Improper wax pattern Modify release agent
handling ejected spraying technique,
Similar to from die frequency. Add ejector pins
Sink, Cavitation (See Atlas
of Wax Pattern Defects)
Wax Improper wax pattern Store patterns in a manner to
Method for defect storage prevent distortion
determination
Visual inspections and
customary dimensional Wax Ingates contracting Examine the runner system
inspection tools and pulling part of and modify to reduce stresses
the casting

Wax Improper gating Design the gating and runner

system design system to prevent distortion

continued on next page

December 2017 Distortion 20

Distortion An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Shell High strength mold Reduce the mold strength

preventing even
contraction

Other Knockout conducted Knockout at a lower

at too high a temperature
temperature

Foundry Improper casting Ensure cast molds are

handling handled with care – especially
at high temperature

Other (Heat Stresses induced Ensure the castings are

treatment) during heat correctly supported during
treatment heat treatment. Use the
slowest quenching method
that will achieve the required
hardness

December 2017 Distortion 21

Etch Spotting An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During pattern cleaning prior to Area Possible Potential
shell building, the etch solution Cause Correction
is not completely rinsed off.
The etch continues to attack
the wax forming rings or drips Shell Incomplete rinse Increase agitation during
on the bottom of the pattern after pattern etch rinse, keep rinse water clean
and/or use multiple rinse
tanks. Last rinse water should
Description always be clear to ensure
cleanliness. Make sure water
Defect Type temperature is room tempera-
Negative and Positive ture.
Appearance
Smooth. Raised droplet or Shell Incorrect etch Some etch products
“coffee ring” like appearance concentration require mixing with
where ring may be slightly water prior to use. Verify
indented into casting measurements and test con-
centration if possible.
Special Circumstances
Most common with difficult
to rinse etch solutions

Size
¼” or less

Typical Location
End of part away from the pour
cup. Areas where etch rinse
water beads up after
pattern cleaning or there is
insufficient rinse action on
the surface of wax. Often in
deep corners but can occur
on open surfaces.

Aliases
Fisheyes

Method for defect

determination
Monitor the etching operation
and inspect wax patterns
prior to first dip in pre-wet
or primary dip

December 2017 Etch Spotting 22

Excess Metal An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Thin or weak areas of the shell Area Possible Potential
fail during dewax or casting Cause Correction
allowing metal to leak into the
void in the shell.
Other (Mold Poor mold design Re-orient the part to
design) improve slurry and stucco
Description coverage
Defect Type
Positive Shell Poor shell Improve wetting of detail by
build / slurry / stucco shell code changes, re-orient-
Appearance schedule ing the part or vacuum dip-
Irregular shaped mass typically ping, thinner slurries and finer
attached to the casting by flash stuccos, use intermediate
slurry and or stucco
Size
Varies but typically metal is re-
strained by external shell Shell Incomplete loose Blow loose stucco out of
geometry stucco removal detail, slots or blind holes
Typical Location
Holes, slots, or tight corners Shell Incomplete slurry Change pattern orientation,
wetting use vacuum dipping, lower
Aliases the slurry viscosity or use
Metal breakthrough, prewet solutions
Metal Penetration,
Core Collapse
Shell Incomplete drying Increase the dry time
Method for defect between layers
determination
Visual Inspection
Shell Incomplete stucco Pour stucco into the area,
coverage change orientation of the pat-
tern, use finer or intermediate
stucco

Shell Stucco too large Change shell code, use finer

stucco

continued on next page

December 2017 Excess Metal 23

Excess Metal An Investment Casting Institute
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Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Shell Stucco contains Sift the large particles out

large particles (“rice of the stucco
krispies” or “snerds”)

Shell Dewax cracking Improve dewax performance

Shell Autoclave Gradually depressurize the

depressurization autoclave over 2 minutes
too rapid or more

Other (Casting The core length Form area with “poured core”
design) to cross-sectional or preformed ceramic core
area too great to
allow production
of a sound core
by normal shell
techniques

December 2017 Excess Metal 24

Finning An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Shell crack during shell build- Area Possible Potential
ing, drying or dewaxing, and Cause Correction
molten metal fills the crack
during casting. Cylindrical
shapes are more prone to this Wax Runner wax melts Change the formulation of the
defect due to hoop stress too slow creating in- runner wax to insure it melts
creased pressure by as fast or faster than the pat-
part wax on mold as tern wax, use a low melting
Description it melts point wax to apply “dip seal”
to the runner system
Defect Type
Positive
Wax Pattern wax does Change pattern wax or
Appearance not bleed through increase green permeability
Sharp, linear fin of metal the mold during
perpendicular to the surface dewaxing
Typical Location
Flat featureless surfaces, Wax Wax flash / parting Removal all parting line
sharp edges or cylindrical line not removed indications
parts, across holes

Similar to
Wax flash (See Atlas of Wax Shell Low mold strength Add an additional shell layer,
Pattern Defects) use a polymer, increase
SiO2 of slurry
Aliases
Flash, Shell Incomplete mold Increase the mold dry time
Shell Crack, drying
Mold Crack
Shell Slow autoclave The autoclave should rapidly
Method for defect pressurization pressurize to 80 psi in 10
determination seconds or less
Wax flash can only be located
on the parting line of the pat- Shell Large temperature Maintain 3F maximum
tern fluctuations during temperature variation
drying

continued on next page

December 2017 Finning 25

Finning An Investment Casting Institute
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continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Shell Inadequate dewax Add venting to difficult to

pressure relief dewax areas

Shell Slow dewax loading Load dewax unit quickly

to reduce mold exposure
to heat

Shell Pattern wax does Change pattern wax

not bleed through or increase the shell
the mold during permeability
dewaxing

December 2017 Finning 26

Gas An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting, turbulent flow Area Possible Potential
mixes the air that is exiting Cause Correction
the mold with the metal that is
entering. These bubbles float to
the surface of the metal but are Other (Mold Poor gating Add vent at top of part to
trapped by the solidifying metal. design) design allow air to escape
(Like air bubbles trapped under
a layer of ice). This also can be
caused by incomplete burnout of Other (Mold Poor gating Modify gating system to
the wax and filler material in the design) design prevent turbulence during
mold, igniting when the molten metal filling
metal reaches this material. Gas
defects can also be formed when Other (Mold Low ferrostatic Increase the height of
ceramic cores out-gas, or the design) pressure the mold, use vacuum
strengthening materials (such assistance, centrifuge
as binders or superglue) applied
to cores, burns out (usually Shell Low mold Increase the mold
associated with low preheat permeability permeability or use vacuum
temperatures). Low permeability assistance during pouring
of molds is another cause of
entrapped gas. Foundry Bad pouring Reduce height from ladle to
practice mold, pour down the side of
the pour cup
Description
Foundry Excessively turbulent Modify the gating technique
Defect Type metal flow into the to give less turbulent flow;
Negative mold. Low ferrostatic self-venting mold. Increase
pressure the height of the mold,
Appearance use vacuum assistance,
Round smooth walled cavities centrifuge
which may exhibit a slightly
oxidized surface of varying Foundry Low metal Increasing the metal
diameter temperature temperature allows more
time for gas bubbles to
Size escape before a skin is
0.5 to 4 mm formed

continued on next page

continued on next page

December 2017 Gas 27

Gas An Investment Casting Institute
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continued from previous page continued from previous page

Typical Location Area Possible Potential

Generally located on the upper Cause Correction
region of the part as-cast

Similar to Foundry Excess wax and Burn molds out fully prior to
Pinholes, Blowholes, Slag, Filler material after preheat. Add excess oxygen
Incomplete Burn-out dewaxing mold to preheat/ burnout oven to
ensure complete burnout of
Aliases mold.
Entrapped Air, Porosity

Method for defect Foundry Poor deoxidation Improve practices

determination practices
Upper region of the part
as-cast, only a few holes.
Fewer number of cavities Foundry Moisture contained Ensure metal is free from
than pinholes within the metal moisture rust or lubricants.
feedstock Ensure ladles are cured and
dry before use.

December 2017 Gas 28

Grinding Damage An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Abrasive grinding belt or wheel Area Possible Potential
continues grinding into casting af- Cause Correction
ter removing the gate
Other Grind depth set too Ensure grinding depth set
Description deep correctly on automatic grinder
Defect Type
Negative Other Part improperly Mistake proof part loading
loaded on the grind fixture
Appearance
Missing features or low wall
thickness with linear serrations Other Residual ceramic Improve ceramic removal
prevents proper method
Typical Location fixture loading
Near gates or on same surface
as gates
Other Incorrect belt width The contact wheel and grind-
Similar to ing belt should be sized
Cutoff Damage according to the gate width

Other Snagging from loose Hold casting tight in hand

grip in operator’s when approaching belt or
hand disc

Other Excess Snagging Change view angle

from inability to see
grind area interface

Other Incorrect grit size on Ensure belt grit size before

belt grinding

December 2017 Grinding Damage 29

Handling Damage An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Castings are damaged at some Area Possible Potential
point after solidification Cause Correction

Description Foundry Damage occurring Prevent operators from

during handling dropping castings onto
Defect Type one another
Negative and positive

Appearance Other (Knockout/ Damage occurring Reduce tumbling speed or

Dinged surface. Smooth negative cutoff/blasting) during mechanical add cushioning material with
with accompanying positive burr, cleaning castings (addition of rubber
dented edge, rolled corner, bent blocks during tumble blast)
or distorted metal

Size Other Damage Ensure floors are level,

Various (Transporting) occurring during wheels on carts are adequate
transportation
Typical Location
Protruding features, corners,
thin areas

Similar to
Wax damage (See Atlas
of Wax Pattern Defects)

Aliases
Knockout Damage

Method for defect

determination
Visual or dimensional gauging

December 2017 Handling Damage 30

Hot Tear An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting cooling, the Area Possible Potential
strength of the shell or gating Cause Correction
system exceeds that of the
solidifying metal
Wax Restriction of casting Modify the design to avoid
contraction at contraction restriction and
Description elevated temperature strengthen the weak areas by
the use of webs.
Defect Type
Negative
Wax Major sectional Modify gating to prevent
Appearance changes in the strong gates or runners from
Jagged crack with irregular path, casting design preventing the casting from
typically with an oxidized fracture contracting
face

Typical Location Shell Sharp internal angles Ensure adequate fillet radii
Slow to cool or solidify areas
where the geometry involves
seriously restrained contraction or Shell Gating incorrect Reduce the mold strength.
in a local volume of unfed metal. Modify gating to prevent
May occur at the intersection of strong gates or runners from
thick and thin section. preventing the casting from
contracting Use a slower
Similar to cooling rate
Crack, Wax Crack (See Atlas
of Wax Pattern Defects)
Shell Shell too strong Reduce shell layers. Allow
Aliases time for the casting to solidify
Shrinkage Crack before moving
Method for defect
determination Foundry Premature Allow time for the casting
A wax crack will typically contain movement of mold to solidify before moving
refractory and have a somewhat after casting
smooth, non-dendritic fracture face

Foundry Uneven cooling rate Sink mold after casting or

wrap in insulation
continued on next page

December 2017 Hot Tear 31

Hot Tear An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Possible Potential

Cause Correction

Foundry Gating incorrect Reduce the mold strength.

Modify gating to prevent
strong gates or runners from
preventing the casting from
contracting Use a slower
cooling rate

Foundry Metal chemistry Use certified virgin ingots

Foundry Metal chemistry Modify the metal chemistry

Other (Mold Gating incorrect Reduce the mold strength.

design) Modify gating to prevent
strong gates or runners from
preventing the casting from
contracting Use a slower
cooling rate

Other (Casting Sharp internal Ensure adequate fillet radii

design) angles

Other (Casting Casting design Modify the casting design

design) where possible to reduce
major sectional changes

Other (Mold Restriction of casting Modify the design to avoid

Design) contraction at contraction restriction and
elevated temperature strengthen the weak areas
by the use of webs.

Other (Casting Major sectional Modify gating to prevent

design) changes in the strong gates or runners from
casting design preventing the casting from
contracting

December 2017 Hot Tear 32

Incomplete Burn-out An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting, residual carbon in Area Possible Potential
the mold remaining from incom- Cause Correction
plete burnout react with molten
metal producing CO. The CO, in
the form of a gas bubble, prevents Other (Mold Poor wax drainage Orient the parts to allow for
the metal from filling the area design) a high level of wax drainage
from the mold

Description Other (Mold Patterns too close Increase spacing between

design) patterns to prevent shell
Defect Type
bridging
Negative

Appearance
Smooth irregular shaped voids Wax Patterns too close Increase spacing between
generally in or just under the cast patterns to prevent shell
surface usually irregular in outline bridging
but tending to assume a spherical
or wormlike shape. The casting Wax High ask content Use a low ash content wax
surface may exhibit a matte finish in wax
in the area of the defect

Size Shell Incomplete wax Insure the dewax cycle time

1 to 4 mm removal is adequate to remove all of
the wax
Typical Location
Sections of mold that don’t drain Foundry Short mold Increase burnout time
during dewax. Areas of mold that burn-out time
are densely packed when shell
built. Foundry Insufficient air Place molds on stand or
circulation in the ribbed hearth plate
Similar to mold
Gas, Slag
Foundry Low oxygen level in Increase excess air
Alias
the burnout furnace
Ash

Method for defect Foundry Contamination Rinse mold and/or cover pour
determination of the mold cup to prevent contamination
Gas tends to be on the upper sur-
face or the part during casting. Metal
mold reaction is located where the
carbon does not burn out
December 2017 Incomplete Burn-out 33
Leaker An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Metal leaks out of the mold during Area Possible Potential
or immediately after casting Cause Correction

Description Wax Handling damage Examine process and add

preventive measures
Defect Type
Negative
Shell Broken shell – Improve dewaxing perfor-
Appearance handling damage. mance or dip molds after
Smooth in most instances, but also dewaxing, mold handling to
be rough. It could be irregular. prevent damage to the mold
Many features or runners missing
because of lack of metal. May
have a positive fin where the leak- Shell Low mold strength Verify slurry in spec and con-
er occurred. trol or add shell layers
Typical Location
Top of casting as oriented during Shell Dewax cracking Fill mold with colored dye/
casting water mix to identify crack
locations. Add wax vents.
Aliases Improve dewaxing
Runout, performance
Short Pour
Shell Poor patch Modify patching procedure to
Method for defect coverage– insure complete drying prior
determination incomplete drying to placing in burnout oven
Visual inspection

Shell Handling damage Examine process and add

preventive measures

Foundry Rough handling of Examine process and add

hot mold preventive measures

Foundry Handling damage Examine process and add

preventive measures

December 2017 Leaker 34

Non Fill An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting, the metal freezes Area Possible Potential
before mold cavity is completely Cause Correction
filled out
Shell Low mold Increase shell permability.
Description permeability Consider reducing shell
thickness. Vent thin sections
Defect Type
Negative
Foundry Low metal pouring Increase metal temperature,
Appearance temperature improve ladle preheating,
Incomplete casting with rounded speed time from tap to pour
edges where casting is not com-
pletely formed
Foundry Low mold Speed time from oven to
Typical Location temperature cast or insulate mold to pre-
Thin sections and sharp edges vent heat loss
away from the gate

Similar to Foundry Interrupted pour. Pour without interruption

Cold Shut, Wax non fill (See
Atlas of Wax Pattern Defects)
Foundry Lack of metal fluidity Increase fluidity by reducing
Aliases metal oxides or adjustment
Misrun of the metal chemistry
Method for defect
determination Foundry Poor gating system Modify gating design to cre-
Visual Inspection ate more entry points for alloy

December 2017 Non Fill 35

Non-Metallic Inclusion An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Foreign material in the mold cavity Area Possible Potential
which can originate either from Cause Correction
the mold or from outside the mold.
The shape of the defect aids in
determination of the source Wax Junction between Improve gating technique
wax gate and sprue to eliminate undercuts.
not completely Make sure wax joints (parts
Description sealed (undercuts). to sprue) are sooth and
Ceramic fills the un- complete.
Defect Type dercut during shelling
Negative and breaks off during
dewax or pouring.
Appearance
Generally a smooth sided irregular
negative shape of indefinite size. Wax Filter breakage
Inclusions caused by ceramic
material are usually more angular
and may contain bits of embedded Wax Ash in wax – as in Test ash content of wax
ceramic. wax typically floats in
the molten alloy and
Size is present on the top-
Variable side of castings
Typical Location
Most obvious on external surface Wax Incomplete soluble Confirm soluble leaching
of casting where the “inclusion” removal process and inspection is
prevented the alloy from filling the adequate
mold cavity to the shell surface.

Aliases Wax Filler settles out in Reconfigure gating design

Dirt, Ash areas that do not to improve wax removal.
drain during Add wax bleeder
Method for defect dewaxing
determination
Visual Inspection
Shell Cracks in mold and See Finning
ceramic bits get into
mold cavity

continued on next page

December 2017 Non-Metallic Inclusion 36

Non-Metallic Inclusion An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Cause Potential

Correction

Shell Poor mold patching Improve patch

technique – patch technique
enters mold

Shell Poor adhesion of See Spall

shell layers to one
another

Shell Ceramic debris Cover the pour cup after

entering mold dewaxing (allow moisture
after dewaxing from the mold to escape).
(poor housekeeping) Store the mold cup down.
Wipe rim of pour cup before
turning up-right

Shell Ceramic breaking Vacuum or wash out mold

loose inside the after dewaxing
mold during
dewaxing

Shell Slurry floods pour Cover pour cup, immediately

cup during shell rinse slurry out. Remove all
building dried ceramic prior to dewax-
ing. Coat the inside of the
pour cup with wax prior to
shelling to aid in slurry remov-
al from cup during dewax.

Shell Ceramic material Use a preformed ceramic

from jagged lip/edg- pour cup or assure in house
es on in house shell shelled cup is uniform and
built pouring cups robust on top edge
is broken off during
handling, burnout or
casting

December 2017 Non-Metallic Inclusion 37

Overblast An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
The blasting media used in me- Area Possible Potential
chanical cleaning equipment is Cause Correction
typically harder than the casting.
The surface of the casting can be
deformed or eroded by extended Other The casting are too Allow parts to cool prior
blasting time or excessive blasting hot during blasting to blasting
energy.
Other Castings are Insure the parts are
Description stopped in front of constantly moving during
the blasting nozzle the blasting cycle. Check
Defect Type or wheel the mill or spinners to
Negative confirm movement during
the blast cycle
Appearance
Small negatives possibly with
accompanying burrs. Textured Other Blast time is Reduce blast time
surface. May have rolled edges. too long
Eroded features

Typical Location Other Blast media is Reduce blast media size

Surfaces exposed to shot or sand too large
blast media

Aliases Other Blast media is Use softer blast media

Blasting damage too hard

December 2017 Overblast 38

Oxide An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting a refractory
oxide skin is formed in the melt
through the exposure of reactive
elements to oxygen. Certain
elements are more reactive than
others and will preferentially
oxidize. The metallic oxide that
is formed can be aggravated
with turbulent filling.

Description
Defect Type
Negative

Appearance
Metallic oxides are thin black
sub-surface streamers forming
an irregular pattern or agglom-
eration on the surface of the
casting. Area Possible Potential
Cause Correction
Special Circumstances
More commonly encountered
with alloys containing highly Foundry Impure melting Use oxide-free melting
reactive elements (Ti, Al, Zr, Cr, stock stock or filters
etc.)

Size Foundry Oxidation of Prevent oxidation of the melt

Varies reactive elements through the use of vacuum
or protective atmosphere
Typical Location
Surface and subsurface
Foundry Improper Allow time for deoxidation
Similar to deoxidation adds to be effective, agitate
Rat-tailing, Cold shut, Slag practice melt and de-slag for improved
deoxidation
Aliases
Oxide Folds, Dross,
Slag, Oxide Film Foundry Turbulence Reduced filling speed

Method for defect

determination
Metallic oxide indications tend
to be thin, irregular, randomly
placed or located, strings of
materials containing oxygen and
reactive elements. Metallic oxide
indications can be determined
by visual or EDS inspection.

December 2017 Oxide 39

Penetration An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Metal penetrates into the primary Area Possible Potential
layer during casting. Pinholes or Cause Correction
air pockets in the primary layer fill
with metal during casting
Shell Stucco particles too Change shell code, use
OR large finer stucco on the first few
shell layers
Stucco penetrates the primary
surface and traps an air pocket
against the wax Shell Incomplete slurry Insure the slurry is
mixing completely mixed before
using in production

Description
Shell Foaming in slurry Insure air is not being sucked
Defect Type into the slurry by the mixer.
Positive Conduct antifoam test and
adjust if necessary
Appearance
Small discrete positives which
appear like grains of sand. When Shell Primary slurry insta- Conduct gel test on binder
severe, the positives are closely bility (micro-gelling) solution. Replace slurry if bad
clustered and the surface feels like refractory solids)
sandpaper

Typical Location Shell Prime slurry layer Increase slurry viscosity

Near gates, heavy sections or slow too thin or reduce slurry drain time.
to cool sections of the casting Modify drain orientation.
Double dip the mold in the
Aliases slurry. Increase the pre-wet
Burn-in, burn on, pimpling, stucco drain time or orientation
penetration, rough surface

Method for defect Shell Reaction with Ensure rusting or corrosion

determination primary coat of the mixing equipment is
Visual inspection contaminants not occurring. Remove iron
contamination with magnets

continued on next page

December 2017 Penetration 40

Penetration An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Cause Potential

Correction

Shell Drain time too Optimize drain time.

long before stucco Train operators or adjust
application robot program

Shell Rainfall sander too Raise pattern in relation

high above pattern to sand fall

Shell Non-uniform sand Maintain or adjust equipment

delivery from rain
rainfall equipment

Shell Improper air flow Reduce air flow as needed,

in fluid bed keep bed clean. Maintain
sufficient flow to avoid having
to force patterns into bed

Foundry High ferrostatic Reduce the height of the

pressure mold. Reduce the vacuum
level. Reduce the spinning
speed (centrifugal casting)

Foundry Casting cooling Speed up casting cooling,

rate too slow insure cast molds are not too
close together. If penetration
localized to hot spots, improve
radiant heat loss by length-
ening gates or increasing the
spacing between adjacent
parts

Foundry Oxidized metal Improve melting and casting

process to prevent oxidation
of the melt

Foundry Metal temperature Reduce metal temperature

too hot

December 2017 Penetration 41

Pinholes An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Gases are absorbed in
metal during melting. If
the gas level in the melt
exceeds the solid state
solubility limit, bubbles
are formed during solidi-
fication. The gases most
responsible for this defect
are hydrogen and nitrogen.

Alternate Mechanism
Chemically combined
water in the mold is
released by the increase
in mold temperature
during casting.
Area Possible Potential
Cause Correction
Description
Defect Type
Negative Shell Chemically combined Dry the molds completely
water in the mold after autoclave dewaxing.
Appearance released during Increase the mold preheat
1/8” or less casting temperature.

Size
1/8” or less Foundry High nitrogen, Use more virgin metal or
oxygen or hydrogen purchase metal with lower
Typical Location level in the melt gas content
Dispersed throughout the
casting but may be more
severe in areas that are Foundry Dirty, wet or Metal should be clean, dry
last to freeze rusty metal and free from rust and oils

Similar to
Gas, Slag, Incomplete Foundry Wet ladles or Insure complete heating and
Burn-out pouring spouts dry out of furnace pour spouts
and ladles
Aliases
Metallurgical gas
Foundry Incomplete Confirm degassing additions
Method for defect degassing are correct
determination
Pinhole defects are
typically smaller with a Foundry High nitrogen, Reduce the casting
higher frequency than gas, oxygen or hydrogen temperature or time the
slag or incomplete burn- level absorption in metal is molten. Use
out. This defect is more the melt a protective or inert
common in plain carbon atmosphere around melt
and low alloy steels than
in higher alloy steels.

December 2017 Pinholes 42

Pitting An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Oxygen reacts with chrome in the Area Possible Potential
metal immediately after casting Cause Correction

Description Foundry Surface oxidation Ensure reducing or inert

of high chrome-iron conditions immediately after
Defect Type
alloys casting. Cover the molds after
Negative
casting. Use carbonaceous
Appearance materials in or around the
A multiplicity of dark colored mold. Cool in vacuum or
shallow depressions covering a protective or inert atmosphere
large portion of the casting

Special Circumstances Foundry Lack of carbona- Reduce mold burnout time or

Can only occur in high chrome ceous material in add additional carbon layers
alloys such as 400 series and mold during shell building
PH stainless steels

Typical Location Foundry Casting cooling Increase casting

Thick, slow to cool sections rate too slow cooling rate

Similar to
Gas, Incomplete Burn-out, Slag

Aliases
Chrome Oxide Pitting, Fusion
Spot, Measles

Method for defect

determination
Alloy, number of defect sites,
depth of defect

December 2017 Pitting 43

Prime Coat Lift An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During shell building, the primary Area Possible Potential
coat cracks and lifts off the pattern. Cause Correction
Subsequent slurry layers pene-
trate and fill the gap between the
pattern and the primary coat. This Wax Wax pattern Ensure the wax pattern has
defect is a close cousin to buckle temperature not stabilized in temperature
stable before applying shell layers

Description Shell Poor adhesion of Increase the etch strength

the prime coat to or etch time. Reduce the
Defect Type
the wax pattern time from etch to 1st layer
Positive
application
Appearance
Island of surplus metal often as- Shell Large temperature Increase the room humidity
sociated with flash at the casting drop when applying
edge. The edge of the defect has 2nd layer
the appearance of a coastline
Shell Large temperature Maintain +/- 3 F in the
Typical Location variation during dipping and drying area
Sharp corners adjacent to flat or prime coat drying
featureless surfaces
Shell Drying too long Shorten the dry time
Similar to
Buckle Shell Drying too fast (large Increase the room humidity
pattern shrinkage) or reduce airflow
Aliases
Primary coat buckle, investment Shell Primary coat binder Test the primary coat binder
penetration is gelled to determine if it is gelled

Method for defect Shell Uneven primary Modify the draining technique
determination coating thickness to produce a more uniform
With prime coat lift, the shell also giving rise to variable slurry coverage
fractures, allowing the backup rates of drying
layers to fill the gap between the
primary layer and the wax pattern. Shell Slurry dry out on Shorten the draining time,
When a shell buckles, it only sharp edges increase the humidity in the
separates from the pattern. shell dipping area

Shell Poor adhesion and Green strength additives in

elasticity properties the primary slurry becoming
of the primary slurry unstable or ineffective

December 2017 Prime Coat Lift 44

Rat-tailing An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
This defect is a marriage of pitting Area Possible Potential
and finning defects. Rat-tailing Cause Correction
is the selective oxidation of the
metal surface through cracks or
micro-cracks in the shell. Most of Other (Set-up ) Lack of stress raisers Break-up large flat surfaces
the cracks are large enough to on the cast surfaces on the casting with “hatching”
be filled with metal during pouring or in the primary coat or small ribs which can
and will produce positive metal refractories subsequently be ground off
fins. Very fine micro-cracks are too
small to allow metal to enter, but
will allow air (oxygen) to reach the Shell Large temperature Maintain +/- 3F in the drying
hot casting surface. variation during area
prime coat drying

Description
Shell Drying too fast (large Casting cooling rate too slow.
Defect Type pattern shrinkage) Increase dipping and drying
Negative with the possibility of room humidity, reduce air flow
positive finning

Appearance Shell Mismatch in ex- Use slurry and stucco

Shallow rounded threadlike fis- pansion coefficient refractories with similar
sures typically in a radial pattern between prime and thermal expansion rates
backup coats
Aliases
Mud cracks, drying cracks, oxida-
tion crazing, rivering Shell Drying too long Reduce dry time. cooling
rate too slow
Method for defect
determination
Thin, negative defect typically Shell Low prime coat Check binder healthy/stability
found in high chrome alloys strength through pH, conductivity and/
or gel test

Shell Low prime coat Increase refractory solids

strength

continued on next page

December 2017 Rattailing 45

Rat-tailing An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page

Area Cause Potential

Correction

Shell Poor adhesion and Green strength additives in

elasticity properties the primary slurry becoming
of the primary slurry unstable or ineffective

Shell Uneven shell build Evaluate dipping/draining

on prime coat(s) sequence to ensure uniform
draining and/or shell build

Shell Permeability of shell Compare permeability of

is too high shell against previous data. If
changed, evaluate potential
causes for increase

Foundry Oxygen level too Ensure reducing or inert

high during casting conditions immediately after
cooling casting. Cover the molds after
casting. Use carbonaceous
materials in or around the
mold. Cool in vacuum or
protective atmosphere

Foundry Oxygen level too Casting speed cooling

high during casting. rate too slow
Casting cooling rate
too slow

Foundry High shell tempera- Explore potential ways

ture and excessive to reduce shell pre-heat
time in oven temperature or time

December 2017 Rat-tailing 46

Shot Defect An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During casting, droplets of met- Area Possible Potential
al detach or are separated from Cause Correction
the pouring stream by excessive
turbulence, mold design, or metal
pouring height. The metal droplet Wax Cold wax at Wax cold shot can occur
becomes either cooler in tempera- nozzle tip in the wax pattern and be
ture or coated with a tenacious duplicated through the shell-
oxide film and retains this identity ing process, thereby resulting
as part of the cast metal. in a similar-looking metal
defect. (Ensure nozzle tip
temperature is adequate to
Description keep wax from solidifying).
Defect Type
Negative Other (Mold Bad mold design Mold design should promote
design) non-turbulent metal flow
Appearance
These are closely related to oxide
fold defects but are typically Foundry Bad pouring Avoid metal splashing during
circular in form rather than linear practice pouring
Size
Can be small up to an inch Foundry Bad pouring Reducing the distance
or more in diameter practice between the crucible and
the mold to be poured to
Typical Location minimum, thereby reducing
Generally located on the the chance for splashing
surface of the casting

Similar to Foundry Pouring Employ use of a reticulated

Wax flow lines (See Atlas of Wax practice foam filter to achieve a
Pattern Defects) laminar flow
Aliases
Oxidized droplet Foundry Pouring Formation of a well in the
practice mold to allow the metal to
Method for defect collect and then flow into the
determination mold parts
Visual or Fluorescent Penetrant
Inspection

December 2017 Shot Defect 47

Shrink - Gate An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
The molten alloy shrinks as it Area Possible Potential
solidifies. Inadequate feed metal Cause Correction
from the gating system is available
to prevent a cavity from forming.
Other (Gating Gates are too small Increase height of mold to
design) or too long increase ferrostatic pressure
Description or the gate modulus, consider
tapering the gate
Defect Type
Negative
Other (Casting Low metal pressure Insulate, hot top or use
Appearance design) exothermic material to
Internal irregular cavity exhibiting prevent the pour cup from
an open or porous coarsely crys- freezing too early
talline or dendritic structure usually
exposed upon removal of the gate.
This defect is frequently discov- Foundry Runner system Use selective insulation
ered by caustic salt bleed out from freezing too early to promote progressive
the cavity solidification
Typical Location
Center of gates Foundry Gates are too Increase height of mold to
small or too long increase ferrostatic pressure
Similar to or the gate modulus, consider
Shrink - Surface, Shrink - Internal tapering the gate
Method for defect
determination
Visual inspection,
Penetrant Inspection

December 2017 Shrink - Gate 48

Shrink - Internal An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Molten alloys shrink as they solidi- Area Possible Potential
fy. As solidification progresses Cause Correction
and the solid to liquid fraction
increases, it becomes more diffi-
cult for liquid feed metal to reach Other (Mold Inadequate or Ensure adequate feeding
the solidification front. Shrinkage design) incorrect feeding of the area concerned to
occurs between dendritic arms. promote progressive
In larger defects, inadequate feed solidification
metal is provided to isolated hot
spots in the casting.
Other (Mold Incorrect Modify the casting design
design) solidification rate to promote progressive
Description solidification
Defect Type
Negative Other (Mold Vacuum in blind riser Ensure the v-notch in the
design) riser prevents a vacuum
Appearance from forming
Internal irregular cavities ranging
from small dispersed or linear
type cavities up to large cavities Other (Mold Blind riser too small Ensure the riser has
design) adequate metal volume
Special Circumstances
The occurrence and severity
of this defect may be alloy
dependent. Alloys with longer Other (Mold Low ferrostatic Increase the height of the
(larger) freezing ranges are design) head pressure mold. Use centrifugal force
more prone to this defect. to increase head pressure
Size
Shrinkage cavities can range in Other (Mold Incorrect Examine the molding
size from very small (requiring design) solidification rate technique. Modify the
magnification) to very large casting design to promote
progressive solidification.
Typical Location
Casting centerline between gates
or in isolated heavy sections. Foundry Incorrect casting Establish the correct casting
Areas with sharp internal corners conditions conditions
continued on next page
continued on next page

December 2017 Shrink - Internal 49

Shrink - Internal An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

continued from previous page continued from previous page

Similar to Area Cause Potential

Shrink - Gate, Shrink - Surface Correction
Aliases
Dendritic shrink, micro-shrink Foundry Incorrect Use insulation on specific
solidification rate areas of the mold to increase
Method for defect thermal gradient
determination
Because this is a subsurface
defect, if may not be discovered Foundry Low metal Increasing the metal
without x-ray examination, temperature temperature can improve
machining or sectioning the feeding distance
through the casting.

Foundry Low mold Increasing the mold

temperature temperature can improve
feeding distance

Foundry Vacuum created in Ensure the metal in the

the feeding system head (pour cup) remains
during solidification liquid longer than the casting.
Insulate or use exothermic
material on the pour cup
and risers

Foundry Dissolved gas level Use a heat makeup and

too high melting practice that produce
low dissolved gases

Other (Casting Inadequate or Use hot isostatic pressing

Processing) incorrect feeding (HIP) to close up the defects.
Cap weld all surface connect-
ed shrinkage prior to HIP.

December 2017 Shrink - Internal 50

Shrink - Surface An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
The molten alloy shrinks as it Area Possible Potential
solidifies. Sharp inside corners Cause Correction
thermally saturate the shell and
cool slower than the surrounding
area. Unfavorable thermal geom- Wax Fillet too small Increase fillet size
etry resulting in an isolated liquid
metal heat center. The shrinkage
of the internal section, cut off from Wax Inadequate feeding. Ensure adequate feeding.
supplies of further liquid feed met- Castings too close Improve pattern spacing and
al, causes atmospheric pressure to together – localized avoid refractory build-up in
collapse the adjacent skin where mold hot spots completing molds.
the metal is still sufficiently hot
and weak to do so.
Foundry Metal pouring Consider reducing
temperature too hot temperature

Description
Defect Type Foundry Mold temperature Consider reducing
Negative too hot temperature

Appearance
Surface depression or irregular Other (Metal/ Differences in radiant Review the assembled mold.
cavities exhibiting an open or Mold design cooling. Is the defect related to a
porous or coarsely crystalline specific position on the mold?
structure sometimes exhibiting
a dendritic appearance. These
defects are frequently discovered Other (Casting Fillet too small Increase fillet size
by caustic salt bleeding out of the design)
cavity after the leaching.

Typical Location Other (Mold Inadequate feeding. Ensure adequate feeding.

Fillets, sharp intersections. or slow design) Castings too close Improve pattern spacing and
and are commonly found at cor- together – localized avoid refractory build-up in
ners of castings near the ingate mold hot spots completing molds.
Similar to
Shrink - Gate, Shrink - Internal

Aliases
Hot spot porosity

Method for defect determination

Visual and Penetrant inspection
December 2017 Shrink - Surface 51
Sink An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
Heavy section of wax pattern Area Possible Potential
shrinks as it cools. The vacuum Cause Correction
created during cooling causes the
surface to cavitate or dish inward.
Other (Wax Tool Feed runner freezing Increase size or add runner
Design) prematurely to affected section
Description
Defect Type
Negative Wax Incorrect wax Reduce wax temperature,
injection parameters increase injection time,
Appearance increase injection pressure
Smooth, dished surface
depression
Wax Missing wax chill Create wax chill to reduce
Size the volume of injected wax
varies in the area of sink/cavitation
Typical Location
Heavy sections or thick flat Wax Hot wax chill Allow time for the wax chill
surfaces to cool to room temperature
before inserting in the wax
Similar to
injection die
Wax Shrink (See Atlas of Wax
Pattern Defects)

Aliases
Cavitation

Method for defect

determination
Visual inspection, overlay of
straight edge or customary
dimensional inspection tools

December 2017 Sink 52

Slag An Investment Casting Institute
Publication

Mechanism
During melting or casting, slag is Area Possible Potential
produced as a function of time, Cause Correction
temperature and availability of ox-
ygen. This slag is mixed with the
metal during pouring and, being Shell Metal / mold reaction Cast at the lowest possible
less dense than the metal, floats to mold and metal temperature.
the top surface of the casting. Increase the refractoriness
of the primary coat

Description
Foundry Crucible / metal Employ correct crucible
Defect Type reaction and melting practice
Negative

Appearance Foundry Oxidation of furnace Change to more refractory

A series of smooth-walled symmet- lining or ladle material
rical surface cavities with or with-
out traces of dark glassy included
material Foundry Poor or improper Ensure adequate slag
deslagging practice removal at lowest possible
Typical Location temperature. Allow time
Top surface of the casting as ori- for slag in melt to float out.
ented at casting Remove slag. Use slag
coagulants if necessary to
Similar to improve removal.
Gas, Pinholes, Incomplete
Burn-out
Foundry Excessive superheat Minimize the time the metal
Method for defect determination temperature and or is at temperature
It is difficult to visually distinguish holding times
between slag and gas defects. The
defect shapes are similar as is the
location. Inspection of the defect Foundry Oxidation of metal Consider protecting the
under magnification may reveal during melting melt using inert gas
residual slag.

Foundry Silicates formed Modify the deoxidation

during deoxidation practice

continued on next page

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continued from previous page

Area Cause Potential

Correction

Foundry Slag from the ladle Use ceramic or cloth filter

entering the mold

Foundry Slag from ladle Consider using a bottom pour

entering the mold (teapot) ladle

Foundry Turbulent pouring Minimize the distance from

conditions - metal the furnace / ladle to the mold
poured from great
height above molds

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Slurry Leakage An Investment Casting Institute
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Mechanism
Liquid ceramic slurry enters the Area Possible Potential
mold and dries creating a positive Cause Correction
in the mold that is represented as
a negative in the casting
Shell Damage to coating Awareness/Handling
creates separation
Description from wax passage
Defect Type for slurry entry
Negative

Appearance Other (Mold Inadvertent spill Awareness/Cleanliness

Shallow, irregular depression Preparation)
in casting surface

Size
varies

Typical Location
Near wax vent or in mold crack

Method for defect

determination
Visual inspection

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Mechanism
The layer to layer bond in the shell Area Possible Potential
construction is not strong enough Cause Correction
and the ceramic fractures off the
mold surface during dewaxing,
mold preheating or casting and Shell Excessive 1st layer Fully drain slurry coats
falls into the mold cavity slurry that results
in weak inter layer
shell construction
Description
Defect Type Shell Incomplete 1st layer Extend prime slurry
Positive (with corresponding dry that results in dry time
negative) weak inter layer
shell construction
Appearance
Sharp or irregular positive defect
normally accompanied by a Shell Excessive pre-wet Fully drain pre-wet
negative defect (inclusion) from that results in weak to matte finish
the ceramic that has “spalled” inter layer shell
off and appears somewhere else construction
on the casting.

Typical Location Shell Prime coat stucco Skim fines/dust from the
Detailed areas such as depressed too fine that results fluid bed or screen out,
lettering, score lines, teeth, tight in weak inter layer use coarser stucco
slots, fillets or sharp corners shell construction
Similar to
Penetration (positive), Shell Low primary slurry Check SiO2 level of
Non-Metallic Inclusions (negative) binder level primary slurry
Aliases
Spalling, prime coat spall, Shell Prime slurry binder Conduct gel test on
pre-coat spall, undercuts gelling primary slurry binder
Method for defect
determination
Visual Inspection continued on next page

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Area Cause Potential

Correction

Shell Poor stucco Insure the slurry is not

adhesion drying before stucco,
eliminate stucco rub off,
blow off loose stucco

Shell Prime coat slurry Reduce prime coat viscosity

too thick

Shell Etch too strong Reduce etch time, etch

strength or increase time from
etch to 1st layer application

Shell Thermal expansion Use refractories that have

mismatch similar thermal expansion
characteristics

December 2017 Spall 57

Stuck Shot An Investment Casting Institute
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Mechanism
Shot wedged into lettering
or detailed areas during shot
blasting operation

Description
Defect Type
Positive

Appearance
Smooth - round, oval, or
hemispherical

Special Circumstances
Can only occur in areas of
the casting that shot can get
wedged into

Size
1/8” or less

Typical Location
Highly detailed areas such as
depressed lettering or score lines Area Possible Potential
Similar to Cause Correction
Wax bubbles (See Atlas of
Wax Pattern Defects), Bubbles
Other Shot is the wrong Change the shot size
Aliases (Shot blast) size for the part
Positive metal

Method for defect

determination
Stuck shot can be pried out. Can
also section, mount and polish
through defect. Stuck shot will not
be attached to the casting – only
wedged in place

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Wax Drip An Investment Casting Institute
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Mechanism
Molten Wax or sticky wax Area Possible Potential
drips onto the pattern during Cause Correction
gating assembly process
Wax Wax melting iron / Reduce temperature
torch too hot
Description
Defect Type Wax Sticky wax too hot Reduce to correct
Positive temperature
Appearance
Smooth. Spherical or Wax Poor gating Use a shield (aluminum foil)
oval shaped sometimes technique to prevent drips from getting
accompanied with a tail. on the pattern
Typical Location
Exposed surface during
gating

Aliases
Wax Splatter

Method for defect

determination
visual

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 An Investment Casting Institute
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List of Defects
Bubbles 8
Buckle 9
Bulge 11
Chill Breakout *
Cold Shut 13
Core Breakage 14 Aliases
Crack 15
Bubbles Leaker Prime Coat Lift
Cut-off Damage 17
BBs Runout Primary coat buckle
Delamination 18 Air bubble Short pour Investment penetra-
Distortion 20 tion
Etch Spotting 22 Bulge Non-metallic
Excess Metal 23 Bulging Inclusions Rat Tailing
Finning 25 Bulging cracking Dirt Mud cracks
Bulging overheating Ash Drying cracks
Gas 27
Shell bulge Oxidation crazing
Grinding Damage 29 Non Fill Rivering
Handling Damage 30 Cold Shut Misrun
Hot Tear 31 Cold shot Cold shut Shot Defect
Incomplete Burn-out 33 Short fill Oxidized droplet
Overblast
Leaker 34 Delamination Blasting Damage Shrink – Internal
Non Fill 35 Scabbing Micro-shrink
Non-Metallic Inclusion 36 Reverse buckle Oxides Dendritic shrink
Misrun
Overblast 38
Etch Spotting Cold shut Shrink – Surface
Oxide 39 Fisheyes Oxide folds Hot spot porosity
Penetration 40 Dross
Pinholes 42 Excess Metal Oxide film Sink
Pitting 43 Metal breakthrough Cavitation
Prime Coat Lift 44 Metal penetration Penetration
Core collapse Burn-in Spall
Rat-tailing 45 Burn-on Spalling
Shot Defect 47 Finning Pimpling Prime coat spall
Shrink - Gate 48 Flash Stucco penetration Pre-coat spall
Shrink - Internal 49 Shell crack Rough surface Undercuts
Shrink - Surface 51 Mold crack
Pinholes Stuck Shot
Sink 52 Gas Positive metal
Metallurgical gas
Slag 53 Entrapped air
Slurry Leakage 55 Porosity Pitting Wax Drip
Chrome oxide pitting Wax Splatter
Spall 56
Handling Damage Fusion spot
Stuck Shot 58 Knockout Damage
Wax Bubbles * Measles
Wax Crack * Hot Tear
Wax in Die * Shrinkage crack
Wax Drip 59
Wax Flash *
Wax Flowlines *
Wax Knitlines *
Wax Non Fill *
Wax Splatter *

*See ICI Atlas of Wax Pattern Defects

The Wax Atlas can be accessed at www.investmentcasting.org or ordered by contacting (201) 573-9770

December 2017 List of Defects 60

 An Investment Casting Institute
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Other ICI publications

Atlas of Wax Pattern Defects, REVISED 2ND Edition Investment Casting 101 Booklet
A listing of probable cause effect relationships with Investment Casting 101 is a compact booklet provid-
the variables relating to the wax pattern area. Such ing a brief look at the basics of the investment casting
problems as sink; cavitation; shrink; pattern crack; process and how it works, an overview of the benefits
chill damage; air bubbles; flash; pattern distortion are of investment casting, why and when it makes sense,
examined. This atlas can be used as a new learning and dozens of pictures illustrating various applications.
tool, a stimulating refresher for the more experienced This is a great marketing tool priced low enough that in-
caster, or as a tool for brain-storming a discovered vestment casters can send it or give to all their potential
defect. 2003, Investment Casting Institute. customers.

Ceramics Testing Guidebook Investment Casting Case Studies

Prepared by the Ceramics Committee of the Investment and Applications Published 2014 - Set of 20
Casting Institute this book contains technical information The Investment Casting Case Studies and Applications
on refractories and chemical materials used in invest- supplement, which appeared in the August issue of
ment casting, as well as testing procedures for refractory INCAST, is now available as a marketing tool to Invest-
materials, colloidal silica binders, ethyl silicate binders ment Casters. The 28-page, full-color booklet illustrates
and miscellaneous chemicals. Also includes testing scores of investment casting applications in aerospace,
procedures for solid mold materials, slurries and shells, industrial gas turbine, medical, automotive, military,
ceramic cores and shapes. This and the ceramic video sports/recreation and commercial/industrial markets.
training series are a must for every investment casting Many photos are accompanied by case studies which
operation! Revised 2005. explain why investment casting was the preferred manu-
facturing process. The new publication clearly shows the
Finishing Operations flexibility and benefits of the investment casting process
Finishing Operations covers robotic deburring and and since company names are not used, it is the pro-
polishing, abrasive cut-off wheels, economics of friction cess rather than the individual caster which is promoted.
sawing investment castings, rapid grinding gate removal
abrasive sandblasting media, the basics of blast Investment Casting Handbook
cleaning, gate and sprue removal with belts, final part Put this resource in the hands of your potential custom-
finishing, air grinding tools, portable wheels and ers! An excellent tool for designers, buyers and users
mounted points, carbide burs, and hot straightening of investment castings, as well as for employees in the
of investment casting. 1989, Investment Casting investment casting foundry. Contains chapters on the
Institute. following: 1). The Investment Casting Process; 2). How
to Buy Investment Castings; 3). Dimensions, Tolerances,
Fundamentals of SPC and Surface Texture; 4). Designs and Applications of
Details principles of process and cost improvement, Investment Casting; 5). Quality, Evaluation, Inspection
data collection, statistics and methodology while and Control; 6). Alloy Selection. Plus numerous case
demonstrating data plotting and interpretation. Many studies, examples and dozens of full-color illustrations.
case studies and examples. A top notch presentation 1997, Investment Casting Institute, 123 pp., illus.
by the Investment Casting Institute.
Metal Standards and Specifications
How to Avoid Shell Cracking: A Symposium for Investment Castings
Based on an Investment Casting Institute training Metal Standards and Specifications for Investment
symposium, this book contains 13 papers from experts Castings defines a typical level of metal quality by
throughout the industry with practical information on how the industry as a service to purchasers of investment
to avoid shell cracking. Papers cover the gamut: design, castings who do not cite detailed specifications. This
wax properties, raw materials, slurry control, environ- includes a list of the most common investment casting
mental conditions in drying, autoclave, dewaxing, and alloys, chemistries and typical mechanical properties.
handling. 1989, Investment Casting Institute. A revision of the old standby Metal Quality Standards,
the new book is intended as a handy reference guide
not only for foundries, but also for end users.

For more information about ICI’s other publications please visit: www.investmentcasting.org.

December 2017 List of Defects 61