Research Terminology

1. Research

 The word research is derived from the French term, recerchier, a compound word
composed of a prefix, re, and a verb, search. Re means ‘once again’ , ‘a new’, or ‘a fresh’
and search means ‘to look for something or examine closely or carefully’, to look for
information’, ‘to test and try’.
 Lanford(2001) also mentions that research means ‘to search again’.
 Research is defined as a systematic and scientific process to answer to questions about
facts and relationships between facts.

2. Nursing Research

 Nursing research is a way to identify new knowledge, improve professional education

and practices and use of resources effectively.
 Nursing research is defined as a systematic search for knowledge about issues of
importance to nursing. ( Polit and Hungler,(2001)

3. Abstract

A clear, concise summary of the study that communicates the essential information about the
study.

4. Data

Units of information or any statistics, facts, figures, general material, evidence, or knowledge
collected during research study.

5. Variables

 Attributes or characteristics that can have more than one value, such as height or weight.
 variables are qualities, quantities, properties, or characteristics of people, things that
change or vary.
6. Dependent variables

Variables that change as the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher; sometimes
also called criterion variable.

7.. Independent variables

Variables that are Count purposely manipulated or changed by the researcher. These are the
called manipulated variables.

Eg. qualities, properties, or characteristics which are observed or measured in a natural setting
without manipulating & establishing cause-&-effect relationship .

Eg: Temperature is a variable that is observable measureable and varies from high to low.

8. Demographic variables

The characteristics Count & attributes of the study subjects are considered demographic variable.

For example, age, gender, educational status, religion, social class , marital status, habitat,
occupation, income, medical diagnosis.

9. Research Variables

These are the quantities, properties, or characteristics that are observed or measured in a natural
setting without manipulating and establishing cause- and – effect relationship.

10. Extraneous variable

Extraneous variables are the factors that are not the part of the study but may affect the
measurement of the study variables.
11. Operational definition

The way by which a researcher clarifies & defines the variables under investigation. In addition,
the researcher must also specify how the variables will be observed and measured in the actual
research situation.

12. Concept

 A word picture or mental idea of phenomenon. Concepts are words or terms that
symbolize some aspects of reality.

For example, stress, pain, or love.

 Concepts are the building blocks of theory.

13. Construct

A construct term is used to indicate a phenomenon that cannot be directly observed but must be
inferred by certain concrete or less-abstract indicators of the phenomenon.

For example, wellness, mental health, & self-esteem are constructed, & they can only be
measured through indefinable & measurable concept;

For example, wellness can only be assessed through laboratory.

For example, position in real world has many different meanings in gynecology, in surgery and
in management.

14. Proposition

A proposition is a statement or assertion of the relationship between concepts.

For example, there is relationship between level of anxiety & performance ;or virus causes
acute illness.
15. Assumption

Basic principle that is accepted as being true on the basis of logic or reason, without proof or
verification

16. Hypothesis

A statement of the predicted relationship between two or more variable in a research study; an
educated or calculated guess by researcher

17. Literature review

A critical summary or research on a topic of interest, generally prepared to put a research

problem in context or to identify gaps & weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new
investigation.

18. Limitations

Restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility & generalization of the research
findings.

19. Manipulation

An intervention or treatment introduced by the researcher in an experimental or quasi-

experimental study; the researcher manipulates the independent variable to assess its impact on
the dependent variable.

20. Population

The entire set of individuals or objects having some common characteristics selected for a
research study.

Eg; patients admitted in intensive care units.

21. Target population

The entire population of the research study in which the researchers are interested & to which
they would like to generalize the research findings.

22. Accessible population

The aggregate to generalize the research finding, of cases that conform to designated inclusion or
exclusion criteria & that are accessible as subject of the study.

23. Research study setting

The study setting is the location in which the research is conducted – it could be natural, partially
controlled, or highly controlled.

 Natural or field setting is an uncontrolled real-life situation. In a partially controlled

situation, environment is partially modified to control extraneous variables, while in
highly controlled situations, study environment is fully controlled to combat the effect of
extraneous variables.

24. Sample

A part or subset of population selected to participate in research study.

25. Representative sample

A sample whose characteristics are highly similar to that of the population from which it is
drawn.

26. Sampling

The process of selecting sample from the target population to represent the entire population.

27. Non probability sampling

The selection of subjects or sampling units from a population using nonrandom procedures.
Examples include convenient, purposive, & quota sampling.

28. Reliability

The degree of consistency or accuracy with which an instrument measures the attribute it is
designed to measure .

29. Validity

The degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

30. Pilot study

Smaller version of a proposed study conducted to develop and refine the methodology, such as
the treatment, instrument, or data collection process to be used in the larger study.

31. Analysis

Method of organizing, sorting, & scrutinizing data in such a way that research question can be
answered or meaningful inferences can be drawn.

32. Control group

In experiments, the one that doesn't get the treatment .

33. Correlational study

A type of research design that depicts a relationship between variables, but not necessarily one of
cause-effect.
34. Descriptive study

Research that provides an accurate account of characteristics of a particular person, event, or

group in real- life situations research that is conducted to discover new meaning , describe what
exits, determine the frequency with which something occurs, and categorize information.

35. Experiment

A research design used to find "cause-effect" relationships.

36. External validity

How generalizable the results are outside of the study as it concerns other populations and
locations.

37. Internal validity

The extent to which a study measures what it is supposed to (accuracy within the study)

38. Measures of central tendency

Averages; e.g., the mean

39. Mean

The arithmetic average

40. Median

The middle where half the scores fall above, half below,eliminates the influence of outliers.

41. Mode

The score that occurs most

42. No evidence
We don't know, haven't figured out how to attack the problem, or haven't cared enough to try.

43. Random

By chance

44. Random sample

Everybody had the same chance of being assigned to any group, sometimes confused with who
you ran into by chance

45. Research design

It is a plan of how, when , and where data are to be collected and analysed.

46. Accuracy

Addresses the extent to which a physiological instrument measures the concept defined in the
study .It is comparable to validity.

47. Affective Measures

Procedure or devices used to obtain quantified description of an individual’s feelings, emotional

states.

48. Aggregate

A total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the
populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total
data from smaller units into a large unit.

49. Anonymity

A research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research
participants.
50. Baseline

A control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.

51. Behaviorism

School of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible, objective facts of
behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses.
Contemporary behaviorism also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and
fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and measured.

52. Beliefs

Ideas, doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which are not immediately
susceptible to rigorous proof.

53. Benchmarking

Systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of organizations, systems,
processes, etc., against agreed upon "best-in-class" frames of reference.

54. Bias

A loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the
sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research,
such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and
presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to,
a wider population.

55. Case Study

The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small
group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.

56. Causal Hypothesis

A statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some
way.

57. Causality

The relation between cause and effect.

58. Chi-square Analysis

A common non-parametric statistical test which compares an expected proportion or ratio to an

actual proportion or ratio.

59. Claim

A statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research question and that
is affirmed with evidence based on research.

60. Classification

Ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according to characteristics

or attributes.

61. Cluster Analysis

A method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The
data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain
characteristics.

62. Cohort Analysis

A group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each
group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common
experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].
63. Confidentiality

A research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the identities of the
participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to
the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be revealed to
others in ways that violate the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the
participant.

64. Confirmability Objectivity

The findings of the study could be confirmed by another person conducting the same study.

65. Construct

Refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly observable;
a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations among phenomena or for other
research purposes; or, a theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of other
concepts.

For example, intelligence cannot be directly observed or measured; it is a construct.

66. Constructivism

The idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that reality cannot be understood
outside of the way humans interact and that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not
discovered. Constructivists believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either
behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.

67. Correlation

 The term ‘correlation’ means “ connect, or to be connected.

 Correlation is used to test the relationship between the quantitative variables or
categorical variables.
  Correlation is a measure of how things are related. The study of how variables are
correlated. . The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00.
 It is usually abbreviated as ‘r’.

68. Data Quality

This is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the
standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and  reliable [dependable].

69. Deductive

A form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or
universal premises.

70. Emancipatory Research

Research is conducted on and with people from marginalized groups or communities. It is led by
a researcher or research team who is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted
within intellectual frameworks of that group; and, is conducted largely for the purpose of
empowering members of that community and improving services for them. It also engages
members of the community as co-constructors or validators of knowledge.

71. Empirical Research

The process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated
to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.

72. Epistemology

Concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge is
validated.
73. Ethnography

Method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is
to comprehend the particular group/culture through immersion into the culture or group.
Research is completed through various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the
group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is usually collected during the
research.

74. Factor Analysis

A statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which variables in a
data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed survey.

For example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on
a single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather
than simply responses to specific questions.

75. Methods

Systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of procedure,

application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed
by a discipline.

76. Mixed-Methods

A research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative
research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or
methodological triangulation.

77. Naturalistic Observation

Observation of behaviors and events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or

other forms of interference.
78. Norm

The norm in statistics is the average or usual performance.

For example, students usually complete their high school graduation requirements when they
are 18 years old. Even though some students graduate when they are younger or older, the norm
is that any given student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.

79. Null Hypothesis

 It states the existence of no relationship between the independent and dependent

variables.
 It is denoted by H0 .
 It is also known as statistical hypothesis.

80. Ontology

A discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of
objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.

81. Panel Study

A longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of

time.

82. Participant

Individuals whose physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of
study in a research project.

83. Peer-Review

The process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication submits his or her
work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard
procedure in publishing scholarly research.
84. Phenomenology

A qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group behaviors from that
group's point of view.

85. Philosophy

Critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the basic concepts,
doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.

86. Phonology

The study of the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in language.

87. Probability

The chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is shown as p
[the "p" factor].

88. Questionnaire

Structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or
opinions.

89. Sampling Error

Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from the true
characteristics,behaviours, qualities or figures of the entire population.

90. Sociolinguistics

The study of language in society and, more specifically, the study of language varieties, their
functions, and their speakers.
91. Standard Deviation

 Standard deviation is the positive square root of mean of the squared deviations of values
from the airthmetic mean.
 It is denoted by SD .

92.ControllingVariable
An outside factor included in the study meant to minimize its effect on the dependent variable. These
are the variables researchers include to ensure that any change in the dependent variable is due to the
factor(s) being studied.

Example: To isolate the effect IQ has on SAT scores the researcher will include other variables
that would likely influence SAT scores besides IQ. To ensure that results are due only to the
student IQ and not any other student characteristics, the researcher may include variables to
represent the student’s socioeconomic status or whether the student is an English Language
Lerner which have been shown to influence SAT scores.

93. Confounding Factors

Outside factors that are not being studied or controlled for that influence the dependent variable.

Example:  Factors that could influence fourth grade reading scores besides the CPE Reading
Curriculum are confounding factors. If they are not included as a control variable in the study,
confounding factors could be student characteristics such as socioeconomic status, teacher
effectiveness or even the amount of sleep the students got the previous night.   
97. Statistical Significance

Statistical evidence that a difference did not likely happen by chance (typically ninety-five
percent likely). However, it does not refer to the size or the importance of the difference.

 Example: Russian eighth graders outscored U.S. eighth graders in math 508 to 504; however,
the difference in scores is not significantly different. Why? If the test was given again it would
be quite possible that U.S. eighth graders would score the same or better than their Russian
counterparts. However, Singapore’s score of 605 is significantly higher than the United States
score, meaning it is likely (ninety-five percent likely) that if the test was taken over and over
Singapore would continually outscore the United States.