Project scheduling

Project Scheduling refers to the process of laying out all the activities of a project in the time order in
which they are to be performed, keeping in view the logical sequence of the activities.

The logical sequence of the activities of a project (shopping mall) is:

 Digging of foundation
 Pouring foundation concrete
 Construction

A project consists of many activities, which are interrelated to each other. All activities consume
resources of three kinds viz. time, men, materials (money). The project scheduling techniques are
concerned with the resources ‘time’. Scheduling techniques are used to optimize the project time.

Techniques:

1. Bar Chart: it is a pictorial representation showing the various activities of a project.

For example if the project is construction a shopping mall, the various activities which are
involved are

Activity Duration (days)

A: Digging of Foundation 7
B: Pouring foundation Concrete 6
C. Construction of walls 20
d. Construction of roof slab 5
e. Fixing of doors and Panels 3
g. Plastering and finishing of walls 5

Advantages of Bar chart

easy to construct and understand
not effective for large and complex projects as it does not show the impact of delay of
one activity on another.
2. Network based Scheduling:
This technique is used for bigger and complex projects involving large number of activities. In
this technique network diagrams are constructed.
Network Diagram: it is a graphical flow plan of activities arranged in a logical sequence that
must be accomplished for completing a project. There are two popular network scheduling
techniques:
1. Critical Path Method (CPM)
2. Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Advantage of Network Technique

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 – Precedence relationships

– large projects

– more efficient

Difference between PERT and CPM

PERT CPM
PERT is probabilistic CPM is deterministic
This technique is developed in 1950 by US Navy This is developed in 1957 by Du Pont
PERT is event oriented CPM is activity oriented
PERT is generally used for those projects where CPM is used for those projects which are repetitive
time required to complete various activities is not in nature and where one has experience of
known with certainty. handling similar projects.
PERT analysis does not usually consider costs It deals with the cost of the project schedule and
their minimization. The concept of crashing is
applied mainly to CPM model.
PERT is used in Research & Development Projects CPM is used in plant maintenance and
construction work
PERT can be used as an important control device It is difficult to use CPM as a controlling device.
as it assists manager to review those activities
which may cause a delay in project completion
date

How to construct Network Diagram:

Activity: All projects are composed of various operations or tasks, which require time and resources to
complete. These tasks and operations are called an activity. For example in the previous illustration
digging of foundation, pouring foundation concrete and construction of walls are the activities of a
project constructing a shopping mall.

An activity is represented by an arrow ( )

a. The length of the arrow does not signify anything.

b. Each activity has a significant beginning and a definite end.
c. Each activity consumes resources (time, manpower and material).
d. The head of the arrow shows the flow of activity.
e. The circle placed at the beginning of the arrow represents the starting point of the activity, while
the circle placed at the end of the arrow represents the finishing point of the activity.

Starting point Finishing point

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Predecessor Activities: Activities that must be completed immediately before the start of another
activity are called predecessor activities of it.

A B

Activity A is the predecessor of Activity B

Successor Activities: Activities that must follow immediately after completion of a given activity are
called successor activities of it.

A B

Activity B is the successor of activity A.

Concurrent Activities: Activities that can be completed at the same time are called Concurrent Activities.

B C

A and B are concurrent activities.

Dummy Activity: A dummy activity is an imaginary activity added in a network to maintain the logical
sequence only. Since it is not a real activity, it does not consume any resources (time, manpower and
materials). It is represented by a dashed arrow.

Example 1: Draw the network diagram for the following project::

a. Activity A and activity B are concurrent activities.

b. Activity C follows activity A.
c. Activity D succeeds activities A and B
d. Activities C and D are last activities.

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 A C

Dummy

B D

Event: An event is the beginning and end of an activity. An event represents a specific point in time. It
does not consume time, manpower or material resources. In the network diagram an event is
represented by a circle.

Activity
1 2

Starting event Completion Event

Network Rules:

1. Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network. Therefore no single
activity can be represented twice in the network.
2. No two activities can be identified by the same beginning and end events. In such cases a
dummy activity is introduced to resolve the problem. For Example:
Example 1: Activity Predecessor
A None
B None
C A, B
D A
E C,
F D
G E, F

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3. Before an activity can be undertaken, all activities preceding it must be completed.
4. The arrows depicting various activities are indicative of the logical precedence only. The length
of the arrow has no significance.
5. The flow of diagram should be from left to right.
6. Arrows should not be crossed.
7. Arrows should be kept straight and not curved/bent.
8. The general rule for numbering the event is that no event can be numbered until all preceding
events have been numbered. The number at the head of an arrow is always larger than at its
tail.
a. Identify the initial event and assign it number 1.
b. Delete all the emerging arrows from the initial event (event 1). This will create one or more
‘new initial events’, number these initial events as 2, 3, 4……….etc.

1 3

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c. Delete all the emerging arrows from the initial events which will create a new set of initial
events. Assign numbers to these initial events starting from the number next to the number
that has so far been assigned.

Example 2: Number the events in the following network:

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Interdependency

 If activity A is the predecessor of activity B, it means activity B can not start until activity A is
completed.
Activity Predecessor
A B
A None
B A

 If activity A is the predecessor of activities B and C both, it means activities B and C can not start
until activity A is completed.

Activity Predecessor
B
A A None

C B, C A

 If activities A and B are the predecessors of activity C, it means that activities A and B can occur
concurrently but both must be completed before C can begin.

Activity Predecessor
A
C C A, B

 Activities A and B both must be completed before activities C and D can begin independently.

Activity Predecessor
A C
C, D A, B
D
B

 Activities A and B can occur concurrently but both must be completed before activity C can begin.
However only activity B must be completed before activity E can begin. Activity C is a dummy
activity which shows a precedence relationship but has zero time duration.

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 A D Activity Predecessor

A None
c B None
B E D A, B
E B

Example 3: Draw a network diagram for the given project.

Activity Predecessor C

A None A F

B None D

C A

D A B

E B G

F C E

G D and E

Example 4: A company has decided to redesign its electronic components. The project involves several
activities which are listed in the following table. Draw the network for the following information:

Activity Predecessor Time (weeks)

A: Finish Component Development None 5

B: Design marketing program A 4

C: Design production mode A 7

D: Select advertising media B 8

E: Initial production run C 9

F: Release components to market D, E 4

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 B 3 D

A F
1 2 5 6

C 4 E

Example 5: Prepare network diagram from the following information.

Activity Name of the Activity Predecessor Estimated time

1-2 A None 3
1-3 B None 5
1-4 C None 4
2-5 D A 2
3-5 E B 3
4-6 F C 9
5-7 G D, E 8
3-6 H B 7
6-7 I H, F 9

Critical Path Method: this technique was developed by Du Pont in 1950 and was first used in missile
defense construction projects.

Critical Path: In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project network activities which
add up to the longest overall duration, regardless if that longest duration has float or not. This
determines the earliest possible time to complete the project. The activities that lie on the critical path
are known as critical activities. These are those activities which do not have any cushion time to either
postpone or prepone its starting time from its original starting time. Each non-critical activity will have
some cushion time so it can be postponed or preponed its starting time from its original time. If the
activity of the critical path is delayed, the project completion time will also be delayed.

Steps to find out critical path:

1. Break down the project into various activities and arrange all activities in logical sequence.
2. Number all the events and activities.
3. Calculate the earliest start time, earliest finish time, latest start time and latest finish time of
each event.
a. Earliest start time for activity (Es): it is the time at which the activity can start without
affecting the total project time.
b. Earliest finish time for activity (Ef):

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 c. Latest start time for activity (Ls):
d. Latest finish time for activity (Lf): it is the latest time by which an activity must get
completed without delaying the project completion.
e. Total Float: the total float of an activity represents the amount of time by which an
activity can be delayed without delay in the project completion date. In other words, it
refers to the amount of the free time associated with an activity which can be used
before, during or after the performance of this activity.
Total Float TF = Lf – Ef or Ls – Es
f. Free Float: the free float indicates the value by which an activity can be delayed without
causing any delay in its immediate successor activities.
Free Float FF =
g. Independent Float: it is the time by which an activity can be delayed for start without
affecting floats of the preceding activities.
Independent Float IF =
Difference between Float and Slack: Slack is event related whereas float is related to
activities.
4. Determine the slack for each activity by taking difference between earliest and latest time.
5. Identify the critical activities (with zero slack) and connect them by double arrow. This shows
the critical path.
6. Calculate the total project duration.

2 5 8

1 4 7 9

3 6

A–D–G-K 10+12+20+6 = 48 days

A–D–H–L 10+12+3+18 = 43 days

A–E–I–L 10+4+9+18 = 41 days

B–I–L 9+9+8 = 36 days

C–J–N 12+13+9 = 34 days

C–F–I–L 12+8+9+18 = 47 days

C–J–M–L 12+13+7+18 = 50 days*

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C – J – M – L is the critical path and the project duration is 50 days.

5 8
2

3 7 9
1

4 6

Example 1: Construct the network and find out the critical path.

Activity Immediate Predecessor Duration (weeks)

A None 3

B None 4

C A 5

D A 6

E C 7

F D 8

G B 9

H E, F, G 3

2 4

1 5 6 7

3
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Example 2: Draw the network and find out the critical path and total float.

Activity Predecessor Estimated Time

A None 3

B None 5

C None 4

D A 2

E B 3

F C 9

G D, E 8

H B 7

I H, F 9

2 5

1 3 7

4 6

Activity Duration Es Ef Ls Lf TF

1-2 A 3 0 3 9 12 9

1-3 B 5 0 5 1 6 1
1-4 C 4 0 4 0 4 0
2-5 D 2 3 5 12 14 9
3-5 E 3 5 8 11 14 6

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4-6 F 9 4 13 4 13 0
5-7 G 8 8 16 14 22 6
3-6 H 7 5 12 6 13 1
6-7 I 9 13 22 13 22 0

Procedure to calculate TF

Example 3: Construct the network and find out the critical path and total float.

Activity Predecessor Duration

A None 4

B None 1

C A 1

D B 1

E B 6

F C, D 5

G E 4

H E 8

I G 1

J H 2

K J, I 5

L F 7

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 Activity Predecessor Duration Es Ef Ls Lf TF

A - 4 0 4 5 9 5
B - 1 0 1 0 1 0
C A 1 4 5 9 10 5
D B 1 1 2 9 10 8
E B 6 1 7 1 7 0
F C, D 5 5 10 10 15 5
G E 4 7 11 12 16 5
H E 8 7 15 7 15 0
I G 1 11 12 16 17 5
J H 2 15 17 15 17 0
K J, I 5 17 22 17 22 0
L F 7 10 17 15 22 5

Programme Evaluation & Review Technique (PERT): In most of the projects the activity times are not
known with certainty and they may be assumed as random variable. In such cases where activity times
are not known with certainty PERT can be used for planning, scheduling and controlling the project. It
was developed in 1950 by US Navy to control large defense projects.

The PERT makes the following assumptions:

1. Activity times are statistically independent and usually associated with beta distribution.
2. There are enough activities involved in the network that sum of activity times based on their
means and variance will be normally distributed.
3. In PERT, for each activity three time estimates can be obtained.
a. Optimistic time estimate (to): it is the minimum time in which an activity can be
completed under favourable conditions.
b. Most Likely time estimate (tm): it is the time required to complete an activity under
normal conditions or it is the time required to complete an activity most often if it is
repeated number of times.
c. Pessimistic time estimate (tp): it is the maximum time in which an activity can be
completed under unfavourable conditions.

After determining three time estimates of an activity its expected time can be computed on
the basis of beta distribution.

Expected (Mean) time = (to + 4 tm + tp) / 6

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 Where to = optimistic time estimate

tm = Most Likely time estimate

tp = Pessimistic time estimate

te = expected time

Standard Deviation s2 = (tp – to/6)2

Steps to apply PERT

1. Identify the activities to complete the project and their predecessor requirement.
2. Calculate the expected time and standard variation for each activity.
3. Construct the network and find out the critical path considering the expected time as the
activity time.
4. Find out the expected time for project completion.

Example: A small project consists of nine activities, the details of which are given below:

Activity Predecessor Optimistic time (to) Most Likely time (tm) Pessimistic time (tp)
A None 3 6 15
B None 6 12 30
C A 5 11 17
D A 4 19 28
E B 1 4 7
F C 3 9 27
G D 3 6 15
H E 2 5 14
I F, G 2 5 8

a. Draw the network diagram, number the nodes.

b. Find out the critical path and the expected project completion time.
c. What is the probability of completing the project within 36 days?
d. What is the probability of completing the project within 31 days?
e. What project duration will have 95% confidence of completion?

2 E 4

B H

A C F I
1 3 5 7 8
7

14

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 D G

Activity Predecessor Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic Expected Variance

time (to) time (tm) time (tp) time (te)
A None 3 6 15 7 4
B None 6 12 30 14 16
C A 5 11 17 11 4
D A 4 19 28 18 16
E B 1 4 7 4 1
F C 3 9 27 11 16
G D 3 6 15 7 4
H E 2 5 14 6 4
I F, G 2 5 8 5 1

Alternative Paths:

1-2-4-8 = 24 days

1-3-6-8 = 32 days

1-3-5-7-8 = 34 days

b. Critical path is 1-3-5-7-8 = 34 days

Variance of critical path = 4+16+4+1 = 25 days

 Probability of completing the project in 31 days

Z = (due date – expected date of completion)/√variance of critical path

= 36 – 34/ √25 = 2/5 = 0.40

Probability = .5+.1554 (area under normal distribution table for z=.1554)

= .6554 = 65.54%

 Probability of completing the project in 31 days

Z = (due date – expected date of completion)/√variance of critical path

= 31 – 34/ √25 = -3/5 = -0.6

= .5 - .2257 (area under normal distribution table for z=.2257)

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= .2743 = 27.43%

For 95% confidence level, the value of z = 95% - 50% = 45% or 0.45

Z = (due date – expected date of completion)/√variance of critical path

1.65 (z value from the table equivalent to 0.45) = due date – 34 / 5

Due date = 34+1.65*5 = 42.25 days

Example: A small project consisting of eight activities has the following characteristics:

Activity Predecessor Optimistic time (to) Most Likely time (tm) Pessimistic time (tp)
in weeks in weeks in weeks
A None 2 4 12
B None 10 12 26
C A 8 9 10
D A 10 15 20
E A 7 7.5 11
F B, C 9 9 9
G D 3 3.5 7
H E, F, G 5 5 5

1. Draw the PERT network.

2. Determine the critical path and project duration.
3. If a 30 weeks deadline is imposed, what is the probability that the project will be finished within
the time limit?
4. If the project manager wants to be 99% sure that the project is completed on the schedule date,
how many weeks before that date should he start the project work?

1 2 5 6

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Activity Predecessor Optimistic time Most Likely time Pessimistic time Expected Variance
(to) in weeks (tm) in weeks (tp) in weeks time (te)
A None 2 4 12 5 25/9
B None 10 12 26 14 64/9
C A 8 9 10 9 1/9
D A 10 15 20 15 25/9
E A 7 7.5 11 8 4/9
F B, C 9 9 9 9 0
G D 3 3.5 7 4 4/9
H E, F, G 5 5 5 5 0

Alternative Paths are

1-2-4-5-6

1-2-3-5-6

1-3-5-6

The critical path of the project is 1-2-4-5-6 and project duration is

Example: A small project consisting of eight activities has the following characteristics:

Activity Predecessor Optimistic time (to) Most Likely time (tm) Pessimistic time (tp)
in weeks in weeks in weeks
A None 1 1 7
B None 1 4 7
C None 2 2 8
D A 1 1 1
E B 2 5 14
F C 2 5 8
G D, E 3 6 15
H F, G 1 2 3

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 3

1 2 5 6 7

Activity Predecessor Optimistic time Most Likely time Pessimistic time Expected Variance
(to) in weeks (tm) in weeks (tp) in weeks time te
A None 1 1 7
B None 1 4 7
C None 2 2 8
D A 1 1 1
E B 2 5 14
F C 2 5 8
G D, E 3 6 15
H F, G 1 2 3

Alternative Paths

Critical Path B-E-G-H

Expected duration of project is 19 days.

The variance of the critical path is = 1+4+4+0.108 = 9.108

Std deviation = 3.02

Z= due date – expected date of completion/ √variance of critical path

Z = due date – 19 / 3.02 ( for 95% confidence level z = 1.65 from normal distribution table)

1.65 = due date – 19 / 3.02

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