Chapter Seven: The rhetoric of text

There is a distinction between communication as discourse and as text. Discourse

is linguistic communication seen as a transaction between speaker and hearer, as an
interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its social purpose. Text is linguistic
communication (either spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its auditory
or visual medium. Thus in speech, a ‘text’ or utterance is a linear pattern of sound waves;
in writing, a text is a linear sequence of visible marks on paper; when read out it becomes
a linear pattern of sound waves. But it is of course not a random sequence of noises or
marks, being coded in a certain language. Although a written text consists physically only
of marks on paper, it has implicit linguistic properties such as graphological and syntactic
form, by virtue of which it can be decoded. (Fig. 7.1, p. 210)

If the communication is successful on an ideational plane, then the message

decoded will (as stored in the addressee’s model of reality) be identical to the message
encoded. However, there are other standards of success which apply to the planes of
discourse and text, i.e. the rhetoric of text and discourse. It is the set of principles for
achieving communicative ends at these levels. ‘Rhetoric’ is used here in the traditional
sense of the ‘art or skill of effective communication’.

7.2 Linearity of text

Rhetoric in ordinary language use is a set of principles or guidelines for getting

things done by means of language. These rules do not define the grammar of a language,
but they are normative rules, or rules of good or effective performance. The rhetoric of
the text means that we are dealing with the superficial expressive form of language as it
is determined by syntax, phonology and graphology. We are concerned with the writer's
considerations which induce him to say something in one way rather than another. 1

Texts are communications seen as physical (occurring in auditory (speech) or visual

(writing) medium) transactions between addressers and addressees. Texts are
characterized by linearity: speech occurs linearly in time and writing occurs linearly in
space. The 'tyranny of succession' is most dominant in speech since what has been
uttered cannot be erased or recalled: the speaker is bound to encode and the hearer to
decode in ongoing time. In writing, the permanence of the text allows re-editing by the

1
.For this purpose, our interpretation of style is close to that of dualists; we are interested in choice between paraphrases
writer and re-reading by the reader; but a reader, like a hearer, must decode in a- fixed
order. For both the text is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon, something which is
EXPERIENCED IN TIME.

Linearity is an obvious characteristic of texts. Since speech is "ongoing", it is

necessary for the hearer to segment it into units. The TONE UNIT or unit of intonation is
the key unit for this purpose. Tone units are subdivided into smaller units (rhythm units,
syllables, phonemes). So Linearity or sequence entails segmentation and segmentation
entails a hierarchy of units. Hierarchization means that certain parts of the text are
perceived as more salient or highlighted than others. Thus, sequence, segmentation and
Salience are the three important factors in the dynamics of text. In writing, these three
factors are also basic, but the segmenting function is performed by punctuation, and the
pieces of text which are separated by punctuation are called GRAPHIC UNITS.

7.3 THE PRINCIPLE OF END-FOCUS

The principle of end-focus is the principle that new information is reserved to the
end of the tone unit. It is a rhetorical principle in the sense that it presumably facilitates
the decoding of the message. In the tone unit, there is a tendency for the speaker to
proceed from a starting point of information which is assumed to be shared by the hearer
to information which is assumed to be 'news' to him, and therefore communicatively
more salient. The part where new information is introduced, is marked by NUCLEAR
STRESS which is the focal point of the tone unit. The principle that 'last is most important'
means that the nuclear tone's neutral position is at the end of the tone unit, specifically,
on the last lexical item, or 'content word'. For example, putting the adverb at the end of
the coming sentence makes it bear the nuclear stress: (Ia) She denied it completely. The
difference between this sentence and (Ib) she completey denied it, is that the former is
an answer to the question (2a) Did Joan admit the offense? Since the denial is new
information, while the latter is an answer to the question: (2b) Did Joan deny the offense,
because the denial is already assumed in the question.
 Although end-focus belongs to phonology, it has important implications in syntax.
For example, it can determine whether to use active or passive:

(3a) John wrote the whole bòok (3b) the whole book was written by Jòhn

The two sentences presuppose different contexts; the first one would answer the
question: "What did John write" while the second would answer "Who wrote the book?"
Similarlythe nd-focus has implications for written language. In general, the nucleus does
not exist in written language but sometimes it is indicated by italics: "we shall go". In
written language, the principle of end-focus implies that the reader will expect the focus
to occur at the end. For example, the reader will find this senetence (4a) Instead of the
morphine, the patient was given opium happier than (4b) Instead of the morphine, opium
was given to the patient.Thus, end-focus principle guides the sequencing of elements in a
written text.

7.4 Segmentation

In speech, a tone unit constitutes a single "chunk" of information; and the speaker is free
to segment his utterance into such chunks as he likes. But the choices he makes will
affect the meaning. For example: "Next wéek I'm starting a job in Lòndon" is divided
into 2 tone units presenting 2 pieces of information: 1. 'something is happening next
week and 2. What is happening next week is that I am starting a job in London. However,
" Next wéek I'm starting a Jòb in Lòndon" has three tone units and thus three pieces
of information: 1. 'something is happening next week, 2. What is happening next week is
that I am starting a job and 3. The place where I am starting the job is London. This
sentence would only be uttered by a person for whom getting a job was a piece of new in
itself.
 The choices available in one case may not be available in another. For example, the
stress in the coming sentence is absurd: "(5a) Next Mónday I am spending the DÀY in
Lòndon" because "spending a day" cannot have any news value in itself.

The same general principles of segmentation apply to writing: Next week, I'm
starting a job – in London. But this seems unusually emphatic because graphic units tend
to be longer than tone units.

7.4.1 The 'rhythm of prose'

Written prose has an implicit, ‘unspoken’ intonation, of which punctuation marks

are written indicators. When the length of graphic units follows a regular pattern, the
text seems to progress with a measured dynamic movement. For example, when the
graphic units are set out in the manner of poetry, they follow a pattern of decreasing
length, bringing the effect of an increase of tempo towards a climax, until the last unit,
being longer, relaxes the tension towards a ‘dying fall’. (e.g of Dickens, p. 215). A
different rhythmic effect is produced by using very short graphic units with heavy
punctuation which makes the style "brusque and emphatic". The full stp, the heaviest
punctuation mark, has the greatest separative force; hence the effect of using full stops is
to emphasize the autonomy of each piece of information. Here, segmentation interacts
with salience . Both density and weight of punctuation are signals suggesting the rhythm
and intonation one would use in reading the text aloud. (e.g. of Lawrence's Studies in
Classic American Literature, p. 216).

7.4.2 Segmentation and syntax

The three main factors of textual organization- segmentation, sequence and salience,
exist on the level of phonology, graphology and syntax as well. The three levels are
partially matched. For example, segmentation on the grapholoical and syntactic levels
involves a major unit which is called a sentence.

 On the syntactic level; a sentence is defined as an independent syntactic unit either

simple or complex.
 On the graphological level; a sentence is simply a unit beginning with a capital
letter and ending with a full stop.
The two definitions are assumed to be two faces of the same coin but it isn't the case as
there could be a graphological sentence which is not syntactic one ; for example :

 He wanted to.
Segmentation on the level of syntax:

If a text is broken down into a series of minimal sentences, the result is that each clause
has equal importance to the other sentences.

 Jim threw the ball. The ball broke the window. The noise attracted the
owner's attention. The owner scolded him
The alternative for these minimal sentences can be reached by various devices of
coordination, subordination, pronoun substitution, etc. through which these ideas can be
combined into a smaller number of sentences, or in a single sentence:

 When Jim threw the ball and broke the window. He was scolded by the owner
whose attention was attracted by the noise.
The question of segmentation leads to the question of salience and sequence: in forming
complex sentences, we face decisions as to whether to:

 Promote one clause above another in the syntactic hierarchy (a matter of

salience),
 Or to place one clause before or after another (a matter of sequence).
7.5 Simple and complex sentences

There are no general principles for choosing simple or complex sentences since
different considerations will apply in different circumstances. But there is a kind of
preference of one than the other in different cases:
Complex sentences: are to be preferred if the aim of the writer is to present us with a
complex structure of ideas, a complex reading experience. ‘The complex form gives and
withholds information, subordinates some ideas to others more important, coordinates
those of equal weight, and ties into a neat package as many suggestions, modifiers, and
asides as the mind can attend to in one stretch.’
A succession of simple sentences: leaves only one of our three variables to play with:
that of sequence. They represent a naive narrative style in which there is no indication of
the relationship between events, or of their relative importance.
E.g. Jim threw the ball. The ball broke a window. The noise attracted the owner's
attention .The owner scolded him
However, there are occasions where simple sentences are just what is needed:
[14] She saw there an object. That object was the gallows. She was afraid of the gallows.
These three sentences occur at the climactic point in the novel where Mrs Verloc realises
the full consequence of her actions in murdering her husband. They record with brutal
simplicity and clarity the three separate impressions (perception of object →
identification of object → fear of object) which pass through Mrs Verloc’s mind in logical
progression, dramatising the mounting horror of her discovery. The dramatic force of this
step-by-step revelation would be dissipated in a complex sentence such as ‘She saw there
an object she was afraid of – the gallows.’

7.5.1 Coordination and subordination:

Coordination and subordination are the major devices for linking ideas together into a
complex sentenceby subordination and coordination the writer brings about an
appropriate salience and backgrounding of parts of the sentence.

Coordination: Gives clauses equal syntactic status.

Subordination: places one clause in a dependent status, a part of main clause. Thus,
subordination is a syntactic form of salience, since the effect of making a clause
subordinate is to background it: to make the phenomena it describes less important and
can't be understood except in terms of its part in the main clause. A subordinate clause
is often less salient in the sense of expressing information which is at least partially
known or presupposed in advance for example;

 when Jim threw the ball and broke the window

The effect of placing two events in a subordinate clause is to imply that the reader know
something about them.2

General principle of subordination:

"If A is subordinate to B, then A is the circumstantial background against which B is

highlighted"

But even this rhetorical principle can be violated for some purposes for example:

 Curley's fist was swinging when Lennie reached for it.

Here Lennie's action was backgrounded by its subordinated status though this sentence
describes the turning point in the fight between Curley and Lennie. The writer wanted to
absolve Lennie and make his action as a blameless reaction to Curley's onslaught.

Another strange case is in Joseph Heller, Catch 22, where the elements which
deserve to be foregrounded are subordinated and therefore backgrounded. Moreover,
the syntactic structures express very unusual and strange relationships between one
character and another beside the fact that characters and events are linked through
irrational behavior. All these idiosyncratic details are put in subordinated clauses the
matter which means to treat them as presupposed, predictable, part of normal scene.

7.5.2 The principle of climax: 'Last is most important'

2
"A similar effect is created by the relative clause: "The ball which Jim threw
This is the third principle of saliency (a phonological principle) after the principle of end-
focus (a phonological principle) and the principle of subordination (a syntactic principle).

The principle of climax:

"In a sequence of interrelated tone units, the final position tends to be the major focus
of information"

This principle can be seen as an extension of the end-focus principle, for it says for
a sequence of tone-units what the end-focus principle says for individual tone-units, that
‘last is most important’.

Each tone unit represents a unit of information, but these units are of varying autonomy
and usually the falling tone (ˋ) that indicates finality carries the most important
information, for example:

 After the gale died DóWN (rising, the end of subordinate clause) we were picked
up by a CòASTER (falling, end of the main clause)
In this case, the highlighting of intonation duplicates the highlighting of syntactic
structure. The effect of the climax principle can be illustrated with coordinate clauses
which are syntactically of equal status:

 (18) The gale died DóWN (rising, incomplete information) and we were picked up
by a CòASTER (falling, complete information)
Here the opposite placing ( . . . dòwn . . . cóaster) would be practically impossible:
there is clearly a natural progression from the incomplete information point signalled by
the rise, to the complete information point signalled by the fall.

The same principle would apply if there were more than two coordinate
constructions:
(19) The gale died dówn the daylight cáme and we were picked up bya còaster.

But there is also a further possibility, that each clause has a falling tone:
[20] The gale died dòwn and we were picked up by a còaster.
The contrast between [18] and [20] shows the inconclusive effect of the rising
tone. In [18] something must be added to ‘The gale died down’ to complete it; but in [20]
this clause sounds complete in itself. Thus the two clauses have equal informational
weight.
 Punctuation also can distinguish finality from non-finality; commas indicate non-
finality and full stops or semi colons indicate finality. The point of finality is the climatic
point. So in a well-behaved sentence we shall expect the parts of the sentence to be
presented in the general order of increasing semantic weight according to the principle of
climax. (e.g. 21, 22, p. 224)

7.5.3 Periodic sentence structure

A periodic sentence: is one which has anticipatory constituents and which saves its
main clause to the end. The anticipatory constituent is any subordinate or dependent
constituent which is non-final and this includes:

A. Initial dependent constituent: [That they have suffered through negligence] is

the truth. The subordinate clause has an initial position as the subject of the
main clause.

In contrast to this kind, the TRAILING constituent comes at the final position of the
clause. The truth is [that they have suffered through negligence].

B. Parenthetical dependent constituents (those occurring in a medial position):

Sophia, [with her eyes ablaze], sailed into the room.

Anticipatory constituents bring an element of suspense into syntax. A dependent

constituent is one which cannot stand on its own, and hence cannot be interpreted in
isolation. An anticipatory constituent must therefore be held in the memory until the
major constituent of which it is a part has been interpreted. Trailing constituents, on the
other hand, do not involve such suspense: we can interpret them as we go along.

The element of suspense clearly depends on the size of the anticipatory

constituent: the longer the constituent is, the greater the burden upon the memory, and
the greater the tension. On the whole, short anticipatory constituents such as adjectives
preceding a noun are not significant; it is the major constituents – clauses and phrases –
which contribute to the periodic structure of sentences.

Periodic structure has been an influential model in the history of prose writing for2
reasons:. 1. Periodic sentences have a dramatic quality: they combine the principle of
climax with the principle of subordination, and so progress from a build-up of tension to
a final climactic point of resolution.(e.g. 28, p. 227)

2. Periodic sentences have the virtue of concentrating significance at one point in the
sentence: Since the interpretation of anticipatory constituents is delayed, enlightenment
comes at the end. A periodic sentence offers, in this sense, a way of escaping from the
‘tyranny of succession’, for although meanings are necessarily presented sequentially,
periodic structure requires us to hold them all in the mind simultaneously.

e.g. At the end of the ten minutes he was to spend with her his impression – with all it
had thrown off and all it had taken in – was complete.

The final word complete here takes under its umbrella the meaning of the whole
sentence. The dependence of interpretation is mutual: the rest of the sentence cannot be
interpreted until we reach complete, and we cannot understand the full implications of
complete until we have understood the rest of the sentence. Hence the full realization of
what the sentence means comes at the end with momentary entirety.

7.5.4 Loose sentence structure

The loose structure is a structure in which trailing constituents predominate over

anticipatory constituents. Trailing constituents are of two kinds:

1- Final dependent or subordinate constituents, e.g. 'Sophia sailed into the room,
[with her eyes ablaze]'
 2- Non-initial coordinate constituents, e.g. 'He seized the doctor's hand and shook it
warmly.'

Loose sentence structure preserves the MEMORY PRINCIPLE which can be expressed as
follows:

Reduce the burden on the reader's immediate syntactic memory by avoiding

major anticipatory constituents.

Loose structure is 'natural' in that it makes things easy for the addressee and incidentally
for the addresser as it reduces the amount of syntactic information that has to be stored
in decoding. The addressee can decode the syntax as he goes, holding in memory only
the immediately preceding grammatical context. (e.g. 30, p. 229) Loose structure lacks
the anticipatory tension of the periodic sentence and, therefore, it is associated with
easiness, relaxation and informality. (e.g. 32, p.229) Loose structure is a literary style
which aims at natural simplicity and directness rather than rhetorical effect.

In conclusion, periodic and loose structures are two poles between which styles of
sentence structure can vary. The most neutral style of writing is that which combines
both anticipatory and trailing constituents, and thus achieves a balance between 'art' and
'nature'.