LECTURE 4

Soil Classification
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FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS

Gravel from Sand

Individual soil particles larger than 4.75 mm and smaller than 80 mm are called
‘Gravel’ ; soil particles ranging in size from 4.75 mm down to 0.075 mm are called
‘Sand’,
The shape of these particles is also important and may be described as angular, sub-
angular, rounded, etc

Sand from Silt

Fine sand cannot be easily distinguished from silt by simple visual examination.
Silt may look a little darker in color. However, it is possible to differentiate
between the two by the ‘Dispersion Test’. This test consists of pouring a spoonful
of sample in a jar of water. If the material is sand, it will settle down in a minute
or two, but, if it is silt, it may take 15 minutes to one hour. In both these cases,
nothing may be left in the suspension ultimately.

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Silt from Clay
Microscopic examination of the particles is possible only in the laboratory. In the
absence of one, a few simple tests are performed.
(i) Shaking Test.
A part of the material is shaken after placing it in the palm. If it is silt, water
comes to the surface and gives it a shining appearance. If it is kneaded, the
moisture will re-enter the soil and the shine disappears.
If it is clay, the water cannot move easily and hence it continues to look dark. If it
is a mixture of silt and clay, the relative speed with which the shine appears may
give a rough indication of the amount of silt present. This test is also known as
‘dilatancy test’.

(ii) Strength Test.

A small briquette of material is prepared and dried. Then one has to try to break
it. If it can be broken easily, the material is silt. If it is clay, it will require effort to
break. Also, one can dust off loose material from the surface of the briquette, if
it is silt. When moist soil is pressed between fingers, clay gives a soapy touch ; it
also sticks, dries slowly, and cannot be dusted off easily.

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 (iii) Rolling Test.
A thread is attempted to be made out of a moist soil sample with a
diameter of about 3 mm. If the material is silt, it is not possible to make such a
thread without disintegration and crumbling. If it is clay, such a thread can be
made even to a length of about 30 cm and supported by its own weight when
held at the ends. This is also called the ‘Toughness test’.

(iv) Dispersion Test.

A spoonful of soil is poured in a jar of water. If it is silt, the particles will settle in
about 15 minutes to one hour. If it is clay, it will form a suspension which will
remain as such for hours, and even for days, provided flocculation does not take
place.

(v) Shine Test

When a lump of dry or slightly moist soil is cut with a knife, a shiny
surface is imparted to the soil if it is a highly plastic clay, while a dull
surface may indicate silt or a clay of low plasticity.

Acid Test
This test, using dilute HCl, is primarily for checking the presence of calcium carbonate.
For soils with a high value of dry strength, a strong reaction may indicate the presence
of calcium carbonate as cementing material rather than colloidal clay.
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Organic Content and Colour
Fresh, wet organic soils usually have a distinctive odor of decomposed organic matter,
which can be easily detected on heating. Another distinctive feature of such soils is the
dark color.

ENGINEERING SOIL CLASSIFICATION—DESIRABLE FEATURES

(a) The system should have scientific approach.

(b) It should be simple and subjective element in rating the soil should be eliminated as far as
possible.
(c) A limited number of different groupings should be used, which should be on the basis of only
a few similar properties,
(d) The properties considered should have meaning for the engineering profession.
(e) It should have fair accuracy in indicating the probable performance of a soil under certain
field conditions.
(f) It should be based on a generally accepted uniform soil terminology so that the classification
is done in commonly well-understood and well-conversant terms.
(g) It should be such as to permit classification of a soil by simple visual and manual tests, or at
least only by a few simple tests.
(h) The soil group boundaries should be drawn as closely as possible where significant changes
in soil properties are known to occur.

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 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS - MORE COMMON ONES
1. Preliminary Classification by Soil types or
Descriptive Classification.
2. Geological Classification or Classification by Origin.
3. Classification by Structure.
4. Grain-size Classification
5. Unified Soil Classification System.
6. Triangular Classification or Textular.
7. AASHTO Classification
Preliminary Classification by Soil types or Descriptive Classification

In this approach, soils are described by designations such as ‘Boulders’,

‘Gravel’,‘Sand’, ‘Silt’, ‘Clay’, ‘Rockflour’, ‘Peat’, ‘China Clay’, ‘Fill’, ‘Bentonite’,
‘Black Cotton Soils’, ‘Boulder Clay’, ‘Caliche’, ‘Hardpan’, ‘Laterite’, ‘Loam’, ‘Loess’,
‘Marl’, ‘Moorum’, ‘Topsoil’, and ‘Varved
Clay’

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 Geological Classification or Classification by Origin.
Based on constituents, soils may be classified as :
1. Inorganic soils
2. Organic soils (Plant life, Animal life)

Based on the agencies responsible for their present state,

soils may be classified as :
1. Residual soils
2. Transported soils
(a) Alluvial or sedimentary soils (transported by water)
(b) Aeolian soils (transported by wind)
(c) Glacial soils (transported by glaciers)
(d) Lacustrine soils (deposited in lakes)
(e) Marine soils (deposited in seas)

Classification by Structure
1. Soils of single-grained structure
2. Soils of honey-comb structure
3. Soils of flocculent structure
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 Major Soil Groups

Cohesive Granular soils or

soils Cohesionless soils

Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder

0.002 0.075 4.75 63 200

Grain size (mm)

Fine grain Coarse grain

soils soils
 Well or Poorly Graded Soils
Well Graded Soils Poorly Graded Soils
Wide range of grain sizes present Others, including two special cases:
(a) Uniform soils – grains of same size
Gravels: Cc = 1 - 3 & Cu > 4
(b) Gap graded soils – no grains in a
Sands: Cc = 1 - 3 & Cu > 6
specific size range
Typical Grain Size Distribution Curves
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 6;

SW

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Example 1: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify each using USCS.
Example1: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify each using USCS.

For Soil E
% Passing #200 = 100% From A - Line
Plot is Above the A - Line
(Fine Grained) PI = 0.73(LL – 20)
Soil is Clay with High Plasticity
PI = 55 – 27 PI = 25.55
Symbol is CH
PI = 28
Example1: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify each using USCS.

For Soil F
% Passing #200 = 93% From A - Line
Plot is Above the A - Line
(Fine Grained) PI = 0.73(LL – 20)
Soil is Clay with Low Plasticity
PI = 43 – 22 PI = 16.8
Symbol is CL
PI = 21
Example1: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify each using USCS.

For Soil G
% Passing #200 = 32% From A - Line Plot is below the A - Line
First letter is S
(Coarse Grained) PI = 0.73(LL – 20) Soil is sand with Silt
PI = 46 – 28
% Passing #4 = 100% PI = 18.98 Symbol is SM
PI = 18
(Sand = 100 – 32 = 68)
Example1: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify each using USCS.

For Soil H
Gravel = 100 – 48 D60 = Undefined Soil is poorly graded clean
% Passing #200 = 4%
= 52 gravel with sand.
(Coarse Grained) First letter is G Cu = undefined
% Passing #4 = 48% D30 = 0.3 Cc = not defined Symbol is GP
(Sand = 48 – 4 = 44)
D10 = 0.12
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STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE FOR AASHTO CLASSIFICATION

1. Determine the percentage of soil passing through U.S. No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm
opening)

If 35% or less passes No. 200 sieve it is a coarse-grained material. Proceed to Steps
2 and 4.

If more than 35% passed No. 200 sieve it is a fine-grained material (i.e., silty or
clayey material). For this, go to Steps 3 and 5.

Determination of Groups or Subgroups

2. For coarse-grained soil, determine the percent passing U.S. sieve Nos. 10, 40 and
200 and, additionally, the liquid limit and plasticity index.

Then proceed to Table 1. Start from the top line and compare the known soil
properties with those given in the table (Columns 2 through 6).

Go down one line at a time until a line is found for which all the properties of the
desired soil matches. The soil group (or subgroup) is determined from Column 1.
3. For fine-grained soils, determine the liquid limit and the plasticity index.

Then go to Table 2.
Start from the top line.
By matching the soil properties from Columns 2, 3 and 4,
determine the proper soil group (or subgroup).

Determination of Group Index

4. To determine the group index (GI) of coarse-grained soils, the following rules need
to be observed.

GI for soils in groups (or subgroups) A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-5 and A- 3 is zero.
For GI in soil of groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the following equation:

GI = 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI – 10)

Where F200 = Percent passing No. 200 sieve

PI = plasticity index
If the GI comes out negative, round it off to zero.
If the GI is positive, round it off to the nearest whole number
5 For obtaining the GI of fine-grained soils, use the following equation:

GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] +0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10)

If GI comes out negative, round it off to zero.

However, if it is positive, round it off to the nearest whole number.

6. The final classification of soil is given by first writing down the group (or subgroup)
followed by the group index in parenthesis.
Example 2 2. Rating
The following are the details for the
backfill material in a vibro-flotation project. Rating Suitability Number

D10 = 0.36 mm Excellent 0 – 10

D20 = 0.52 mm Good 11 - 20
D25 = 0.60 mm Fair 21 – 30
D50 = 1.42 mm Poor 31 – 50
D75 = 1.65 mm Unsuitable 50 +

1.Find the suitability number Therefore the rating is excellent

2.Det the rating
3.Compute the sorting coefficient 3. Sorting Coefficient

D75
3 1 1 So  = 1.66
1. S N  1.7   D25
D50 2 D20 2 D10 2
S N  6.1 1
Example 3: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify the soils using AASHTO. Discuss also the
suitability of each soil as sub-grade material.
Example 4: The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G,
and H with their LL and PL values. Classify E and F using USDA System
Example 5: Given: The data shown. Classify
the three soils based on the Unified Soil
Classification System.
 0.32
Cc = = 0.85
(0.38)(0.28)

Since Cu < 6, and Cc is not

between 1 and 3, sand is
poorly graded & the symbol
is SP

03
0.38
0.28

Procedure:
A large CU represents large range in grain sizes,
(From the graph, therefore the soil is regarded as well graded. A
soil A is sand) value of CU near unity represents sizes of the
0.38 same magnitude and if CU is less than 4,the soil is
Cu = = 1.36 uniform
0.28
 87 %

56 %

18%

Sand = 87 - 56 = 31%
% finer than # 4 = 87 %
Silt = 56 - 18 = 38%
% finer than # 200 = 56% Clay = 18 %
% finer than 0.002 = 18% % fines > % coarser,
Gravel = 100 – 87 = 13% Soil is fine grained!
 PI = 0.73(36 - 20) = 11.68
Point is above the A – line. So soil is
clay with low plasticity (CL)

14

36
 16

46 %
42

Silt is 100 – 46 = 54%

Clay = 46 %

PI = 0.73 ( LL - 20) = 16.06

Since the point lies approx.

below the A line, the soil is
clayey silt with low plasticity.

The symbol is ML
Example 6:
A sample of soil has the following
grain-size characteristics
Size (mm) Percent Passing
2.000 100
0.075 74
0.050 60 59
0.005 32
0.002 15
1. Find the percentage of silt
2.Classify the soil using the Triangular 15
Classification Chart.
3. Determine the activity classification 26
if the plasticity index is 34%.

2. From the figure, soil is silty loam

1. % of silt = % passing 0.075 mm
- % passing 0.002 mm 3. Activity
Activity Classification
PI
% of silt = 74 - 15 A A<0.7 Inactive
% of clay
% of silt = 59 34 0.7<A<1.2 Normal Clay
A  2.27
% of sand = 100 - 59 - 15 15 A>1.2 Active Clay
% of sand = 26 Soilis activeclay