Cyclones

This type of technology is a part of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred to as
“pre cleaners,” They are oftentimes used to reduce the inlet loading of particulate matter (PM)
to downstream collection devices by removing larger, abrasive particles. Cyclones are also
referred to as cyclone collectors, cyclone separators, centrifugal separators, and inertial
separators. In applications where many small cyclones are operating in parallel, the entire
system is called a multiple tube cyclone, multicyclone, or multiclone. The removal of PM takes
place by centrifugal and inertial forces, induced by forcing particulate-laden gas to change
direction.

Cyclones are used to control PM, and primarily PM greater than 10 micrometers. However,
there are high efficiency cyclones designed to be effective for PM less than or equal to 10
micrometers and less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers (PM10 and PM2.5). Cyclones may be
used to collect particles larger than 200 micrometers, gravity settling chambers or simple
momentum separators are usually satisfactory and less subject to abrasion.

The collection efficiency of cyclones varies as a function of particle size and cyclone design.

 Cyclone efficiency generally increases with:

(1) Particle size and/or density,

(2) Inlet duct velocity,

(3) Cyclone body length

(4) Number of gas revolutions in the cyclone,

(5) Ratio of cyclone body diameter to gas exit diameter,

(6) Dust loading, and

(7) Smoothness of the cyclone inner wall.

 Cyclone efficiency will decrease with increases in

(1) Gas viscosity,

(2) Body diameter,

(3) Gas exit diameter,

(4) Gas inlet duct area, and

(5) Gas density

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A common factor contributing to decreased control efficiencies in cyclones is leakage of air into
the dust outlet. Control efficiency ranges for single cyclones are often based on three
classifications of cyclone, i.e., conventional, high-efficiency, and high-throughput. The control
efficiency range for conventional single cyclones is estimated to be 70 to 90 percent for PM, 30 to
90 percent for PM10, and 0 to 40 percent for PM2.5.

Applications

Cyclones are designed for many applications.

Cyclones themselves are generally not adequate to meet stringent air pollution regulations. But
they serve an important purpose as pre cleaners for more expensive final control devices such
as fabric filters or electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). In addition to use for pollution control work,
cyclones are used in many process applications, for example, they are used for recovering and
recycling food products and process materials such as catalysts. Cyclones are used extensively
after spray drying operations in the food and chemical industries, and after crushing and
grinding operations in the mineral and chemical industries to collect salable or useful material.
In the ferrous and nonferrous metallurgical industries, cyclones are often used as a first stage in
the control of PM emissions from sinter plants, roasters, kilns, and furnaces. PM from the fluid-
cracking process are removed by cyclones to facilitate catalyst recycling. Fossil-fuel and wood-
waste fired industrial and commercial fuel combustion units commonly use multiple cyclones
(generally upstream of a wet scrubber, ESP, or fabric filter) which collect fine PM (< 2.5 Fm)
with greater efficiency than a single cyclone.

In some cases, collected fly ash is re injected into the combustion unit to improve PM control.

Operation:

Cyclones use inertia to remove particles from the gas stream. The cyclone imparts centrifugal
force on the gas stream, usually within a conical shaped chamber. Cyclones operate by creating
a double vortex inside the cyclone body. The incoming gas is forced into circular motion down
the cyclone near the inner surface of the cyclone tube. At the bottom of the cyclone, the gas
turns and spirals up through the center of the tube and out of the top of the cyclone. Particles in
the gas stream are forced toward the cyclone walls by the centrifugal force of the spinning gas
but are opposed by the fluid drag force of the gas traveling through and out of the cyclone. For
large particles, inertial momentum overcomes the fluid drag force so that the particles reach the
cyclone walls and are collected. For small particles, the fluid drag force overwhelms the inertial
momentum and causes these particles to leave the cyclone with the exiting gas. Gravity also
causes the larger particles that reach the cyclone walls to travel down into a bottom hopper.
While they rely on the same separation mechanism as momentum separators.

Cyclones are more effective because they have a more complex gas flow pattern.

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  Advantages/Pros:

1. Low capital cost.

2. No moving parts, therefore, few maintenance requirements and low operating costs.

3. Relatively low pressure drop (2 to 6 inches water column), compared to amount of PM

removed.

4. Temperature and pressure limitations are only dependent on the materials of construction.

5. Dry collection and disposal; and

6. Relatively small space requirements.

 Disadvantages/Cons:

1. Relatively low PM collection efficiencies, particularly for PM less than 10 μm in size;

2. Unable to handle sticky or tacky materials; and

3. High efficiency units may experience high pressure drops.

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Electrostatic Precipitator

An ESP is a PARTICULATE collection device that removes particles from flowing gas.
Electrostatic precipitators is highly efficient FILTRATION devices that minimally impede
the flow of gases through the device. It removes fine particulate matter such as dust and
smoke from the air stream. The most basic precipitator contains a row of thin vertical wires,
and followed by large flat metal plates oriented vertically. The plates typically spaced about
1 cm to 18 cm apart, depending on the application. The air or gas stream flows horizontally
through the spaces between the wires, and then passes through the stack of plates.

A negative voltage is applied between wire and plate. If the applied voltage is high enough
an electric discharge ionizes the gas around the electrodes. Negative ions flow towards the
plates and charge the gas-flow particles. The ionized particles, move to the plates. Particles
build up on the collection plates and form a layer.

 Precipitator performance is very sensitive due to two particulate properties:

1) Resistivity; and

2) Particle size distribution.

Particles of high resistivity (cement dust for example) Sulfur trioxide is sometimes injected into
a flue gas stream to lower the resistivity of the particles in order to improve the collection
efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator.

Modern industrial electrostatic precipitators

ESPs continue to be excellent devices for control of many industrial particulate emissions, Like
smoke from electricity-generating utilities (coal and oil fired), boilers in pulp mills, and catalyst
collection from fluidized bed catalytic cracker units in oil refineries to name a few. These
devices treat gas volumes up to 1,200 m³/s in the largest coal-fired boiler applications.

Wet electrostatic precipitator

A wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP or wet ESP) operates with saturated air streams. WESPs
are commonly used to remove liquid droplets such as sulfuric acid mist from industrial process
gas streams. The WESP is also commonly used where the gases are high in moisture content,
contain combustible particulate, have particles that are sticky in nature.

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  An electrostatic precipitator is a large, industrial emission-control unit.

 It is designed to trap and remove dust particles from the exhaust gas stream of an
industrial process.

 Precipitators are used in these industries:

 Power/Electric

 Cement

 Chemicals

 Metals

 Paper

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In many industrial plants, particulate matter created in the industrial process is carried as dust
in the hot exhaust gases. These dust-laden gases pass through an electrostatic precipitator that
collects most of the dust. Cleaned gas then passes out of the precipitator and through a stack to
the atmosphere. Precipitators typically collect 99.9% or more of the dust from the gas stream.

Basic Principles

Electrostatic precipitation removes particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial
process. It can be any industrial process that would otherwise emit particles to the
atmosphere.

Six activities typically take place:

1. Ionization - Charging of particles

2. Migration - Transporting the charged particles to the collecting surfaces

3. Collection - Precipitation of the charged particles onto the collecting surfaces

4. Charge Dissipation - Neutralizing the charged particles on the collecting surfaces

5. Particle Dislodging - Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the hopper

6. Particle Removal - Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point

The major precipitator components that accomplish these activities are:

1. Discharge Electrodes

2. Power Components

3. Precipitator Controls

4. Rapping Systems

5. Air Systems

6. Flue Gases

Design & Performance

Designing a precipitator for optimum performance requires proper sizing of the precipitator in
addition to optimizing precipitator efficiency. While some users rely on the precipitator
manufacturer to determine proper sizing and design parameters. Others choose to either take a
more active role in this process or hire outside engineering firms.

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 Precipitator sizing

The sizing process is complex as each precipitator manufacturer has a unique method of
sizing. Often involving the use of computer models and always involving a good dose of
judgment. No computer model on its own can assess all the variables that affect precipitator
performance.

Collecting Efficiency

Based on specific gas volume and dust load. Calculations are used to predict the required
size of a precipitator to achieve a desired collecting efficiency.

Power Input

Power input is comprised of the voltage and current in an electrical field. Increasing the
power input improves precipitator collecting efficiency under normal conditions.

Following are details of these process variables:

1. Gas Flow Rate

A precipitator operates best with a gas velocity of 3.5 - 5.5 ft/sec. At higher velocity, particle re-
entrainment increases rapidly. If velocity is too low, performance may suffer from poor gas
flow distribution or from particle dropout in the duct.

2. Particle Size

A precipitator collects particles most easily when the particle size is coarse. The eneration of the
charging in the inlet field may be suppressed if the gas stream has too many small particles (less
than 1 µm). Very small particles (0.2 - 0.4µm) are the most difficult to collect because the
fundamental field-charging mechanism is overwhelmed by diffusion charging due to random
collisions with free ions.

3. Particle Resistivity

Resistivity is resistance to electrical conduction. The higher the resistivity, the harder it is for a
particle to transfer its electrical charge. Resistivity is influenced by the chemical composition of
the gas stream, particle temperature and gas temperature. Resistivity should be kept in the
range of 108 - 1010 ohm-cm. High resistivity can reduce precipitator performance. For
example, in combustion processes, burning reduced-sulfur coal increases resistivity and reduces
the collecting efficiency of the precipitator. Sodium and iron oxides in the fly ash can reduce
resistivity and improve performance, especially at higher operating temperatures. On the other
hand, low resistivity can also be a problem. For example (in combustion processes), unburned
carbon reduces precipitator performance because it is so conductive and loses its electrical
charge so quickly that it is easily re-entrained from the collecting plate.

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 4. Gas Temperature

The effect of gas temperature on precipitator collecting efficiency influences on particle

resistivity.

Discharge Electrodes   

Discharge electrodes emit charging current. They provide voltage that generates an electrical
field between the discharge electrodes and the collecting plates. The electrical field forces dust
particles in the gas stream to migrate toward the collecting plates. The particles then precipitate
onto the collecting plates.

Common types of discharge electrodes include:

1. Straight round wires

2. Twisted wire pairs

3. Barbed discharge wires

4. Rigid masts

5. Rigid frames

6. Rigid spiked pipes

7. Spiral wires

Collecting Plates   

Collecting plates are designed to receive and retain the precipitated particles until they are
intentionally removed into the hopper. Collecting plates are also part of the electrical power
circuit of the precipitator. These collecting plate functions are incorporated into the precipitator
design.

Hoppers

Precipitator hoppers are designed to completely discharge dust load on demand. Typically,
precipitator hoppers are rectangular in cross-section with sides of at least 60-degree slope. These
hoppers are insulated from the neck above the discharge flange with the insulation covering the
entire hopper area. In addition, the lower 1/4- 1/3 of the hopper wall may be heated.
Discharge diameters are generally 8" - 12".

Dispersion of Air Pollutants into Atmosphere

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Pocket of smoke containing Air Pollutants is released into the atmosphere. The sources belong
to automobiles or stacks of industries. After its release air pollutants disperse in atmosphere in
various directions. This dispersion depends upon prevailing winds, temperature & pressure
conditions. From meteorology & hydrology point of view the temperature conditions in the
atmosphere are defined by a technical term called “Lapse Rate” (L.R). In the troposphere , the
temperature decreases with an increase in altitude and this rate of change in temperature is
called L.R. L.R differ from place to place and from time to time even at the same place.

The prevailing L.R at a particular time and particular place is known as the:

 Prevailing lapse rate or

 Ambient lapse rate or

 Environmental lapse rate.

Impacts of winds on Dispersion of Pollutants

The direction & speed of winds govern the drift & diffusion of air pollutants. The higher the
wind speed at or near the point of emission - more rapidly the pollutants would be carried
away from the source. The pollutants so dispersed will not exist at the same concentration but
will rapidly be diluted with greater volumes of air. If the wind speeds are low the pollutants
tend to concentrate near the area of the emission. The longer the duration of such lighter winds
the larger the concentration of pollutants. Gustiness is the term which is directly proportional to
the wind speed and influences the pollutants’ mixing in the ambient air. However this mixing is
complicated by various factors like:

 Atmospheric turbulence,

 Atmospheric stability

 Geographical barriers

 Presence of moisture in the atmosphere

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Effective Height of a Stack

The effective height (H) of a stack consists of actual height (h) plus the height (∆h) to which
the plume rises above the stack before leveling out.

H = h + ∆h

Where

h = Actual height of stack, m

∆h = Plume height, m

∆h = [vsxD/v{1.5 +2.68x10-3xPxD}x(Ts-Ta/Ts)]
Where:

∆h = Rise of Plume above the stack, m

vs = Stack gas velocity = 2.75 m/sec

D = Stack inside diameter

V = Wind velocity, m

P = Barometric pressure

Ts = Stack gas temperature, oK

Ta = Air temperature, oK

Example:

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Determine the effective height of a stack with the following giving data: Physical stack height =
180 m Stack inside diameter = 0.95 m, Wind velocity = 2.75 m/sec, Air temperature = 20 oC,
Barometric pressure = 1000 millibars, Stack gas velocity = 11.12 m/sec, Stack gas temperature =
160oC

Solution:

h = 180 m

D = 0.95 m

v = 2.75 m/sec

Ta= 20oC + 273 = 293oK

P = 1000 millibars

vs = 11.12 m/sec

Ts = 160oC + 273 = 433oK

∆h= [vsxD/v{1.5 +2.68x10-3xPxD}x(Ts-Ta/Ts)]

∆h=[11.12x0.95/2.5{1.5 +2.68x10-3 x 1000 x 0.95} x (433-293/433)]

∆h = 8.92 m

Therefore

H = h + ∆h

H = 180 + 8.92

H = 188.92 m

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