Composite materials for construction, engineering, and other similar applications are formed by

combining two or more materials in such a way that the constituents of the composite materials are still
distinguishable, and not fully blended. One example of a composite material is concrete, which uses
cement as a binding material in combination with gravel as a reinforcement. In many cases, concrete
uses rebar as a second reinforcement, making it a three-phase composite, because of the three
elements involved.

These casting resins are used to make rubber and composite material in addition to epoxy and
polyester.
Homogenization is used to make predictions about how two materials will react to various conditions in
composite form based on their individual qualities.

Composite materials take advantage of the different strengths and abilities of different materials.
In the case of mud and straw bricks, for example, mud is an excellent binding material, but it
cannot stand up to compression and force well. Straw, on the other hand, is well able to
withstand compression without crumbling or breaking, and so it serves to reinforce the binding
action of the mud. Humans have been creating composite materials to build stronger and lighter
objects for thousands of years.

The majority of composite materials use two constituents: a binder or matrix and a
reinforcement. The reinforcement is stronger and stiffer, forming a sort of backbone, while the
matrix keeps the reinforcement in a set place. The binder also protects the reinforcement, which
may be brittle or breakable, as in the case of the long glass fibers used in conjunction with
plastics to make fiberglass. Generally, composite materials have excellent compressibility
combined with good tensile strength, making them versatile in a wide range of situations.

Engineers building anything, from a patio to an airplane, look at the unique stresses that their
construction will undergo. Extreme changes in temperature, external forces, and water or
chemical erosion are all accounted for in an assessment of needs. When building an aircraft, for
example, engineers need lightweight, strong material that can insulate and protect passengers
while surfacing the aircraft. An aircraft made of pure metal could fail catastrophically if a small
crack appeared in the skin of the airplane. On the other hand, aircraft integrating reinforced
composite materials such as fiberglass, graphite, and other hybrids will be stronger and less
likely to break up at stress points in situations involving turbulence.

Composite materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or naturally occurring

materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic scale
within the finished structure.

The most visible applications is pavement in roadways in the form of either steel and aggregate
reinforced Portland cement or asphalt concrete. Those composites closest to our personal
hygiene form our shower stalls and bathtubs made of fibreglass. Imitation granite and cultured
marble sinks and countertops are widely used. The most advanced examples perform routinely
on spacecraft in demanding environments.
Composition

Plywood is a commonly encountered composite material

Wood is a natural composite of Cellulose fibers in a matrix of lignin.[1][2] The earliest man-made
composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. The
ancient brick-making process can still be seen on Egyptian tomb paintings in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are
two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each
type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by
maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties
unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and
strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum
combination.

Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced
to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or
onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part
shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can
occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.

A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The
principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and
reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be
produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and
automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower
capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.

Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin
solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most
common are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide,
polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also
commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to
reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb,
lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a
final product with 40% resin and 60% fibre content. The strength of the product is greatly
dependent on this ratio.

Uses of Composite Materials

By Chuck Ayers, eHow Contributor

Uses of Composite Materials

The use of composite materials has come a long way from mixing mud and straw to make adobe
bricks for primitive houses. New techniques, materials and the uses for them are limited only by
the imagination of engineers who develop concepts for their uses. Often, in the history of
composites, the engineers come up with designs that need materials that haven't yet been
invented. They were referred to in engineering circles as "unobtainium." However, in many
cases, unobtainium became obtainable and are used in such diverse industries as home
construction, aviation, ship building, cars and boats, bridge repair, diesel engines and even
ballistics protection.

From mud to space

 A composite is created by combining different materials to create a new one. A most
rudimentary example is mixing mud and straw to form into adobe bricks. It takes two materials
which, by themselves, wouldn't usually be used for the same purpose as they are when combined
into a composite material for building. In construction, concrete is a slightly more complex
composite of stone mixed with cement. In the aerospace industry, many jets and airplanes are
made of composite materials that are stronger and lighter than the materials they were made
from. The new Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for example, will use 50 percent composite materials
dropping its overall weight by 12 percent. Added strength and lower weight allows the plane to
use less fuel. One of the best examples of a composite in the flying world is the B-2 or Stealth
bomber. The body is engineered to deflect radar away from detection. The body and parts of the
wings are covered in a radar absorbing composite material, making it virtually undetectable to
radar.

Cars and boats

 Fiberglass, made of glass fibers held together by resins, was one of the earliest composites of
the modern age. It was first widely used commercially in the 1950s as a lightweight alternative to
steel and wood. Most cars today have fiberglass bumpers covering a steel frame and are used
over wheel wells and other cosmetic parts of a car or truck. Fiberglass has become the standard
material in recreational boats, from stern to bow. It has limited but useful applications for
military and commercial boat use.

Insulation
 While fiberglass can be molded into car, boat, plane and other hardened materials it can also
be used as insulation when strands of fiber are interwoven with glass "wool." Fiberglass wool is
a thick, fluffy material used for thermal insulation and sound absorption. Its versatility allows it
to be used for home and building insulation, automobile engine compartments, ship and
submarine bulkheads and hulls, acoustical paneling, and furnace and air conditioning units.

Bridge repair
 Most bridges are built of steel-reinforced concrete because of its strength and durability; but
after decades of supporting heavy loads, many bridges need repair or replacement. A promising
alternative to the enormously costly option of complete replacement is the use of graphite epoxy,
a strong and lightweight carbon-reinforced polymer capable of withstanding heavy loads.
Polymer sheets used to reinforce bridge beams have increased load capacity 30 and 65 percent
and have proved durable on bridge spans as long at 26 feet.

Armor
 Composites have shown remarkable resilience in ballistics protection for lightweight
vehicles. Composite armor uses materials of varying hardness and elasticity for heat and shock
absorption. Composite materials protect against both kinetic and chemical weapons. While
passive armor is designed to absorb impacts and penetration of ammunition, active and reactive
materials are designed to deflect or destroy incoming ammunition.

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The use of composites in all products - from sporting goods to bridges to satellites - is increasing.
Outside of the profession, though, many people would be hard pressed to identify a composite.
This article presents a simple definition of composite materials. Although it is primarily written
for people new to the materials, composite professionals may also find a few things of interest.
Sponsored Links

Composites ManufacturingMachines for fiber/tape placement, filament winding, prepreg

making.www.mikrosam.com

Metal Matrix CompositeOffering Duralcan metal matrix composite MMC

alloyswww.ingot.alcan.com

Welding Eye ProtectionDyes and resins for ANSI Z87.1 welding lenses and
windowswww.Epolin.com

Most of the products we see every day are made from monolithic materials. That means the
individual components consist of a single material (an unreinforced plastic), or a combination of
materials that are combined in such a way that the individual components are indistinguishable (a
metal alloy).

Composite materials, on the other hand, consist of two or more materials combined in such a way
that the individual materials are easily distinguishable. A common example of a composite is
concrete. It consists of a binder (cement) and a reinforcement (gravel). Adding another
reinforcement (rebar) transforms concrete into a three-phase composite.

The individual materials that make up composites are called constituents. Most composites have
two constituent materials: a binder or matrix, and a reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually
much stronger and stiffer than the matrix, and gives the composite its good properties. The
matrix holds the reinforcements in an orderly pattern. Because the reinforcements are usually
discontinuous, the matrix also helps to transfer load among the reinforcements.

Reinforcements basically come in three forms: particulate, discontinuous fiber, and continuous
fiber. A particle has roughly equal dimensions in all directions, though it doesn't have to be
spherical. Gravel, microballoons, and resin powder are examples of particulate reinforcements.
Reinforcements become fibers when one dimension becomes long compared to others.
Discontinuous reinforcements (chopped fibers, milled fibers, or whiskers) vary in length from a
few millimeters to a few centimeters. Most fibers are only a few microns in diameter, so it
doesn't take much length to make the transition from particle to fiber.

With either particles or short fibers, the matrix must transfer the load at very short intervals.
Thus, the composite properties cannot come close to the reinforcement properties. With
continous fibers, however, there are few if any breaks in the reinforcements. Composite
properties are much higher, and continuous fibers are therefore used in most high performance
components, be they aerospace structures or sporting goods.

Matrix materials are usually some type of plastic, and these composites are often called
reinforced plastics. There are other types of matrices, such as metal or ceramic, but plastics are
by far the most common. There are also many types of plastics, but a discussion of them is
beyond the scope of this week's column. Suffice it to say for now that the two most common
plastic matrices are epoxy resins and polyester resins.
Composite materials are available as plies or lamina. A single ply consists of fibers oriented in a
single direction (unidirectional) or in two directions (bidirectional; for example a woven fabric).
There are other forms, but these are the most important for this discussion.

Composite properties are best in the direction of the fibers. Perpendicular, or transverse, to the
fibers, the matrix properties dominate because load must be transfered by the matrix every fiber
diameter. Because most structures are not loaded in a single direction, even though one direction
may dominate, it is necessary to orient fibers in multiple directions. This is accomplished by
stacking multiple plies together. Such a stack is called a laminate.

The most efficient composites have most of their fibers oriented in the primary load direction,
and just enough fibers oriented in the other directions to carry secondary loads and hold the
structure together. Efficiency means both low weight and low cost, because any fibers which
don't carry much load could probably be removed.

For further introductory reading, see the What's a Composite? subject page.

A composite material is a material made up of two or more materials that are combined in a way
that allows the materials to stay distinct and identifiable. The purpose of composites is to allow
the new material to have strengths from both materials, often times covering the original
materials' weaknesses. Composites are different from alloys because alloys are combined in such
a way that it is impossible to tell one particle, element, or substance from the other. Some
common composite materials include concrete, fiberglass, mud bricks, and natural composites
such as rock and wood.

Types
1. Composite materials are usually classified by the type of reinforcement they use. This
reinforcement is embedded into a matrix that holds it together. The reinforcement is used
to strengthen the composite. For example, in a mud brick, the matrix is the mud and the
reinforcement is the straw. Common composite types include random-fiber or short-fiber
reinforcement, continuous-fiber or long-fiber reinforcement, particulate reinforcement,
flake reinforcement, and filler reinforcement.

Mud Bricks
2. One type of very old composite material invented by early humans was the mud brick. A
normal mud brick is sturdy and resistant to compression, but can break if bent. Straw is a
material that has excellent tensile strength, meaning that it resists stretching. By
combining both, early humans were able to create composite mud bricks that could resist
weight and compression as well as stretching.

Concrete
 3. Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, stones and water. Combined,
concrete is stronger than any one of these materials. Concrete is used heavily in building
and road construction.

Fiberglass
4. Fiberglass is a material made of tiny glass shards held together by resin and other
components. In the automotive industry, fiberglass is important for making body kits.
The body shell for a car is made up of different layers of fiberglass, such as a gel-coat
layer, tissue layer, matting and cloth. The final product is a complete, waterproof,
lightweight and strong body kit. Fiberglass can also be a less expensive alternative to
other materials.

Natural Composites
5. Composites can be easily found in nature. Wood is an example of a composite because
cellulose fibers are held together by substance called lignin. These fibers can be found in
cotton and thread, but it's the bonding power of lignin in wood that makes it much
tougher. Another natural composite is rock and sand, materials used in concrete. Rock is
just smaller rocks held together, and sand is made of small grains.

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Composite material refers to the engineered materials that are made by combing two or more
different materials. They adopt the physical and the chemical properties of the materials and
offer a better alternative which is stronger, durable and more beneficial. Some of the common
composite materials that are used in the different industries include fiberglass reinforced plastic,
which is made from fiber glass and plastic, and is especially used in the fiberglass pipe and tank
industry. Concrete, bricks etc. are also some of the popular composite material, used in different
industries.

The fiberglass materials are especially used in the pipe and tank industry as the fiberglass pipe
have better physical properties as compared to the traditional pipes which were used earlier.
These pipes are light in weight which makes it easy to transport them and install them. They are
highly durable also as compared to the iron or steel pipes and tanks. It is easy to maintain fiber
glass reinforced plastic (FRP) pipes over the metallic pipes as the former is noncorrosive and
therefore it does not leads to leaks.

These composite materials are popularly used in different industries like aerospace, construction,
Tank industry and therefore have a good prospect. This is why many companies are expanding
into this sector and find it to be a profitable venture. However, it is essential to learn more about
the industry and prepare your market entry strategy before you can get into this industry.
If you need to get in the fiber glass industry or pipe industry then you can learn about the same
through market consultants. The consultants maintain all the information about the different
industries, which makes it possible for people know about the same. So whether you need to get
a report on the market situation or need to learn about the consumers, you can simply contact
consultants and they can help you with it.

What's a Composite?

The use of composites in all products - from sporting goods to bridges to satellites - is increasing.
Outside of the profession, though, many people would be hard pressed to identify a composite.
This article presents a simple definition of composite materials. Although it is primarily written
for people new to the materials, composite professionals may also find a few things of interest.

Sponsored Links

Metal Matrix CompositeOffering Duralcan metal matrix composite MMC

alloyswww.ingot.alcan.com

Composites ManufacturingMachines for fiber/tape placement, filament winding, prepreg

making.www.mikrosam.com

Aluminium Composite PanelEnglish manufacturer of Premium ACP Panels. Available

worldwidewww.multipaneluk.co.uk

Most of the products we see every day are made from monolithic materials. That means the
individual components consist of a single material (an unreinforced plastic), or a combination of
materials that are combined in such a way that the individual components are indistinguishable (a
metal alloy).

Composite materials, on the other hand, consist of two or more materials combined in such a way
that the individual materials are easily distinguishable. A common example of a composite is
concrete. It consists of a binder (cement) and a reinforcement (gravel). Adding another
reinforcement (rebar) transforms concrete into a three-phase composite.

The individual materials that make up composites are called constituents. Most composites have
two constituent materials: a binder or matrix, and a reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually
much stronger and stiffer than the matrix, and gives the composite its good properties. The
matrix holds the reinforcements in an orderly pattern. Because the reinforcements are usually
discontinuous, the matrix also helps to transfer load among the reinforcements.

Reinforcements basically come in three forms: particulate, discontinuous fiber, and continuous
fiber. A particle has roughly equal dimensions in all directions, though it doesn't have to be
spherical. Gravel, microballoons, and resin powder are examples of particulate reinforcements.
Reinforcements become fibers when one dimension becomes long compared to others.
Discontinuous reinforcements (chopped fibers, milled fibers, or whiskers) vary in length from a
few millimeters to a few centimeters. Most fibers are only a few microns in diameter, so it
doesn't take much length to make the transition from particle to fiber.

With either particles or short fibers, the matrix must transfer the load at very short intervals.
Thus, the composite properties cannot come close to the reinforcement properties. With
continous fibers, however, there are few if any breaks in the reinforcements. Composite
properties are much higher, and continuous fibers are therefore used in most high performance
components, be they aerospace structures or sporting goods.

Matrix materials are usually some type of plastic, and these composites are often called
reinforced plastics. There are other types of matrices, such as metal or ceramic, but plastics are
by far the most common. There are also many types of plastics, but a discussion of them is
beyond the scope of this week's column. Suffice it to say for now that the two most common
plastic matrices are epoxy resins and polyester resins.

Composite materials are available as plies or lamina. A single ply consists of fibers oriented in a
single direction (unidirectional) or in two directions (bidirectional; for example a woven fabric).
There are other forms, but these are the most important for this discussion.

Composite properties are best in the direction of the fibers. Perpendicular, or transverse, to the
fibers, the matrix properties dominate because load must be transfered by the matrix every fiber
diameter. Because most structures are not loaded in a single direction, even though one direction
may dominate, it is necessary to orient fibers in multiple directions. This is accomplished by
stacking multiple plies together. Such a stack is called a laminate.

The most efficient composites have most of their fibers oriented in the primary load direction,
and just enough fibers oriented in the other directions to carry secondary loads and hold the
structure together. Efficiency means both low weight and low cost, because any fibers which
don't carry much load could probably be removed.

Composite Materials for Aircraft Industry

Abstract:

The expected benefits of economical, high-performance civil-aircraft designs that are being
considered for the future will be realized only through the development of light-weight, high-
temperature composite materials for engine applications to reduce weight, fuel consumption,
and direct operating costs.
Numerous conducted studies demonstrate that significant economic and performance benefits
can be achieved if lightweight, high-temperature composite materials can reach technology
readiness.
The expected benefits of economical, high-performance civil-aircraft designs that are being considered for the future will be
realized only through the development of light-weight, high-temperature composite materials for engine applications to reduce
weight, fuel consumption, and direct operating costs.

A major effort underway in this area is the Advanced High Temperature Engine Materials Technology Program (HITEMP) of
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which focuses on providing revolutionary high-temperature
composite materials: to 425°C for polymer-matrix composites (PMCs); to 1250°C for metal-matrix / intermetallic-matrix
composites (MMCs / IMCs); and to as high as 1650°C for ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs).

Composites promise benefits

Numerous conducted studies demonstrate that significant economic and performance benefits can be achieved if lightweight,
high-temperature composite materials can reach technology readiness. Based on a preliminary design of a conceptual engine,
however, material temperatures approaching 1650°C are anticipated for the turbine inlet, thus requiring extensive use of
CMCs throughout the combustor, turbine, and exhaust nozzle.

One benefit of using CMCs is that they allow higher operating temperatures and thus greater combustion efficiency leading to
reduced fuel consumption. Thanks to the low density of CMCs, compared with current technology, the use of CMCs in the hot
section of the engine along with IMCs in the compressor is resulting in a 50% reduction in engine weight. This translates to an
overall reduction in aircraft weight of nearly 40% for an aircraft with four engines, further contributing to lower initial costs, as
well as lower operating costs.

The high-temperature composite materials required for these engines will have to operate satisfactorily from 5,000 to 16,000
hours at temperature. Interdiffusion, oxidation resistance, and creep, therefore, are major life-limiting problems that must be
solved. Materials research also must include the study of failure modes and joining technology, and a mechanical and thermal-
property database must be established. In addition, new, more precise design methods will be needed to address both the
application of brittle composite materials and the integration of intricate cooling schemes for a wide range of material thermal
conductivities. And finally, low-cost manufacture of the new materials and advanced components will require development of
new fabrication processes.

Analytical modeling is being used to investigate the structural behavior of these advanced materials in six distinct areas: micro
mechanics, deformation and damage, fatigue, fracture, trade-off studies, and loads definition. In the trade-off studies, coefficient
of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch, compliant layers, and fiber shape/size effects are being investigated using existing
analytical tools to develop a physical understanding of advanced-composite development.

The emphasis in the area of loads definition is to develop and verify models to predict the aerodynamic and thermodynamic
loads on a composite turbine blade. This is being accomplished by integrating existing aerodynamic, heat-transfer, and structural
codes to predict blade response. The results are then calibrated and verified with simplified experiments that also are being
defined and conducted under this task.

The results of analysis and experimental verification to date demonstrate the capability to simulate the high thermal gradients
associated with engine operating conditions. In the future, this type of analysis will permit evaluation of an advanced-composite
material`s performance in a simulated engine component.

Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) are the lightest of the three types of composite materials under study in the HITEMP
program. Recent applications of PMCs in aircraft propulsion systems, such as General Electric`s F-404 engine, have resulted in
substantial reductions in both engine weight and manufacturing costs. Unfortunately, the low thermal-oxidation stability of
PMCs severely limits the extent of their application. Commercially available state-of-the-art high-temperature PMCs, such as
graphite fiber/PMR-15 and graphite fiber/PMR-11-55, are capable of withstanding thousands of hours of use at temperatures
between 290 and 345°C).

To realize the full advantages of PMCs in aircraft-propulsion systems, however, new composite materials must be developed
with enhanced thermal-oxidative stability permitting their use at temperatures to 425°C. Research on high-temperature PMCs
under HITEMP is aimed at achieving this goal. Ongoing work includes:

1. Study of the effects of resin/fiber interactions on composite stability and high-temperature performance
2. Development of innovative processing techniques
3. Exploration of oxidation-resistant coatings
4. Synthesis of new polymers having good processability and significantly improved thermal-oxidative stability

Graphite-reinforced composites prepared with one of the new high-temperature polymers, V-CAP, undergo weight losses only
about 60% those of comparable PMR-II-base composites after exposure in air at 370°C for 500 hours. An elevated-temperature
nitrogen-postcure technique has been developed, which substantially improves the high-temperature (370°C) flexural strength
of graphite-reinforced PMR-15 laminates. Application of this postcure method to V-CAP laminates enhances both the high-
temperature mechanical properties and thermal-oxidative stability. Thus, the combined use of a higher stability matrix with
improved processing yields a PMC with a useful lifetime in air at 370°C double that of a PMR-II-50 composite one of the best
high-temperature PMCs currently available.

Continued improvements in the stability of polymer matrices coupled with improvements in polymer/fiber interfaces, composite
processing, and oxidation-resistant coatings will yield PMCs for use at temperatures to 425°C.

Intermetallic-matrix composites. Several major problems limit the development of inter-metallic-matrix composites (IMCs),
including chemical incompatibility and CTE mismatch between potential reinforcing fibers and matrix materials, poor low-
temperature ductility, and marginal high-temperature oxidation resistance of intermetallic materials. Composite fabrication and
joining processes that do not result in excessive fiber/matrix reaction or matrix contamination is an additional need.

The initial phase of the IMC program involves investigating available fiber compositions (SiC and Al 2O3) in aluminides of iron,
titanium, nickel, and niobium. These aluminides are Ti 3Al and FeAl for applications to 1000°C and NiAl and Nb-
alloy/aluminides for higher temperature applications. Alloying studies of these materials are aimed at increasing toughness,
ductility, and oxidation resistance, and promoting longtime stability with the candidate fiber materials. Candidate matrices will
be evaluated using tensile, compression, fatigue, creep, and oxidation tests. Measurement of appropriate thermal and physical
properties is another planned task.

Powder-cloth fabrication processes have been developed to produce IMC materials, and alternative processing procedures, such
as thermal spraying, are being studied. Encouraging results have been obtained on SiC-reinforced TiAl3 + Nb material, based on
tensile, thermal-cycle, and strain-controlled fatigue studies for temperatures to 815°C.

The properties of first-generation SiC/Ti-24Al-11Nb composites compare favorably with those of current nickel-base super
alloys on a strength/density basis. However, the SiC fiber is too reactive with the matrix material above 815°C, and also with the
other candidate matrix materials. Therefore, researchers are focusing on using Al 2O3 as the reinforcing fiber for these materials.
There is a need for new fibers, however, and new compositions and fiber-processing techniques, such as the laser floating-zone
process, have been identified. A project has been initiated to produce experimental quantities of fiber material.

Fiber coatings also are being investigated to function as diffusion barriers to limit fiber/matrix reaction and as compliant layers
to lower stresses generated by CTE mismatch between the fiber and matrix. The oxidation resistance of FeAl is adequate for its
intended use temperature and the time/temperature oxidation limits have been established for NiAl. Optimized fiber materials
coupled with a better understanding of IMC behavior should result in future materials superior to those currently used for
aerospace applications.

Ceramic-matrix composites. To meet HITEMP goals, CMC research is aimed at developing the basic and applied technologies
needed to fabricate structurally reliable ceramic composites reinforced with long or continuous ceramic fibers. Like monolithic
ceramics, these fiber-reinforced ceramics (FRCs) have lower densities, better oxidation resistance, and potential to operate at
significantly higher temperatures than super alloys. However, unlike monolithic ceramics, FRCs display metal-like deformation
behavior, noncatastrophic failure, and strength properties that is insensitive to processing- and service-generated flaws.

Recent investigations of a NASA-developed SiC/reaction-bonded silicon nitride (RBSN) composite system show that Si-based
composite microstructures can be produced that are strong and tough for short times to temperatures.
Fiber development is critical since the development of advanced materials such as high-temperature composites is highly
dependent on the availability of high-temperature fibers. If such advanced materials are going to be available for material-critical
applications in future civil-transport engines, new fibers must be developed.

The wide range of fiber characteristics needed would require the development of more than one type of fiber. Fibers must have
different properties, depending on the composite matrix, as well as the composite end use. In general, a candidate fiber should
have low density, high strength, high stiffness, a CTE matching the matrix, chemical compatibility with the matrix,
environmental stability, and appropriate fiber diameter.

The selection of appropriate fiber diameter also depends on the composite matrix. A large-diameter fiber (75 to 150 μm) is
required for MMCs / IMCs to maximize fracture toughness. Small-diameter fibers ≤ 25 μm are required for CMCs to keep the
critical flaw size for these brittle materials as small as possible. The environmental stability of the fiber also is a major factor;
fibers must be able to withstand the high-temperature oxidation/hot-corrosion environment of the gas-turbine engine. This
requirement emphasizes the need for the development of suitable fiber coatings, in conjunction with the development of the
fibers themselves.

Fiber-research efforts begun under HITEMP include fiber fabrication by chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition,
polymeric precursors, and laser float-zone methods. Laboratory processes for fiber fabrication, however, are only the first steps
toward the development of new high-temperature fibers. It is equally important to consider the scale-up required to produce the
quantities of fiber needed for actual composite parts. A great deal of manpower and money is still required to scale-up from the
small-size batches of fibers produced in the research laboratory to the vast quantities of fiber that will be needed in the future.

Types of Composite Objects and Materials

1|2

There are many reasons why an object can be made of a mixture of materials. Sometimes these
reasons are purely practical and sometimes the reasons are more about the finish and the quality
of a work of art.

Paintings will always combine materials because the pigments need to be mixed with a liquid to
create the paint. The paint is then applied to canvas, wooden panels or calf-skin.

Why has this toasting fork got a wooden body but the forked nose is made out of metal? The
toasting fork is intended to be placed in front of a fire, with the forked nose close to the flames to
toast a piece of bread pushed onto the prongs. If the entire object were made out of wood, the
prongs would burn in the fire. Metal does not burn and the flames would not be hot enough to
melt the metal prongs.

If an object contains a mechanism, such as the Musical Box with Orpheus Taming the
Animalsand the Silver Swan (in the Metals Section of this website) then it is very important that
the mechanism is made out of a hard-wearing material such as metal that will help it work
properly. The cogs, cams and shafts that make up the mechanism are normally hidden inside the
body of the object and so it does not matter if the materials used are not the most expensive or
beautiful.

 
Beautiful and expensive materials are used to decorate the outside of objects. This Side Table is
covered in turtleshell and brass but underneath the table is made of wood. Wood is cheaper than
the decorative materials and is very strong.

Brass and turtleshell were rather strange materials to use together as decoration but they contrast
very well with each other; brass is an opaque, yellowy-bronze metal whereas turtleshell is
browny-black, very shiny and translucent. These materials are very difficult to work with but
enabled craftspeople to show off their superior skills.

Quite often wealthy people would commission works of art. When this was the case, the person
buying the object could specify what kinds of materials they wanted to be used. The wealthier
the buyer, the more expensive the materials could be. The finished object would show people
how important and wealthy the owner was.

Snuff boxes were a very good way of showing off wealth as taking snuff was all about show.
There were rules for how to take snuff (involving sniffing and spitting and other unpleasant
things) and the fashion for taking snuff meant that snuff boxes became very popular. The most
fashionable and wealthy people would have a big collection of snuff boxes, and would rarely be
seen with the same box more than once. Gold boxes were often decorated with other materials to
suit the latest fashion. This snuff box is covered with enamel and made to look like a white
peacock’s tail.