July 2012

Guide for Optimum

JOINT PERFORMANCE
of Concrete Pavements
 
 Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

FHWA DTFH 61-06-H-00011 (WP 26)

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements July 2012
6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Peter Taylor, Robert Otto Rasmussen, Helga Torres, Gary Fick, Dale Harrington,
Tom Cackler
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center
Institute for Transportation 11. Contract or Grant No.
Iowa State University
2711 South Loop Drive, Suite 4700
Ames, IA 50010-8664
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Federal Highway Administration Guide
U.S. Department of Transportation 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
1200 New Jersey Avenuye SE TPF-5(224) Transportation Pooled Fund with
Washington, D.C. 20590 FHWA and state departments of transportation of
Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, New York,
South Dakota, and Wisconsin
15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract
The purpose of this guide is to help practitioners understand how to optimize concrete pavement joint
performance through the identification, mitigation, and prevention of joint deterioration. It summarizes current
knowledge from research and practice to help practitioners access the latest knowledge and implement proven
techniques. Emphasizing that water is the common factor in most premature joint deterioration, this guide
describes various types of joint deterioration that can occur. Some distresses are caused by improper joint
detailing or construction, and others can be attributed to inadequate materials or proportioning. D cracking is a
form of joint distress that results from the use of poor-quality aggregates. A particular focus in this guide is
joint distress due to freeze-thaw action. Numerous factors are at play in the occurrence of this distress,
including the increased use of a variety of deicing chemicals and application strategies. Finally, this guide
provides recommendations for minimizing the potential for joint deterioration, along with recommendations
for mitigation practices to slow or stop the progress of joint deterioration.

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement

Concrete pavement, portland cement concrete, concrete pavement joints No restrictions.
19. Security Classification (of this 20. Security Classification (of this 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
report) page)
Unclassified. Unclassified. 26

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements i

ii Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements
Guide for Optimum

JOINT PERFORMANCE
of Concrete Pavements

JULY 2012

Authors
Peter Taylor, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University
Robert Otto Rasmussen, The Transtec Group, Inc.
Helga Torres, The Transtec Group, Inc.
Gary Fick, Trinity Construction Management Services
Dale Harrington, Snyder and Associates
Tom Cackler, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements iii

About This Guide Acknowledgments
This guide will help practitioners optimize concrete pave- The authors appreciate the support of the FHWA (DTFH
ment joint performance by preventing, identyfing, and 61-06-H-00011 (Work Plan 26)) and of the Transporta-
mitigating premature joint deterioration. tion Pooled Fund (TPF) 5(224) sponsored by state DOTs
in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, South
While the majority of concrete pavements are not affected
Dakota, and Wisconsin, which has made it possible to
by premature joint deterioration, the problem is com-
develop this guide. They would also like to acknowledge
mon enough to have triggered research efforts to identify
the contributions of numerous organizations and indi-
causes and preventive measures. Current projects include
viduals referenced herein, particularly Purdue University,
a Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Transporta-
Michigan Tech University, and the cities of Ankeny, Iowa,
tion Pooled Fund Study TPF 5(224): Investigation of
and West Des Moines, Iowa.
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement Deterioration at Joints
and the Potential Contribution of Deicing Chemicals.
With the Iowa Department of Transportation (DOT) as the
lead state, TPF-5(224) is a collaborative effort among the
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center (CP Tech
Center) at Iowa State University, Michigan Technological
University, and Purdue University and is sponsored by
the state departments of transportation in Indiana, Iowa,
Michigan, Minnesota, New York, South Dakota, and Wis-
consin. Other efforts include individual projects at state
departments of transportation in Iowa, Michigan, Min-
nesota, and South Dakota, to name a few. As a result of all
these efforts, knowledge about the causes of joint deterio-
ration is growing significantly.
In recent months, the CP Tech Center has been synthesiz-
ing and supplementing best practices to date based on the
latest research and using data and photographs provided
by local authorities in multiple states, numerous visits and
investigations at sites (mostly in Iowa, Minnesota, Wis-
consin, and Michigan), as well as laboratory testing. Now,
instead of waiting for “all the answers” to questions that
still remain, the CP Tech Center has developed this guide
under TPF 5(224) to help practitioners access the latest
knowledge and implement proven techniques for identify-
ing, mitigating, and reducing the risk of premature joint
deterioration.

For More Information Disclaimers

For technical assistance regarding cement-based concrete paving, Neither Iowa State University nor this document’s authors, editors,
contact the CP Tech Center: designers, illustrators, distributors, or technical advisors make any
Tom Cackler, Director representations or warranties, expressed or implied, as to the accuracy
Sabrina Shields-Cook, Managing Editor of information herein and disclaim liability for any inaccuracies.
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color,
Institute for Transportation age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, sex,
Iowa State University Research Park marital status, disability, genetic testing, or status as a U.S. veteran.
2711 S. Loop Drive, Suite 4700 Inquiries can be directed to the Director of Equal Opportunity and
Ames, IA 50010-8664 Diversity, Iowa State University, 3680 Beardshear Hall, 515-294-7612.
515-294-7124
shieldsc@iastate.edu
www.cptechcenter.org/

iv Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

Contents
Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Why Now – What’s New?........................................................................................................................ 1
2 Types and Mechanisms of Joint Deterioration........................................................................................ 1
2.1 Saturated Frost Damage......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Mechanisms.................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1.2 Presentation.................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.3 Prevention..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Incremental Cracking............................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Mechanical Damage............................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 D Cracking............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.5 Early-Age Drying Damage...................................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Summary of Joint Deterioration Mechanisms......................................................................................... 7
3 Joint Deterioration Investigation............................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Design and Construction....................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Field Indicators .................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Mechanical Damage and Early-Age Drying.................................................................................... 9
3.2.2 D Cracking.................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.3 Shadowing.................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.4 Incremental Cracking.................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.5 Bottom-Up Moisture.................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.6 Drainage...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Sampling and Testing.......................................................................................................................... 10
4 Preventing Joint Deterioration in New Pavements and Overlays.......................................................... 10
4.1 Drainage of the Pavement System........................................................................................................ 11
4.2 Adequate Air-Void System................................................................................................................... 11
4.3 Reduced Concrete Permeability........................................................................................................... 12
4.3.1 Low w/cm ratio........................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.2 Appropriate Use of SCMs............................................................................................................ 12
4.3.3 Well Graded Aggregates.............................................................................................................. 12
4.3.4 Curing........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.3.5 Penetrating Sealers...................................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Sawing and Sealing Joints.................................................................................................................... 13
4.4.1 Sawing Joints.............................................................................................................................. 13
4.4.2 Sealing Joints.............................................................................................................................. 14
4.5 Summary............................................................................................................................................. 14

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements v

Contents
Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Why Now – What’s New?........................................................................................................................ 1
2 Types and Mechanisms of Joint Deterioration........................................................................................ 1
2.1 Saturated Frost Damage......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Mechanisms.................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1.2 Presentation.................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.3 Prevention..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Incremental Cracking............................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Mechanical Damage............................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 D Cracking............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.5 Early-Age Drying Damage...................................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Summary of Joint Deterioration Mechanisms......................................................................................... 7
3 Joint Deterioration Investigation............................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Design and Construction....................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Field Indicators .................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Mechanical Damage and Early-Age Drying.................................................................................... 9
3.2.2 D Cracking.................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.3 Shadowing.................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.4 Incremental Cracking.................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.5 Bottom-Up Moisture.................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.6 Drainage...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Sampling and Testing.......................................................................................................................... 10
4 Preventing Joint Deterioration in New Pavements and Overlays.......................................................... 10
4.1 Drainage of the Pavement System........................................................................................................ 11
4.2 Adequate Air-Void System................................................................................................................... 11
4.3 Reduced Concrete Permeability........................................................................................................... 12
4.3.1 Low w/cm ratio........................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.2 Appropriate Use of SCMs............................................................................................................ 12
4.3.3 Well Graded Aggregates.............................................................................................................. 12
4.3.4 Curing........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.3.5 Penetrating Sealers...................................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Sawing and Sealing Joints.................................................................................................................... 13
4.4.1 Sawing Joints.............................................................................................................................. 13
4.4.2 Sealing Joints.............................................................................................................................. 14
4.5 Summary............................................................................................................................................. 14
5 Maintenance Activities to Reduce Joint Deterioration Risk.................................................................. 14

vi Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

Figures
Figure 1. Typical slivers from freezing and thawing cycles................................................................................ 2
Figure 2. Raveling due to poor sawing practice (Source: Iowa
Department of Transportation).......................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3. Early-age drying stresses (left) and resulting horizontal cracking and
delamination spalling (right) due to high moisture loss during placement (2)................................... 2
Figure 4. Evolution of joint deterioration from shadowing (left) to high severity (right)................................... 3
Figure 5. Typical saturated foundations under a shadowed section (Source: Snyder and Associates)................. 3
Figure 6. Secondary ettringite deposits in air voids (Source: American Engineering Testing, Inc.).................... 3
Figure 7. Three cores illustrating progression of distress from bottom-up moisture.......................................... 3
Figure 8. Water flow through joints from a high water table (bottom-up moisture); note staining on surface... 4
Figure 9. Typical incremental cracking: Note (left to right) the crack parallel to the already patched face,
the signs of water passing through the crack, and the exposed aggregate remaining in the concrete.. 4
Figure 10. Coarse aggregate exposed by damage to the paste .......................................................................... 5
Figure 11. Illustration of crack development through the interfacial; zone leading to so-called incremental
cracking.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 12. Photograph of a crack around an aggregate particle......................................................................... 5
Figure 13. Incompressibles causing mechanical damage, which can lead to further distress............................. 5
Figure 14. Raveling due to poor sawing practice (Source: Iowa Department of Transportation)........................ 6
Figure 15. Photograph of an aggregate particle dislodged by inappropriate sawing (Field of view 5mm).......... 6
Figure 16. D cracking of low severity (top) and high severity (bottom) (Source: The Transtec Group).............. 7
Figure 17. Early-age drying stresses (left) and resulting horizontal cracking and delamination spalling (right)
due to high moisture loss during placement (2).............................................................................. 7
Figure 18. Example of delamination spalling (Source: Washington State)......................................................... 7
Figure 19. Shadowing at the joints, which is commonly followed by loss of material....................................... 7
Figure 20. Top-down joint distress, with vertical edges and shallow depth....................................................... 8
Figure 21 Joint deterioration evident below the joint sealant............................................................................ 8
Figure 22. Deterioration due to D cracking...................................................................................................... 8
Figure 23. Deterioration due to bottom-up moisture........................................................................................ 8
Figure 24. Joint deterioration due to raveling from improper saw-cut procedures............................................ 8
Figure 25. Damage starting at joint intersections.............................................................................................. 9
Figure 26. Coring at deteriorated joints to help identify causes of failure........................................................ 10
Figure 27. Example of a poorly draining pavement........................................................................................ 11
Figure 28. Definition of the sawing window (9)............................................................................................. 13
Figure 29. Different degrees of joint raveling caused by sawing (9)................................................................. 13
Figure 30. Using temporary joint spacers to protect and minimize damage due to
early entry sawing (Source: Husqvarna)........................................................................................ 14
Figure 31. Evidence of saturation within joint beneath seal (Source: Purdue)................................................. 14

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements vii

Figure 32. Joint filled with hot pour sealant (Source: The Transtec Group)..................................................... 15
Figure 33. Failing transverse joint associated with poor drainage at gutter..................................................... 15
Figure 34. Typical components of an edge drain system (Source: NHI 131008) (16)...................................... 15
Figure 35. Subdrain retrofit operation including clean out (The Transtec Group)........................................... 16
Figure 36. Example of effective drainage of unsealed joints............................................................................ 16
Figure 37. Signage to help avoid salting of new pavement.............................................................................. 16
Figure 38. Typical forms of damage that require different repair approaches................................................... 17
Figure 39. Delineation of spalled area for partial-depth repair (top) and a completed patch (bottom)
(Source [bottom]: The Transtec Group).......................................................................................... 17
Figure 40. Full-depth patching....................................................................................................................... 17

viii Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

Executive Summary ŪŪ Increased water-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratios
to reduce cost and improve placement, while still
Users of this guide will learn why joint deterioration
achieving minimum strength.
occurs, how to address deterioration that may already be
evident, and how to prevent it from occurring on future ŪŪ Mixtures containing supplementary cementitious
projects. materials (SCMs) that are known to be more sensitive
to poor curing.
A particular focus in this guide is joint distress due to
freeze-thaw action of saturated concrete. Deicing practices ŪŪ Lack of curing applied to the concrete within the saw-
currently in use appear to be increasing the degree of satu- cut faces.
ration of concrete at the joints; thus, the concrete must be ŪŪ Construction that is being pushed further into the cold
higher quality to be able to resist this environment. season. The result is reduced concrete maturity before
it is exposed to freezing conditions.
Emphasizing that water is the common factor in most
premature joint deterioration, this guide describes various It is common to observe sections of a roadway experi-
types of joint deterioration that can occur. Some distresses encing joint deterioration near other sections that are in
are caused by improper joint detailing, inadequate drain- excellent condition. It appears that even small differences
age, or poor construction practices, and others can be between concrete batches or in construction-related activi-
attributed to inadequate materials or proportioning. ties lead to differences in joint performance. For example,
hand-placed sections are more prone to distress than
slipformed sections in the same roadway, likely because
1 Why Now – What’s New? water is added to improve workability of the hand-placed
sections.
Concrete pavements are constructed with joints to accom-
modate concrete shrinkage and control crack locations. While all of these factors are important, quite possibly the
most significant change is related to de-icing practices.
While the majority of concrete pavements are not affected Pavement owners are becoming increasingly aggressive
by premature joint deterioration, problems have been in their deicing and anti-icing activities, with the goal of
reported in several northern (cold weather) states. Pave- improving safety. In addition to using greater quantities
ments affected include state highways, county roads, city of salt, alternatives to sodium chloride (NaCl) such as cal-
streets, and parking lots. cium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
The question of why premature joint deterioration is hap- are now being used both in solution and as dry powders.
pening now is raised because none of the mechanisms that Unfortunately, these alternatives have been shown to
appear to contribute to the problem are new to concrete increase the saturation of the concrete at a saw cut, which
practitioners. The deterioration is likely a result of a is a significant contributor to the observed joint deteriora-
combination of many factors. Indeed, it is likely that most tion. Concrete pavements will have to be engineered to
concrete is acceptable for the environment it is exposed to, resist this added stress.
but very close to the cliff edge of failure, therefore small Given the variety of concrete pavement design details,
changes in mixture quality, and construction or salting construction scenarios, materials and climate factors,
practice may result in localized distress: detailed causes of distress will vary between locations.
ŪŪ Concrete that is saturated with trapped water is at Likewise, suggestions for repair will have to be thought
higher risk of failure. Such saturation is more likely in though keeping in mind all of the factors in play. There is
joints than at the slab surface. no one-size-fits-all solution to the issue.
ŪŪ Deicing salts currently in use are prone to increasing
the risk of saturation because they do not dry out
readily. 2 Types and Mechanisms of Joint
ŪŪ Some joint details appear to trap water. Deterioration
ŪŪ Air void systems are less stable due to changing No single mechanism can account for all reported occur-
chemistry of mixture ingredients, increasing the risk rences of joint deterioration. Contributors can include
that in-situ air contents are less than ideal. frost or freeze-thaw damage, mechanical damage, early-

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 1

age damage, and D-cracking, each of which is discussed non-draining joint. Weiss and Nantung have modeled how
below. The focus of this document is on frost related a joint face can be saturated when a seal fails to prevent
distress in the paste as other mechanisms are discussed in water ingress (1) (Figure 2). Figure 3 illustrates how inad-
detail elsewhere. equate subsurface drainage can be a contributor, especially
2.1 Saturated Frost Damage when coupled with excessive roadside irrigation.

Saturated frost damage is due to expansion of water in the Weiss has also shown that increasing the saturation of a
saturated capillaries of the concrete as it freezes causes concrete sample will decrease its ability to resist freezing
cracking. Cycles of freezing and thawing open these cracks because there is more water in the system than can be
allowing more water to penetrate, and as a result the con- accommodated when freezing occurs (2). Concrete that is
crete deteriorates incrementally. Concretes that are highly less than 85 percent saturated can survive, while satura-
saturated are prone to accelerated damage. This is different tion greater than this will likely result in damage.
from D-cracking because frost damage occurs in the paste Deicing salts can aggravate frost damage. Based on find-
and not the aggregates ings by Weiss, the primary driver behind this acceleration
Common characteristics of or practices on pavements with is likely the increased saturation due to the tendency of
frost-damaged joints include the following: some salts (most notably magnesium chloride [MgCl2]
and calcium chloride [CaCl2] to retain water (2). Addi-
ŪŪ Pavement saturated for long periods, regardless of the tional mechanisms may also include expansion of crystal-
source of water. lizing salts as water evaporates and/or solutions freeze as
ŪŪ Pavement with marginal air-void systems (total air well as osmotic pressures induced by salt concentration
content, spacing factors, and specific surface). gradients (3).
ŪŪ The use of significant quantities and/or potentially
aggressive deicing salts.
Concrete Saturated with
ŪŪ Secondary ettringite deposits that fill the air-void
system under saturated conditions.
ŪŪ The damage appears as thin flakes of mortar that form
parallel to the exposed surface (Figure 1)

2.1.1 Mechanisms
Water is the common factor in frost damage. Water can
be present in a pavement system because of inadequate
surface or subsurface drainage, a high water table, or
Figure 2. Schematic of poor joint sealant leading to saturation (3)
because it is trapped behind a seal above an un-cracked or

Figure3.Saturatedsoilsduetoinadequatedrainageandroadsideirriga-
Figure 1. Typical slivers from freezing and thawing cycles tion(left)leadingtojointsshowingfrostdamage(right)(Source:Snyder
and Associates)

2 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

The chemical decomposition of calcium silicate hydrate in through the slab at the level of the bottom the saw-cut
contact with some salts (magnesium chloride [MgCl2]) is (Figure 3).
also possible; however, this is a relatively slow process and When the pavement is placed on a non-draining base
may not be a significant contributor compared to other and/or when the water table is above the bottom of the
effects (5). slab, the top of the pavement may appear to be in reason-
Current deicing practices are tending to increased volume able condition, but coring reveals concrete that has been
and concentration of products used, along with selection seriously damaged in the joint (Figure 7). Interestingly,
of more aggressive compounds, therefore increasing the the damage is more pronounced in the saw-cut than in
risk of distress of the concrete. In addition, some agencies
are using anti-icers that are applied before a snow event to
make snowplowing easier. Typically these are applied as
solutions rather than as dry salts. Again these activities are
believed to be more aggressive to the concrete.
2.1.2 Presentation
Deterioration is sometimes first observed as shadowing or
darkening of a zone a few inches on either side of a joint.
This effect is the result of a fine network of microcracks
that develop near and parallel to the joint. The cracks trap
Figure 5. Typical saturated foundations under a shadowed section
water, which lead to the darker color. Over time significant (Source: Snyder and Associates)
loss of material may occur (Figure 4). In most cases where
shadowing is observed the system is not well drained (Fig-
ure 5), and the air-void system is often marginal or poor. It
is also common to observe evidence of secondary ettringite
deposits in the air voids (Figure 6). This indicates abun-
dant water within the concrete, although the exact mecha-
nisms and effects of this ettringite are still not resolved.
If the joint does not crack out, then salt solution can col-
lect in the saw-cut. Freezing and thawing of this trapped
fluid leads to the creation of what appears to be a tunnel

Figure6.Secondaryettringitedepositsinairvoids(Source:American
Engineering Testing, Inc.)

Figure 4. Evolution of joint deterioration from shadowing (left) to high

severity (right) Figure7.Threecoresillustratingprogressionofdistressfrombottom-up
moisture
Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 3
the crack, presumably because a significant amount of drained away. If the base or support layer is imperme-
water can collect in the saw-cut while cracks tend to be able consideration may be given to using a geotextile that
tight. Figure 8 illustrates the site where these cores were is daylighted at the edge to provide some drainage. Note
extracted, showing the clear signs of abundant water flow. that the volume of water penetrating a joint from above
2.1.3 Prevention will be small, so high permeability (and thus low stability)
systems are not required.
There are three primary strategies for preventing or
reducing frost damage to concrete joints: preventing Air entrainment. Concrete is provided with deliberately
saturation, ensuring adequate air entrainment and entrained small air bubbles that provide pressure relief for
reducing concrete permeability. Limiting the use of expanding water when it freezes. It is therefore important
aggressive deicing salts would also reduce the risk of prob- to ensure that the concrete has an adequate air-void sys-
lems but may be impractical from a safety point of view. tem. A spacing factor of 0.008 in. in concrete behind the
paver in sufficiently low w/cm mixtures should provide
Saturation. Attention to detail in how water will be
satisfactory performance; however, work is continuing to
prevented from collecting and staying in a joint is criti-
establish whether this value is sufficient for concrete that
cal. This will include if and how the joint is sealed, and
is saturated for extended periods.
whether water that penetrates into the joint may be
Low permeability. It is recommended that the perme-
ability of concrete be low, particularly if it is likely to be
wet for extended periods. Reducing permeability can be
achieved by the following:
ŪŪ Limiting the maximum w/cm ratio consistently to
below 0.42. Ideally, the w/cm ratio should be close to
0.40.
ŪŪ When possible, using appropriate supplementary
cementitious materials at appropriate dosages.
ŪŪ Implementing rigorous curing techniques inside the
joint.
ŪŪ Potential use of surface or impregnating sealants at and
in the joint. Work continues to quantify the specific
Figure 8.Water flow through joints from a high water table (bottom-up benefits and limitations of this approach.
moisture); note staining on surface

Figure9.Typicalincrementalcracking:Note(lefttoright) thecrackparalleltothealreadypatchedface,thesignsofwaterpassingthroughthecrack,and
the exposed aggregate remaining in the concrete

4 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

2.2 Incremental Cracking
Joint deterioration is also seen as parallel cracks that form
at approximately one-inch increments starting from the
joint face (Figure 9). The concrete between the crack
and the free face is normally sound, as is the remaining
concrete next to the crack; which is not typical of normal
frost damage. The coarse aggregate still embedded in the
concrete is often free of adhering mortar on the exposed
face (Figure 10) and the joint is often filled with loose
aggregate. This indicates a mechanism that is attacking the
paste alone.
When a joint is patched or filled, it is common to observe
new cracks that form an inch or so beyond the boundar-
Figure11.Illustrationofcrackdevelopmentthroughtheinterfacial;
ies of the repair. Furthermore, staining and carbonate zone leading to so-called incremental cracking
deposits, indicating water transport through the crack, are
common.
It is hypothesized that this distress is a result of the interfa-
cial zone around coarse aggregate particles being exposed
by the saw cut. Water preferentially penetrates the zone
when the joint is flooded, and jacks the aggregate away
from the paste when frozen (Figure 11 and 12)
Work is ongoing to investigate the validity of this hypoth-
esis and to assess preventative approaches.

2.3 Mechanical Damage

Joint damage can occur from stresses caused by incom-
pressible materials (sand, rocks, other debris) trapped in
the joint (Figure 13). This is not considered significant.

Figure 12. Photograph of a crack around an aggregate particle

Figure13.Incompressiblescausingmechanicaldamage,whichcanlead
Figure 10. Coarse aggregate exposed by damage to the paste to further distress

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 5

Raveling of a saw cut can also be caused by aggregate shoe on an early-entry saw is not functioning properly
particles being dislodged during sawing, typically because (Figure 14). Such spalling is typically found at the surface
the concrete strength is too low when conventional sawing and will rarely extend through the depth of the slab.
is conducted. Alternatively, raveling is observed when the Concrete at the bottom of a saw cut may become damaged
during sawing using machines with worn bearings or an
inappropriate blade, or when cutting on a curve (Figure
15). Erosion and/or a zone of microcracking is possible,
which can lead to water being trapped, thus increasing the
risk of damage from frost action.
Traffic loading has been considered as a mechanical cause
of joint deterioration, but the shear stresses imposed at
the edges of saw cuts by wheel loads are low. Unless heavy
traffic is allowed on a pavement a few hours after place-
ment, loading is unlikely to be a significant contributor.

2.4 D-cracking
D-cracking is a type of deterioration caused by expansive
freezing of water trapped inside some types of aggregate
particles. The damage normally starts near joints and
forms a characteristic crack pattern (Figure 16). The dam-
age is generally worse at the bottom of a slab than at the
top. As long as freeze-thaw cycles continue, the distress
Figure 14. Raveling due to poor sawing practice (Source: Iowa cannot be stopped.
Department of Transportation)
D-cracking can be prevented by choosing aggregates that
are not susceptible to freeze-thaw deterioration. Alterna-
tively, where marginal aggregates must be used, reducing
the maximum aggregate size has been found to be benefi-
cial. Improving drainage to reduce the potential for satura-
tion of the concrete aggregates can have a marginal benefit.
This form of distress can easily be distinguished from the
others that are the focus of this publication in that the
distress starts in the aggregate as opposed to occurring in
the paste.

2.5 Early-Age Drying Damage

Another potential mechanism for joint deterioration
begins with drying conditions during concrete placement
although the damage may not become evident until years
later. High evaporation rates during placement results in
large differences in moisture content through the depth of
the concrete slab. These differences may lead to stresses
high enough to cause fine horizontal cracks and delami-
nation. In areas where these horizontal cracks intersect
vertical cracks or joints, concrete material can break free,
and “flat bottom” or delamination spalling can occur. The
severity and timing of delamination spalling varies with
Figure15.Photographofanaggregateparticledislodgedbyinappropriate the severity of moisture loss at an early age, along with
sawing (Field of view 5mm) traffic and climate factors McCullough et al. (5). This

6 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

 process is illustrated in Figure 17 and the result is shown
in Figure 18.

2.6 Summary of Joint Deterioration Observa-

tions
Basic forms of joint deterioration are shown in Figure 19
through Figure 24. Following are the critical factors:
ŪŪ Water has to be prevented from saturating the concrete.
ŪŪ Water penetrating from the top surface must be
prevented from ponding in the joint.
ŪŪ Water must be prevented from penetrating from the
base.
ŪŪ Permeability of the concrete should be as low as
practically feasible.
ŪŪ The air-void system in the in-place concrete must be
adequate.

Figure 16. D cracking of low severity (top) and high severity (bottom) Figure18.Exampleofdelaminationspalling(Source:WashingtonState)
(Source: The Transtec Group)

Figure17.Early-agedryingstresses(left)andresultinghorizontalcrack-
ing and delamination spalling (right) due to high moisture loss during Figure19.Shadowingatthejoints,whichiscommonlyfollowedbyloss
placement (2) of material

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 7

Figure20.Top-downjointdistress,withverticaledgesandshallowdepth

Figure 23. Deterioration due to bottom-up moisture

Figure 21. Joint deterioration evident below the joint sealant

Figure 24. Joint deterioration due to raveling from improper saw-cut

Figure 22. Deterioration due to D cracking procedures

8 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

3 Joint Deterioration Investigation -- Historical pavement condition data (structural and
functional)
Before mitigation or preventive measures can be identified,
it is important to assess the form, amount, and probable -- Drainage conditions (subsurface and surface)
causes behind the pavement joint damage (7). Questions
3.2 Field Indicators
to be addressed are the following:
Prior to making a decision about the best repair approach,
ŪŪ Are saturation and salting likely to be issues? two questions must be answered:
ŪŪ What is the quality of the concrete with respect to its ŪŪ Is the distress at the top, bottom, or all the way
ability to resist severe conditions? through the slab?
ŪŪ Are there differences between distressed and nearby ŪŪ Will damage continue to develop after the repair has
non-distressed pavements that may flag potential been completed?
causes?
The first question can only be reliably addressed by cor-
To help assess the causes, it is best to begin by collect- ing since nondestructive methods cannot reliably identify
ing information about the design and construction of the voids inside a joint.
pavement. A field review can then be conducted and. in
The second question is more complex. The short answer is
many cases, complemented by sampling and testing of
that if water can be trapped adjacent to a marginal con-
the pavement. Together, these steps will yield significant
crete mixture, damage will indeed continue to develop.
insight about the probable joint deterioration mechanisms.

3.1 Design and Construction 3.2.1 Mechanical Damage and Early-Age Drying
When possible, historical information about the pavement Both of these distresses occur early in the life of a pave-
should be collected. Specific information that can be help- ment, so the root causes can no longer be mitigated.
ful includes the following: Often, however, damage caused by these early-age
mechanisms provides places for water to collect and thus
ŪŪ Design details
becomes a starting point for frost damage. For example, it
-- Foundation system including aggregate gradation is common to see distress starting at intersections of longi-
-- Drainage system tudinal and transverse saw cuts (Figure 25). It is likely that
some “bruising” due to sawing of the concrete at the joints
-- Design life
can become a zone where water is trapped, thus accelerat-
-- Specified mixture parameters (air, w/cm ratio) ing subsequent frost damage.
ŪŪ Construction information
-- Weather
-- State of the foundation system
-- Compaction of the subbase as the result of
construction equipment
-- Equipment used (paver type, sawing technique)
-- As-built mixture parameters including water added
on site
-- Records of problems encountered
ŪŪ Operation and maintenance information
-- Pavement age
-- Salting practices (type and timing)
-- Joint sealing
-- Sealant maintenance
Figure 25. Damage starting at joint intersections

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 9

3.2.2 D-cracking 3.3 Sampling and Testing
D-cracking is typified by crack patterns parallel to saw Field-testing via coring may be conducted to further char-
cuts extending several inches from the joint (Figure 16 acterize joint deterioration and identify its possible causes
and Figure 22) after about 20 years. The damage is nor- (Figure 26).
mally caused by moisture migrating from the bottom up Cores can provide information about where the damage is
and leaves behind loose, unbound material. occurring. If necessary, cores can also be sent to a labora-
Damage is progressive, meaning that repairs will likely fail tory for petrographic examination to assess the following:
unless they can straddle the loose material. ŪŪ The quality of the air void system.
3.2.3 Shadowing ŪŪ The w/cm ratio.
Pavements that have exhibited shadowing due to satu- ŪŪ D-cracking.
rated freezing and thawing are often found to be damaged
through about one-third the depth of the slab. ŪŪ Whether salts are being deposited.

To mitigate the source of the distress, repairs may have to ŪŪ Other distress mechanisms.
include retrofitting a drainage system. Penetrating seal- Ideally, cores should be extracted from several locations:
ers may slow the rate of damage but only if applied early ŪŪ Over a distressed area of a joint.
enough. It has been reported in Iowa that reduction of salt
brine application rates on shadowed roadways can reduce ŪŪ Over the same joint, but at the end of the distressed
the rate of deterioration. area in an attempt to identify damage early in its
development.
3.2.4 Incremental Cracking
ŪŪ In the slab, a few inches from the joint, in order to
Typically, incremental cracking is seen in systems that have characterize the concrete near the joint.
some form of cut-off layer in the foundation. Distress is
typically top down, meaning that partial depth repairs are ŪŪ At the center of the slab, to assess variability in the
an option. mixture and placement.

Filling the voids with asphaltic materials does not appear ŪŪ From a nearby section that is not exhibiting distress in
to help because new cracking appears outside the patch order to determine why one section is distressed and
(Figure 9). It is likely that an intimate bond is required the other is not.
between the repair material and the existing concrete to
prevent the entrapment of water between them. 4 Preventing Joint Deterioration
3.2.5 Bottom-Up Moisture in New Pavements and Overlays
Distress can be caused by the presence of moisture near The following approaches can be recommended as a
the bottom of the slab. Because such damage is likely to means of reducing risk of paste deterioration at joints.
be progressive, long-lasting repairs are feasible only if
adequate drainage is provided.
3.2.6 Drainage
During the field investigation, it should be noted if distress
is related to surface drainage. For example, is damage
more pronounced to one side of the lane (i.e., adjacent to
the shoulder) or possibly confined to the edge drains?
It should also be noted if, after a rain event, the joints are
drying faster than the slab or vice versa. On urban pave-
ments, observations in cleanouts and intakes can indicate
whether the sub-drains are flowing.

Figure 26. Coring at deteriorated joints to help identify causes of failure

10 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

These recommendations are based on the fundamental concrete. A lower permeability is desirable to slow the rate
damage mechanisms discussed in this guide. Decisions at which concrete will become saturated.
about which recommendations are implemented and how Recent work led by the South Dakota Department of
they are implemented should be based on industry best Transportation includes recommendations to achieve
practices and local needs. durable, dense, and impermeable concretes that withstand
The recommendations are targeted at three primary areas: the deleterious effects of deicing chemicals (4) and prevent
ŪŪ Prevent moisture from remaining in contact with the or reduce joint deterioration caused by water saturation at
joint face. the joints. Recommendations include the following:

ŪŪ Reduce permeability of the concrete as a preventive ŪŪ Low w/cm ratio.

measure against the ingress of moisture. ŪŪ Appropriate use of SCMs.
ŪŪ Provide an adequate air-void system within the ŪŪ Well graded aggregates.
concrete paste. ŪŪ Adequate curing.
4.1 Drainage of the Pavement System ŪŪ Application of penetrating sealers.
It is clear that moisture trapped in the joint is a signifi- Target permeability at 56 days should be less than 1500
cant factor in the distress observed. Design, construction, coulombs when tested in accordance with the rapid chlo-
and maintenance practices must all ensure that water is ride permeability test (ASTM C 1202) or 25 kΩ-cm when
allowed to leave the joint. This means that subsurface tested using resistivity measured with a Wenner probe.
drainage should be designed to transport water away from
It has been noted that agencies that have demanded more
the concrete slab, and surface drainage should be designed
rigorous quality control have observed a reduction in
to quickly shed water from a pavement surface. This
problems.
may be achieved through combinations of the following
activities:
4.2.1 Low w/cm ratio
ŪŪ Provide stable and drainable base layers (evidence of The permeability of a concrete mixture is primarily gov-
the lack of this is shown in Figure 27). It should be erned by the amount of water in the concrete at the time
noted that because the amount of water that penetrates of mixing. Permeability will decrease as less water is used.
a joint is small, very high permeability rates are not The w/cm ratio should not exceed 0.45; ideally, the w/
required in the base, which improves its stability. cm ratio should be between 0.38 and 0.42. Recent test-
ŪŪ Avoid bathtub designs that trap water under the ing has shown that a pavement with a w/cm estimated
pavement. in the range 0.40 to 0.45 was performing satisfactorily,
ŪŪ Provide underdrain systems, particularly in urban while a short section in the same pavement with w/cm in
environments where it is not possible to drain the
pavement structure to an open ditch.
ŪŪ Detail sufficient cross-slopes and profile grade lines
that facilitate water to the edge of pavement or gutter
where applicable.
ŪŪ Avoid low spots that can hold water for extended
periods (“birdbaths”).
ŪŪ Avoid saw-cut details that can become reservoirs for
trapped water. An example is that a transverse saw-cut
that is shallower than the longitudinal saw cut may
lead to water being trapped in the longitudinal cut.

4.2 Reduced Concrete Permeability

The permeability of a concrete mixture determines how
easily moisture can infiltrate the paste structure of the Figure 27. Example of a poorly draining pavement

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 11

the range 0.42 to 0.47 was not. Pavements constructed (12) and reducing the risk of over vibration and the atten-
in Minnesota using mixtures specified at below 0.40 are dant problems.
showing slower damage accumulation than mixtures
specified above 0.40. 4.2.4 Curing
There are a number of ways to achieve uniformly lower w/ Curing is the practice of ensuring that the concrete is
cm ratios while retaining satisfactory workability including moist and warm enough to promote hydration. The most
combinations of: common means of curing pavements is to apply curing
compound.
ŪŪ Using SCMs in appropriate dosages.
When properly applied, a high quality curing compound
ŪŪ Using water-reducing admixtures. slows the loss of moisture from the pavement to the
ŪŪ Using aggregate systems with a good gradation. atmosphere. This allows for improved hydration, which in
ŪŪ Controlling concrete temperature. turn decreases the permeability of the concrete. Improper
curing will result in a loss of moisture, which leads to
ŪŪ Water should not be added to a ready-mix truck at the
larger capillary voids in the pavement structure and higher
point of delivery.
permeability.
4.2.2 Appropriate Use of SCMs It is suggested that curing compound be applied to the
Replacement of some portland cement with SCMs in inside faces of saw cuts, in addition to the pavement sur-
well-cured concrete has multiple benefits ranging from face, shortly after sawing. Although applying curing com-
improved workability to reduced permeability of the pound to the internal sawed faces is not common prac-
hardened concrete. Typical replacement rates with SCMs tice, it is desirable to ensure that the quality of concrete
are 15 percent to 35 percent depending on the chemistry exposed inside the joint is as good as that on the surface of
of the system. Commonly used SCMs include Class C fly the slab. It is possible that this practice may make it more
ash, Class F fly ash, and ground granulated blast furnace difficult for a seal to bond to the joint faces, if used.
slag (GGBFS). It is reported that curing compounds based on poly-alpha
Setting times for concrete may be retarded when SCMs methylstyrene (AMS) are effective.
are used, especially in cool weather conditions, which can
cause difficulty in sawing joints before random cracking 4.2.5 Penetrating Sealers
occurs. Therefore, use caution when using SCMs during An additional approach to improving impermeability of
periods of extended cool weather ensure that the strength concrete is to apply penetrating sealers to reduce the rate
gain of the mix is compatible with the sawing plan. Mix- of ingress of water into the concrete at the joint.
tures containing SCMs must be well cured. Siloxane-based materials have a history of reportedly
More information is available in the Integrated Materials reducing permeability of concrete systems. They have to
and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement (10). be replaced periodically—approximately every 5 to 7 years
(4).
4.2.3 Well Graded Aggregates Other sealant types and when they should be applied are
The use of well graded aggregates helps to improve perme- being investigated (2).
ability in several ways. Firstly, mixtures made with well
graded systems tend to be more workable, which in turn 4.3 Adequate Air-Void System
means that less water is required to achieve the same Freeze-thaw durability is primarily affected by the envi-
workability, allowing use of a lower w/cm ratio. ronment (wet freezing conditions) and the air-void system
of the concrete. An air-void system consisting of many
In addition, well graded systems allow use of higher
small, closely spaced voids is a common means of provid-
aggregate and lower paste contents. Because paste is more
ing protection against freeze-thaw damage.
permeable than aggregate, reducing paste content while
maintaining workability will lead to reduced permeability An adequate air void system in the as-placed concrete is
(11). vital. Air void systems can be affected by varying the com-
position of concrete constituents, placing techniques, and
Thirdly, better workability will lead to better consolidation
finishing activities.
of the mixture, also improving (reducing) permeability

12 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

 By periodically comparing air content difference between
samples, taken from the same hauling unit both before
Well graded aggregates
and after the paver, the stability or quality of the air system
Concrete mixtures produced with well graded, dense
aggregate matrix tend to can be estimated. When the difference between the two
ŪŪ Reduce the water demand.
test results is less than 2% the hardened air determined
spacing factor is usually acceptable. If the difference is
ŪŪ Reduce the cementitious material demand.
greater than 2% then admixture dosage of the mixture
ŪŪ Reduce the shrinkage potential.
should be adjusted to ensure adequate protection of the
ŪŪ Improved workability. in-place system.
ŪŪ Require minimal finishing.
Concrete performance can be assessed in the laboratory
ŪŪ Consolidate without segregation.
(during design stage) using ASTM C 666/AASHTO T 161.
ŪŪ Enhance strength and long-term performance.
4.4 Sawing and Sealing Joints
Gap-graded aggregates
Concrete mixtures produced with a gap-graded 4.4.1 Sawing Joints
aggregate combination may There is window to saw contraction joints in new concrete
ŪŪ Segregate easily. pavements (Figure 28) (6, 10, 13). The window begins
ŪŪ Contain higher amounts of fines. when concrete strength is sufficient for sawing without
ŪŪ Require more water. excessive raveling along the cut. The window ends when
ŪŪ Require more cementitious material to meet random cracking starts to occur. The risk of random
strength requirements. cracking increases as joint sawing is delayed.
ŪŪ Increase susceptibility to shrinkage. Sawing too early can cause the saw blade to break or pull
ŪŪ Limit long-term performance. aggregate particles free from the pavement surfaces along
the cut. The resulting jagged, rough edges are termed
raveling. Some raveling is acceptable, especially where a
(Source: FAA [10])
second saw-cut would be made for a joint sealant. If the
raveling is too severe, it will affect the appearance and/or
the ability to maintain the joint. Figure 29 shows different
For concrete that is exposed to deicing chemicals or high degrees of raveling.
water saturation (which is considered “severe exposure”),
PCA Bulletin EB001.15 recommends a minimum of 5
percent to 8 percent air content in the in-place concrete to
prevent damage (8). In addition, a spacing factor equal to
or below 0.008 in. (0.2 mm) is recommended, along with
a specific surface area of air voids equal to or greater than
600 in²/in. (24 mm²/mm). Sutter has reported that these
values are still appropriate based on recent laboratory
work (9).
Test procedures to determine air content in fresh concrete
include the pressure method (ASTM C 231 / AASHTO
T 152), volumetric method (ASTM C 173 / AASHTO T
196), and the gravimetric method (ASTM C 138 / AAS-
HTO T 121). The spacing factor and the specific surface
can be determined in hardened concrete by microscopical
measurements (ASTM C 457)
The air content should be checked in samples taken in
front of paver, and periodically from behind the paver to
quantify how much air is lost during placing. Figure 28. Definition of the sawing window (9)

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 13

When using early-entry saws, it is recommended that joint, as illustrated in Figure 31. It is critical that water be
temporary spacers be inserted where cuts intersect existing prevented from ponding at the sawn surface. Approaches
cuts, in order to prevent corner damage and the subse- to consider include either:
quent risk of other joint deterioration mechanisms (Figure ŪŪ If seals are used they must be applied and maintained
30). in accordance with industry best practices to ensure
Ensure that sawing equipment is well maintained and that their effectiveness (13).
appropriate blades are selected for the aggregate in the ŪŪ Avoid the use of a backer rod and rather fill the saw
mixture. kerf with a hot poured material to avoid an open area
where water can pond (Figure 32).
4.4.2 Sealing Joints
ŪŪ Saw contraction joints as narrow as practical and leave
The purpose of sealing joints is to minimize infiltration of
all joints unsealed.
surface water, deicing solution, and incompressible mate-
rial (13). ŪŪ Ensure sure that the crack forms below the saw cut.
This may require the saw cut depth to be increased.
There have been examples of pavements exhibiting prema-
ture joint deterioration where water has been trapped in Neither of these activities will address water penetrating
the joint, particularly below a seal in a tight or un-cracked from below the pavement, which can only be remedied by
providing adequate drainage below the pavement.

4.5 Summary
In summary, new concrete pavements must be specified to
be of adequate quality:
ŪŪ Air content, in place, greater than 5 percent.
ŪŪ Maximum w/cm ratio of 0.45, preferably 0.40.
ŪŪ Appropriate amounts of SCMs.
ŪŪ Durable aggregates.
ŪŪ Thorough curing (not optional)
ŪŪ Joints that can dry out periodically.

Figure 29. Different degrees of joint raveling caused by sawing (9)

Figure30.Usingtemporaryjointspacerstoprotectandminimizedamage Figure 31. Evidence of saturation within joint beneath seal (Source:
due to early entry sawing (Source: Husqvarna) Purdue)

14 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

5 Maintenance Activities to Re- ŪŪ For cleaning joints, the air stream must be free of oil.
Many modern compressors automatically insert oil into
duce Joint Deterioration Risk the air hoses to lubricate air-powered tools. New hoses
5.1 Routine Maintenance or an oil and moisture trap prevents contamination of
the joint face from oil in the compressor or air hoses.
5.1.1 Joint Cleaning and Filling
The process for refilling transverse joints involves remov-
It is recommended that joints be refilled in existing ing the old filler, joint re-facing, reservoir cleaning and
pavements only when they were originally filled during new filler installation. For more specific information
construction. Proper selection should consider the envi- on joint refilling, consult the ACPA’s Technical Bulletin
ronment, cost, performance, joint type, and joint spac- TB012P (13) and the Concrete Pavement Preservation
ing. Refilling joints is most effective when the joints are Workshop Reference Manual (14).
not severely deteriorated and when refilling is combined
with other maintenance activities such as joint repairs and 5.1.2 Surface Drainage
grinding (14). Maintenance activities to enhance surface drainage include
Typically, fillers have to be replaced every 8 to 10 years. cleaning drainage structure grates/drains (to prevent
Fillers are either placed in a liquid form or are preformed clogging from roadway debris, ice, or snow), grinding to
and inserted into the joint reservoir. Fillers installed in a increase the cross-slope, and refilling joints.
liquid form depend on long-term adhesion to the joint If there are water accumulation problems due to inad-
face for successful filling. equate surface drainage, such as inadequate cross slope
Several factors regarding concrete material or filler installa- (Figure 33), then grinding to increase the cross slope is a
tion technique can affect joint filler performance: possible solution.
ŪŪ Silicone fillers are known to have poor adhesion to 5.1.3 Subsurface Drainage
concrete containing dolomitic limestone. A primer Proper maintenance of drainage systems is critical. This
application to the reservoir walls will help ensure that includes both regular inspection and cleaning. Main-
the silicone adheres. tenance of edge drains involves cleaning and replacing
ŪŪ Chemical solvents used to clean the joint reservoir may outlets. Figure 34 shows the typical components of edge
be detrimental. Solvents can carry contaminants into drain systems, which include a trench filled with filter-
pores and surface voids on the reservoir faces that will graded aggregate wrapped with a geotextile, longitudinal
inhibit bonding of the new filler. (perforated) pipe, and outlet (non-perforated) pipe (15).

Figure 33. Failing transverse joint associated with poor drainage at

Figure32.Jointfilledwithhotpoursealant(Source:TheTranstecGroup) gutter

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 15

If the existing pavement is beginning to show signs of mended for sections exhibiting severe joint deterioration.
joint deterioration and a subsurface drainage system is not More guidance on this topic can be found in the Concrete
present, then potential sources of excess water should be Pavement Preservation Workshop Reference Manual (14).
identified. Common sources include landscaped islands/ One technique to determine if there are drainage issues is
shoulders with irrigation systems, shallow ditches, high to observe the pavement surface immediately after a rain
groundwater tables and pavement systems without effec- event, noting whether the joints or the rest of the slab
tive outlets. If a source of excess water is identified and dries first. Figure 36 shows a pavement with unsealed
cannot otherwise be mitigated, edge drain retrofit can be joints after measurable rain. It can be observed that the
considered. A retrofit is shown in Figure 35. It should be water is effectively exiting the system and the joints are
noted that this process requires careful project evalua- drying before the rest of the slab.
tion, design, installation, and maintenance. The presence
of existing utilities can be particularly problematic during If the joints remain wet and the rest of the slab dries, this
the retrofit process. Retrofitting edge drains is not recom- is an indication that water is not effectively leaving the
system and further investigation is necessary to identify
measures, such as joint sealing or drainage improvements.

5.2 Winter Maintenance

Winter maintenance activities to remove snow and ice on
highway pavements include sanding, snow plowing, and
application of anti-icing or deicing solutions.
A Transportation Pooled Fund Study TPF 5(042) (7), led
by South Dakota DOT investigated the effect of com-
monly used anti-icing and deicing solutions on concrete
pavements. The study concluded that concentrated brines
Figure 34. Typical components of an edge drain system (Source: NHI of magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and calcium chloride
131008) (16)
(CaCl2) have the most deleterious effects on concrete
samples. It was also found that deicer concentrations have
an impact on the rate/amount of distresses, and that con-
crete surface sealants are effective at slowing the ingress
of chemicals into the concrete. Following are the main
recommendations from this study:
ŪŪ Use less deicing chemicals (the lowest possible
concentration levels).
ŪŪ Use sodium chloride (NaCl) brines whenever possible.
ŪŪ Use concrete sealants and concrete mixture designs
Figure35.Subdrainretrofitoperationincludingcleanout(TheTranstec incorporating SCMs to slow deicer ingress.
Group)
ŪŪ Employ a minimum 30-day or one-winter “drying
period” before applying deicing chemicals to new
concrete (Figure 37).

6 Treatment of Pavements with

Joint Deterioration
Several techniques may help mitigate joint deterioration.
Selection of the technique is primarily governed by the
following:
ŪŪ The extent of the damage.
Figure 36. Example of effective drainage of unsealed joints

16 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

ŪŪ Whether the damage is developing from the top or the related distress, or where damage is more than one-third
bottom or has progressed through the full depth of the to one-half the depth of the slab (Figure 39).
slab (Figure 38). Guidance on installing partial depth repairs is available in
ŪŪ The number of joints that are distressed. Partial-Depth Repair of Concrete Pavements (16). Other
references include the Concrete Pavement Field Reference:
6.1 Concrete Surface Sealers Preservation and Repair manual (17), and the Concrete
As with new pavements, surface sealants may be applied Pavement Preservation Workshop Reference Manual (14).
to the faces of and near existing joints to reduce ingress of
water and deicing solutions into the concrete. At present, 6.3 Full-Depth Repairs / Slab Replacement
there is little guidance available on when such materials In cases where deterioration has occurred through more
should be applied or how to specify them. Work is con- than one-half the depth of the pavement, a full-depth
tinuing to develop more specific guidance. repair is required. As shown in Figure 40, a full-depth
repair is a cast-in-place concrete repair that extends
6.2 Partial-Depth Repairs through the full thickness of the existing concrete slab.
Partial-depth repairs are defined as the removal of small,
shallow areas of deteriorated concrete that are then Like partial-depth repairs, full-depth repairs are not rec-
replaced with a cementitious repair material (14). Partial ommended when the principal cause of joint deterioration
depth repairs are not recommended when the main cause is D-cracking. However, an unbonded overlay may be an
of joint deterioration is D-cracking or other material- option. The following are considerations when evaluating
the viability of full-depth joint repairs:

Figure 37. Signage to help avoid salting of new pavement Figure 39. Completed patch (Source: The Transtec Group)

Figure 38. Typical forms of damage that require different repair ap-
proaches Figure 40. Full-depth patching

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 17

ŪŪ Full-depth repairs are effective if deterioration is reflect through the overlay, reducing ride quality. However,
limited to the joints or cracks. concrete overlays may be a viable option.
ŪŪ Full-depth repairs are effective if the deterioration Items to consider when assessing the suitability of an
is not widespread over the entire project length; overlay include the severity and extent of joint deteriora-
otherwise, a structural overlay or reconstruction is tion, risk of continued deterioration under the overlay,
more suited. pre-overlay repairs required to prevent reflective cracking,
ŪŪ Diamond grinding should be considered after the design life, and related costs.
repairs are made to produce a smooth-riding surface. Partial-depth repairs may be required to address damage
ŪŪ If every joint requires repair, economics may before bonded or unbonded overlays are placed.
demonstrate that an overlay or replacement is more More guidance on this topic is available in the CP Tech
effective than full-depth repairs. Center Guide to Concrete Overlays (19).
Other references include the Pavement Preservation Additional guidance on the use of concrete overlays for the
Workshop Reference Manual (14), Concrete Pavement repair of concrete pavements exhibiting joint deterioration
Field Reference: Preservation and Repair manual (17), and is being developed at the CP Tech Center.
Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation—Guide for Full-Depth
Repairs (18). 6.5 Reconstruction
Pavements exhibiting severe joint deterioration throughout
6.4 Overlays the entire length of the section and at a majority of the
Asphalt overlays may not perform well in some cases joints may be more suited for reconstruction, particularly
because continued deterioration under the overlay will if the geometry prevents the use of a concrete overlay.

18 Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements

7 References
1. Yang, Z., Weiss, J., Olek J., and Nantung, T., “Assessing 10. Taylor, Peter, et al., Integrated Materials and Construction
Damage, Sorptivity, Air Content, and Strength of PCCP Practices for Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice
in Indiana,” Presentation at 8th Intl. Conference on Manual, FHWA Report FHWA-HIF-07-004, 2007.
Concrete Pavements, 2005.
11. Ezgi Yurdakul MS Thesis, Iowa State University
2. Spragg, E., et al., “Damage is Seen in Transverse and Optimizing concrete mixtures with minimum cement
Longitudinal Joints in Pavements,” Presentation on content for performance and sustainability 2010
the Joint Deterioration Pooled Fund Study, National
12. Tayabji, S., et al., Supplemental Report for Proposed
Concrete Consortium, Indianapolis, Indiana, 26 April
Specification for Construction of Concrete Airfield
2011.
Pavement, Innovative Pavement Research Foundation,
3. Powers, T. C., “The Mechanism of Frost Action in Report IPRF-01-G-002-04-1A, 2007.
Concrete,” Stanton Walker Lecture Series on the
13. American Concrete Pavement Association, “Joint and
Materials Sciences, Lecture No. 3, National Sand and
Crack Sealing and Repair for Concrete Pavements,”
Gravel Association and National Ready Mixed Concrete
Technical Bulletin TB012P, 1993.
Association, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1965a.
14. Smith, Kurt, et al., Concrete Pavement Preservation
4. Sutter, Lawrence, et al., The Deleterious Chemical Effects
Workshop Reference Manual, National Concrete
of Concentrated Deicing Solutions on Portland Cement
Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University,
Concrete, Final Report, South Dakota Department of
2008.
Transportation, SD2002-01-F, 2008.
15. Christopher, Barry, Maintenance of Highway Edgedrains,
5. McCullough, B. Frank, et al., Evaluation of the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Performance of Texas Pavements made with Different
Synthesis 285, 2000.
Coarse Aggregates, Texas DOT Report 7-3925-1, 2000.
16. Daniel P. Frentress and Dale S. Harrington Guide for
6. Ruiz, Mauricio, et al., Computer-Based Guidelines For
Partial-Depth Repair of Concrete Pavements March
Concrete Pavements Volume III-Technical Appendices,
2012 CP tech Center
FHWA Report FHWA-HRT-04-127, 2005.
17. American Concrete Pavement Association, Concrete
7. Sutter, L., et. al., The Deleterious Chemical Effects of
Pavement Field Reference: Preservation and Repair,
Concentrated Deicing Solutions on Portland Cement
Publication EB239P, 2006.
Concrete – Implementation Guide, South Dakota
Department of Transportation, SD2002-01-G, April 18. Correa, A., and Wong, B., Concrete Pavement
2008. Rehabilitation—Guide for Full-Depth Repairs, Federal
Highway Administration Report, 2003.
8. Kosmatka, S.H. and Wilson, M.L., Design and Control of
Concrete Mixtures, 15th Edition, PCA Bulletin EB001.15, 19. Harrington, et al., Guide to Concrete Overlays, Second
2011. Edition, National Concrete Pavement Technology
Center, Iowa State University, 2008.
9. Peterson, K.W., et. al, Impact of Hydrated Cement Paste
Quality and Entrained Air-Void System on the Durability For information about obtaining any of these references,
of Concrete: Final Report, Michigan Department of contact the National Concrete Pavement Technology Cen-
Transportation, Report No. RC-1552, June 30, 2011. ter, or visit www.cptechcenter.org.

Guide for Optimum Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements 19

 
 
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center
Institute for Transportation
Iowa State University

2711 South Loop Drive, Suite 4700

Ames, IA 50010-8664
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