Linear Transformations

6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
6.1
 6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
 A function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:
T : V 
mapping
W, V ,W : vector spaces
V: the domain of T W: the codomain of T

 Image of v under T :
If v is a vector in V and w is a vector in W such that
T ( v)  w,
then w is called the image of v under T
(For each v, there is only one w)

 The range of T :
The set of all images of vectors in V (see the figure on the
next slide)
6.2
 The preimage of w:
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w
(For each w, v may not be unique)
 The graphical representations of the domain, codomain, and range

※ For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T

is the orthogonal projection of any
vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-plane, i.e.
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
(we will use the above example many
times to explain abstract notions)
※ Then the domain is R3, the codomain
is R3, and the range is xy-plane (a
subspace of the codomian R3)
※ (2, 1, 0) is the image of (2, 1, 3)
※ The preimage of (2, 1, 0) is (2, 1, s),
where s is any real number 6.3
 Ex 1: A function from R2 into R2
T : R2  R2 v  (v1 , v2 )  R 2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2) (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a) v  (1, 2)
 T ( v )  T (1, 2)  (1  2,  1  2(2))  (3, 3)
(b) T ( v)  w  (1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )  (1, 11)
 v1  v2  1
v1  2v2  11
 v1  3, v2  4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11)
6.4
 Linear Transformation :

V ,W： vector spaces

T : V  W： A linear transformation of V into W if the
following two properties are true
(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R

6.5
 Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving
(because the same result occurs whether the operations of addition
and scalar multiplication are performed before or after the linear
transformation is applied)

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator

6.6
 Ex 2: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2

T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )

Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1, v2 ) : vector in R2 , c : any real number
(1) Vector addition :
u  v  (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )

T (u  v)  T (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u2 , u1  2u2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v)
6.7
(2) Scalar multiplica tion
cu  c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu1 , cu 2 )  (cu1  cu 2 , cu1  2cu 2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation

6.8
 Ex 3: Functions that are not linear transformations
(a) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )
(f(x) = sin x is not a linear transformation)
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 )
   

(b) f ( x)  x2
( x1  x2 )2  x12  x22
(f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation)
(1  2)2  12  22
(c) f ( x)  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) (f(x) = x+1 is not a linear transformation,
although it is a linear function)
In fact, f (cx)  cf ( x) 6.9
 Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph

is a line

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication

6.10
 Zero transformation:
T :V W T ( v)  0, v V
 Identity transformation:
T :V  V T ( v)  v, v V
 Theorem 6.1: Properties of linear transformations
T : V  W , u, v V
(1)T (0)  0 (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=0)
(2) T (v)  T ( v) (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=-1)
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) (T(u+(-v))=T(u)+T(-v) and property (2))
(4) If v  c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn ,
then T ( v)  T (c1v1  c2v2    cn vn )
 c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )    cnT (vn )
(Iteratively using T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v)) 6.11
 Ex 4: Linear transformations and bases
Let T : R3  R3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, -2)
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
 According to the fourth property on the previous slide that 
 
 T (c1v1  c2v2   cn vn )  c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )   cnT (vn ) 

T (2,3,2)  2T (1,0,0)  3T (0,1,0)  2T (0,0,1)

 2(2,1,4)  3(1,5,2)  2T (0,3,1)
 (7,7,0) 6.12
 Ex 5: A linear transformation defined by a matrix
3 0
   v1 
The function T : R  R is defined as T ( v)  Av  2
2 3
1  
  v2 
  1  2 
(a) Find T ( v), where v  (2, 1)
(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R 2 into R 3
Sol:
(a) v  (2, 1) R 2 vector R 3 vector

3 0 6 
 
2
T ( v)  Av   2 1      3
   1  
  1  2 0 
T (2,1)  (6,3,0)
(b) T (u  v)  A(u  v)  Au  Av  T (u)  T ( v) (vector addition)

T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

6.13
 Theorem 6.2: The linear transformation defined by a matrix
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v)  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm

 Note: R n vector R m vector

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
         
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amn vn 

T ( v)  Av T : Rn 
 R m
※ If T(v) can represented by Av, then T is a linear transformation
※ If the size of A is m×n, then the domain of T is Rn and the
codomain of T is Rm 6.14
 Ex 7: Rotation in the plane
Show that the L.T. T : R2  R2 given by the matrix

cos  sin  
A
 sin  cos 
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle 
Sol:
v  ( x, y)  (r cos  , r sin  ) plane, it can be represented by a set of (r, α))
(Polar coordinates: for every point on the xy-

r：the length of v (  x 2  y 2 ) T(v)

：the angle from the positive v

x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v
6.15
 cos  sin    x  cos  sin   r cos 
T ( v)  Av      
 sin  cos   y   sin  cos   r sin  
r cos cos  r sin  sin  

r sin  cos  r cos sin   according to the addition
formula of trigonometric
r cos(   )
 identities
 r sin(   ) 
r：remain the same, that means the length of T(v) equals the
length of v
 +：the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector T(v)
Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle 
6.16
 Ex 8: A projection in R3
The linear transformation T : R3  R3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3

1 0 0   x   x 
If v is ( x, y, z ), Av  0 1 0   y    y 
0 0 0  z   0 

※ In other words, T maps every vector in R3

to its orthogonal projection in the xy-plane,
as shown in the right figure 6.17
Keywords in Section 6.1:
 function
 domain
 codomain
 image of v under T
 range of T
 preimage of w
 linear transformation
 linear operator
 zero transformation
 identity transformation

6.18
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
 Kernel of a linear transformation T :
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation. Then the set of
all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v)  0 is called the kernel
of T and is denoted by ker(T)
ker(T )  {v | T ( v)  0, v V }

※ For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T is the

orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z)
onto the xy-plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
※ Then the kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number, i.e.
ker(T )  {(0,0, s) | s is a real number}

6.19
 Ex 2: The kernel of the zero and identity transformations

(a) If T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V  W ), then

ker(T )  V

(b) If T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V  V ), then

ker(T )  {0}

6.20
 Ex 5: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation
 x1 
 1 1 2   
T (x)  Ax     x2 (T : R 3
 R 2
)
 1 2 3   x 
 3
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0, 0), and ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  R3}

T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0)
 x1 
 1  1  2    0 
 1 2  x2   
3    0 
 x3 

6.21
  1 1 2 0  G.-J. E. 1 0 1 0 
 1 2 3 0   0 1 1 0 
   
 x1   t   1 
  x2    t   t  1
     
 x3   t   1 

 ker(T )  {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number}

 span{(1,1,1)}

6.22
 Theorem 6.3: The kernel is a subspace of V
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V  W is a
subspace of the domain V
Pf:
T (0)  0 (by Theorem 6.1) ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V
Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . Then
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  0  0  0 (u  ker(T ), v  ker(T )  u  v  ker(T ))
T is a linear transformation
T (cu)  cT (u)  c0  0 (u  ker(T )  cu  ker(T ))

Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V (according to Theorem 4.5

that a nonempty subset of V is a subspace of V if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication)

6.23
 Ex 6: Finding a basis for the kernel
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1 2 0 1  1
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1
 
0 0 0 2 8

Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5

Sol:
To find ker(T) means to find all x satisfying T(x) = Ax = 0.
Thus we need to form the augmented matrix  A 0 first

6.24
 A 0 
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0  G.-J. E. 0 1 1 0 2 0 
 
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 0
   
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
s t
 x1   2s  t   2  1 
 x   s  2t  1 2
 2      
x   x3    s   s  1   t  0 
       
x
 4  4t   0   4
 x5   t   0   1 

B  (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0,  4, 1): one basis for the kernel of T

6.25
 Corollary to Theorem 6.3:
Let T : R n  R m be the linear fransformation given by T (x)  Ax.
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax  0
T (x)  Ax (a linear transformation T : R n  R m )
 ker(T )  NS ( A)  x | Ax  0, x  R n  (subspace of R n )

※ The kernel of T equals the nullspace of A (which is defined

in Theorem 4.16 on p.239) and these two are both subspaces
of Rn )
※ So, the kernel of T is sometimes called the nullspace of T

6.26
 Range of a linear transformation T :
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation. Then the set of all
vectors w in W that are images of any vector s in V is called the
range of T and is denoted by range (T )
range (T )  {T ( v) | v V }

※ For the orthogonal projection of

any vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-
plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
※ The domain is V=R3, the codomain
is W=R3, and the range is xy-plane
(a subspace of the codomian R3)
※ Since T(0, 0, s) = (0, 0, 0) = 0, the
kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number
6.27
 Theorem 6.4: The range of T is a subspace of W
The range of a linear transformation T : V  W is a subspace of W
Pf:
T (0)  0 (Theorem 6.1)
 range (T ) is a nonempty subset of W

Since T (u) and T ( v) are vectors in range(T ), and we have

because u  v V
 Range of T is closed under vector addition 
T (u)  T ( v)  T (u  v)  range (T )  
 because T (u), T ( v), T (u  v)  range(T ) 
T is a linear transformation
cT (u)  T (cu)  range (T )  Range of T is closed under scalar multi-



 plication because T (u) and T (cu)  range(T ) 
because cu V
Thus, range(T ) is a subspace of W (according to Theorem 4.5
that a nonempty subset of W is a subspace of W if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication) 6.28
 Notes:
T : V  W is a linear transformation
(1) ker(T ) is subspace of V (Theorem 6.3)
(2) range (T ) is subspace of W (Theorem 6.4)

6.29
 Corollary to Theorem 6.4:
Let T : R n  R m be the linear transformation given by T (x)  Ax.
The range of T is equal to the column space of A, i.e. range (T )  CS ( A)
(1) According to the definition of the range of T(x) = Ax, we know that the
range of T consists of all vectors b satisfying Ax=b, which is equivalent to
find all vectors b such that the system Ax=b is consistent
(2) Ax=b can be rewritten as
 a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
Ax  x1  21   x2  22    xn  2 n   b
     
     
 am1   am 2   amn 
Therefore, the system Ax=b is consistent iff we can find (x1, x2,…, xn)
such that b is a linear combination of the column vectors of A, i.e. b  CS ( A)
Thus, we can conclude that the range consists of all vectors b, which is a linear
combination of the column vectors of A or said b  CS ( A) . So, the column space
of the matrix A is the same as the range of T, i.e. range(T) = CS(A) 6.30
 Use our example to illustrate the corollary to Theorem 6.4:
※ For the orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-
plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
※ According to the above analysis, we already knew that the range
of T is the xy-plane, i.e. range(T)={(x, y, 0)| x and y are real
numbers}
※ T can be defined by a matrix A as follows
1 0 0  1 0 0   x   x 
A  0 1 0 , such that 0 1 0  y    y 
    
0 0 0 0 0 0  z   0 
※ The column space of A is as follows, which is just the xy-plane

1  0  0  x1 
CS ( A)  x1 0  x2 1   x3 0    x2  , where x1 , x2  R
0 0 0  0  6.31
 Ex 7: Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation
Let T : R5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is R 5 and
1 2 0 1 1
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1
 
0 0 0 2 8

Find a basis for the range of T

Sol:
Since range(T) = CS(A), finding a basis for the range of T is
equivalent to fining a basis for the column space of A

6.32
 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0  G.-J. E. 0 1 1 0 2 
A  B
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
   
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5

 w1 , w2 , and w4 are indepdnent, so w1 , w2 , w4  can

form a basis for CS ( B)
Row operations will not affect the dependency among columns
 c1 , c2 , and c4 are indepdnent, and thus c1 , c2 , c4  is
a basis for CS ( A)
That is, (1, 2,  1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2) is a basis
for the range of T
6.33
  Rank of a linear transformation T:V→W :
rank(T )  the dimension of the range of T  dim(range(T ))
According to the corollary to Thm. 6.4, range(T) = CS(A), so dim(range(T)) = dim(CS(A))

 Nullity of a linear transformation T:V→W :

nullity(T )  the dimension of the kernel of T  dim(ker(T ))
According to the corollary to Thm. 6.3, ker(T) = NS(A), so dim(ker(T)) = dim(NS(A))

 Note:
If T : R n  R m is a linear transformation given by T (x)  Ax, then
rank(T )  dim(range(T ))  dim(CS ( A))  rank( A)
nullity(T )  dim(ker(T ))  dim( NS ( A))  nullity( A)
※ The dimension of the row (or column) space of a matrix A is called the rank of A
※ The dimension of the nullspace of A ( NS ( A)  {x | Ax  0}) is called the nullity
of A 6.34
 Theorem 6.5: Sum of rank and nullity
Let T: V →W be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional
vector space V (i.e. the dim(domain of T) is n) into a vector
space W. Then
rank(T )  nullity(T )  n
(i.e. dim(range of T )  dim(kernel of T )  dim(domain of T ))

※ You can image that the dim(domain of T)

should equals the dim(range of T)
originally
※ But some dimensions of the domain of T
is absorbed by the zero vector in W
※ So the dim(range of T) is smaller than
the dim(domain of T) by the number of
how many dimensions of the domain of
T are absorbed by the zero vector,
which is exactly the dim(kernel of T) 6.35
Pf:
Let T be represented by an m  n matrix A, and assume rank( A)  r
(1) rank(T )  dim(range of T )  dim(column space of A)  rank( A)  r
(2) nullity(T )  dim(kernel of T )  dim(null space of A)  n  r
 rank (T )  nullity(T )  r  (n  r )  n according to Thm. 4.17 where
rank(A) + nullity(A) = n

※ Here we only consider that T is represented by an m×n matrix A. In

the next section, we will prove that any linear transformation from an
n-dimensional space to an m-dimensional space can be represented
by m×n matrix

6.36
 Ex 8: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation
Find the rank and nullity of the linear transformation T : R 3  R 3
define by
1 0  2
A  0 1 1 
0 0 0 
Sol:
rank (T )  rank ( A)  2
nullity(T )  dim(domain of T )  rank (T )  3  2  1
※ The rank is determined by the number of leading 1’s, and the
nullity by the number of free variables (columns without leading
1’s)
6.37
 Ex 9: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation
Let T : R 5  R 7 be a linear transformation
(a) Find the dimension of the kernel of T if the dimension
of the range of T is 2
(b) Find the rank of T if the nullity of T is 4
(c) Find the rank of T if ker(T )  {0}
Sol:
(a) dim(domain of T )  n  5
dim(kernel of T )  n  dim(range of T )  5  2  3
(b) rank(T )  n  nullity(T )  5  4  1
(c) rank(T )  n  nullity(T )  5  0  5
6.38
 One-to-one:

A function T : V  W is called one-to-one if the preimage of

every w in the range consists of a single vector. This is equivalent
to saying that T is one-to-one iff for all u and v in V , T (u)  T ( v)
implies that u  v

one-to-one not one-to-one

6.39
 Theorem 6.6: One-to-one linear transformation
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation. Then
T is one-to-one iff ker(T )  {0}

Pf:
() Suppose T is one-to-one
Due to the fact
Then T ( v)  0 can have only one solution : v  0 that T(0) = 0 in
Thm. 6.1
i.e. ker(T )  {0}
() Suppose ker(T )={0} and T (u)=T (v)
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  0
T is a linear transformation, see Property 3 in Thm. 6.1
u  v  ker(T )  u  v  0  u  v
 T is one-to-one (because T (u)  T ( v) implies that u  v) 6.40
 Ex 10: One-to-one and not one-to-one linear transformation

(a) The linear transformation T : M mn  M nm given by T ( A)  AT

is one-to-one
because its kernel consists of only the m×n zero matrix

(b) The zero transformation T : R3  R3 is not one-to-one

because its kernel is all of R3

6.41
 Onto:
A function T : V  W is said to be onto if every element
in W has a preimage in V
(T is onto W when W is equal to the range of T)

 Theorem 6.7: Onto linear transformations

Let T: V → W be a linear transformation, where W is finite
dimensional. Then T is onto if and only if the rank of T is equal
to the dimension of W
rank (T )  dim(range of T )  dim(W )
The definition of The definition
the rank of a linear of onto linear
transformation transformations
6.42
 Theorem 6.8: One-to-one and onto linear transformations
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation with vector space V and W
both of dimension n. Then T is one-to-one if and only if it is onto
Pf:
() If T is one-to-one, then ker(T )  {0} and dim(ker(T ))  0
Thm.6.5
dim( range (T ))  n  dim(ker(T ))  n  dim(W )
According to the definition of dimension
Consequently, T is onto (on p.227) that if a vector space V
consists of the zero vector alone, the
dimension of V is defined as zero

() If T is onto, then dim(range of T )  dim(W )  n

Thm.6.5
dim(ker(T ))  n  dim( range of T )  n  n  0  ker(T )  {0}

Therefore, T is one-to-one 6.43

 Ex 11:
The linear transformation T : R n  R m is given by T (x)  Ax. Find the nullity
and rank of T and determine whether T is one-to-one, onto, or neither
1 2 0  1 2  1 2 0 
1 2 0 
(a) A  0 1 1  (b) A  0 1  (c) A    (d) A  0 1 1 
0 0 1  0 0  0 1 1
0 0 0
= dim(range
Sol: of T) If nullity(T) If rank(T) =
=dim(Rn) = # of = (1) – (2) = = dim(ker(T)) dim(Rm) =
=n leading 1’s dim(ker(T)) =0 m

dim(domain rank(T)
T:Rn→Rm nullity(T) 1-1 onto
of T) (1) (2)
(a) T:R3→R3 3 3 0 Yes Yes
(b) T:R2→R3 2 2 0 Yes No
(c) T:R3→R2 3 2 1 No Yes
(d) T:R3→R3 3 2 1 No No 6.44
 Isomorphism :
A linear transformation T : V  W that is one to one and onto
is called an isomorphism. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces
such that there exists an isomorphism fromV to W , then V and W
are said to be isomorphic to each other
 Theorem 6.9: Isomorphic spaces and dimension
Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic
if and only if they are of the same dimension
Pf:
() Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n
 There exists a L.T. T : V  W that is one to one and onto
T is one-to-one
 dim(ker(T ))  0 dim(V) = n

 dim( range of T )  dim(domain of T )  dim(ker(T ))  n  0  6.45

n
 T is onto
 dim( range of T )  dim(W )  n
Thus dim(V )  dim(W )  n

() Assume that V and W both have dimension n

Let B  v1 , v 2 , ,v n  be a basis of V and
B '  w1 , w 2 , ,w n  be a basis of W
Then an arbitrary vector in V can be represented as
v  c1 v1  c2 v 2    cn v n
and you can define a L.T. T : V  W as follows
w  T ( v)  c1w1  c2 w 2   cn w n (by defining T (v i )  w i )

6.46
Since B ' is a basis for V, {w1, w2,…wn} is linearly
independent, and the only solution for w=0 is c1=c2=…=cn=0
So with w=0, the corresponding v is 0, i.e., ker(T) = {0}
 T is one - to - one
By Theorem 6.5, we can derive that dim(range of T) =
dim(domain of T) – dim(ker(T)) = n –0 = n = dim(W)
 T is onto

Since this linear transformation is both one-to-one and onto,

then V and W are isomorphic

6.47
 Note
Theorem 6.9 tells us that every vector space with dimension
n is isomorphic to Rn

 Ex 12: (Isomorphic vector spaces)

The following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other
(a) R4  4 -space
(b) M 41  space of all 4 1 matrices
(c) M 22  space of all 2  2 matrices
(d) P3 ( x)  space of all polynomials of degree 3 or less
(e) V  {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , 0), xi are real numbers}(a subspace of R5 )
6.48
Keywords in Section 6.2:
 kernel of a linear transformation T
 range of a linear transformation T
 rank of a linear transformation T
 nullity of a linear transformation T
 one-to-one
 onto
 Isomorphism (one-to-one and onto)
 isomorphic space

6.49
 6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
 Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3→R3 :

(1) T ( x1, x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  x2  x3 ,  x1  3x2  2x3 ,3x2  4x3 )

 2 1 1  x1 
(2) T (x)  Ax   1 3 2   x2 
 0 3 4   x3 
 Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:
 It is simpler to write
 It is simpler to read
 It is more easily adapted for computer use

6.50
 Theorem 6.10: Standard matrix for a linear transformation
Let T : Rn  Rm be a linear trtansformation such that
 a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
T (e1 )   21  , T (e 2 )   22  , , T (e n )   2 n  ,
     
     
 m1 
a  am 2   amn 
where {e1 , e2 , , en } is a standard basis for R n . Then the m  n
matrix whose n columns correspond to T (ei ),
 a11 a12 a1n 
a a22 a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) T (e n )    21 ,
 
 
 am1 am 2 amn 
is such that 𝑇 𝐯 = 𝐴𝐯 for every 𝐯 in 𝑅𝑛, 𝐴 is called the
Standard matrix for T 6.51
Pf:
 v1  1  0  0 
v  0  1  0 
v   2   v1    v2     vn    v1e1  v2e 2   vne n
       
       
 n
v  
0 0  1 
T is a linear transformation  T ( v)  T (v1e1  v2e2   vnen )
 T (v1e1 )  T (v2e2 )   T (vnen )
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )   vnT (en )
If A  T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) T (e n )  , then
 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
          
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amn vn  6.52
  a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
 v1  21   v2  22    vn  2 n 
     
     
 am1   am 2   amn 
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )   vnT (e n )

Therefore, T ( v)  Av for each v in Rn

 Note
Theorem 6.10 tells us that once we know the image of every
vector in the standard basis (that is T(ei)), you can use the
properties of linear transformations to determine T(v) for any
v in V
6.53
 Ex 1: Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation
Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R3  R2 defined by
T ( x, y, z)  ( x  2 y, 2x  y)
Sol:
Vector Notation Matrix Notation
1 
  1 
T (e1 )  T (1, 0, 0)  (1, 2) T (e1 )  T ( 0 )   
0   2

0 
   2
T (e2 )  T (0, 1, 0)  (2, 1) T (e2 )  T ( 1 )   
0  
1

0 
  0 
T (e3 )  T (0, 0, 1)  (0, 0) T (e3 )  T ( 0 )   
1   0
6.54
 A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1 2 0
 
 2 1 0 
 Check:
 x  x
1  2 0     x  2 y 
A y    y 
  2 1 0   2 x  y 

z z
i.e., T ( x, y, z)  ( x  2 y, 2 x  y)

 Note: a more direct way to construct the standard matrix

※ The first (second) row actually
1  2 0  1x  2 y  0 z
A represents the linear transformation
2 1 0  2 x  1y  0 z function to generate the first (second)
component of the target vector 6.55
 Ex 2: Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation
The linear transformation T : R 2  R 2 is given by projecting
each point in R 2 onto the x - axis. Find the standard matrix for T
Sol:
T ( x, y)  ( x, 0)
1 0 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )   T (1, 0) T (0, 1)    
 0 0 
 Notes:
(1) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rm
is the mn zero matrix
(2) The standard matrix for the identity transformation from Rn into
Rn is the nn identity matrix In

6.56
 Composition of T1:Rn→Rm with T2:Rm→Rp :
T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)), v  Rn
This composition is denoted by T  T2 T1

 Theorem 6.11: Composition of linear transformations

Let T1 : R n  R m and T2 : R m  R p be linear transformations

with standard matrices A1 and A2 ,then
(1) The composition T : R n  R p , defined by T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)),
is still a linear transformation
(2) The standard matrix A for T is given by the matrix product
A  A2 A1 6.57
Pf:
(1) (T is a linear transformation)
Let u and v be vectors in R n and let c be any scalar. Then
T (u  v)  T2 (T1 (u  v))  T2 (T1 (u)  T1 ( v))
 T2 (T1 (u))  T2 (T1 ( v))  T (u)  T ( v)
T (cv)  T2 (T1 (cv))  T2 (cT1 ( v))  cT2 (T1 ( v))  cT ( v)

(2) ( A2 A1 is the standard matrix for T )

T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v))  T2 ( A1v)  A2 A1v  ( A2 A1 ) v
 Note:
T1  T2  T2  T1

6.58
 Ex 3: The standard matrix of a composition
Let T1 and T2 be linear transformations from R3 into R3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z )  (2 x  y, 0, x  z )
T2 ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, z, y )
Find the standard matrices for the compositions T  T2 T1
and T '  T1 T2
Sol:
2 1 0
A1  0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1  1 0
A2  0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0 6.59
The standard matrix for T  T2  T1

1  1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A  A2 A1  0 0 1 0 0 0  1 0 1
    
 0 1 0  1 0 1   0 0 0 
The standard matrix for T '  T1  T2

2 1 0 1  1 0 2  2 1
A'  A1 A2  0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

6.60
 Inverse linear transformation:

If T1 : R n  R n and T2 : R n  R n are L.T. s.t. for every v in R n

T2 (T1 ( v))  v and T1 (T2 ( v))  v

Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible

 Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1

6.61
 Theorem 6.12: Existence of an inverse transformation
Let T : R n  R n be a linear transformation with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent
※ For (2)  (1), you can imagine that
(1) T is invertible since T is one-to-one and onto, for every
(2) T is an isomorphism w in the codomain of T, there is only one
preimage v, which implies that T-1(w) =v
(3) A is invertible can be a L.T. and well-defined, so we can
infer that T is invertible
※ On the contrary, if there are many
preimages for each w, it is impossible to
find a L.T to represent T-1 (because for a
L.T, there is always one input and one
 Note: output), so T cannot be invertible
If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard
matrix for T–1 is A–1 6.62
 Ex 4: Finding the inverse of a linear transformation
The linear transformation T : R3  R3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2x1  3x2  x3 , 3x1  3x2  x3 , 2x1  4x2  x3 )
Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse
Sol:
The standard matrix for T
2 3 1  2 x1  3x2  x3
A  3 3 1  3 x1  3x2  x3
2 4 1  2 x1  4 x2  x3
 2 3 1 1 0 0
 A I 3    3 3 1 0 1 0
 
 2 4 1 0 0 1  6.63
 1 0 0 1 1 0 

G.-J. E.
 0 1 0 1 0 1    I A1 
0 0 1 6 2 3

Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1

 1 1 0
A1   1 0 1
 
 6  2  3
 1 1 0   x1    x1  x2 
T 1 ( v)  A1 v   1 0 1   x2     x1  x3 
    
 6  2  3 3   1
x 6 x  2 x 2  3 x3
In other words,
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1  x2 ,  x1  x3 , 6 x1  2 x2  3x3 )
※ Check T-1(T(2, 3, 4)) = T-1(17, 19, 20) = (2, 3, 4) 6.64
 The matrix of T relative to the bases B and B‘:
T :V  W (a linear transformation)
B  {v1 , v 2 , , vn} (a nonstandard basis for V )
The coordinate matrix of any v relative to B is denoted by [v]B
  c1  
 c  
 if v can be represeted as c v  c v   cn v n , then [v ]B   2  
 1 1 2 2
 
   
 cn  
A matrix A can represent T if the result of A multiplied by a
coordinate matrix of v relative to B is a coordinate matrix of v
relative to B’, where B’ is a basis for W. That is,
T ( v)B '  A[ v]B ,
where A is called the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B’

6.65
 Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases (the
generalization of Theorem 6.10, in which standard bases are
considered) :
Let V and W be finite - dimensional vector spaces with bases B and B ',
respectively, where B  {v1 , v 2 , , v n }

If T : V  W is a linear transformation s.t.

 a11   a12   a1n 

a  a  a 
T ( v1 )B '   21  ,
 
T ( v 2 )B '   22  ,
 
, T ( v n ) B '   2n 
 
     
 am1   am 2   amn 

then the m n matrix who se n columns correspond to T (vi )B'

6.66
  a11 a12 a1n 
a a22 a2 n 
A  [T ( v1 )]B [T ( v 2 )]B [T ( v n )]B    21
 
 
 am1 am 2 amn 

is such that T ( v) B '  A[ v]B for every v in V

※The above result state that the coordinate of T(v) relative to the basis B’
equals the multiplication of A defined above and the coordinate of v
relative to the basis B.
※ Comparing to the result in Thm. 6.10 (T(v) = Av), it can infer that the
linear transformation and the basis change can be achieved in one step
through multiplying the matrix A defined above (see the figure on 6.74
for illustration)

6.67
 Ex 5: Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases
Let T : R2  R2 be a linear transformation defined by
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , 2 x1  x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B  {(1, 2), ( 1, 1)}
and B '  {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Sol:
T (1, 2)  (3, 0)  3(1, 0)  0(0, 1)
T (1, 1)  (0,  3)  0(1, 0)  3(0, 1)

T (1, 2)B '  03, T (1, 1)B '  03

   
the matrix for T relative to B and B'
3 0 
A  T (1, 2)B ' T (1, 2)B '   
0  3 6.68
 Ex 6:
For the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given in Example 5, use the matrix A
to find T ( v), where v  (2, 1)
Sol:
v  (2, 1)  1(1, 2) 1(1, 1) B  {(1, 2), (1, 1)}
1
 v B   
 1
3 0   1  3
 T ( v)B '  Av B       
0  3  1 3
 T ( v)  3(1, 0)  3(0, 1)  (3, 3) B' {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

 Check:
T (2, 1)  (2  1, 2(2) 1)  (3, 3)
6.69
 Notes:

1 In the special case where 𝑉 = W (i.e., T:V → 𝑉) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝐵′

The matrix A is called the matrix of T relative to the basis B

(2) If T : V  V is the identity transformation

B  {v1 , v 2 , , v n }: a basis for V
 the matrix of T relative to the basis B
1 0 0
0 1 0 
A  T ( v1 )B T ( v 2 ) B T ( v n )B     In

 
0 0 1

6.70
Keywords in Section 6.3:
 standard matrix for T
 composition of linear transformations
 inverse linear transformation
 matrix of T relative to the bases B and B'
 matrix of T relative to the basis B:

6.71
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
T :V  V ( a linear transformation)
B  {v1 , v 2 , , vn} ( a basis of V )
B '  {w1 , w 2 , , w n } (a basis of V )

A  T ( v1 ) B T ( v 2 ) B T ( v n )B  ( matrix of T relative to B)

A '  T (w1 )B ' T (w 2 ) B ' T (w n )B '  (matrix of T relative to B ')

T ( v) B  A  v B , and T ( v) B '  A  v B '

P   w1 B  w 2 B  w n B  ( transition matrix from B ' to B )

P 1   v1 B '  v 2 B '  v n B '  ( transition matrix from B to B ')

from the definition of the transition matrix on p.254 in the
text book or on Slide 4.108 and 4.109 in the lecture notes
  v B  P  v B ' , and  v B '  P 1  v B 6.72
 Two ways to get from v B ' to T ( v)B ' :
(1) (direct) : A '[ v]B '  [T ( v)]B '
(2) (indirect) : P 1 AP[ v]B '  [T ( v)]B '  A '  P 1 AP
indirect

direct 6.73
 Ex 1: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Find the matrix A' for T： R 2  R 2
T ( x1 , x2 )  (2 x1  2 x2 ,  x1  3x2 )
reletive to the basis B'  {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
Sol:
(1) A '  T (1, 0) B ' T (1, 1)B ' 
3
T (1, 0)  (2,  1)  3(1, 0)  1(1, 1)  T (1, 0)B '   
 1
  2
T (1, 1)  (0, 2)  2(1, 0)  2(1, 1)  T (1, 1)B '   
2
 3  2
 A'  T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B '   
 1 2 
6.74
(2) standard matrix for T (matrix of T relative to B  {(1, 0), (0, 1)})
 2  2
A  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
 1 3 
transition matrix from B' to B
※ Solve a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = (1, 0) 
1 1
P  (1, 0)B (1, 1)B    
(a, b) = (1, 0)
※ Solve c(1, 0) + d(0, 1) = (1, 1) 
0 1 (c, d) = (1, 1)
transition matrix from B to B '
1 1 ※ Solve a(1, 0) + b(1, 1) = (1, 0) 
P   (1, 0)B '  (0, 1)B '   
1
 (a, b) = (1, 0)
※ Solve c(1, 0) + d(1, 1) = (0, 1) 
 0 1  (c, d) = (-1, 1)
matrix of T relative B'
1 1  1  2  2 1 1  3  2
A'  P AP         
0 1   1 3  0 1   1 2 
6.75
 Ex 2: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Let B  {(3, 2), (4,  2)} and B '  {(1, 2), (2,  2)} be basis for
 2 7
R , and let A  
2
 be the matrix for T : R 2
 R 2
relative to B.
 3 7
Find the matrix of T relative to B '
Sol:
Because the specific function is unknown, it is difficult to apply
the direct method to derive A’, so we resort to the indirect
method where A’ = P-1AP
 3  2
transition matrix from B' to B : P  (1, 2)B (2,  2)B    
 2  1 
  1 2
transition matrix from B to B': P  (3, 2)B ' (4,  2)B '   
1

  2 3
matrix of T relative to B':
1   1 2  2 7  3  2  2 1
A'  P AP         
 2 3   3 7  2  1  1 3 6.76
 Ex 3: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
For the linear transformation T : R 2  R 2 given in Ex.2, find  v B ,
T ( v)B , and T ( v)B ' , for the vector v whose coordinate matrix is
 3
 v B '  
Sol:  1
3  2  3  7 
v B  Pv B '  2  1   1    5
    
 2 7  7  21
T ( v)B  AvB    3 7   5   14
    
  1 2  21  7
T ( v)B '  P T ( v)B   2 3  14   0 
1

    
 2 1  3  7
or T ( v)B '  A' v B '      
 1 3   1  0  6.77
 Similar matrix :
 For square matrices A and A’ of order n, A’ is said to be similar
to A if there exist an invertible matrix P s.t. A’=P-1AP

 Theorem 6.13: (Properties of similar matrices)

Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n.
Then the following properties are true.
(1) A is similar to A
(2) If A is similar to B, then B is similar to A
(3) If A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A is similar to C
Pf for (1) and (2) (the proof of (3) is left in Exercise 23):
(1) A  I n AI n (the transition matrix from A to A is the I n )
(2) A  P 1BP  PAP 1  P( P 1BP) P 1  PAP 1  B
 Q 1 AQ  B (by defining Q  P 1 ), thus B is similar to A
6.78
 Ex 4: (Similar matrices)

 2 2   3 2 
(a) A    and A '    are similar
 1 3   1 2 
1 1 1
because A'  P AP , where P   
 0 1 

 2 7   2 1
(b) A    and A '    are similar
 3 7   1 3

1  3  2
because A'  P AP, where P   
 2  1 

6.79
 Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)
1 3 0 
Suppose A  3 1 0  is the matrix for T : R3  R3 relative
0 0 2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B '  {(1, 1, 0), (1,  1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
The transitio n matrix from B' to the standard matrix
1 1 0
P  (1, 1, 0)B (1,  1, 0)B (0, 0, 1)B   1  1 0
0 0 1
 12 12 0
 P 1   12  12 0
 
0 0 1 6.80
 matrix of T relative to B ' :
 12 12 0  1 3 0  1 1 0 
A '  P 1 AP   12  12 0   3 1 0  1 1 0 
0 0 1  0 0 2  0 0 1 
4 0 0 
  (A’ is a diagonal matrix, which is
  0 2 0  simple and with some
 0 0 2  computational advantages)

※ You have seen that the standard matrix for a linear

transformation T:V →V depends on the basis used for V.
What choice of basis will make the standard matrix for T as
simple as possible? This case shows that it is not always
the standard basis. 6.81
 Notes: Diagonal matrices have many computational advantages
over nondiagonal ones (it will be used in the next chapter)
 d1 0 0
0 d 0 
for D   2

 
 
0 0 dn 
 d1k 0 0
 
 0 d 2k 0 (2) DT  D
(1) D 
k
 
 k
 0 0 d n 
 d11 0 0
 
0 0
1
1
(3) D    , di  0
d2

 
0 0 1 
 dn  6.82
Keywords in Section 6.4:
 matrix of T relative to B
 matrix of T relative to B'
 transition matrix from B' to B
 transition matrix from B to B'
 similar matrix

6.83
 6.5 Applications of Linear Transformation
 The geometry of linear transformation in the plane (p.407-p.110)
 Reflection in x-axis, y-axis, and y=x
 Horizontal and vertical expansion and contraction
 Horizontal and vertical shear
 Computer graphics (to produce any desired angle of view of a 3-
D figure)

6.84