18ME4T2 THEORY OF MACHINERY-1

Objective:

The students completing this course are expected to understand

the nature and role of the kinematics of machinery, the
mechanisms and machines. The course includes velocity and
acceleration diagrams,analysis of mechanisms joints, Cams and
their applications. It exposes the students to various kinds of power
transmission devices like belt,rope , chain and gear drives and their
working principles and their merits and demerits.

UNIT I
MECHANISMS
Topic

MECHANISMS : Elements or Links – Classification – Rigid Link,

flexible and fluid link – Types of kinematic pairs – sliding, turning,
rolling, screw and spherical pairs – lower and higher pairs – closed
and open pairs – constrained motion – completely, partially or
successfully constrained and incompletely constrained . Khubralrs
criteria , Grashoff’s law , Degrees of freedom, Kutzbach criterian for
planar mechanisms, Mechanism and machines – classification of
machines – kinematic chain – inversion of mechanism – inversion
of mechanism – inversions of quadric cycle, chain – single and
double slider crank chains.

Objective: The objective of this unit is to make student understand

the purpose of kinematics, Kinematic joint and mechanism and to
study the relative motion of parts in a machine without taking into
consideration the forces involved.

1.1 Elements or Links – Classification – Rigid Link, flexible

and fluid link
A resistant body or a assembly of resistant bodies, forming part of a
machine and having relative motion to the other connected parts,
is called a kinematic link or simply a link or an element.

So a link should have two characteristics:

1. Should be a resistant body

2. Should have relative motion

In a given machine, two or more parts, manufactured differently,

having different shape and functions, will be considered as one link
if there is no relative motion between them.

Link

A single part (or an assembly of rigidly connected parts) of a

machine, which is a resistant body having a relative motion with
the other parts of machine is known as a Link or Element.

CLASSIFICATION – RIGID LINK, FLEXIBLE AND FLUID LINK

Links can be classified in two manner:

I. Depending upon the flexible property of their material

Rigid Link:
Rigid links are those links that does not undergo any change of
shape when they transmit motion. In reality, no rigid links exist. But
kinematic links whose deformation is very small are considered as
rigid links. These links do not undergo significant deformation while
transmitting motion.

Examples:

Connecting rod and crank pin in a steam engine, bed and spindle of
a lathe do not have appreciable deflection and as such they can be
termed as rigid links.

Flexible link:

A flexible link undergoes partial deformation while transmitting

motion. Its deformation does not affect its transmission
effectiveness.

Examples:

Flexible links are belts (in belt drives) and chains (in chain drives).

Fluid Link:

A fluid link makes use of a fluid (liquid or gas) to transmit motion,

by means of pressure. Fluid links undergo deformation while
transmitting motion. This is one which is having a fluid in a
receptacle and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by
pressure or compression only.

Examples:

Pneumatic punching presses, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic brakes.

II. Depending upon the number of ends provided:

Binary Link: Having two ends for turning pairs.

Ternary Link: Having three ends for turning pairs.

Quaternary Link: Having four ends for turning pairs.

1.2 Types Of Kinematic Pairs – Sliding, Turning, Rolling,

Screw And Spherical Pairs – Lower And Higher Pairs –
Closed And Open Pairs
Kinematic pair

A kinematic pair is defined as a joint of two links having a relative

motion between them.

Kinematic pairs are classified as follows :

Lower pair

(b) Higher pair

(c) Wrapping pair

Types of Lower Pairs

There are six types of lower pairs as given below :

(a) Revolute or Turning Pair (Hinged Joint)

(b) Prismatic of Sliding Pair
(c) Screw Pair
(d) Cylindrical Pair
(e) Spherical Pair
(f) Planar Pair
A) Revolute or Turning Pair (Hinged Joint)

A revolute pair allows only one relative rotation between elements

1 and 2, which can be expressed by a single coordinate θ. A
revolute pair has a single degree of freedom.

Revolute or Turning Pair

B) Prismatic or Sliding Pair

A prismatic pair allows only a relative translation between

elements 1 and 2, which can be expressed by a single coordinate ‘s’
and it has one degree of freedom.
 Prismatic or Sliding Pair

C) Screw Pair

A screw pair allows rotation as well as translation but these two

movements are related to each other. Therefore, screw pair has
one degree of freedom because the relative movement between 1
and 2 can be expressed by a single coordinate ‘θ’ or ‘s’. These two
coordinates are related by the following relation :

where, L is lead of the screw.

 Screw Pair

D) Cylindrical Pair

A cylindrical pair allows both rotation and translation parallel to the

axis of rotation between elements 1 and 2. These relative
movements can be expressed by two independent coordinates ‘θ’
or ‘s’ because they are not related with each other. Degrees of
freedom in this case is two.

Cylindrical Pair

E) Spherical Pair

are required to specify the position of axis OA and the third

coordinate ‘θ describes the rotation about the axis of OA. This pair
has three degrees of freedom.A ball and socket joint forms a
spherical pair. Any rotation of element 2 relative to 1 can be
resolved in the three components. Therefore, the complete
description of motion requires three independent coordinates. Two
of these coordinates ‘α and ‘β
 Spherical Pair

F) Planar Pair

The relative motion between 1 and 2 can be described by x and y

coordinates in x-y plane. The x and y coordinates describe relative
translation and θ describes relative rotation about z-axis. This pair
has three degrees of freedom.

Planar Pair

Higher pair
In higher pair connection between two elements is only a point or
line contact. The cam and follower arrangement is an example of
this pair. The contact between cam and flat faced follower is
through a line. Other examples are ball bearings, roller bearings,
gears, etc.

A cylinder rolling on a flat surface has a line contact while a

spherical ball moving on a flat surface has a point contact.

Higher pair

Classification of Pairs Based on Type of Closure

In closed pairs, one element is completely surrounded by the other

so that it is held in place in all possible positions. Restraint is
achieved only by the form of pair and hence the pair is called
closed or self-closed pair. The other possible definition of closed
pair is, "closed pairs are those pairs in which elements are held
together mechanically." All the lower pairs and a few higher pairs
fall in the category of closed pairs.

Open kinematic pairs maintain relative positions only when there

is some external means to prevent separation of contacting
elements. Open pairs are also called as 'unclosed pairs'. A cam and
roller-follower mechanism, held in contact due to spring force is an
open pair.

1.3 Constrained Motion – Completely, Partially Or Successfully

Constrained And Incompletely Constrained .

In kinematic pairs, constrained motion (or relative motion) can be

broadly classified into three types. They are

1. Completely constrained motion

2. Incompletely constrained motion
3. Partially (or successfully) constrained motion
Completely constrained motion:

• In this type the relative motion between the links of a kinematic

pair occurs in a definite direction by itself, irrespective of the
external forces applied.
 Completely constrained motion

• Square bar in a square hole undergoes completely constrained

motion.

• Even when any external force is applied, a square bar always

slides inside the square hole. It does not turn.

Incompletely constrained motion:

In this type of motion, the relative motion between the links

depend on the direction of external forces acting on them.
Depending on the direction of external forces applied, the shaft
may slide or turn (or do both) inside the circular hole.

Incompletely constrained motion is undesirable in any mechanical

system. It leads to improper mechanical outputs.

Incompletely constrained motion

Shaft in a circular hole undergoes incompletely constrained motion.

Partially (or successfully) constrained motion:

A kinematic pair is said to be partially or successfully constrained if

the relative motion between its links occurs in a definite direction,
not by itself, but by some other means. A good example of
successfully constrained motion is piston reciprocating inside a
cylinder in an internal combustion engine.

When a piston is placed in a cylinder, it undergoes reciprocating

(upward and downward motion) and turning motion, depending on
the external forces applied. It is incompletely constrained.

But if the piston is connected to a connecting rod, the motion is

successfully constrained (only reciprocating motion).

Partially (or successfully) constrained motion

1.4 Grubler’s Criteria , Grashoff’s Law , Degrees Of Freedom,

Kutzbach Criteria For Planar Mechanisms,

Mobility

The mobility of a mechanism is defined as the number of input

parameters (usually pair variables) which must be controlled
independently in order to bring the device into a particular
position.

1.4.1 Grubler’s criterion

The degrees of freedom of a mechanism is the number of

independent relative motions among the rigid bodies. For
example,figure given below shows several cases of a rigid body
constrained by different kinds of pairs.

Rigid bodies constrained by different kinds of planar pairs

In the above figure(1), a rigid body is constrained by a revolute pair

which allows only rotational movement around an axis. It has one
degree of freedom, turning around point A. The two lost degrees of
freedom are translational movements along the x and y axes. The
only way the rigid body can move is to rotate about the fixed point
A.

In the above figure(2), a rigid body is constrained by a prismatic

pair which allows only translational motion. In two dimensions, it
has one degree of freedom, translating along the x axis. In this
example, the body has lost the ability to rotate about any axis and
it cannot move along the y axis.

In the above figure(3), a rigid body is constrained by a higher pair. It

has two degrees of freedom: translating along the curved surface
and turning about the instantaneous contact point.

In general, a rigid body in a plane has three degrees of freedom.

Kinematic pairs are constraints on rigid bodies that reduce the
degrees of freedom of a mechanism. These pairs reduce the
number of the degrees of freedom.
If we create a lower pair [Figure (1),(2)], the degrees of freedom
are reduced to 2. Similarly, if we create a higher pair [Figure(3)],
the degrees of freedom are reduced to 1.

Kinematic Pairs in Planar Mechanisms

Therefore, we can write the following equation:

Where,

F = Total degrees of freedom in the mechanism

n = Number of links (including the frame)

l = Number of lower pairs (one degree of freedom)

h = Number of higher pairs (two degrees of freedom)

An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the

following independent motions.

1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular

axes x, y and z,

2. Rotational motions along these axes.

Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection
of a link with another imposes certain constraints on their relative
motion. The number of restraints can never be zero (joint is
disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).

1.4.2 Degree Of Freedom

The number of input parameters which must be independently

controlled in order to bring the mechanism into a useful
engineering purpose..

Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of

independent relative motions, both translational and rotational, a
pair can have.

Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.

To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism

we have an equation known as Grubler’s equation and is given by

(i.e) n = 3(l - 1) - 2j - h

l = 3, d = 2, h = 1

= 3(3 - 1) - 2(2) - 1

n = 1.

If F > 0, results in a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom.

F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.

F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

1.4.3 Kutzbach criterion

The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called
the mobility of the device. The mobility is the number of input
parameters (usually pair variables) that must be independently
controlled to bring the device into a particular position. The
Kutzbach criterion, which is similar to Gruebler's equation,
calculates the mobility.

Transom mechanism

In order to control a mechanism, the number of independent input

motions must equal the number of degrees of freedom of the
mechanism. For example, the transom in above the Figure(a) has a
single degree of freedom, so it needs one independent input
motion to open or close the window. That is, we just push or pull
rod 3 to operate the window.

To see another example, the mechanism in above the figure(b) also

has 1 degree of freedom. If an independent input is applied to link
1 (e.g., a motor is mounted on joint A to drive link 1), the
mechanism will have the a prescribed motion.

Working of Kutzbach criterion

The mobility of a mechanism is defined as the number of input
parameters (usually pair variables) which must be controlled
independently in order to bring the device into a particular
position.

It is possible to express the number of degrees of freedom of a

mechanism in terms of the number of links and the number of pair
connections of a given type. This is known as number synthesis.

Let there are two links 1 and 2 in which link 1 is fixed, as shown in
figure. The link 2 has a point A over it and translated by co-
ordinates x a and Ya.

It can be written as A(xa, Ya).

A and B makes an angle θ with the fixed link 1 (OX). Link 2 specified
by three variable (x A, YA, ).

Let, Number of Links = l.

So, Number of Movable links = (l - 1) and total number of degree of

freedom before they are connected to any other link =3(l - 1).

If, J = Number of binary Joints or lower pair

h= Number of higher pairs,

n = 3(l - 1) - 2j - h.

This equation is called Kutzbach criterion for the movability of a

mechanism having plane mechanism.

1.4.4 Grashoff’s Law

Grashoff’s law states that for a planar four bar linkage, the sum of
the shortest and the longest link lengths cannot be greater than the
sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is to continuous
relative motion between them.

It Consider a four-bar-linkage. Denote the smallest link by S , the

longest link by L and the other two links by M1 and M2 .If given by,

L + S < M1 + M2

then depending whether S is connected to the ground by one end,

two ends or no end, the mechanism has the following type:

Mechanism Is Of a Rocker-Rocker Type.

L + S > M1 + M2 ,
Problem
1)The transom above the door is shown in the figure(a). The
opening and closing mechanisms are shown
in figure(b). Let us calculate its degree of freedom.

n = 4 (link 1,3,3 and frame 4), l = 4 (at A, B, C, D), h = 0

Note: D and E function as a same prismatic pair, so they only count

as one lower pair.

2) Let us determine the degree of freedom for the following

mechanism listed below.

1. The mechanism, as shown in Figure. (a), has three links and three
binary joints,
i.e. l= 3 and j = 3

F = 3 (3-1)-2x3=0

2. The mechanism, as shown in Figure. (b), has four links and four
binary joints,

i.e. l = 4 and j = 4

F = 3 (4-1) -2x4 = 1 3.

3. The mechanism, as shown in Figure. (c), has five links and five
binary joints,

i.e. l = 5 and j = 5

F = 3(5-1)-2x5 = 2

3) Let us determine the degree of freedom for the following

mechanism listed below.

Number of links l = 7

Number of equivalent binary joints ,J = 8

Number of higher pairs ,h =0

Dof =3(l-1)-2j-h

= 3(7-1)-(2*8)-h

= 18-16

=2

From the above image we infer the following:

No of links,l=9

No of equivalent binary joints, j=10

No of higher pairs,h =0

Dof =3(l-1)-2j-h

= 3(9-1)-(2*10)-0

=24-20 =4

4. M1, M2, M3 and M4 are four-bar linkages as shown in figure. The

numbers on the figure indicate the respective link lengths in
cm. Let us identify the nature of the mechanism, i.e., whether
double crank, crank rocker or double rocker.

Solution

i) AD = 5 cm,

AB = 8 cm,

BC = 10 cm,

CD = 9 cm.
Let

l = length of the longest link = 10 cm

S = length of the shortest link = 5 cm

p, q = length of the other two links = 8 cm and 9 cm.

We know that, if (l + s) (p + q), then the linkage is known as

Grashoff’s linkage.

Here, (10 + 5) (8 + 9), so given linkage is the Grashoff’s linkage.

ii) D = 10 cm

AB = 6 cm

BC = 11 cm

CD - 9 cm.

Let l = Length of the longest link = 11 cm

S = Length of the shortest link = 6

p, q = Length of the other two link = 10 cm and 9 cm.

If (l + s) (p + q) = (11 + 6) (10 + 9), so given linkage is the Grashoff’s

linkage.
Iii) AD = 12 cm

AB = 8 cm

BC = 15 cm

CD = 10 cm

Let

l = Length of the longest link = 15 cm

S = Length of the shortest link = 8 cm

p, q = Length of the other two link = 2 cm and 10 cm.

If (l + s) < (p + q) = (15 + 8) & (12 + 10)

iv)

Let

l = Length of longest link = 10 cm

S = Length of the shortest link = 5 cm

p, q = Length of the other two link = 8 cm and 9 cm.

If (l + s) < (p + q) = (10 + 5) & (8 + 9).

Mi & M2 are Grashoff’s linkage. For Grashoff’s linkage,

The following three mechanisms are possible.

(i) A double-crank mechanism when ‘S’ is the frame.

(ii) Two different crank-rocker mechanism, when ‘S’ is crank and

any one of adjacent link is frame.

(iii) One double-rocker mechanism, when ‘S’ is the coupler

(opposite to the frame).

1.5 Mechanism And Machines – Classification Of Machines –

Kinematic Chain – Inversion Of Mechanism.

Mechanism:

The fundamental physical or chemical processes involved in or

responsible for an action, reaction or other natural phenomenon.

Machine:

An assemblage of parts that transmit forces, motion and energy in

a predetermined manner.

Simple Machine:

The Included in this category are the lever, wheel and axle, pulley,
inclined plane, wedge and the screw.
In kinematics, a mechanism is a means of transmitting, controlling
or constraining relative movement. Movements which are
electrically, magnetically, pneumatically operated are excluded
from the concept of mechanism. The central theme for
mechanisms is rigid bodies connected together by joints.

A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and

connected do that they move with definite relative motions and
transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be
overcome. A machine has two functions: transmitting definite
relative motion and transmitting force. These functions require
strength and rigidity to transmit the forces.

The term mechanism is applied to the combination of geometrical

bodies which constitute a machine or part of a machine. A
mechanism may therefore be defined as a combination of rigid or
resistant bodies, formed and connected so that they move with
definite relative motions with respect to one another.

Although a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering

components are rigid because their deformations and distortions
are negligible in comparison with their relative movements.

The similarity between machines and mechanisms is that

• They are both combinations of rigid bodies

• The relative motion among the rigid bodies are definite.

The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines

transform energy to do work, while mechanisms so not necessarily
perform this function.
The term machinery generally means machines and mechanisms.
Figure(a) shows a picture of the main part of a diesel engine. The
mechanism of its cylinder-link-crank parts is a slider-crank
mechanism, as shown in figure (b).

Cross section of a power cylinder in a diesel engine

(b) Skeleton outline

A mechanism can be defined as a combination of resistant bodies

connected in such a way that they have a relative motion with each
other.

A machine is a collection of several mechanisms which transmits

force from power source to perform some useful work.
1.5.1 Kinematic Chain

• It is a combination of several successively arranged joints

constituting a complex motor system.

• Kinematic chain is when a number of links are united in series.

• The kinematic chain may be open or closed.

• In a closed kinematic chain, the distal segment is fixed and the

end segments are unite to form a ring or a circuit. When one link
moves all the other links will move in a predictable pattern. e.g. the
rib cage.

• In an open kinematic chain, the distal segment terminates free in

space.

• Each segment of an open chain has a characteristic degree of

freedom of motion, the distal possessing a higher degree of
freedom than the proximal ones.

• Such linkage system allows the degrees of freedom of the many

joints in the chain to be pooled giving the segments (particularly
those more distal) greater potential for achieving a variety of
movements than any one joint could possibly have on its own.
Example when reaching forward to pick up a small object from a
high shelf.

Open Chain Close Chain

The distal end terminates free in
The distal segment is fixed
space
1) the terminal joint meets with
It has a characteristic degree of great resistance which restraints its
freedom. The distal segments free motion.
possess higher degrees of freedom Example: Chinning oneself on
than the proximal one. horizontal bar or stance phase of
gait cycle.
Such linkage system allows the
degree of freedom of many joints in 2) End segments are united to form
the chain to be pooled giving the a ring when one link moves, the
segments greater potential for other links will move in a
achieving a variety of movements predictable patter. Example: rib
than can any one joint could cage.
possibly have on its own.

Kinematic inversion

Kinematic inversion is defined as the process of fixing different links

of a kinematic chain one at a time to produce different
mechanisms.
Inversions of 4R-Kinematic Chain

All the four inversions of 4R-kinematic chain are identical. By

altering the proportions of lengths of links 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively
several mechanisms are obtained.

First Inversion

Crank - Lever Mechanism or Crank-rocker Mechanism

In this case for every complete rotation of link 2 (called a crank),

the link 4 (called a lever or rocker), makes oscillation between
extreme positions O4B1 and O4B2.
 Crank-rocker Mechanism

The position of O4B1 is obtained when point A is A1 whereas

position O4B2 is obtained when A is at A2. It may be observed that
crank angles for the two strokes (forward and backward) of
oscillating link O4B are not same. It may also be noted that the
length of the crank is very short. If I1, I2, I3 and I4 are lengths of links
1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, the proportions of the link may be as
follows :

Double-lever Mechanism or Rocker-Rocker Mechanism

In this mechanism, both the links 2 and 4 can only oscillate. Link
O2A oscillates between positions O2A1 and O2A2 whereas O4B
oscillates between positions O4B1 and O4B2. Position O4B2 is
obtained when O2A and AB are along straight line and position
O2A1 is obtained when AB and O4B are along straight line.
 Double-lever Mechanism

It may be observed that link AB has shorter length as compared to

other links. If links 2 and 4 are of equal lengths and I1 > I3, this
mechanism forms automobile steering gear.

Double Crank Mechanism

The links 2 and 4 of the double crank mechanism make complete

revolutions. There are two forms of this mechanism.

• Parallel Crank Mechanism

In this mechanism, lengths of links 2 and 4 are equal. Lengths of

links 1 and 3 are also equal.

Double Crank Mechanism

The familiar example is coupling of the locomotive wheels where

wheels act as cranks of equal length and length of the coupling rod
is equal to centre distance between the two coupled wheels.

• Drag Link Mechanism

In this mechanism also links 2 and 4 make full rotation. As the link 2
and 4 rotate sometimes link 4 rotate faster and sometimes it
becomes slow in rotation.

The length of link 1 is smaller as compared to other links.

Drag Link Mechanism

1.5.2 Inversions Of Quadric Cycle

The kinematic chain is a combination of four or more kinematic

pairs, such that the relative motion between the links or elements
is completely constrained.The simplest and the basic kinematic
chain is a four bar chain or quadric cycle chain, as shown in figure.
 Four bar chain

It consists of four links, each of them forms a turning pair at A, B, C

and D. The four links may be of different lengths. According to
Grashof ’s law for a four bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest
and longest link lengths should not be greater than the sum of the
remaining two link lengths if there is to be continuous relative
motion between the two links.

It consideration in designing a mechanism is to ensure that the

input crank makes a complete revolution relative to the other links.
The mechanism in which no link makes a complete revolution will
not be useful. In a four bar chain, one of the links, in particular the
shortest link, will make a complete revolution relative to the other
three links, if it satisfies the Grashof ’s law.

Such a link is known as crank or driver. In Figure AD (link 4 ) is a

crank. The link BC (link 2) which makes a partial rotation or
oscillates is known as lever or rocker or follower and the link CD
(link 3) which connects the crank and lever is called connecting rod
or coupler. The fixed link AB (link 1) is known as frame of the
mechanism. When the crank (link 4) is the driver, the mechanism is
transforming rotary motion into oscillating motion.

1.6 Chain – Single And Double Slider Crank Chains.

Inversions of 3R-1P Kinematic Chain or Inversions of Slider Crank
Chain

In this four bar kinematic chain, four links shown by blocks are
connected through three revolute pairs T1, T2 and T3 and one
prismatic pair.

Inversions of Slider Crank Chain

First Inversion

In this mechanism link 1 is fixed, link 2 works as crank, link 4 works

as a slider and link 3 connects link 2 with 4. It is called connecting
rod. Between links 1 and 4 sliding pair has been provided.

First Inversion
This mechanism is also known as slider crank chain or reciprocating
engine mechanism because it is used in internal combustion
engines. It is also used in reciprocating pumps as it converts
rotatory motion into reciprocating motion and vice-versa.

Second Inversion

In this case link 2 is fixed and link 3 works as crank. Link 1 is a

slotted link which facilitates movement of link 4(slider). This
arrangement gives quick return motion mechanism. The motion of
link 1 can be taped through a link and provided to ram of shaper
machine.

The forward stroke starts when link 3 occupies position O 4 Q. At

that time, point A is at A1. The forward stroke ends when link 3
occupies position O4P and point A occupies position A2. The return
stroke takes place when link 3 moves from position O4P to O4Q. The
stroke length is distance between A1 and A2 along line of stroke. If
acute angle < PO4 Q = θ and crank rotates at constant speed .

Second Inversion
Third Inversion

This inversion is obtained by fixing link 3. Some applications of this

inversion are oscillating cylinder engine and crank and slotted lever
quick return motion mechanism of a shaper machine. Link 1 works
as a slider which slides in slotted or cylindrical link 4. Link 2 works
as a crank.
Third Inversion

The motion of link 4 in crank and slotted lever quick return motion
mechanism can be taped through link 5 and can be transferred to
ram. O2A1 and O2A2 are two positions of crank when link 4 will be
tangential to the crank circle and corresponding to which ram will
have extreme positions.

When crank travels from position O2A1 and O2A2 forward stroke
takes place. When crank moves further from position O2A2 to
O2A1 return stroke takes place. Therefore, for constant angular
velocity for crank ω.
Fourth Inversion – Pendulum Pump

It is obtained by fixing link 4 which is slider. The applications of this

inversion is limited. The pendulum pump and hand pump are
examples of this inversion. In pendulum pump, link 3 oscillates like
a pendulum and link 1 has translatory motion which can be used
for a pump.

Fourth Inversion – Pendulum Pump

Inversions of 2R-2P Kinematic Chain or Double Slider Crank Chain

This four bar kinematic chain has two revolute or turning pairs –
T1 and T2and two prismatic or sliding pairs – S1 and S2. This chain
provides three different mechanisms.

Inversions of 2R-2P Kinematic Chain

First Inversion

The first inversion is obtained by fixing link 1. As a result Scotch

Yoke is obtained. The link 1 is a slider similar to link 3. Link 2 works
as a crank. Link 4 is a slotted link. When link 2 rotates, link 4 has
simple harmonic motion for angle θ of link 2, the displacement of
link 4 is given by,

Scotch Yoke Mechanism

Second Inversion

In this case, link 2 is fixed and a mechanism called Oldham’s

coupling is obtained. This coupling is used to connect two shafts
which have eccentricity.The axes of the two shafts are parallel but
displaced by distance . The link 4 slides in the two slots provided
in links 3 and 1. The centre of this link will move on a circle with
diameter equal to eccentricity.

Oldham’s coupling

Third Inversion

This inversion is obtained by fixing link 4. The mechanism so

obtained is called elliptical trammel. This mechanism is used to
draw ellipse. The link 1, which is slider, moves in a horizontal slot of
fixed link 4. The link 3 is also a slider moves in vertical slot. The
point D on the extended portion of link 2 traces ellipse with the
system of axes shown in the figure, the position coordinates of
point D are as follows :
Substituting for sin θ and cos θ in this equation, the following
equation of ellipse is obtained.

The semi simple mechanisms - major axis of the ellipse is AD and

semi-minor axis is CD

Problem:

The mechanism shown in Figure. below, the link AB rotates with a

uniform angular velocity of 30 rad/s. Let us determine the velocity
and acceleration of G for the configuration shown. The length of
the various links are, AB=100 mm; BC=300 mm; BD=150 mm;
DE=250 mm; EF=200 mm; DG=167 mm; angle CAB=30.

Solution:

Given:

AB=100 mm, BC=300 mm, BD=150 mm

DE=250 mm, EF=200 mm, DG=167 mm

Angle CAB=30.

The uniform angular velocity of 30 rad/s.

To draw velocity diagram:

Mechanism drawn by scale 0.2mm/mm

Velocity drawn by scale 13.33mm/m/s
To draw the acceleration diagram:
Acceleration drawn by scale0.78 mm/m/s
The mechanism of a moulding press in which OA=80 mm, AB=320
mm, BC=120 mm, BD=320 mm. The vertical distance of OC is 240
mm and horizontal distance of OD is 160 mm. When the crank OA
rotates at 120 r.p.m. anticlockwise, let us determine the
acceleration of D and angular acceleration of the link BD.

Solution:
O,C point of zero velocity
To draw the accelaration diagram
UNIT II
LOWER PAIR MECHANISM
Topic

LOWER PAIR MECHANISM: Exact and approximate copiers and

generated types – Peaucellier, Hart and Scott Russel – Grasshopper
– Watt T. Chebicheff and Robert Mechanisms and straight line
motion, Pantograph. Conditions for correct steering – Davis
Steering gear, Ackermans steering gear – velocity ratio; Hooke’s
Joint: Single and double – Universal coupling–application–
problems.

Objective: The objective of this unit is to make student understand

various mechanisms for straight line motion and their applications
including steering mechanism.

2.1 Exact And Approximate Copiers And Generated Types –

Peaucellier, Hart And Scott Russell– Grasshopper – Watt T.
2.1.1 Peaucellier mechanism

Peaucellier linkage can convert input circular motion to the exact

straight line motion. The construction of this mechanism is as
follows, the point which is connected to the crank moves in a
circular path and the point traversing the straight line is selected as
the output point. The linkage has a rhombic loop formed of the
equal length members, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Two equal length links are
connected to the opposite corners of the rhombus at one end and
to a common fixed point at the other ends. The point A of the
rhombus is connect to fixed point O2 through the link 2.
The length of the link 2 is equal to the distance between points
O2 and O4. The geometry point A moves in a circular path and as
the point A moves in a circle point P traverses an exact straight line
path normal to the line joining O2 and O4.This mechanism has eight
members and six joints.

Peaucellier mechanism
2.1.2 Harts Linkage

Similar to Peaucellier linkage, Hart's linkage is used to convert

circular to rectilinear motion.

The device consists of four rods AB, BC, CD and AD, such that AB =
CD and BC = AD and AD and BC intersect. O, P, Q on AB, AD and BC
satisfy

______ 1
for 0 < m < 1. In ΔABD, (1) implies OP and BD. Similarly, in ΔABC, AQ
and AC. Because of the symmetry or sinceΔABC = ΔADC), the
quadrilateral ABDC is an isosceles trapezoid, so that BD and AC. It
then follows from (1) that the three points O, P, Q are collinear and
belong to a line parallel to both AC and BD.

_______ 2

It indicates that P and Q are mutually inverse under an inversion

with center O. This means that, if O is fixed and P traces a curve, Q
will trace the inverse image of the curve. If an additional rod SP is
so attached to the configuration that and S is fixed,

SP = SO ________ 3

then P will trace a circle that passes through the center O of

inversion. It follows that Q will then describe a segment of a
straight line.

Harts Linkage

The applet below demonstrates this property. The points A, B, D, O

and S are drag gable for the purpose of defining (or redefining) the
attributes of the configuration. However, when P is dragged both O
and S remain fixed.
Note that the dimensions of the rods impose certain limitations on
the relative positions of the rods. When these are about to be
violated while P is being dragged, the applet stops tracing the
points. If this happens, return P into the arc already drawn and
reconfigure from here.

Draw AE and CF perpendicular to BD (hence also to AC.)

________ 4

By the Pythagorean theorem,

From 4 we get,

_________ 5

Also

_________ 6

Equating 5 and 6 we get,

2.1.3 Scott-Russell Exact Straight Line Mechanism:

Scott Russell linkage gives a theoretically linear motion by using a
linkage form with three portions of the links all equal and a rolling
or sliding connection.The complexity of the mechanisms to
generate exact straight lines can be reduced by introduction of one
or more slider crank linkages.

It is possible to generate an exact straight line using the slider crank

mechanism but having the limitation of limited range of motion.
One such example is Scott-Russell Mechanism as shown in the
figure. Based on the geometry of the linkage the output motion is a
simple sine function of the drive link or a simple harmonic motion.
It is evident from the figure that this mechanism is made up of
isosceles triangles, AB, AC and AO2 are of equal lengths.

Scott-Russell Exact Straight Line Mechanism

2.1.4 Grasshopper mechanism

It is the modification of Scott-Russel’s mechanism with the

difference that Point P does not slide along straight line. It is a four
bar mechanism and all the pairs are turning pairs. In this, O and
O1 are fixed and link OA oscillates about O
 Grasshopper mechanism
2.1.5 Watts Mechanism

It is a crossed four bar chain mechanism and in steam engines it

guides the piston rod to have an approximate straight line motion.

Watts Mechanism

In the mean position of the mechanism, links OB and O1A are

parallel and the coupling rod AB is perpendicular to O1A and OB.

The tracing point P traces an approximate straight line over certain

positions of its movement.
2.2 Chebicheff and Robert Mechanisms and straight line
motion, Pantograph.
2.2.1 Chebyshev's Straight Line Mechanism

The Chebyshev straight line mechanism is a four bar linkage

mechanism. After steam engine and straight line mechanism by
Watt was invented, a range of straight line mechanisms were
designed. Chebyshev's mechanism was the first mechanism to be
designed after Watt's linkage. It was designed by an Russian
Mathematician Pafnuty Chebyshev. This mechanism was used for
linear guidance of the piston and valves.

It has a double rocker and the mid point of the coupler is the point
tracing the approximate linear path. This mechanism had two
critical advantages over Watt's linkage: a very long segment of the
path of the coupler midpoint is approximately linear and both fixed
points of the linkage are on the same side of the linear path, which
in case of Watt's linkage are on opposite sides. The required
proportions of the length of members of the linkage are a = 1, b =
2.5 and c = 2.

2.2.2 Robert's Straight Line Mechanism

Robert's approximate straight line mechanism is a symmetrical four
bar linkage. The Robert's mechanism has an extension to the
coupler at the coupler mid point. This extension is perpendicular to
the line joining the two adjacent joints. The end point of the
coupler extension generates an approximate straight line for the
motion between the fixed pivots.

This mechanism designed by Richard Robert has the proportions of

lengths of members of the linkage as, a = 1, b = 1.2, c = 2 and d =
1.09.

This approximate straight line mechanism was generally used for

linear guidance of the tracing point. The point required to traverse
on straight line is constrained to the end point of the coupler
extension. This mechanism was normally used in the coupler driven
mode.

Robert's Straight Line Mechanism

2.2.3 Panto graph

Panto graph is used to copy the curves in reduced or enlarged

scales. Hence this mechanism finds its use in copying devices such
as engraving or profiling machines.
 Panto graph

In the figure above, the links are pin jointed at A, B, C and B, AB is

parallel to DC and AD is parallel to BC. Link BA is extended to fixed
pin 0. Q is a point on the link AD. If the motion of Q is to be
enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O, Q and P are
in a straight line. Then it can be shown that the point P and Q
always more parallel and similar to each other over any path
straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their
distance from the fixed point.

Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1,

then all the links and the joints will move to the new positions
(such as A moves to A1, B moves to Q1, C moves to Q1, D moves to
D1 and P to P1) and new configuration of the mechanism is shown
by dotted lines. The movement of Q (QQ1) will be enlarged to PP1 in
a definite ratio.

2.3 Conditions for correct steering – Davis Steering gear,

Ackermans steering gear – velocity ratio
2.3.1 Condition for perfect steering
The condition for perfect steering is that all the four wheels must
turn about the same instantaneous centre. While negotiating a
curve, the inner wheel makes a larger turning angle θ than the
angle φ subtended by the axis of the outer wheel.

In the figure below, a = wheel track, L = wheel base, w = distance

between the pivots of front axles.

Condition for perfect steering

This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this

condition is satisfied, there will be no skidding of the wheels when
the vehicle takes a turn.
2.3.2 Davis Steering Gear mechanism

It consists of the main axle AC having a parallel bar MN at a

distance h. The steering is accomplished by sliding bar MN within
the guides (shown) either to left or to the right hand side. KAB and
LCD are two bell-crank levers pivoted with the main axle at A and C
respectively such that BAK and DCL remain always constant.

Arms AK and CL have been provided with slots and these house die-
blocks M and N. With the movement of bar MN at the fixed height,
it is the slotted arms AK and CL which side relative to the die-blocks
M and N.

Now suppose, for giving a turn to the right hand side, the base MN
is moved to the right side by distance x. The bell-crank levers will
change to the positions shown by dotted lines in Figure (b). The
angle turned by the inner wheel and the outer wheels are θ and Ø
respectively. The arms BA and CD when produced will meet say at
1, which will be the instantaneous centre.
Davis Steering Gear mechanism
After obtaining the expressions for tan Ø and tan θ, let us not take
up the fundamental equation of steering :
2.3.3 Ackermann Steering Gear

This is simpler than that of the Davis steering gear mechanism. It is

based upon four-bar chain. The two opposite links AC and MN are
unequal; AC being longer than MN. The other two opposite links
AM and CN are equal in length. When the vehicle is moving on a
straight path link AC and MN are parallel to each other.

The shorter links AM and CN are inclined at angle α to the

longitudinal axis of the vehicle as shown. AB and CD are stub axles
but integral part of AM and CN such that BAM and DCN are bell-
crank levers pivoted at A and C. Link AM and CN are known as track
arms and the link MN as track rod. The track rod is moved towards
left or right hand sides for steering.

For steering a vehicle on right hand side, link NM is moved towards

left hand side with the result that the link CN turns clockwise. Thus,
the angle α is increased and that on the other side, it is decreased.
From the arrangement of the links it is clear that the link CN or the
inner wheel will turn by an angle θ which is more than the angle of
turn of the outer wheel or the link AM.

Ackermann Steering Gear

To satisfy the basic equation of steering :

the links AM and MN are suitably proportioned and the angle α is

suitable selected. In a given automobile, with known dimensions of
the four-bar links, angle α is known. For different angle of turn θ,
the corresponding value of Ø are noted.
This is done by actually drawing the mechanism to a scale. Thus, for
different values of θ, the corresponding value of Ø and (cot Ø - cot
θ) are tabulated.

As given above, for correct steering

For approximately correct steering, value of a/l should be between

0.4 and 0.5.

Generally, it is 0.455. In fact, there are three values of θ which give

correct steering; one when θ = 0, second and third for
corresponding turning to the right and the left hand. Now there are
two values of Ø corresponding to given values of θ.

The value actually determined graphically by drawing the

mechanism and tabulating Ø corresponding to different values of θ
is known as actual Ø or Øa.

2.4 Hooke’s Joint: Single and double – Universal coupling–

application–problems
Hook’s Joint or Universal Coupling

It is used for connecting two shafts whose axes are non-parallel but
intersecting. Both the shafts, driving and the driven, are forked at
their ends. Each fork provides for two bearings for the respective
arms of the cross. The cross has two mutually perpendicular arms.
The cross acts as an intermediate link between the two shafts. The
driven shaft has been shown as inclined at an angle α with the
driving shaft.
 Hook’s Joint

The Hook’s joint is generally used for transmission of motion from

the gear box to the back axle of automobile and in the transmission
of drive to the spindles in a multi-spindle drilling machines. There
are host of other applications of the Hooks joint where motion is
required to be transmitted in non-parallel shafts with their axes
intersecting. The figure (a) gives the end of the driving shafts. AB
and CD are the mutually perpendicular arms of the cross in the
initial position.

Arm AB is of the driving shaft and CD for the driven shaft. The plan
of rotation of the driving shaft and its arm AB will be represented in
the plane of the paper in elevation. In figure (b), i.e. in the plan the
direction of driving and driven shaft and that of the cross arms are
given. The driven shaft is inclined at an angle α with the axis of the
driving shaft.

The PP gives the direction of the arm connected to the driving shaft
and QQ gives the direction of the arm connected to the driven
shaft. In fact, the traces PP and QQ give the plane of rotation of the
arms of the cross.
Now, suppose, the driving shaft turns by angle θ. The arm AB will
also turn by θ and will take the position A1B1 as shown in the
elevation. Suppose, correspondingly the driven shaft and its arm
CD are rotated by Ø. The new position of CD is C2O. With the
rotation of AB by θ, it is the projection C1D1 of CD which will rotate
through angle θ. OC1 is the projection of OC and its sure length is
given by OC2 and accordingly the angle of rotation Ø of the arm CD
of the driven shaft, is known.
We know that

By above equation
From equation 2,
UNIT III
KINEMATICS AND PLANE MOTION
OF BODY
Topic

KINEMATICS: Velocity and acceleration – Motion of a link in

machine – Determination of Velocity and acceleration diagrams –
Graphical method – Application of relative velocity method four
bar chain. Velocity and acceleration analysis of for a given
mechanism, Kleins construction, Coriolis acceleration,
determination of Coriolis component of acceleration.

Plane motion of body: Instantaneous center of rotation, centroids

and axodes – relative motion between two bodies – Three centres
in line theorem – Graphical determination of instantaneous centre,
diagrams for simple mechanisms and determination of angular
velocity of points and links.

Objective : The objective of this unit is to make student understand

the velocity and acceleration concepts and the methodology using
graphical methods and principles and application of four bar chain.
To understand the application of slider crank mechanism etc. and
study of plane motion of the body.

3.1 KINEMATICS: Velocity and acceleration – Motion of a

link in machine
Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and
travel by same distance known as linear displacement which is
denoted by ‘x’
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement is called velocity. Velocity
can be linear velocity of angular velocity.

Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration

A link AB moving in a vertical plane such that the link is inclined at
30o to the horizontal with point A is moving horizontally at 4 m/s
and point B moving vertically upwards. Let us find velocity of B.
3.2 Determination of Velocity and acceleration diagrams
Graphical method – Application of relative velocity method four
bar chain

The following points are to be considered while solving problems

by this method.

1. Draw the configuration design to a suitable scale.

2. Locate all fixed point in a mechanism as a common point in
velocity diagram. 3. Choose a suitable scale for the vector diagram
velocity

3. The velocity vector of each rotating link is perpendicular to the

link.

4. Velocity of each link in mechanism has both magnitude and

direction.

5. Start from a point whose magnitude and direction is known.

6. The points of the velocity diagram are indicated by small letters.

let us look at some examples.

Four – Bar Mechanism:

In a four bar chain ABCD link AD is fixed and in 15 cm long. The

crank AB is 4 cm long rotates at 180 rpm (cw) while link CD rotates
about D is 8 cm long BC = AD and = 60o . Let us find angular
velocity of link CD.
Slider Crank Mechanism:

In a crank and slotted lever mechanism crank rotates of 300 rpm in

a counter clockwise direction. Let us find (i) Angular velocity of
connecting rod and (ii) Velocity of slider
Shaper Mechanism: In a crank and slotted lever mechanisms crank
O2A rotates at ω rad/sec in CCW direction. Determine the velocity
of slider.
Rubbing velocity

Two links having a turning point in a mechanism will be connected

by pins. When the links are in motion they rub against pin surface.
The velocity of rubbing of pins depends on the angular velocity of
links relative to each other as well as direction.

For example: In a four bar mechanism we have pins at points A, B,

C and D.

+ sign is used ωab is CW and Wbc is CCW i.e. when angular velocities
are in opposite directions use + sign when angular velocities are in
some directions use -ve .
3.3 Velocity and acceleration analysis of for a given
mechanism - Kleins construction, Coriolis acceleration,
determination of Coriolis component of acceleration.
Kleins construction

This method helps us to draw the velocity and acceleration

diagrams on the construction diagram itself. The crank of the
configuration diagram represents the velocity and acceleration line
of the moving end (crank). The procedure is given below for a slider
crank mechanism.

Velocity vector diagram: Link OA represents the velocity vector of

A with respect to O.
Draw a line perpendicular at O, extend the line BA to meet this
perpendicular line at b. O ab is the velocity vector diagram rotated
through 90º opposite to the rotation of the crank.

Acceleration diagram:

The line representing Crank OA represents the acceleration of A

with respect to O. To draw the acceleration diagram follow the
steps given below.

• Draw a circle with OA as radius and A as centre.

• Draw another circle with AB as diameter.

• The two circles intersect each other at two points C and D.

• Join C and D to meet OB at b1 and AB at E

O1,a1,ba1and b1 is the required acceleration diagram rotated

through 1800.
Coriolis Acceleration:

A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration. A

slider attached to a rotating link (such that the slider is moving in or
out along the link as the link rotates) experiences all 4 components
of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these is the Coriolis
acceleration, though the concept of Coriolis acceleration is fairly
simple. Imagine yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-
round as it spins at a constant speed. We begin to walk toward the
outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed (dr/dt).

Even though we are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-

round is spinning at a constant speed, your total velocity is
increasing because we are moving away from the center of rotation
This is the coriolis acceleration.
Coriolis component of acceleration comes to picture when a slider
is sliding along a rotating link. The tangential component of
acceleration of slider with respect to the coincident point on the
link is known as Coriolis component of acceleration.

The expression for Coriolis component of acceleration is:

f Cr = 2 Vω.

where, f Cr = Coriolis acceleration of the particle

V = Velocity of the slider,

ω = Angular velocity of the link.

• Whit worth quick-return mechanism.

• Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism.

Problems

1. A slider sliding at 100 mm/sec on a link, which is rotating at 6

rpm is subjected to Coriolis acceleration. Let us find its
magnitude.

V = 100 mm/s

N = 60 rpm.

Coriolis acceleration

a° = 2 ω . V

= 2 × 6.28 × 100
a0 = 1,256 mm/s2

Introduction to linkage synthesis problem

Qualitative Synthesis – The creation of potential solution in the

absence of a well-defined algorithm that configures or predicts the
solution.

Quantitative Synthesis – Generation of one or more solution of a

particular type that we know to be suitable to the problem and
importantly, one for which there is a synthesis algorithm defined

Dimensional Synthesis – Is the determination of the proportions

(length) of the links necessary to accomplish the desired motions.

3.4 Plane motion of body: Instantaneous center of rotation,

centroids and axodes
Instantaneous Method

Let us consider a plane body P having a nonlinear motion relative

to another body q consider two points A and B on body P. Let the
velocities be Va and Vb respectively.

If a line is drawn ⊥r to Va, at A the body can be imagined to rotate

about some point on the line. Thirdly, centre of rotation of the
body also lies on a line ⊥r to the direction of Vb at B. If the
intersection of the two lines is at I, the body P will be rotating
about I at that instant.

The point I is known as the instantaneous centre of rotation for the

body P. The position of instantaneous centre changes with the
motion of the body,

In case of the ⊥r lines drawn from A and B meet outside the body P
as shown in the above figure.

If the direction of Va and Vb are parallel to the ⊥r at A and B met at

∞. This is the case when the body has linear motion.
3.5 Relative motion between two bodies – Three centres in
line theorem
Arnold Kennedy theorem of three centers:
It states that “If three bodies have motion relative to each other,
their instantaneous centers should lie in a straight line”.

Consider a three link mechanism with link 1 being fixed link 2

rotating about I12 and link 3 rotating about I13. Therefore I12 and
I13 are the instantaneous centers for link 2 and link 3. Let us assume
that instantaneous center of link 2 and 3 be at point A i.e. I 23. Point
A is a coincident point on link 2 and link 3.

Considering A on link 2, velocity of A with respect to I12 will be a

vector VA2 r to link A I12. Similarly for point A on link 3, velocity of A
with respect to I13 will be to A I13. It is seen that velocity vector of
VA2 and VA3 are in different directions which is impossible. Hence,
the instantaneous center of the two links cannot be at the assumed
position.

It can be seen that when I23 lies on the line joining I12 and I13 the
VA2 and VA3 will be same in magnitude and direction. Hence, for the
three links to be in relative motion all the three centers should lie
in a same straight line.

Steps to locate instantaneous centers:

Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

Step 2: Identify the number of instantaneous centers by using the
relation

Step 3: Identify the instantaneous centers by circle diagram.

Step 4: Locate all the instantaneous centers by making use of

Kennedy’s theorem.

Problem

A slider crank mechanism has lengths of crank and connecting rod

equal to 200 mm and 200 mm respectively locate all the
instantaneous centers of the mechanism for the position of the
crank when it has turned through 30o from IOC. Let us find
velocity of slider and angular velocity of connecting rod if crank
rotates at 40 rad/sec.

Step 1: Draw configuration diagram to a suitable scale.

Step 2: Determine the number of links in the mechanism and find

number of instantaneous centers
Step 3: Identify instantaneous centers.

Suit it is a 4-bar link the resulting figure will be a square.

Locate fixed and permanent instantaneous centers. To locate

neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centers use Kennedy’s
three centers theorem.

Step 4: Velocity of different points.

3.6 Diagrams For Simple Mechanisms And Determination
Of Angular Velocity Of Points And Links.
Diagrams for simple mechanisms

Inclined planes

The Egyptians used simple machines to build the pyramids. One

process was to build a very long incline out of dirt that rose upward
to the top of the pyramid very gently. The blocks of stone were
placed on large logs and pushed slowly up the long, gentle inclined
plane to the top of the pyramid.

Inclined planes
• An inclined plane is a flat surface that is higher on one end

• Inclined planes make the work of moving things easier

Screw

• The mechanical advantage of an screw can be calculated by

dividing the circumference by the pitch of the screw.

• Pitch equals 1/ number of turns per inch.

wedges

• Two inclined planes joined back to back.

• Wedges are used to split things

Problem

1. In the mechanism shown in figure link OA = 320 mm, AC = 680

mm and OQ = 650 mm

Let us determine,

i) The angular velocity of the cylinder

ii) The sliding velocity of the plunger

iii) The absolute velocity of the plunger When the crank OA
rotates at 20 rad/sec clockwise.

Solution:

Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram

Step 2: Draw the velocity vector diagram

Determine velocity of point A with respect to O.

Va = ωOA x OA = 20 x 0.32 = 6.4 m/s

Select a suitable scale to draw the velocity vector diagram.

Mark the zero velocity point. Draw vector oa vector to link OA

equal to 6.4 m/s.
From a draw a line to AB and from o, q, draw a line
perpendicular to AB.

To mark point c on ab vector.

Mark point c on ab vector and joint this to zero velocity point.

Angular velocity of cylinder will be.

Studying velocity of player will be

2. At the instant shown the boomerang has an angular velocity ω=
4 rad/sand its mass center G has a velocity VG = 6 in./s. Let us
determine the velocity of point B at this instant.
3. The angular velocity of the crank OA is 600 r.p.m. Determine
the linearvelocity of the slider D and the angular velocity of the
link BD, when the crank is inclined at an angle of 75° to the
vertical. The dimensions of various links are : OA = 28 mm ; AB =
44 mm ; BC 49 mm ; and BD = 46 mm. The centre distance
between the centres of rotation O and C is 65 mm. The path of
travel of the slider is 11 mm below the fixed point C. The
slider moves along a horizontal path and OC is vertical.

Solution:

Given:

NAO = 600 r.p.m.

ωAO = 2 π× 600/60 = 62.84 rad/s

Since OA= 28 mm = 0.028 m, therefore velocity of A with respect to

O or velocity of A

(because O is a fixed point),

Linear velocity of the slider D

First of all draw the space diagram, to some suitable scale, as
shown in Figure. (a). Now the velocity diagram, as shown in
Figure (b), is drawn as discussed below :

1. Since the points O and Care fixed, therefore these points are
marked as one point, in the velocity diagram. Now from point o,
draw vector oa perpendicular to OA, to some suitable scale, to
represent the velocity of A with respect to O or simply velocity of A
such that
2. From point a, draw vector ab perpendicular to AB to represent
the velocity of B with respect A(i.e. VBA) and from point c, draw
vector cb perpendicular to CB to represent the velocity of B with
respect to Cor simply velocity of B(i.e. VBC or vB). The vectors aband
cb intersect at b.

3. From the point b, draw vector bd perpendicular to BD to

represent the velocity of D with respect to B(i.e. VDB) and from
point o, draw vector od parallel to the path of motion of the slider
D which is horizontal, to represent the velocity of D(i.e. V D). The
vectors bd and od intersect at d.

By measurement, we find that velocity of the slider D,

Angular velocity of the link BD

By measurement from velocity diagram, we find that velocity of D

with respect to B,

Since the length of link BD= 46 mm = 0.046 m, therefore angular

velocity of the link BD
UNIT IV
CAMS
Topic

CAMS : Definitions of cam and followers – their uses – Types of

followers and cams – Terminology –Types of follower motion:
Uniform velocity, Simple harmonic motion and uniform
acceleration and retardation. Maximum velocity and maximum
acceleration during outward and return strokes in the above 3
cases. Analysis of motion of followers: Roller follower – circular
cam with straight, concave and convex flanks.

Objective: The objective of this unit is to make student understand

the theories involved in cams. Further the students are exposed to
the applications of cams and their working principles.

4.1 Cams : Definitions Of Cam And Followers – Their Uses,

Types Of Followers And Cams – Terminology
Cam and Follower

A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower

by direct contact. The driver is called the cam and the driven
member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair, the cam
normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate. A
familiar example is the camshaft of an automobile engine, where
the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close the
valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.

CAM
Examples take a pencil and a book to do an experiment as shown
below. Make the book an inclined plane and use the pencil as a
slider. When we move the book smoothly upward, It will be pushed
up along the guide. By this process, we have transformed one
motion into another motion by a very simple device. This is the
basic idea of a cam. By rotating the cams in the figure below, the
bars will have either translational or oscillatory motion.

Simple Cam experiment

Example:

In IC engines it is used to operate inlet and exhaust valve.

Cam Mechanisms

The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation,

into any other motions is often conveniently accomplished by
means of a cam mechanism A cam mechanism usually consists of
two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted on a
fixed frame.

Cam devices are versatile and almost any arbitrarily-specified

motion can be obtained. In some instances, they offer the simplest
and most compact way to transform motions.
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved
outline or a curved groove, which, by its oscillation or rotation
motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another
element called the follower .

The cam has a very important function in the operation of many

classes of machines, especially those of the automatic type, such as
printing presses, shoe machinery, textile machinery, gear-cutting
machines and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which
automatic control and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is
an indispensable part of mechanism. The possible applications of
cams are unlimited and their shapes occur in great variety.
4.1.1 Types of follower motion

According to the path of motion of follower

a ) Radial follower
b) Offset follower
Radial follower

When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through

the centre of the cam, it is known as radial followers. Below the
figures are examples of this type.
 Radial follower

Offset follower

When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the
axis of the cam centre, it is called off-set follower. Below the figures
are examples of this type.

Offset follower

For any high speed cam application it is extremely important that

not only the displacement and velocity curves, but also the
acceleration curve be made continuous for the entire motion cycle.
No discontinuities should be allowed at the boundaries of the
different sections of cam.
For these reason, cycloidal motion of the follower is used for high
speed cams.

4.1.2 Classification of Cam Mechanisms

We can classify cam mechanisms by the modes of input/output

motion, the configuration and arrangement of the follower and the
shape of the cam. We can also classify cams by the different types
of motion events of the follower and by means of a great variety of
the motion characteristics of the cam profile.

Classification of cam mechanisms

Modes of Input/Output Motion

• Rotating cam-translating follower. (figure. A,b,c,d,e)

• Rotating follower. Figure(f)The follower arm swings or oscillates

in a circular arc with respect to the follower pivot.
• Translating cam-translating follower (figure. g)

• Stationary cam-rotating follower: The follower system revolves

with respect to the center line of the vertical shaft

(g) Translating cam - translating follower

CAM SHAPE

1. Plate cam or disk cam:

The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation
of the camshaft. A translating or a swing arm follower must be
constrained to maintain contact with the cam profile.

2. Grooved cam or closed cam This is a plate cam with the follower
riding in a groove in the face of the cam.

Grooved cam

3. Cylindrical cam or barrel camThe roller follower operates in a

groove cut on the periphery of a cylinder. The follower may
translate or oscillate. If the cylindrical surface is replaced by a
conical one, a conical cam results.

4. End cam This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The

follower translates or oscillates, whereas the cam usually rotates.
The end cam is rarely used because of the cost and the difficulty in
cutting its contour.

Cylindrical cam and end cam

4.1.3 Types Of Cam

A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved

outline or a curved groove, which, by its oscillation, rotation or
reciprocating motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to
another element called the follower.

According to Cam Shape:

i. Wedge or Rat Cams.

ii. Radial or Disc Cams.
iii. Spiral Cams.
iv. Cylindrical Cams.
i. Wedge or Rat Cams.

A wedge cam has a wedge of specified contour. The translation

motion of the wedge is imparted to the follower which either
reciprocates or oscillates. Generally, a spring is used to maintain
contact between the follower and the cam.

Wedge or Rat Cams

ii. Radial or Disc Cams.

A cam made out of a plate in such a way that follower moves

radially from the centre of rotation is known as plate cam. These
cams are also known as disc cams or radial cams because the
surface of the cam is so shaped that the follower reciprocates or
oscillates in a plane at right angle to the axis of the cam. By far The
most common is the plate cam. For this reason, we shall restrict
our discussion to plate cams, although the concept presented
pertains universality.
 Radial or Disc Cams

iii. Spiral Cams.

A circular plate in which spiral groove is cut and a pin gear follower
meshes with the teeth cut on spiral groove, as shown in Figure
below, is called spiral cam. it is also known as face cam. Ten main
limitation of such cam is that it has to reverse the direction to reset
the position of the follower.

Spiral Cams

Iv. Cylindrical Cams.

In a cylindrical cam, a circumferential contour is cut on the surface
of a cylinder which rotates about its axis. The follower may cither
oscillate or reciprocate as shown in Figures below . These cams are
also known as drum or barrel cams.

Cylindrical Cams

4.1.4 Cam Terminology

Cam profile is the actual working surface contour of the cam. It is

the surface in contact with the knife-edge, roller surface or flat-
faced follower.

Base circle is the smallest circle drawn to the cam profile from the
radial cam center. Obviously, the cam size is dependent on the
established size of the base circle

Trace point is the point on the follower located at the knife-edge,

roller center or spherical-faced center.

Pitch curve or pitch profile, is the path of the trace point. In cam
layout, this curve is often determined first and the cam profile is
then established by tangents to the roller or flat-faced follower
surfaces. For the elementary knife-edge follower, the pitch curve
and cam profile are the same.
Prime circle is the smallest circle drawn to the pitch curve from the
cam center. It is similar to the base circle.

Pressure angle is the angle (at any point) between the normal to
the pitch curve and the direction of the follower motion. This angle
is important in cam design because it represents the steepness of
the cam profile, which if too large can affect the smoothness of the
action.

Pitch point is that point on the pitch curve having the largest
pressure angle.

Pitch circle is defined as the circle drawn through the pitch point
with its center at the cam center
 Cam Terminology

Rise - is when the follower is moving away from the cam centre.
Dwell - is the period when the follower is stationary.

Return - is when the follower moves back towards the cam centre.

Stroke/Total follower travel/Throw (h) – is the greatest distance

through which the follower moves.

Displacement (s) – is the position of the follower from a specific

zero or rest position in relation to time or the rotary angle of the
cam.

Velocity (v) – is the speed with which the cam moves the follower.

Acceleration (a) – is the rate of change of is the rate of change of

the follower’s velocity.

Jerk (j) – is the rate of change of the follower’s acceleration.

4.2 Types of follower motion: Uniform velocity, Simple harmonic

motion and uniform acceleration and retardation.

Displacement diagrams
A follower displacement diagram is a graph showing displacement
of the follower plotted as a function of time. Since the cam usually
rotates at constant angular velocity, the t-axis can be consider as
the θ-axis. The follower displacement diagram determines the
shape of the cam.

Uniform velocity

This is where the follower moves at a constant velocity.

The shock effects inherent from the uniform velocity can be

reduces by modifying the motion. The modification is to have the
follower undergoing uniform acceleration at the start of the
constant velocity interval and uniform deceleration at the end of
the constant velocity interval, so that the velocity curve is
continuous

Parabolic or Constant Acceleration Motion Curve

In this case the velocity and accelerations will be finite. There is a
constant acceleration for the first half and a constant deceleration
in the second half of the cycle. However the third derivative, jerk,
will be infinite at the two ends as in the case of simple harmonic
motion.

Displacement, velocity and acceleration curves are as shown. This

motion curve has the lowest possible acceleration.

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion curve is widely used since it is simple to
design. The curve is the projection of a circle about the cam
rotation axis as shown in the figure. The equations relating the
follower displacement velocity and acceleration to the cam
rotation angle are:

Cycloidal Motion Curve

If a circle rolls along a straight line without slipping, a point on the

circumference traces a curve that is called a cycloid. This curve can
be drawn by drawing a circle with center C on the line OO’. The
circumference of the circle is equal to the total rise or the diameter
is H/Π .The circumference is divided into a number of equal parts
corresponding to the divisions along the horizontal axis. The points
around the circle are first projected to the vertical centerline of the
circle and then parallel to OO’ to the corresponding vertical line on
the diagram.

Angle of dwell

Angle of dwell is angle through which the Cam rotates while the
follower remains stationary at the highest or the lowest position.

Dwell angle is the angle of rotation of the distributor through which

the primary circuit is closed or it is the time where the breaker
point is closed. It is designed by the manufacturer according to the
number of cylinders.

For example: the dwell angle of 4-cylinders engine may vary

between (25-48), but the dwell angle of 6-cylinder engine is
between (36 -40). we can conclude that the increasing the number
of cylinders decreases the dwell angle. In general, the dwell angle
may range between (30-60).
The dwell angle may also defined by the gap. The gap is the
distance between the two contact points when they are fully
opened. The wider the gap, the smaller the dwell angle.

Gap α (1/dwell angle)

If the dwell angle is too small, the stored magnetic energy in the
coil primary winding will not be sufficient to produce the required
high voltage in the secondary circuit. If the dwell angle is too high,
the high ignition coil temperature and perhaps coil damage occurs.

Problems

1. A cam with 30 mm is minimum diameter is rotating clock wise

at a uniform speed of 1200 r.p.m and has to give the following
motion to a roller follower 10mm in diameter:

(i) Follower to complete outward stroke of 25mm during 120° of

cam rotation with equal uniform acceleration and retardation.

(ii) Follower to dwell for 60° of cam rotation.

(iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 90° of cam

rotation with equal uniform acceleration and retardation.

(iv) Follower to dwell for the remaining 90 of cam rotation.

Let us draw the cam profile if the axis of the roller follower passes
through the axis of the cam. Let us also calculate the maximum
velocity and accumulations of the follower during return stroke.

Solution:
The cam profile for the above problem is as below

2. Let us draw the profile of a cam to give the following motion to

the reciprocating follower with a flat mushroom contact face:

(i) Follower to have a stroke or 20 mm during 120° of cam

rotation.

(ii) Follower to dwell for 30° of cam rotation.

(iii) Follower to return to its position during 120° of cam rotation.

(iv) Follower to dwell for the remaining period.

The minimum radius of the cam is 25 mm. The out stroke of the
follower is performed with simple harmonic motion and the
return stroke with equal uniform acceleration and retardation.

Solution:

Given data:

Stroke, S = 20 mm

θa = 120° (SHW)

δ1 = 30°

θd = 120° (UARM)

δ2 = 360 - [θa + δ1 + θd]

= 360 - [120 + 30 + 120]

δ2 = 90°

Minimum rad. of cam = 25 mm.

Type of follower = Flat mushroom.

Displacement diagramScale

1 cm = 20°
 Cam Profile

3. A cam with a minimum radius of 25 mm, rotating clockwise at

uniform speed of 300 rpm is to be designed to give motion to a
flat faced mushroom follower as detailed below:

(i) To raise through a distance of 25 mm in 120° rotation

(ii) To remain at rest for the next 30°

(iii) To lower during further 120° rotation of the Cam

(iv) To remain in the same position during rest of the revolution.

The raising of the follower takes place with cycloidal motion and
the lowering with uniform acceleration and retardation. However
the uniform acceleration is 2/3rd of the uniform retardation. Let
us draw the displacement diagram and Profile of the Cam.

Solution
4. A cam is designed for a knife edge follower with following data:

(i) Cam lift = 40 mm during 90° of cam rotation with SHM

(ii) Dwell for the next 30°

(iii) During the next 60° of cam rotation, the follower returns to
original position with SHM

(iv) Dwell for the remaining 180°.

Let us draw the profile of the cam when the line of stroke is offset
20 mm from the axis of the cam shaft.
Solution:

Given:

S = 40 mm = 0.04 m.

N = 240 rpm

Displacement Diagram

First of all, the displacement diagram, as shown in Figure (a) is

drawn as discussed in the following steps:

1. Draw horizontal line A × = 360° to some suitable scale. On this

line, mark AS = 90° to represent out stroke: SR = 30° to represent
dwell; RP = 60° to represent return stroke and PX = 180° to
represent dwell.

2. Draw vertical line AY = 40 m to represent the cam lift or stroke of

the follower and complete the rectangle as shown in Figure (a).
3. Divide the angular displacement during out stroke and return
stroke into any equal number of even parts (say six) and draw
vertical lines through each point.

4. Since the follower moves with simple harmonic motion,

therefore draw a semicircle with AY as diameter and divided into
six equal parts.

5. From points a, b, c ..., etc. draw horizontal lines intersecting the

vertical lines drawn through 1, 2, 3, ..., etc. and 0′, 1′, 2′, ... etc. at B,
C, D ..., M, N, P.

6. Join the points A, B, C, …, etc. With a smooth curve as shown in

Figure (a). This is the required displacement diagram.

Profile of the cam when the line of stroke of the follower is offset
20 m from the axis of the cam shaft.

(b)Cam profile

Procedure:
1. Draw a base circle with radius equal to the Cam lift (40 mm) with
0 as center.

2. Draw the axis of the follower at a distance of 20 mm from the

axis of the Cam, which intersects the base circle at A.

3. Join AO and draw an offset circle of radius 20 mm with center 0.

4. From OA mark angle AOS = 90° to represent outstroke, angle

SOR = 30° to represent dwell and angle ROP = 60° 1 represent
return stroke.

5. Divide the angular displacement during outstroke and return

stroke. (i.e, angle AOS and ROP) in the same number of equal even
parts as in displacement diagram.

6. Now from the points 1,2, 3, ..., etc. and 0′, 1′, 2′, 3′, ..., etc. on the
base circle, draw tangents to the offset circle and produce these
tangents beyond the base circle as shown in Figure (b).

7. Now set off 1B, 2C, 3D, ..., etc. and 0′H, 1′J, ..., etc. from the
displacement diagram.

8. Joint the points A, B, C, ..., M, N, P with a smooth curve. The

curve AGHPA is the complete profile of the cam.

4.3 Maximum Velocity And Maximum Acceleration During

Outward And Return Strokes In The Above 3 Cases.
Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration diagrams when
Follower moves with Uniform velocity
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when a knife-
edged follower moves with uniform velocity are shown in Figure(1)
(a), (b) and (c) respectively. The abscissa (base) represents the time
or it may represent the angular displacement of the cam in
degrees. The ordinate represents the dis placement or velocity or
acceleration of the follower.

The follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return
stroke, therefore the slope of the displacement curves must be
constant. In other methods AB1 and C1D must be straight lines. A
little consideration will show that the follower remains at rest
during part of the cam rotation. The periods during which the
follower remains at rest are known as dwell periods,as shown by
lines B1C1 and DE in Figure (1) (a). From Figure (1) (c), we see that
the acceleration or retardation of the follower at the beginning and
at the end of each stroke is infinite.

This is due to the fact that the follower is required to start from
rest and has to gain a velocity within no time. This is only possible if
the acceleration or retardation at the beginning and at the end of
each stroke is infinite. These conditions are however,
impracticable.
 Figure(1) Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when
the follower moves with uniform velocity
Figure(2) Modified displacement, velocity and acceleration
diagrams when the follower. moves with uniform velocity.

The order to have the acceleration and retardation within the finite
limits, it is necessary to modify the conditions which govern the
motion of the follower. This may be done by rounding off the sharp
corners of the displacement diagram at the beginning and at the
end of each stroke, as shown in Figure(2) (a). By doing so, the
velocity of the follower increases gradually to its maximum value at
the beginning of each stroke and decreases gradually to zero at the
end of each stroke as shown in Figure(2) (b). The modified
displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in
Figure(2) The round corners of the displacement diagram are
usually parabolic curves because the parabolic motion results in a
very low acceleration of the follower for a given stroke and cam
speed.
4.3.1 Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration Diagrams when
Follower Moves with SHM

S = Stroke of follower

θ0 & θR = Angular displacement of cam during out & return strokes

of follower

ω = Angular velocity of cam

• Time required for the out stroke of the follower in seconds,

• P’ executes a SHM as P rotates.

• Motion of follower is similar to that of P

• Peripheral speed of the point P

 Motion of a point

Max velocity & Max acceleration of follower on outstroke,

Max velocity & Max acceleration of follower on return stroke,

4.3.2 Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration diagrams when

Follower moves with Unifrom velocity
S = Stroke of follower

θ0 & θR = Angular displacement of cam during out & return strokes

of follower

ω = Angular velocity of cam

• Time required for the out stroke of the follower in seconds,

• Time required for the out stroke of the follower in seconds,

tR = θR/ ω
4.4 Analysis Of Motion Of Followers: Roller Follower –
Circular Cam With Straight, Concave And Convex Flanks.
Circular arc cam with flat faced follower

r1= Min radius of cam (radius of base circle = OE)

r2 = Radius of nose Nose

R = Radius of circular flank = PE

2α = Total angle of action of cam = angle EOG

Ø = Angle of action of cam on circular flank

 Flat face of follower has contact on the circular flank

Flat face of follower has contact on the nose

Displacement of follower when contact is at apex K of the nose (α -
θ = 0)
Problem :

A symmetrical cam with convex flanks operates a flat-footed

follower. Thelift is 8 mm, base circle radius 25 mm and the nose
radius 12 mm. The total angle of the cam action is 120°.

Let us determine,

1. The radius of convex flanks

2. Draw the profile of the cam

3. Determine the maximum velocity and the maximum

acceleration when the cam shaft rotates at 500 r.p.m.

Solution:

Given:

x= JK= 8 mm

r1= OE= OJ= 25 mm

r2= QF= QK= 12 mm

2α =∠EOG = 120° α =∠EOK =60 °

N= 500 r.p.m. or 2 ω= π× 500/60 = 52.37 rad/s

To find:

1. Radius of convex flanks

2. Profile of the cam

3. Maximum velocity and maximum acceleration

1. Radius of convex flanks

Let

R = Radius of convex flanks = PE= P’G

A symmetrical cam with convex flanks operating a flat footed

follower is shown in Figure. From the geometry of the figure,

And

Now consider the triangle OPQ. We know that

2. Profile of the cam

The profile of the cam, as shown in Figure above is drawn as

discussed in the following steps :

i. The draw a base circle with centre O and radius OE= r1 = 25 mm.

ii. Draw angle EOK= 60° and angle KOG= 60° such that the total
angle of cam action is 120°.

iii. On line OK mark OQ= 21 mm Now Q as centre, draw a circle of

radius equal to the nose radius r2 = QK= QF= 12 mm. This circle cuts
the line OK at J. Now JK represents the lift of the follower (i.e.8
mm).

iv. Now produce EO and GO as shown in Figure above . Now with a

Q as centre and radius equal to PQ= R – r2= 79.4 – 12 = 67.4 mm,
draw arc intersecting the lines EO and GO produced at Pand P′
respectively.

The centre P′may be obtained by drawing arc with centres O and Q

and radii O Pand PQ respectively.
v. The P and P′as centres and radius equal to R= 79.4 mm, draw arc
EF and GH which represent the convex flanks. EFKHGAE is the
profile of the cam.

3. Maximum velocity and maximum acceleration

First of all, let us determine the angle φ. From triangle OPQ,

We know that maximum velocity,

= 0.77m/s

Maximum accelaration

= 149.2m/s2

2. A cam consists of a circular disc of diameter 75 mm with its

centre displaced 25 mm from the camshaft axis. The follower has
a flat surface (horizontal) in contact with the cam and the line of
action of the follower is vertical and passes through the shaft axis
as shown in Figure (a). The mass of the follower is 2.3 kg and is
pressed downwards by a spring which has a stiffness of
3.5 N/mm. In the lowest position the spring force is 45 N.

1. Derive an expression for the acceleration of the follower

in terms of the angle of rotation from the beginning of the lift.

2. As the cam shaft speed is gradually increased, a value

is reached at which the follower begins to lift from the cam
surface.

(a)

Let us determine the camshaft speed for this condition.

Solution:

Given:

d= 75 mm or

r= OA= 37.5 mm
OQ= 25 mm

m= 2.3 kg

s= 3.5 N/mm

S= 45 N

To find:

1. Expression for the acceleration of the follower

2. Cam shaft speed

1. Expression for the acceleration of the follower

The cam in its lowest position is shown by full lines in Figure (b) and
by dotted lines when it has rotated through an angle θ.

From the geometry of the figure, the displacement of the follower

(b)

Differentiating equation(i) with respect to t, we get velocity of the

follower,

Now differentiating equation(ii)with respect to t, we get

acceleration of the follower,

2. Cam shaft speed

Let

N= Cam shaft speed in r.p.m.

We know that accelerating force

For any value of θ, the algebraic sum of the spring force, weight of
the follower and the accelerating force is equal to the vertical
reaction between the cam and follower. When this reaction is zero,
then the follower will just begin to leave the cam.

(Dividing by 0.0575)

(θ= -1 )

The maximum allowable cam shaft speed,

N = 621 rpm
UNIT V
GEARS
Topic

Gears: Higher pairs, friction wheels and toothed gears–types – law

of gearing, condition for constant velocity ratio for transmission of
motion, Form of teeth: cycloidal and involute profiles. Velocity of
sliding – phenomena of interferences – Methods of interference.
Condition for minimum number of teeth to avoid interference,
expressions for arc of contact and path of contact – Introduction to
Helical, Bevel and worm gearing.

Objective: The objective of this unit is to make student understand

gears, power transmission through different types of gears
including gear profiles and its efficiency.

5.1 Gears: Higher Pairs, Friction Wheels And Toothed

Gears–Types
Gears

The slipping of a belt or rope is a common phenomenon that occurs

in the transmission of motion or power between two shafts. The
effect of slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. In
precision machines where a fixed velocity ratio is required, gears or
toothed wheels comes into effect. When the distance between the
driver and the follower is very small, a gear drive is provided.

Friction wheels
The motion and power transmitted by gears are kinematically
equivalent to those transmitted by the friction wheels. Consider
two plain circular wheels A and B mounted on shafts, having
sufficient rough surfaces and pressing against each other.

Let the wheel A be attached to the rotating shaft and the wheel B
to the shaft, to be rotated. A little consideration will show (that
when the wheel A is rotated by a rotating shaft) it will rotate the
wheel B in the opposite direction. The wheel B will be rotated (by
the wheel A) so long as the tangential force exerted by the wheel A
does not exceed the maximum frictional resistance between the
two wheels. But when the tangential force (P) exceeds the
frictional resistance (F), slipping will take place between the two
wheels. Thus the friction drive is not a positive drive.

(a) Friction wheels (b) Gears

Therefore in order to avoid the slipping, a number of projections

(teeth) are provided on wheel A, which will fit into the
corresponding recesses on wheel B. A friction wheel with the teeth
cut on it is known as toothed wheel or gear.

Classification of Toothed Wheels:

The gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows :

1. According to the position of axes of the shafts.

The axes of the two shafts between which the motion is to be

transmitted, may be (a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting and (c) Non-
intersecting and non-parallel

2. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears.

The gears, according to the peripheral velocity of the gears may be

classified as: (a) Low velocity (v < 3m/s), (b) Medium velocity (3m/s
< v < 15m/s) and (c) High velocity (v > 15m/s).

3. According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the

type of gearing may be classified as : (a) External gearing, (b)
Internal gearing and (c) Rack and pinion.

4. According to position of teeth on the gear surface. The teeth on

the gear surface may be (a) straight, (b) inclined and (c) curved.

5.2 Law Of Gearing, Condition For Constant Velocity Ratio

For Transmission Of Motion
5.2.1 Law of gearing

It states that “The common normal at the point of contact between

a pair of teeth must always pan through the pitch point”.
Proof:

Consider the portions of the two teeth, one on the wheel 1 (pinion)
and the other on the wheel 2.

Let the two teeth come in contact at point Q and the wheels rotate
in the directions as shown.

TT be the common tangent and MV be the common normal to the

curves at the point Q. From the
centers O1 and O2 draw O1M and O2Nperpendicular to MN.

Let V1 and V2 be the velocities on wheels 1 and 2 respectively. If the

teeth are remain in contact, then the components of these
velocities along the common normal MN must be equal.

V l cos α = V2 cos β

(ω1 × O1Q) cos α = ω2 × O2Q) cos β

Also similar triangles O1MP and O2NP

In order to have a constant velocity ratio for all positions of the
wheels, the point P must be the fixed point for the two wheels. In
other words. “the common normal a the point of contact between
a pair of teeth must always pass through the pitch point. It is also
known as law of gearing”.

Note:

1. The above condition fulfilled by involute tooth form. provided

that the root circles from which the profiles are generated
tangential to the common normal.

2. If the shape of the profile is chosen arbitrarily and another tooth

is designed to satisfy the above condition, then the second tooth is
said to be conjugate of the first one.

3. If D1 and D2 are pitch circle diameter of wheel 1 and 2 having

teeth T1and T2 respectively, then velocity ratio is given by

5.3 Form Of Teeth: Cycloidal And Involute Profiles

Cycloidal teeth

The curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling

on a fixed straight line without slipping is called a cycloid. The curve
traced by a point on the circumference of a circle when it rolls
without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle,is known as
epicycloid. If a circle rolls without slipping on the inside of a fixed
circle. then the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a
circle is called hypocycloid.

Shown in figure (1) below the fixed line or pitch line of a rack is
shown. When the circle C rolls without slipping above the pitch line
in the direction as indicated in Figure (a), then the point P on the
circle traces epicycloid PA. The represents the face of the cycloidal
tooth profile. When the circle Drolls without slipping below the
pitch line, then the point P on the circle D traces hypo-cycloid PB,
which represents the flank of the cycloidal tooth.

The profile BPA is one side of the cycloidal rack tooth. Similar the
two curves P' A' and P'B' forming the opposite side of the tooth
profile are traced by the point P' when the circles C and Droll in the
opposite directions.

(a) Construction of cycloidal teeth of a gear

The cycloidal teeth of a gear may be constructed as shown in Figure

(b). The circle C is rolled without slipping on the outside of the pitch
circle and the point P on the circle C traces epicycloid PA, which
represents the face of the cycloidal tooth.
The circle Dis rolled on the inside of pitch circle and the point P on
the circle D traces hypo-cycloid PB, which represents the flank of
the tooth profile. The profile BPA is one side of the cycloidal tooth.
The opposite side of the tooth is traced as explained above.

The construction of the two mating cycloidal teeth is shown in

Figure(2) . A point on the circle D will trace the flank of the tooth
T1 when circle Drolls without slipping on the inside of the pitch
circle of wheel 1 and face of tooth T2 when the circle Drolls without
slipping on the outside of the pitch circle of wheel 2. Similarly a
point on the circle C will trace the face of tooth T1 and flank of
tooth T2 . The rolling circles C and D may have unequal diameters
but if many wheels are to be interchangeable, they should have
rolling circles of equal diameters

(2) Construction of two mating cycloidal teeth

A little consideration will show, that the general normal XX at the

point of contact between two cycloidal teeth always passes
through the pitch point, which is the fundamental condition for a
constant velocity ratio.

Involute teeth
A involute of a circle is a plane curve generated by a point on a
tangent, which rolls on the circle without slipping or by a point on a
taut string which in unwrapped from a reel as shown in Figure(1).
In connection with toothed wheels, the circle is known as base
circle. The involute is traced as follows :

Figure(1) Construction of involute

Let A the starting point of the involute. The base circle is divided
into equal number of parts e.g. AP1, P1P2,P2P3 etc. The tangents at
P1, P2, P3etc. A drawn and the length P1A1, P2A2, P3A3 equal to the
arc AP1, AP2and AP3 are set off . Joining the points A, A1, A2, A3 etc.
we obtain the involute curve AR. A little consideration will show
that at any instant A3, the tangent A3T to the involute is
perpendicular to P3A3 and P3A3 is the normal to the involute. In
other words, normal at any point of an involute is a tangent to the
circle.

Now the O1 and O2 be the fixed centres of the two base circles as
shown in Figure(2) (a). Let the corresponding involutes AB and
A1B1 be in contact at point Q. MQ and NQ are normals to the
involutes at Q and are tangents to base circles. Since the normal of
an involute at a given point is the tangent drawn from that point to
the base circle, therefore the common normal MN at Qis also the
common tangent to the two base circles.

The common normal MN intersects the line of centres O1O2 at the

fixed point P. Therefore the involute teeth satisfy the fundamental
condition of constant velocity ratio.

Figure(2) Involute teeth

From similar triangles O2 NP and O1 MP

---------------1

which determines the ratio of the radii of the two base circles. The
radii of the base circles is given by

Also the centre distance between the base circles

where φ is the pressure angle or the angle of obliquity. It is the
angle which the common normal to the base circles. the common
tangent to the pitch circles.

The power is being transmitted, the high tooth pressure is exerted

along the common normal through the pitch point. This force may
be resolved into tangential and radial or normal components.
These components act along and at right angles to the common
tangent to the pitch circles

If F is the maximum tooth pressure as shown in Figure (b), then

Tangential force, FT= F cos φ

Radial or normal force, FR = F sin φ.

∴Torque exerted on the gear shaft

= FT × r

Where

r - is the pitch circle radius of the gear

Difference between in-volute and cycloidal profile

In-volute Tooth Profile Cycloidal Profile

Variation in center distance does
The center distance should not vary.
not affect the velocity ratio.
Pressure angle varies. It is zero at the
Pressure angle remains constant
pitch point and maximum at the start
throughout the teeth.
and end of engagement.
Interference occurs. No interference occurs.
Weaker teeth. Stronger teeth.

Advantages of cycloidal gears :1) Since the cycloidal teeth have

wider flanks, therefore the cycloidal gears are stronger than the
involute gears, for the same pitch. Due to this reason, the cycloidal
teeth are preferred specially for cast teeth.2) In cycloidal gears, the
contact takes place between a convex flank and concave surface,
where as in involute gears, the convex surface are in contact. This
condition results in less wear in cycloidal gears as compared to
involute gears. However the difference in wear is negligible.3) The
cycloidal gears, the interference does not occur at all. Though there
are advantages of cycloidal gears but they are out weighted by the
greater simplicity and flexibility of the involute gears.

Advantages of involute gears:Following are the advantages of

involute gears:1) The most important advantage of the involute
gears is that the center distance for a pair of involute gears can be
varied within limits without changing the velocity ratio. This is not
true for cycloidal gears which requires exact center distance to be
maintained.2) In involute gears, the pressure angle from the start
of the engagement of teeth to the end of the engagement, remains
constant. It is necessary for smooth running and less wear of gears.
But in cycloidal gears, the pressure angle is maximum at the
beginning of engagement, reduces to zero at pitch point, starts
increasing and again become maximum at the end of engagement.
This results in less smooth running of gears.3) The face and flank of
involute teeth are generated by a single curve where as in cycloidal
gears, double curves are required for the face and flank
respectively. Thus the involute teeth are easy to manufacture than
cycloidal teeth. In involute system, the basic rack has straight teeth
and the same can be cut with simple tools.
Problems

1. A pair 20° full depth in-volute gears having 30 and 50 teeth

respectively of module 4 mm are in mesh, the smaller gear
rotates at 1000 r.p.m. Let us determine: (i) sliding velocities
at engagement and at disengagement of a pair of teeth and (ii)
contact ratio.

Solution:

Given:

Pressure angle, φ = 20°

No. of teeth on smaller gear, t = 30

No. of teeth on large gear,T = 50

Gear ratio

Module, m = 4 mm

Speed of smaller gear, N1 = 1000 r.p.m.

∴ Angular speed of smaller gear,

To find:
(i) sliding velocities at engagement and at disengagement of a pair
of teeth

(ii) contact ratio.

(a) Sliding velocities at engagement and at disengagement

First calculate the length of path of approach and length of path of

recess. For these we require the values of R0, R, r0 and r. Also we
require the values of addendum of the wheel and addendum of the
pinion.

Now addendum of wheel (or of larger gear) is given by equation as:

Addendum of wheel

Also the addendum of the pinion (or of smaller gear) is given by

equation as,

Addendum of pinion
∴ Radius of addendum circle of wheel,

R0 = R + addendum of wheel = 100 + 9 = 109 mm

Now, pitch radius of pinion,

∴ Radius of addendum circle of pinion

ra = r + addendum of pinion = 60 + 18.54 = 78.54 mm

Now length of the path of approach (i.e., the path of contact when
engagement occurs) from equation

Length of the path of recess (i.e., the path of contact when

disengagement occurs) [Refer to equation]
= 34.2 mm

New let us find the sliding velocities at engagement and

disengagement of a pair of teeth.

Let ω2 = Angular speed of the wheel (or large gear).

We know from equation that

∴ Sliding velocity at engagement of a pair of teeth

= (ω1 + ω2) × length of path of approach

= (104.67 + 62.8) × 21.03 mm/s

= 3521.9 mm/s = 3.522 m/s.

And sliding velocity at disengagement position

= (ω1 + ω2) × length of path of recess

= (104.67 + 62.8) × 34.2 mm/s

= 5727.5 mm/s = 5.727 m/s.

(b) Contact ratio

But length of arc of contact

Also we know that,

Circular pitch = π × m = π × 4 = 12.568 mm

∴ Substituting the above values in equation (r). we get

5.3.1 Velocity of sliding

Velocity of Sliding:

The velocity of sliding is the velocity of one tooth relative to its

making tooth along the common tangent at the point of contact.

Vs = Velocity of sliding at a

= ED - EC = ω1 MQ

= ω2 [QP + PN] - ω1 [MP - QP] ED = ω2 QN

= (ω1 + ω2) QP + ω2 PN - ω1 MP
Vs - (ω1 + ω2) QP.

5.4 Methods Of Interference. Condition For Minimum

Number Of Teeth To Avoid Interference, Expressions For
Arc Of Contact And Path Of Contact
5.4.1 Interference

The figure below shows a pinion with centre O1, in mesh with
wheel or gear with centre O2. MN is the common tangent to the
base circles and KL is the path of contact between the two mating
teeth. If the radius of the addendum circle of pinion is increased to
O1N, the point L will move to N.

When this radius is further increased, the point of contact L will be

on the inside of base circle and not on the involute profile of tooth
on wheel. The tip of tooth on the pinion will then undercut the
tooth on the wheel at the root and remove part of the involute
profile of tooth on the wheel. This effect is known as interference.
 Interference

If the radius of the addendum circle of the wheel increases beyond

O2M, then the tip of tooth on wheel will cause interference with
the tooth on pinion. The points M and N are called interference
points.

When interference is just avoided, the maximum length of path of

contact is MN when the maximum addendum circles for pinion and
wheel pass through the points of tangency N and M.

Interference can be avoided simply by choosing correct minimum

number of teeth for two meshing genes.

The following methods are used to avoid interference and under

cutting:

i. By modifying in-volute or composite system

ii. By modifying Addenda of the pinion and whee

iii. By changing center distance of two gears.

5.4. 2 Minimum Number Of Teeth Required For Pinion

TP = Number of teeth on the pinion

TG = Number of teeth on the gear wheel

M = Module of the teeth

φ = Pressure angles

From triangle O1NP

(O1N)2 = (O1P)2 + (PN)2 – 2 × O1P × PN × cos O1PN.

From figure

PN = O2 P sin φ = R sin φ

(O1N)2 = γ2 + R2 sin φ – 2γ · R sin φ cos(90° + φ)

= γ2 + R2 sin2 φ + 2y · R sin2 φ

Therefore, limiting radius of the pinion addendum circle.

AP · M = Addendum of the pinion.

where, AP is a fraction by which the standard addendum of one
module for the pinion should be multiplied in order to avoid
interference.

It is seen that the addendum of the pinion = O1N – O1P

We know that gear ratio is given by,

So equation becomes

This equation gives the minimum number of teeth required on the

pinion in order to avoid interference.

Note: If the pinion and gear wheel have equal teeth, then G = 1.
Then

Problem:

Let us determine the minimum number of teeth required on a

pinion, in order to avoid interference which is to gear
with, 1. A wheel to give a gear ratio of 3 to 1 ; 2. An equal
wheel. The pressure angle is 20° and a standard addendum of 1
module for the wheel may be assumed.

Solution:

Given:

G= T /t= 3

φ = 20°

AW = 1 module

To find:

1. Minimum number of teeth for a gear ratio of 3 : 1

2. Minimum number of teeth for equal wheel
1. Minimum number of teeth for a gear ratio of 3 : 1

We know that minimum number of teeth required on a pinion,

2. Minimum number of teeth for equal wheel

We know that minimum number of teeth for equal wheel,

5.4.3 Length Of Path Of Contact

It consider a pinion driving the wheel as shown in the figure. When

the pinion rotates in clockwise direction, the contact between a
pair of involute teeth begins at K and ends at L. MN is the common
normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the
base circles. The point K intersects of the addendum circle of wheel
and the common tangent. The point L intersects the addendum
circle of pinion and common tangent.
 Length of path of contact

The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut

off by the addendum circles of the wheel and the pinion. Thus the
length of path of contact is KL which is the sum of the parts of the
path of contacts KP and PL. The part of the path of contact KP is
known as path of approach and the part of the path of contact PL is
known as path of recess.

Let rA = O1L = Radius of addendum circle of pinion, RA = O2K =

Radius of addendum circle of wheel,
5.4.4 Length of Arc of Contact

The arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle
from the beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of
teeth. In the figure above, the arc of contact is EPF or GPH. The arc
of contact GPH is divided into two parts i.e. arc GP and arc PH.

The arc GP is known as arc of approach and the arc PH is called arc
of recess. The angles subtended by these arcs at O1 are called
angle of approach and angle of recess respectively. We know that
the length of the arc of approach (arc GP)
The contact ratio or the number of pairs of teeth in contact is
defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the
circular pitch.

where pc = Circular pitch = π m

m = Module.

Problem:

The number of teeth on each of the two equal spur gears in mesh
are 40. The teeth have 20° involute profile and the module is 6
mm. If the arc of contact is 1.75 times the circular pitch, let us
determine the addendum.

Solution:

Given:

T= t= 40
φ= 20°

m= 6 mm

To find:

The addendum

We know that the circular pitch,

pc= π m = π × 6 = 18.85 mm

∴Length of arc of contact

= 1.75 pc = 1.75 × 18.85 = 33 mm

Length Of Path Of Contact

= Length of arc of contact × cos φ= 33 cos 20° = 31 mm

Let RA= rA= Radius of the addendum circle of each wheel.

We know that pitch circle radii of each wheel,

R= r= m.T / 2 = 6 × 40/2 = 120 mm

Length of path of contact

We know that the addendum of the wheel

5.5 Introduction to Helical, Bevel and worm gearing

5.5.1 Helical Gears

The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the
gear. When two teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact
starts at one end of the tooth and gradually spreads as the gears
rotate, until the two teeth are in full engagement.

This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more

smoothly and quietly than spur gears. For this reason, helical gears
are used in almost all car transmissions.

Because of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a

thrust load on the gear when they mesh. Devices that use helical
gears have bearings that can support this thrust load.
One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the
gear teeth are correct, they can be mounted on perpendicular
shafts, adjusting the rotation angle by 90 degrees.

The use of helical gears is most common in automobiles, turbines

and high speed applications. It can be seen that the teeth of the
two wheels are of opposite hand. The helixes may be right handed
on one wheel and left handed on the other.

Helical gear

1. Normal pitch. It is the distance between similar faces of adjacent

teeth, along a helix on the pitch cylinder normal to the teeth. It is
denoted by pN.

2. Axial pitch. It is the distance measured parallel to the axis,

between similar faces of adjacent teeth. It is the same as circular
pitch and is therefore denoted by pc . If αis the helix angle, then
circular pitch.

Advantages of Helical Gear

There are three main reasons why helical gears are preferred than
spur gears. They are:
1. Noise: Helical gears produce less noise than spur gears of
equivalent quality because the total contact ratio is increased.

2. Load carrying capacity: Helical gears have a greater load carrying

capacity than equivalent size spur gears because the total length of
the line of contact is increased.

3. Manufacturing: A limited number of standard cutters are used to

cut a wide variety of helical gears simply by varying the helix angle.

Dis advantage:

Since the helical gears are inclined to the axis of rotation it is

subjected to axial thrust loads.This problem can be eliminated by
using double helical gears (Herringbone gears).
5.5.2 Bevel gear

Bevel gears transmit power between two intersecting shafts at any

angle or between non- intersecting shafts. They are classified as
straight and spiral tooth bevel and hypoid gears.Bevel gears are
used to transmit power between two intersecting shaft& Bevel
gears are commonly used in automotive differentials.
 (a) Bevel gear (b) Straight bevel gear (c) Spiral bevel gear (d)
Hypoid gear

When intersecting shafts are connected by gears, the pitch cones

(analogous to the pitch cylinders of spur and helical gears) are
tangent along an element, with their apexes at the intersection of
the shafts as shown where two bevel gears are in mesh. The size
and shape of the teeth are defined at the large end, where they
intersect the back cones. Pitch cone and back cone elements are
perpendicular to each other. The tooth profiles resemble those of
spur gears having pitch radii equal to the developed back cone
radii. The gear ratio can be determined from the number of teeth,
the pitch diameters or the pitch cone angles as,

Tooth bending stress

The equation for bevel gear bending stress is the same as for spur
gears as shown below:

The following terms in connection with bevel gears are important

from the subject point of view :

1. Pitch cone. A cone containing the pitch elements of the teeth.

2. Cone centre. It is the apex of the pitch cone. It may be defined as

that point where the axes of two mating gears intersect each other.

3. Pitch angle. It is the angle made by the pitch line with the axis of
the shaft. It is denoted by ‘θP’.

4. Cone distance. It is the length of the pitch cone element. It is

also called as a pitch cone radius.It is denoted by ‘OP’.
Mathematically, cone distance or pitch cone radius,
5. Addendum angle. The angle subtended by the addendum of the
tooth at the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘α’ Mathematically,
addendum angle,

6. Dedendum angle. It is the angle subtended by the dedendum of

the tooth at the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘β’. Mathematically,
dedendum angle

7. Face angle. It is the angle subtended by the face of the tooth at

the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘φ’. The face angle is equal to the
pitch angle plus addendum angle.

8. Root angle. It is the angle subtended by the root of the tooth at

the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘θ R ’. It is equal to the pitch angle
minus dedendum angle.

9. Back (or normal) cone. It is an imaginary cone, perpendicular to

the pitch cone at the end of the tooth.

10. Back cone distance. It is the length of the back cone. It is

denoted by ‘R B’. It is also called back cone radius.
11.Backing. The distance of the pitch point (P) from the back of the
boss, parallel to the pitch point of the gear. It is denoted by ‘B’.

12. Crown height. It is the distance of the crown point (C) from the
cone centre (O), parallel to the axis of the gear. It is denoted by
‘HC ’.

13. Mounting height.It is the distance of the back of the boss from
the cone centre. It is denoted by ‘HM’.

14. Pitch diameter. It is the diameter of the largest pitch circle.

15. Outside or addendum cone diameter. It is the maximum

diameter of the teeth of the gear.It is equal to the diameter of the
blank from which the gear can be cut. This is outside Diameter

Inside or dedendum cone diameter. The inside or the dedendum

cone diameter is given by

Strength Of Bevel Gears

The strength of a bevel gear tooth the modified form of the Lewis
equation for the tangential tooth load is given as follows:
σo = Allowable static stress,

L= Slant height of pitch cone

Cv = Velocity factor

b= Face width

m= Module

v = Peripheral speed in m / s

y'= Tooth form factor (or Lewis factor) for the equivalent number of
teeth,

DG = Pitch diameter of the gear

DP = Pitch diameter of the pinion.

Design Of a Shaft For Bevel Gears

In designing a pinion shaft, the following procedure may be

adopted :
1. The determine the torque acting on the pinion. It is given by

P= Power transmitted in watts, and

NP= Speed of the pinion in r.p.m.

2. Determine the tangential force (WT) acting at the mean radius

(Rm) of the pinion. We know that

WT=T / Rm

3. Determine the axial and radial forces acting on the pinion shaft
as discussed above.

4.Determine resultant bending moment on the pinion shaft as

follows :

The bending moment due to WRH and WRV is given by

M1=WRV × Overhang – WRH × Rm

and bending moment due to WT

M2 =WT × Overhang

Resultant bending moment

Since the shaft is subjected to twisting moment (T) and resultant

bending moment (M), therefore equivalent twisting moment.
The diameter of the pinion shaft may be obtained by using the
torsion equation. We know that

dP = Diameter of the pinion shaft

τ= Shear stress for the material of the pinion shaft.

7.The same procedure may be adopted to find the diameter of the

gear shaft.
5.5.3 Worm gear

Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is
common for worm gears to have reductions of 20:1 and even up to
300:1 or greater.

Worm gear

Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear

set has: the worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn
the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so shallow that
when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the
worm holds the worm in place.

This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in

which the locking feature can act as a brake for the conveyor when
the motor is not turning. One other very interesting usage of worm
gears is in the Torsen differential, which is used on some high-
performance cars and trucks.

Nomenclature of worm gear

The geometry of a worm is similar to that of a power screw.

Rotation of the worm simulates a linearly advancing involute rack.

The geometry of a worm gear is similar to that of a helical gear,

except that the teeth are curved to envelop the worm.

Enveloping the gear gives a greater area of contact but requires

extremely precise mounting.
1. As with a spur or helical gear, the pitch diameter of a worm gear
is related to its circular pitch and number of teeth Z by the formula

2. When the angle is 90° between the nonintersecting shafts, the

worm lead angle λ is equal to the gear helix angle Ψ. Angles λ and
Ψ have the same hand.

3. The pitch diameter of a worm is not a function of its number of

threads, Z1.

4. This means that the velocity ratio of a worm gear set is

determined by the ratio of gear teeth to worm threads; it is not
equal to the ratio of gear and worm diameters.

5. Worm gears usually have at least 24 teeth and the number of

gear teeth plus worm threads should be more than 40:

Z1 + Z2 > 40

6. A worm of any pitch diameter can be made with any number of

threads and any axial pitch.

7. Integral worms cut directly on the shaft can, of course, have a

smaller diameter than that of shell worms, which are made
separately.

8. Shell worms are bored to slip over the shaft and are driven by
splines, key or pin.
9. Strength considerations seldom permit a shell worm to have a
pitch diameter less than

10. The face width of the gear should not exceed half the worm
outside diameter.

Advantages of worm gear drive

• The worm gear drives can be used for speed ratio as high as
300:1.

• The operation is smooth and silent.

• The worm gear drives are compact compared with equivalent

spur or helical gears for the same speed reduction.

• The work gear drives are irreversible. If means that the motion
cannot be transmitted from worm wheel to the work. This property
of irreversible is advantages in load hoisting application like cranes
and lifts.

5.5.4 Rack and pinion gear

A rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation into linear
motion. A perfect example of this is the steering system on many
cars. The steering wheel rotates a gear which engages the rack. As
the gear turns, it slides the rack either to the right or left,
depending on the way turn the wheel.It is composed of two gears
and the normal round gear is called as pinion gear and the straight
of flat gear is called as rack gear.
Rotational motion applied to the pinion will cause the rack to move
to the side, up to the limit of its travel.For the example, in a rack
railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or a
railcar engages a rack between the rails and pulls a train along a
steep slope

Rack and pinion

Rack and pinion gears are also used in some scales to turn the dial
that displays your weight

Problem

Let us design a worm gear drive to transmit 22.5 kW at a worm

speed of 1440 rpm. Velocity ratio is 24:1. An efficiency of at least
85% is desired. The temperature rise should be restricted to
40°C. Let us also determine the required cooling area.

Solution:
Given data

p = 3.5 kW

Speed ratio = 4

N = 200 rpm

Assume life = 25000 hrs.

To find:

The required cooling area

1. Select material, pinion C45 surface hardened to 45 RC and core

hardness 350 BHN

σu = 700 N/nim2,

Wheel : Ci grade 30,

σy = 360 N/mm

σu = 300 N/mm2.

2.Calculation of design stresses

[σc]p = CR HRC Kcl

= 23 × 45 × 0.585

= 605.5 N/mm2

CR = 23
HRC = 45

Kcl = 0.585

= 30 × 107 cycles)

= 117.6 N/mm2

σ = 0.25 (σn + σy) + 50

= 315 N/mm2

[σc]w = CB · HB · Kcl

= 2.3 × 220 × 0.714

= 361.3 N/mm2

Kb1 = 1 (for 30 × 107 cycles)

Kσ =1.5

n = 2.5

Nw = (30/i) × 107 = (30/4) × 107

= 7.5 × 107 cycles

CB = 2.3

HB = 220 (assumed)

σ–1 = 0.45 σu = 0.45 × 300

= 135 N/mm2

= 50.3 N/mm

Kσ = 1.2

n = 2.5 (no heat treatment).

3. Determination of R (Design the pinion)

i= 4 (given)

CI grade 30 has σU 280 N/mm2.

Hence equivalent Young’s modulus

E = 1.7 × 105 N/mm2

Assume ψy = 3

[Mt] = k0 · kkd · Mt

Mt = pinion torque

ko = 1 (assumed)

kkd =1.3 (assumed)

[Mt] = 1 × 1.3 × 167.112 = 217.3 Nm

≥ 158.13 mm.

4. Determination of mt

158.13 - 0.5 mt √16 + 1 · 18 (assuming z1 = 18)

∴ mt = 4.26 mm Take mt = 5 (standard).

5. Revise R and find b

b = R/3 = 185.54/3 = 61.8 mm.

6. Calculate mav, d1av and pitch line velocity

(derived from the formula given for d1av in

(To get mav, Equation can also be used.)

dlav = z1 mav = 18 × 4.17 = 75 mm.

Pitch line velocity,

7. Revise k, kd and [Mt]

b/d1av = 61.8/75 = 0.824

Surface hardness is less than 350 BHN for wheel.

∴ k = 1.1

kd = 1, for class 6 gears, for V = 1 m/s

[Mt] = 1 × 1.1 × 1 × 167.1 = 183.8 Nm.

8. Calculation of induced stresses

i) Stresses in pinion
= 438.4 N/mm2 [σc] = 605.5 N/mm2

tan δ2 = i = 4

δ2 = tan–1 4 = 76°

δ1 = 90° – 76° = 14°

zeq= z./cos δ1 = 18/cos 14° = 19

∴yv = 0.383

= 49.7 N/mm2 [σb] = 117.6 N/mm1

Design of the pinion is satisfactory.

ii) Check the stresses in the wheel

σcw = σcp = 438.4 N/mm2 > [σc]w = 361.3 N/mm2

Wheel does not have adequate wear strength.

Use the following relation to calculate the induced bending stress.

σbw · yw = σbp · yp
where, yw is the form factor for the virtual number of teeth of the
wheel

z2 = iz1 = 4 × 18 = 72

zeq = Z2/COS δ2 = 72/cos 76° = 297.6 = 300

yv= 0.521

σbw × 0.521 = 49.7 × 0.383

σbw = 36.5 N/mm2 < [σb]w = 50.3 N/mm2

Wheel has adequate beam strength.

Comments:

1. In order to increase the wear strength of the wheel, surface

hardness may be raised by flame or induction hardening. OR,

2. Taking mt = 6, carry out the design calculations as Trial 2.

2. Let us the Design a worm gear drive to transmit a power of

22.5 kW.The worm speed is 1440 rpm. and the speed of the wheel
is 60 rpm. The drive should have a minimum efficiency of 80% and
above. Let us select suitable materials for worm and wheel and
decide upon the dimensions of the drive.

Solution:

Given: N1 = 1440 rpm: P = 22.5 KW;

N2 = 60 rpm; ηderived = 80%

To find: Design the worm gear drive.

1. Material selection:

Worm - Hardened Steel

Worm Wheel - Phosphor bronze.

2. Selection of Z1 and Z2.

For η = 80, Z1 = 3.

Then, Z2 = i × Z1 = 24 × 3 = 72.

3. Calculation of q and r:

4. Calculation of Ft in terms of mx:

K0 = 1.25 assumed medium shock.

5. Calculation of dynamic load (Fd)

V = 5 m/s is assumed.

6. Calculation of beam strength (Fs).

Fs = π × mx × b × [σb] × y

b = 0.75 d1

= 0.75 × q mx = 0.75 × 11 m = 8.25 mx.

[σb] = 80 N/mm2, from table.

y = 0.125, assuming a = 20°.

7. Calculation of axial module (mx):

Fs ≥ Fd.
mx ≥ 9.5 mm.

Nearest higher axial pitch is 10 mm.

8. Calculation of b, d2 and v.

Face width b = 8.25 mx = 8.25 × 10 = 82.5 mm.

Pitch diameter of worm wheel (d2):

d2 = Z2 × mx = 72 × 10

= 720 mm.

Pitch line velocity of worm Wheel (V)

0.226 mx = 0.226 × 10 = 2.26 m/s.

9. Recalculation of beam strength (Fs)

=25918N.

10. Recalculation of dynamic load (Fd) Dynamic load,

11. Check for beam strength.

Fd < Fs. It means that the gear tooth has adequate beam strength
and will not fail by breakage. Thus the. design is satisfactory.

12. Calculation of maximum wear load (Fw)

Fw = d2×b × KW

Kw = 0.56 N/mm2 from table.

Fw = 720 × 82.5 × 0.56 = 33264 N.

13. Check for wear.

Fd < Fw. It means that the gear tooth has adequate wear capacity
and will not wear out. Thus the design is safe and satisfactory.

14. Check for efficiency.

ρ = Friction angle = tan-1μ

= tan–1 (0.03) = 1.7°.

∵ μ = tan P.
μ = 0.03 assumed

= 0.8498 or 84.98%.

Thus the design is satisfactory

UNIT VI
POWER TRANSMISSIONS
Topic

Power Transmissions : Introduction, Belt and rope drives, selection

of belt drive- types of belt drives,V-belts, materials used for belt
and rope drives, velocity ratio of belt drives, slip of belt, creep of
belt, tensions for flat belt drive, angle of contact, centrifugal
tension, maximum tension of belt, Chains- length, angular speed
ratio, classification of chains. Introduction to gear Trains, Train
value, Types – Simple and reverted wheel train – Epicyclic gear
Train. Methods of finding train value or velocity ratio – Epicyclic
gear trains. Selection of gear box-Differential gear for an
automobile.

Objective: The objective of this unit is to make student understand

various power transmission mechanisms and methodologies and
working principles.Students are exposed to merits and demerits of
each drive.

6.1 Power Transmissions : Introduction, Belt and rope

drives, selection of belt drive
Belt drive

In case of belts drives the friction between the belt and pulley is
used to transmit power. In practice, there always occurs some
amount of slip between the belt and pulley. Hence exact velocity
ratio cannot be obtained. Therefore, the belt drive is used where
exact velocity ratio is not required.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following
factors :

1. The velocity of the belt.

2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.

3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.

4. The conditions under which the belt is used

Selection of a Belt Drive :

The following factors influence the selection of a belt drive :

1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts

2. Shafts layout

3. Power to be transmitted

4. Centre distance between the shafts

5. Positive drive requirements

6. The speed reduction ratio

7. Space available

8. Service condition

6.2 Types of belt drives,V-belts, materials used for belt and

rope drives
6.2.1 Types of Belt Drives:
The belt drives are classified into :

1. Light drives: They are used to transmit small powers at belt

speeds upto about 10 m/s.

Example: Agricultural machines and small machine tools.

2. Medium drives: They are used to transmit medium power at belt

speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s.

Example: Machine tools.

3. Heavy drives: They are used to transmit large powers at belt

speeds above 22 m/s.

Example: Compressors and generators.

Types Of Belts:

1. Flat belt:

They are mostly used in the factories and workshops where a

moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, where the two
pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.

2. V-belt:
They are mostly used in the factories and workshops where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, where the two
pulleys are very near to each other.

3. Circular belt or rope:

The circular belt or rope, as shown in figure above is mostly used in

the factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to
be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys
are more than 8 meters apart.

6.2.2 Material Used for Belt and Rope drives

The material used for belts and ropes must be flexible and durable,
strong. It should have a maximum coefficient of friction. The belts,
according to the material used, are classified as follows :

1. Leather belts.
The important material for the belt is leather. The best leather
belts are made from 1.2 metres to 1.5 metres long strips cut from
either side of the back bone of the top grade steer hides. The hair
side of the leather is smoother and harder than the flesh side, but
the flesh side is stronger.

The fibres on the hair side are perpendicular to the surface, while
those on the flesh side are interwoven and parallel to the surface.
Therefore for these reasons, the hair side of a belt should be in
contact with the pulley surface, as shown in Figure below. This
gives a more intimate contact between the belt and the pulley and
places the greatest tensile strength of the belt section on the
outside, where the tension is maximum as the belt passes over the
pulley.

Leather belts

The leather may be either oak-tanned or mineral salt tanned

example. chrome tanned. In order to increase the thickness of belt,
the strips are cemented together. The belts are specified according
to the number of layers e.g. single, double or triple ply and
according to the thickness of hides used example , medium or
heavy , light.
The leather belts must be periodically cleaned and dressed or
treated with a compound or dressing containing neats foot or other
suitable oils so that the belt will remain soft and flexible.

2. Cotton or fabric belts

The most of the fabric belts are made by folding canvass or cotton
duck to three or more layers and stitching together. These belts are
woven also into a strip of the desired width and thickness. They are
impregnated with some filler like linseed oil in order to make the
belts water proof and to prevent injury to the fibres.

The cotton belts are cheaper and suitable in warm climates, in

damp atmospheres and in exposed positions. Since the cotton belts
require little attention, therefore these belts are mostly used in
farm machinery, belt conveyor etc.

3. Rubber belt

The rubber belts are made of layers of fabric impregnated with

rubber com-position and have a thin layer of rubber on the faces.
These belts are very flexible but are quickly destroyed if allowed to
come into contact with heat, oil or grease.

One of the principal advantage of these belts is that they may be

easily made endless. These belts are found suitable for saw mills,
paper mills where they are exposed to moisture.

4. Balata belts

These belts are similar to rubber belts except that balata gum is
used in place of rubber. These belts are acid proof and water proof
and it is not effected by animal oils or alkalies. The balata belts
should not be at temperatures above 40°C because at this
temperature the balata begins to soften and becomes sticky. The
strength of balata belts is 25% more than rubber belts.

TYPES OF FLAT BELT DRIVE:

1. Open belt drive:

In this type of belt drive shafts are arranged parallel to each other
and would rotate in same direction.The lower side of the belt is
called tight side and the upper side if the belt is called slack side.

Nomenclature of Open Belt drive

Open belt drive
2. Crossed Belt drive:

This is also called as twist belt drive and in this type of belt, drive
shafts are arranged parallel to each other and would rotate
opposite to each other. In this type of drive the belt drive the driver
and driven rubs against each other and this causes excessive wear
and tear.In order to avoid this shaft are placed at maximum
distance of 20 b where b is the width of the belt and speed should
be less than 15 m/s.

Crossed Belt drive

3. Compound belt drive.

A compound belt drive, as shown in Figure below, is used when

power is transmitted from one shaft to another through a number
of pulleys.

Compound belt drive

Problem:
A shaft which rotates at a constant speed of 160 r.p.m. is
connected by belting to a parallel shaft 720 mm apart, which has
to run at 60, 80 and 100 r.p.m. The smallest pulley on the driving
shaft is 40 mm in radius. Let us determine the remaining radii
of the two stepped pulleys for 1.a crossed belt and 2. an open
belt. Neglect belt thickness and slip

Solution:

Given:

N1= N3= N5= 160 r.p.m.

x= 720 mm

N2= 60 r.p.m.

N4= 80 r.p.m.

N6= 100 r.p.m

r1= 40 mm
To find:

A crossed belt

An open belt. Neglect belt thickness and slip

Let

r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 be the radii of the pulleys 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively, as

shown in Figure

1. For a crossed belt

We know that for pulleys 1 and 2,

or

For pulleys 3 and 4

And pulleys 5 and 6

For equation (i)

2. For An Open Belt

We know that for pulleys 1 and 2,

For pulleys 3 and 4

We know that length of belt for an open belt drive

Since the length of the belt in an open belt drive is constant,
therefore for pulleys 3 and 4, length of the belt (L),
6.3 Velocity Ratio Of Belt Drives, Slip Of Belt, Creep Of
Belt, Tensions For Flat Belt Drive, Angle Of Contact,
Centrifugal Tension, Maximum Tension Of Belt
6.3.1 Velocity Ratio

The ratio of angular velocity of the driver pulley to the angular

velocity of the driven pulley is known as velocity ratio or speed
ratio or transmission ratio.

Let d1 = Speed of driver pulley

d2 = Speed of driver pulley

n1 = Speed of driver pulley

n2 = Speed of driver pulley

Neglecting slip and thickness of belt,

Linear speed of belt on driver = Linear speed of belt on driven

πd1 n1 = πd2 n2

6.3.2 Slip In Belts

It consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction, the

rotation of belt over the pulleys is be due to firm frictional grip
between the belt and pulleys. When this frictional grip becomes
insufficient, there is a possibility of forward motion of driver
without carrying belt with it and there is also possibility of belt
rotating without carrying the driver pulley with it. This
phenomenon is is known as slip. Therefore slip may be defined as
the relative motion between the pulley and the belt in it. The
velocity ratio is reduced during slip.

Effect of Slip on Velocity Ratio

Let s1 = Percentage of slip between driver pulley rim and the belt.
s2 = Percentage of slip between the belt and the driven pulley rim.

Linear speed of driver = πd1 n1

Problem

An engine, running at 150 r.p.m., drives a line shaft by means of a

belt. The engine pulley Is 750 mm diameter and the pulley on the
line shaft being 450 mm. A 900 mm diameter pulley on the line
shaft drives a 150MN 2diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo
shaft. Let us determine the speed of the dynamo shaft, when 1.
there is no slip and 2. there is a slip of 2% at each drive.

Solution:

Given:

N1= 150 r.p.m.

d1= 750 mm

d2= 450 mm

d3= 900 mm

d4= 150 mm

The arrangement of belt drive is shown in Figure,

Let N4= Speed of the dynamo shaft .

To find:

1. There Is no Slip

2. There Is a Slip Of 2% At Each Drive.

When there is no slip:

When there is a slip of 2% at each drive:

6.3.3 Creep in Belts

It consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction as

shown in the figure. The portion of the belt leaving the driven and
entering the driver is known as tight side and portion of belt
leaving the driver and entering the driven is known as slack side.
During rotation there is an expansion of belt on tight side and
contraction of belt on the slack side. Due to the uneven contraction
and expansion of the belt over the pulleys, there will be a relative
movement of the belt over the pulleys which is known as creep in
belts.
The effect of creep can be reduced by slightly varying the speed of
driven pulley or follower.Velocity ratio is given by

Problem

The power is transmitted from a pulley 1 m diameter running at

200r.p.m. to a pulley of 2.25 m diameter by means of a belt. Let
us determine the speed lost by the driven pulley as a result of
creep, if the stress on the tight and slack side of the belt is 1.4
MPa and 0.5 MPa respectively. The Young's modulus for the
material of the belt is 100 MPa.

Solution:

Given:

d1= 1 m

N1= 200 r.p.m.

d2= 2.25 m

σ1= 1.4 MPa = 1.4 × 106N/m2

σ2= 0.5 MPa = 0.5 × 106N/m2

E= 100 MPa = 100 × 106N/m2

Let

To find:

The speed lost by the driven pulley as a result of creep,

N2= Speed of the driven pulley.

Neglecting creep, we know that

Considering creep, we know that

Or

Speed lost by driven pulley due to creep

6.3.4 Ratio of tension

Let tension on the tight and slack side be ‘T1’ and ‘T2’ respectively.
Let θ be the angle of lap and let μ be the coefficient of friction
between the belt and the pulley. Consider an infinitesimal length of
the belt PQ which subtend an angle δθ at the centre of the pulley.
Let ‘R’ be the reaction between the element and the pulley. Let ‘T’
be tension on the slack side of the element, i.e. at point P and let (T
+ δT) be the tension on the tight side of the element.

The tensions T and (T + δT) shall be acting tangential to the pulley

and thereby normal to the radii OP and OQ. The friction force shall
be equal to ‘μR’ and its action will be to prevent slipping of the
belt. The friction force will act tangentially to the pulley at the point
S.

It considering equilibrium of the element at S and equating it to

zero. Resolving all the forces in the tangential direction
6.3.5 Angle Of Contact

The two pulleys of different diameters are connected by means of

an open belt as shown in Figure (a), then the angle of contact or lap
(θ) at the smaller pulley must be taken into consideration.
Let

r1= Radius of larger pulley,

r2= Radius of smaller pulley

x= Distance between centres of two pulleys (i.e. O1O2).

From Figure (a)

Angle of contact or lap,

A little consideration will show that when the two pulleys are
connected by means of a crossed belt as shown in Figure (b), then
the angle of contact or lap (θ) on both the pulleys is same. From
Figure (b),
Problem:

1. A casting weighing 9 kN hangs freely from a rope which makes

2.5 turnsround a drum of 300 mm diameter revolving at 20
r.p.m.The other end of the rope is pulled by a man. The
coefficient of friction is 0.25. Let us determine 1.The force
required by the man, and2. The power to raise the casting.

Solution:

Given:

W= T1 = 9 kN = 9000 N
d= 300 mm = 0.3 m

N= 20 r.p.m.

µ = 0.25

To find:

1. Force required by the man

2. Power to raise the casting

1. Force required by the man

Let T2 = Force required by the man.

Since the rope makes 2.5 turns round the drum, therefore angle of
contact

We know that velocity of the rope,

2. Power to raise the casting,

6.3.6 Centrifugal Tension

The belt continuously runs over the pulleys, there-fore, some

centrifugal force is caused, whose effect is to increase the tension
on both, tight as well as the slack sides. The tension caused by
centrifugal force is called centrifugal tension.
6.4 Chains- Length, Angular Speed Ratio, Classification Of
Chains.
Chain drive

A chain drive consists of an endless chain wrapped around the

sprocket wheels. The chain has a number of links which are
connected by pins. The sprockets have teeth of specific profile.
Chain drives are used for transmitting powers. The chain drives
have features of both belt (flexibility of location of driver and
driven) and gear drives (ruggedness). Chain drives are
recommended for

Velocity ratio below 10:1

Chain velocity 1550 m/min

Power transmission up to 100 kW

6.4.1 Length Of Chain

The open chain drive system connecting the two sprockets is

shown in Figure. The length of belt for an open belt drive
connecting the two pulleys of radii r1and r 2 and a centre distance
x is given,

Length of the chaine

If this expression is used for find the length of chain, the result will
be slightly greater than the required length. This is due to the fact
that the pitch lines A B C D E F Gand P Q R S of the sprockets are
the parts of a polygon and not that of a circle.

T1= Number of teeth on the larger sprocket

T2= Number of teeth on the smaller sprocket

p= Pitch of the chain

The diameter of the pitch circle,

For larger sprocket,

and for smaller sprocket

Since the term π(r1+ r2) is equal to half the sum of the
circumferences of the pitch circles, therefore the length of chain
corresponding to

Substituting the values of r1, r2 and π(r1+ r2) in equation(i),the

length of chain is given by
If x =m.p, then

K = multiplying factor

The value of multiplying factor (K) may not be a complete integer.

But the length of the chain should be equal to an integer number of
times the pitch of the chain. Thus, the value of K should be rounded
off to the next higher integral number.
6.4.2 Angular Speed Ratio

The links of the chain are rigid, therefore they will have various
positions on the sprocket at different instants. The relation
between the chain speed (v) and angular velocity of the sprocket
(ω) also varies with the angular posi-tion of the sprocket. The
extreme positions are shown in Figure (a) and (b).
 Relation between chain speed and angular velocity of sprocket

For the angular position of the sprocket as shown in Figure (a),

v =ω× OA

For the angular position of the sprocket as shown in Figure (b),

.... (OC =OA)

6.4.3 Chains Are Classified As Roller Chains And Silent Chains.

Roller chain recommendations

Advantages of Chain Drive Over Belt or Rope Drive

Advantages

1.The chain drive gives less load on the shafts.

2. Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they occupy less
space in width than a belt or rope drive.

3. The chain drive gives a high transmission efficiency (upto 98 per

cent).

4.The chain drives may be used when the distance between the
shafts is less.

5. As no slip takes place during chain drive, hence perfect velocity

ratio is obtained.
6. The chain drive has the ability of transmitting motion to several
shafts by one chain only.

Disadvantages

1. The chain drive has velocity fluctuations especially when unduly

stretched.

2.The chain drive needs accurate mounting and careful

maintenance.

3. The production cost of chains is relatively high.

Problem:

A chain drive is used for reduction of speed from 240 r.p.m. to 120
r.p.m.The number of teeth on the driving sprocket is 20. Let us
determinethe number of teeth on the driven sprocket. If the pitch
circle diameter of the driven sprocket is 600 mm and centre to
centre distance between thetwo sprockets is 800 mm and
also determine the pitch and length of the chain.

Solution:

Given:

N1= 240 r.p.m

N2= 120 r.p.m

T1= 20

d2= 600 mm or r2= 300 mm= 0.3 m

x= 800 mm = 0.8 m

To find:

1. The number of teeth on the driven sprocket

2. The determine the pitch and length of the chain

Number of teeth on the driven sprocket

Let T2 = Number of teeth on the driven sprocket.

We know that

Pitch of the chain

Let p= Pitch of the chain.

We know that pitch circle radius of the driven sprocket (r2),

Length of the chain

We know that pitch circle radius of the driving sprocket,

We know that multiplying factor

Length of the chain,

6.5 Introduction To Gear Trains, Train Value,

A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their
teeth and turning each other in a system to generate power and
speed. It reduces speed and increases torque. To create large gear
ratio, gears are connected together to form gear trains. They often
consist of multiple gears in the train.

The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting
parallel shafts. The teeth of this type can be spur, helical or
herringbone. The angular velocity is simply the reverse of the tooth
ratio. Any combination of gear wheels employed to transmit
motion from one shaft to the other is called a gear train.

The meshing of two gears may be idealized as two smooth discs

with their edges touching and no slip between them. This ideal
diameter is called the Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD) of the gear.
Speed ratio, train value

When there is only one gear on each shaft, as shown in Figure, it is

known as simple gear train. The gears are represented by their
pitch circles. When the distance between the two shafts is small,
the two gears 1 and 2 are made to mesh with each other to
transmit motion from one shaft to the other, as shown in Figure
(a).

Since the gear 1 drives the gear 2, therefore gear 1 is called the
driver and the gear 2 is called the driven or follower. It may be
noted that the motion of the driven gear is opposite to the motion
of driving gear.

Let

N1 = Speed of gear 1(or driver) in r.p.m.,

N2 = Speed of gear 2 (or driven or follower) in r.p.m.,

T1 = Number of teeth on gear 1 and

T2 = Number of teeth on gear 2.

Since the speed ratio (or velocity ratio) of gear train is the ratio of
the speed of the driver to the speed of the driven or follower and
ratio of speeds of any pair of gears in mesh is the inverse of their
number of teeth, therefore

It may be noted that ratio of the speed of the driven or follower to

the speed of the driver is known as train value of the gear train.
Mathematically,

From above, we see that the train value is the reciprocal of speed
ratio. Sometimes, the distance between the two gears is large.

The motion from one gear to another, in such a case, may be

transmitted by either of the following two methods :

1. By providing the large sized gear or

2. By providing one or more intermediate gears.

A little consideration will show that the former method (i.e.

providing large sized gears) is very inconvenient and uneconomical
method, whereas the latter method (i.e. providing one or more
intermediate gear) is very convenient and economical.

It may be noted that when the number of intermediate gears are

odd, the motion of both the gears (i.e. driver and driven or
follower).

But if the number of intermediate gears are even, the motion of

the driven or follower will be in the opposite direction of the drive.
6.6 Types – Simple And Reverted Wheel Train
6.6.1 Simple gear train

A gear train is said to be simple if the shaft has only one gear
mounted on it. The typical spur gears as shown in the figure below.
The direction of rotation is reversed from one gear to another. It
has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must
be of the same size. If gear A advances one tooth, so does B and C.

Module must be same for all gears otherwise they would not mesh
must be the same for all
The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all
the gears, otherwise they would be slipping

Application:

a) To connect gears where a large center distance is required

b) To obtain high speed ratio

c) To obtain desired direction of motion of the driven gear

6.6.2 Reverted Gear Train

A reverted gear train is a compound gear train in which, the first

and last gears are co-axial. They find applications in clocks and in
simple lathes where back gear is used to impact slow speed to the
chuck.
 Reverted Gear Train

When the axes of the first gear (i.e. first driver) and the last gear
(i.e. last driven or follower) are co-axial, then the gear train is
known as reverted gear train as shown in Figure. We see that gear
1 (i.e. first driver) drives the gear 2 in the opposite direction.

Since the gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft, therefore
they form a compound gear and the gear 3 will rotate in the same
direction as that of gear 2. The gear 3 (which is now the second
driver) drives the gear 4 (i.e. the last driven or follower) in the same
direction as that of gear 1.Thus we see in a reverted gear train,the
motion of the first gear and last gear is like.

Let T1 = Number of teeth on gear 1

r1 = pitch circle radius of gear 1

N1= Speed of gear 1 in r.p.m

Similarly,

T2,T3,T4 = Number of teeth on respective gears

r2, r3, r4 =Pitch circle radii of respective gears

N2, N3, N4 = Speed of respective gears in r.p.m.

Since the distance between the centres of the shafts of gears 1 and
2 as well as gears 3 and 4 is same, therefore

rI+ r2= r3 + r4 .......................... 1)

Also, the circular pitch or module of all the gears is assumed to be

same, therefore number of teeth on each gear is directly
proportional to its circumference or radius.

T1+ T2= T3+ T4 ...........................(2)

..........................(3)

If R and T = Pitch circle radius & number of teeth of the

gear respectively

From the equations , we can determine the number of teeth on

each gear for the given center distance, speed ratio and module
only when the number of teeth on one gear is considered
arbitrarily.The reverted gear trains are used in automotive trans-
missions, industrial speed reducers and in clocks.
Problem:

The speed ratio of the reverted gear train, as shown in Figure

below, is to be 12. The module pitch of gears A and B is 3.125 nun
and of gears C and D is 2.5 mm. Let us calculate the suitable
numbers of teeth for the gears. No gear is to have less than 24
teeth.

Solution:

Given :

Speed ratio, NA/ND= 12

mA =m B = 3.125 mm

mC = mD= 2.5 mm

To find:

Numbers of teeth for the gears

NA= Speed of gear A

TA= Number of teeth on gear A

rA= Pitch circle radius of gear A

NB, NC, ND = Speed of respective gears

TB, TC, TD = Number of teeth on respective gears

rB, rC , rD= Pitch circle radii of respective gear

From eq (1) substituting this value of TB in equation we
get,

6.7 Epicyclic Gear Train - Methods Of Finding Train Value

Or Velocity Ratio
Epicyclic gear train:

The gear trains arranged in such a manner that one or more of

their members moves upon and around another member are
known as epicyclic gear train. The epicyclic gear train may be
simpler (or) compound train.

Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The
design involves planet and sun gears as one orbits the other like a
planet around the sun. Here is a picture of a typical gear box. This
design can produce large gear ratios in a small space and are used
on a wide range of applications from marine gearboxes to electric
screwdrivers.

Uses:

1) Back Gear of Lathe.

2) Differential Gears of Automobile.

3) Hoists, Wrist Watches, etc.

Velocity Ratios of Epicyclic Gear Train

Tabular method

It consider an epicyclic gear train. Let TA = Number of teeth on gear

A and TB = Number of teeth on gear B. Let us consider that the arm
is fixed. Therefore the axes of both the gears are also fixed relative
to each other. When the gear A makes one revolution
anticlockwise, the gear B will make TA/TB revolutions in clockwise
direction.

Assuming the anticlockwise rotation as positive and clockwise as

negative, we may say that when gear A makes + 1 revolution, then
the gear B will make (– TA/TB) revolutions. If the gear A makes + x
revolutions, then the gear B will make ( – x × TA/TB ) revolutions.
Each element of an epicyclic train is given + y revolutions and
entered in the third row. .

Problem:

In an epicyclic gear train shown in figure, the arm A is fixed to the

shaft S. The wheel B having 100 teeth rotates freely on the shaft
S. The wheel F having 150 teeth driven separately. If the arm
rotates at 200 rpm and wheel F at 100 rpm in the same
direction; let us determine (a) number of teeth on the gear C and
(b) speed of wheel B.
Solution:

Given:

TB=100; TF=150; NA=200rpm; NF=100rpm;

To find:

Number Of Teeth On The Gear c

(b) Speed Of Wheel b.

The number of teeth on the gears is proportional to the pitch

circles
The gear B and gear F rotates in the opposite directions

The Gear B rotates at 350 rpm in the same direction of gears F and
Arm A.

2) In an epicyclic gear train, an arm carries two gears A and B

having 36 and 45 teeth respectively. If the arm rotates at 150
r.p.m. in the anticlockwise direction about the centre of the gear
A which is fixed, determine the speed of gear B. If the gear A
instead of being fixed, makes 300 r.p.m. in the clockwise
direction, what will be the speed of gear B

Solution:

1. By tabular method:

Step no Condition of Revolutions of elements

 motion
Arm C Gear A Gear B
Arm fixed
gear A rotates
1 0 +1
through +1
revolution
Arm fixed
gear A rotates
2 0 +x
through + x
revolutions
Add + y
3 revolutions to +y +y
all elements
4 Total Motion +y X+y

Speed of gear B when gear A is fixed

Speed of gear B when gear A makes 300 r.p.m clockwise.

Algebraic Method:

Since the gear A and B revolves in opposite directions,then

Speed of Gear B when Gear A is fixed

Speed of gear B when gear A makes 300 r.p.m clockwise.

In a reverted epicyclic gear train, the arm A carries two gears B
and C and a compound gear D - E. The gear B meshes with gear E
and the gear C meshes with gear D. The number of teeth on gears
B, C and D are 75, 30 and 90 respectively. Let us determine the
speed and direction of gear C when gear B is fixed and the arm A
makes 100 r.p.m. clockwise.

Solution:
 Condition of
Step no Revolutions of elements
motion
Compound
Arm A Gear B Gear C
D-E
Arm fixed gear A
1 rotates through 0 +1
+1 revolution
Arm fixed gear A
2 rotates through + 0 +X
x revolutions
Add + y
3 revolutions to all +y +Y +y
elements
4 Total Motion +y X+Y
Substituting y = - 100 in equation 1,we get

6.8 Selection Of Gear Box-Differential Gear For An

Automobile.
6.8.1 Selection of Gearbox

Gearbox selection will be done in two stages:

1) Selection of gearbox type2) Determining the size of the

selected gearbox type
Selection of Gearbox Type
The suitable type of gearbox for the driven machine will be
determined during project phase. The technical staff designing the
project decides on the type of gearbox according to his experiences
or applications.

For systems requiring less power, motor gears are recommended.

Motor gears are less expensive and can be easily mounted.

Determining the size of the selected gearbox

The size of the gearbox can be determined with the help of the
gearbox power tables. For each gearbox type a separate power
table is laid out. The table shows the maximum power (kW) that a
gearbox can transmit according to the input speed and
transmission ratio. The output torque a gearbox can transmit is also
given in a separate table.

The power and torque values given in tables are nominal values.
The power and torque needed for the driven machine should be
less than the nominal power and torque the gearbox can transmit
so that the gearbox can operate at a certain safety.

The power Nre, the gearbox should transmit is determined by

multiplying the power Nd needed for the driven machine by the
operation safety factor. The nominal power of the selected gearbox
should be equal to or more than the Nre value.Operation safety
factor (F):The following coefficients determines the factor:

1) The coefficient for the driven machine, fd 2) The coefficient for

the driving motor, fm3) The coefficient for the daily operation time,
ft4) The coefficient for the start-up number, fs
Operation safety factor F is attained by multiplying the four
coefficients: F = fd . fm . ft . fs

The driven machine coefficient (fd)

For machines with constant power demand, which operate without

shock loading and without sudden moment increase, the
coefficient fd is taken as 1.

For machines which operate with medium shock loading and where
load increases or decreases by at most 50%, the coefficient fd is
taken as 1.5.For machines with high inertia which operate with
heavy shock loading and where load increases or decreases by at
most 100%, the coefficient fd is taken as 2.

Machines with very heavy shock loading and very high moment of
inertia: The coefficient fd is taken as 2.5-3 for this group.Driving
motor coefficient ( fm )

Electric motors (Asynchronous, synchronous, direct current

motors), steam turbines, hydraulic motors. The fm for this group is
taken as 1.

Internal combustion, 4 - 6 cylinder engines (gasoline or diesel),

water turbines. The fm for this group is taken as 1.25.

Internal combustion, 1 - 3 cylinder engines (gasoline or diesel.) The

fm for this group is taken as 1.5.

Daily operation time coefficient ( ft )

If the daily operation time is between 3 - 10 hours, the ft coefficient

is taken as 1.If the daily operation time is less than 3 hours, the
ft coefficient is taken as 0.8. If the daily operation time is between
10 - 24 hours, the ftcoefficient is taken as 1.25.

Start-up number coefficient ( fs )

If the system makes at most five start-ups in an hour, the

coefficient fs is taken as 1.

If the system makes more than five start-ups in an hour, the

coefficient fsis taken between 1.25 – 2.
6.8.2 Differential

An automobile while running the inner wheel turns over a smaller

radius while outer moves along a larger radius thus larger wheel
travels a longer distance then inner wheel hence there should be
difference in speed of the two wheels to accommodate easy
turning. Differential is an arrangement of gears which causes this
difference in speed between the two vehicles.

The differential is designed to drive a pair of wheels with equal

force, whilst allowing them to rotate at different speeds. In vehicles
without a differential, such as karts, both driving wheels are forced
to rotate at the same speed, usually on a common axle driven by a
simple chain-drive mechanism. When cornering, the inner wheel
needs to travel a shorter distance than the outer wheel, so with no
differential, the result is the inner wheel spinning and the outer
wheel dragging and this results in difficult and unpredictable
handling, damage to tires and roads and strain on the entire drive
train.

The propeller shaft is driven by the engine through the gear box, on
which a bevel gear P is keyed through universal coupling. Bevel
gear P meshes with gear Q (known as crown gear) which is free to
rotate about the axle A.

Two equal gears R and S are mounted on two separate par A and A’
of the rear axles respectively. These gears, in turn mesh with equal
pinions T and U which can rotate freely on the spindle provided on
the arm attached to gear Q.

Differential

When the automobile runs on a straight path, the gears Q and S

must rotate together. These gears are rotated through the spindle
on the gear Q. The gears T and U do not rotate on the spindle,
while taking a turn, outer wheel has greater speed than inner
wheel, the gears T and U start rotating about the spindle axis and
at the same time revolve about the axle axis.

Due to this epicyclic effect, the speed of inner rear wheel decreases
by an amount equal to the increase in speed of outer real wheel.