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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Presidents ship:
Commander Vasile BUCINSCHI, PhD
Brigadier General Boris ĎURKECH, PhD

Members:
Professor Răzvan - Lucian ANDRONIC, PhD
Colonel Mihail ANTON, PhD
Professor Hamid R. ARABNIA, PhD
Brigadier General Ghiţă BÂRSAN, PhD
Commander Mircea BOŞCOIANU, PhD
Professor Gavrila CALEFARIU, PhD
Professor Ivan Menes CAMEJO, Doc
Associate Professor Sergiu CATARANCIUC, PhD
Professor Constantin -Edmond CRACSNER, PhD
Professor Aurel CRIŞAN, PhD
Researcher Maria DINESCU, PhD
Professor Philippe DONDON, PhD
Professor Constantin DUGULEANĂ, PhD
Professor Cătălin Marius GHERASIM, PhD
Lecturer Mihaela GURANDA,PhD
Professor Vladimir HORAK, CSc

1
Professor Maria IOANIDES, PhD
Professor Barry JACKSON, PhD
Professor Yiwen JIANG, PhD
Professor Alexei LEAHU, PhD
Associate Professor Ludovic Dan LEMLE, PhD
Associate Professor Doru LUCULESCU, PhD
Professor Melissa LUKA, PhD
Professor Mircea LUPU, PhD
Associate Professor Jaromir MARES, PhD
Professor Eng. Juraj MIČEK, PhD
Colonel (GS) Pavel NECAS, PhD
Professor Ştefan NEDELCU, PhD
Professor Victor Valeriu PATRICIU, PhD
Professor Marian PEARSICA, PhD
Pofessor Ştefan-Gheorghe PENTIUC, PhD
Associate Professor Anca PETRE, PhD
Professor Ciprian Ioan RĂULEA, PhD
Professor Gherman A. DE LA REZA, PhD
Professor Daniela ROSCA,PhD
Commander Eng. Constantin ROTARU, PhD
Assistant Professor Ozgur Koray SAHINGOZ, PhD
Commander Professor Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, PhD
Professor Florentin SMARANDACHE, PhD
Professor Milan SOPOCI, PhD
Colonel Professor Robert SZABOLCSI, PhD
Professor Alex STEFAN, PhD
Professor Maria TUDOR, PhD
Professor Corneliu UDREA, PhD
Professor Petrica VIZUREANU, PhD
Professor Joseph ZARKA, PhD

2
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

President:
LTC Laurian GHERMAN,PhD

Members:
Prof. Ion DINESCU, PhD
Capt. Cmd. Ionica CÎRCIU, PhD
Maj. Cornel ARAMĂ, PhD
Lt.col. Danut BĂLOS
Lt.col. Cristian ENE
WO. Vasile PRISACARIU
Assist. Prof. Liliana MIRON, PhD
Assist. Prof. Constantin STRÎMBU, PhD
Assist. Prof. Cristian CONSTANTINESCU, PhD
Maj. Cătălin CIOACĂ, PhD
Math. Carmen URSOIU
Assist. Prof. Math. Gheorghe RADU, PhD
Assist. Prof Mihaela GURANDA, PhD
Assist. Prof Mihaela SMEADA, PhD
Assoc. Prof. Diana ILIŞOI, PhD
Assist. Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU
Assist. Daniela NAGY

Logistics:
Col Dumitru DINU
Maj Bogdan CHIOSEAUA
Lt Cosmin TĂTULESCU
WO Marian MIHALACHE

Secretariat:
Maj Criste RĂU
Capt. Roxana ANTOCHE

3
4
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

CONTENTS

Pag
AIR FORCE
Dragoş Cristian ACHIŢEI, Petrică VIZUREANU, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUNĂ,
Bogdan ISTRATE, Andrei Victor SANDU
13
PHASES ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CuAlMnFe
ALLOY
Vladimír BEŇO, František ADAMČÍK Jr
19
UNMANNED COMBAT AIR VEHICLE: MQ-9 REAPER
Oliver CIUICĂ, Marcel PREDESCU, Eduard MIHAI
25
PLAYING WITH THE SAFETY DUE TO LACK OF RESOURCES
Ionică CÎRCIU , Andrei LUCHIAN
THEORETICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO FLIGHT SAFETY SYSTEMS IN EARLY 31
WARNING AIR TRAFFIC CONFLICT
Ion DINESCU, Gabi MOLDOVAN, Ovidiu MOSOIU
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING
35
OF THE ANTI FRICTION MATERIALS USED IN AERONAUTIC
CONSTRUCTIONS
Adrian-Ioan LIŢĂ, Ioan PLOTOG, Lidia DOBRESCU
MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINI-UAV 41
CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING
Doru LUCULESCU
47
THE DRIVELINE ANALYSIS OF HYPER SUSTENTATION DEVICES
Eduard MIHAI
PRECISION APROACH SYSTEM BASED ON GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE 53
SYSTEM
Alexandra PALLA PAPAVLU, Fabio DI PIETRANTONIO, Domenico CANNATÀ,
Massimiliano BENETTI, Enrico VERONA, Valentina DINCA, Thomas LIPPERT,
57
Maria DINESCU
GAS SENSORS FABRICATED BY LASER-INDUCED FORWARD TRANSFER
Manuela-Cristina PERJU, Petrică VIZUREANU, Carmen NEJNERU
THE STUDY OF ENERGY TRANSFER ON THIN LAYERS ACHIEVED BY 65
ELECTRO-SPARK DEPOSITION WITH TiC ELECTRODE
Vasile PRISACARIU, Andrei LUCHIAN
69
THE AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Marius RADULESCU, Vasile SANDRU
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE LIFE EXTENSION PROGRAMS BY TECHNICAL 77
RESOURCE RENEWAL APPLIED TO THE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES

5
Constantin ROTARU, Raluca Ioana EDU,
Mihai ANDRES-MIHĂILĂ
83
UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC MODEL FOR AN AIRFOIL WITH TIME
DEPENDENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Milan SOPÓCI, Ľubomír MATTA
91
ELECTRONIC WAR AND MODERNIZATION OF AIR DEFENCE MEANS
Cătălin-Andrei ŢUGUI, Petrică VIZUREANU, Dragoş Cristian ACHIŢEI,
Ion PALAMARCIUC, Andrei-Victor SANDU
97
THE ANALYSIS OF THE ALLOY AlCu4Mg1,5Mn USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF UTILITY AIRCRAFTS

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICAL ENGINEERING

Alexandru BALICA, Mihai MIJEA, Florin SANDU

MOBILE APPLICATION FOR BUSINESS CONTROL OF 103
TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES
Otilia CROITORU
109
CODE ACQUISITION WITH DOUBLE CORRELATOR IN DSSS RECEIVERS
Vasile DOBREF, Alexandru SOTIR, Octavian TĂRĂBUŢĂ, Cătălin CLINCI
117
HIGH POWER ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS FOR MILITARY APPLICATIONS
Adrian-Ioan LIŢĂ, Ioan PLOTOG, Lidia DOBRESCU
MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINI-UAV 121
CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING
Gheorghe MORARIU, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON
FRACTAL SECTOR ANTENNA WITH RESONATORS 127
ARRANGED IN A SQUARE SHAPE
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Serghei RADU, Florentiu DELIU, Raluca MATES
THE ANALISYS OF NAVAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS USING SOFTWARE 133
PROGRAMS
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Radu SERGHEI, Florenţiu DELIU, Laura CIZER
RULES FOR LIMITING RISK EXPOSURE OF THE HUMAN BODY TO 141
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Constantin STRIMBU
149
ABOUT SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS OPERATION

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

Daniel BOSNICEANU, Marian VATAVU

153
SOME ASPECTS ABOUT AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES RELIABILITY
Aurel CRIŞAN, Ioan CIOBANU, Daniela IONESCU, Maria STOICĂNESCU
COMPUTER SIMULATION BASED COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE 157
SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST IRON AND STEEL CASTING
Melih Cemal KUŞHAN, Selim GÜRGEN, Tolga ÜNALIR, Sinem ÇEVİK
A NOVEL APPROACH FOR ARMOR APPLICATIONS OF SHEAR THICKENING 165
FLUIDS IN AVIATION AND DEFENSE INDUSTRY

6
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

Marin MARINOV, Zhivo PETROV

175
AN APPROACH FOR STATIC CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q
Marin MARINOV, Zhivo PETROV
ALLAN VARIANCE ANALYSIS ON ERROR CHARACTERS OF LOW-COST MEMS 179
ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q
Marian MITROI, Cornel ARAMĂ
ON BOARD DIAGNOSIS IMPLICATIONS ON THE VIABILITY OF MILITARY 185
PATROL AND INTERVENTION VEHICLES
Marius Nicolae MOLDOVEANU, Cornel ARAMĂ
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF THE ON- 191
BOARD HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT ON THE ENGINES COMBUSTION
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTIŞ, Remus BOBOESCU
197
ASPECTS OF THE POWER BALANCE FOR LASER CUTTING PROCESS
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTIŞ, Remus BOBOESCU
STRUCTURED DESCRIPTION FOR OXYGEN ASSISTED LASER CUTTING 205
PROCESS
Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA
213
WOOD PROCESSING BY LASER TOOLS
Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA
221
COLOUR MEASUREMENT USING DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS
Camelia PITULICE, Ioan GIACOMELLI, Maria STOICANESCU
THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE WEAR 227
RESISTANCE OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
Camelia PITULICE, Adriana ZARA, Nicoleta TORODOC, George VASILE
ESEM AND X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRA OF TITANIUM ALLOY IN DIFFERENT 233
STRUCTURAL STATUS
Fulga TANASĂ, Mădălina ZĂNOAGĂ, Raluca DARIE
EVALUATION OF STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES
241
OF SOME NEW POLYMER-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE AND
DEFENCE APPLICATIONS
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE 251
WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMPRESSOR
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE 259
WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMBUSTOR
Mădălina ZĂNOAGĂ, Fulga TANASĂ
COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES AS REINFORCEMENT FOR ADVANCED 267
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

7
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Bogdan CIORUŢA, Mirela COMAN, Andrei-Alin CIORUŢA

STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMATICS AND HAZARDS WITH HELP 275
OF INFORMATICS APPLICATIONS (SEPHIA)
Bogdan CIORUŢA, Mirela COMAN
THE IDEA OF IMPLEMENTING A MATHEMATICS PLATFORM FOR ANDROID 279
DEVICES WITH HELP OF APP INVENTOR
Tatiana GRÎU, Aurel LUNGULEASA
283
ECONOMICS CONSIDERATION ON WOODEN BIOMASS CONSUMPTION
Aurel LUNGULEASA
291
HYGROSCOPICITY OF CHIPBOARD VERSUS SOLID WOOD
Raluca NICOLAE (MANESCU), Anisor NEDELCU
297
UTILIZATION OF TECHNICAL INNOVATION ON A NEW PRODUCT
Raluca NICOLAE (MANESCU), Anisor NEDELCU
MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS TO SUPPORT FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING 301
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Ramona PAKOCS
305
QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPLIED THROUGH QFD METHOD
Ramona PAKOCS, Nouraş Barbu LUPULESCU
RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK TYPE ANALYSIS SPECIFIC TO 311
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN INDUSTRIAL PROFILE COMPANIES

APPLIED MATHEMATICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE, IT&C

Irina Carmen ANDREI

INVESTIGATION OF SWEEP APPLIED TO ROTATING AXIAL CASCADES AND 317
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF FLOW
Cristina Sanda CISMAŞIU
325
AN APPLICATION TO Mastroianni OPERATORS
Mihaela DUMITRACHE, Camelia GHELDIU
THE EQUATION OF DISPERSION AND THE DISPLACEMENT VECTOR IN THE 331
SYMMETRIC CASE
Gabriela MOGOS
335
BUILDING A HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER PROTOCOL
Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU
ON THE MAX PARETO 341
POWER SERIES DISTRIBUTION
Mihai Lica PURA
347
USER AUTHENTICATION TO A WEB SITE USING FINGERPRINTS
Mihai Lica PURA, Victor Valeriu PATRICIU
353
IDENTITY-BASED CHRYPTOGRAPHY: FROM PROPOSALS TO EVERYDAY USE
Paul VASILIU
361
AN ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTY OF THE MERGING ALGORITHM
Paulina VÉLEZ, Antonio FERREIRO
365
SOCIAL ROBOT IN ATTENTIONAL THERAPIES

8
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

MANAGEMENT

Arina CIUREA, Anişor NEDELCU

ANALYSIS OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES USED FOR TOTAL
369
QUALITY MANAGEMENT. APPLICABILITY AND IMPLICATIONS IN THE
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
Gherasim Solovestru DOMIDE, Alexandru DOMIDE
VEHICLE DAMAGE – PROFIT DECREASE FACTOR FOR THE ROMANIAN 375
INSURANCE MARKET
Constantin DUGULEANĂ, Steliana BUSUIOCEANU
AUTOREGRESSIVE MODELS USED IN THE STUDY OF 381
LABOR MARKET
Liliana DUGULEANĂ, Constantin DUGULEANĂ
CHANGES IN TOP 10 EUROPEAN BRAND CORPORATIONS DURING THE 387
ECONOMIC CRISIS
Flavia FECHETE, Anisor NEDELCU
ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A ORGANIZATION USING 397
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
Alexandru Florin MĂGUREANU
FEW ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL 403
PROTECTION IN THE EU
Alexandru Florin MAGUREANU , Ioan ŞTEFU
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ARMED CONFLICTS IN NATIONAL AND 407
INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
Mária PETRUFOVÁ Eva RÉVAYOVÁ
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF MANAGER AS BASED ASSUMPTION OF 411
MANAGER COMPETENCES IN AIR FORCE ACADEMY CONDITIONS
Ioan PITICAR
THE INTERALLIED CONFEDERATION OF RESERVE OFFICERS- CIOR, AND
PERSPECTIVE OF RELATION WITH EX-SOVIET UNION (E-SU) STATES IN THE
423
CONTEXT OF CRIMEA CRISIS.
ROLES OF THE PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS AND MILITIA OF ETHNIC
MINORITIES IN THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY TURBULENCE THEATRE
Marian SFETCU
ANALYSIS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING A COMPLEX MOTIVATIONAL 431
SYSTEM FOR PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS BY MANAGEMENT
Ioan ŞUŞNEA, Grigore VASILIU, Simona SPIRIDON
BEYOND THE FAST-FOOD MODEL OF EDUCATION. IS THE SCHOOL 441
CAPABLE TO FOSTER CREATIVITY?
Ioan ŞUŞNEA, Grigore VASILIU, Simona SPIRIDON
THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT – A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE 447
ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR RDI

9
SOCIO AND HUMANITIES

Anca ANDRONIC
453
OPEN DISTANCE EDUCATION – NEW CHALLENGES
Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC
457
DEFINITION OF VOLUNTEERING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC
VOLUNTEERING: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND PERSONAL 461
CHARACTERISTICS
Cristiana BALAN
465
PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF MORAL EDUCATION IN DETENTION
Cristiana BALAN
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING IN IMPROVING BEHAVIORAL 471
DYSFUNCTIONS IN RECIDIVIST CRIMINALS
Angela BOGLUŢ
477
EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC PERSPECTIVE
Angela BOGLUŢ
489
FORMING THE EMPATHIC CAPACITY OF THE TEACHERS
Viorel CONSTANTINESCU
497
MOBBING: PSYCHOLOGICAL TERROR IN THE WORKPLACE
Georgiana CORCACI
501
RELEVANT PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR SUCCESS
Camelia Maria DINDELEGAN
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PROGNOSIS OF 509
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Camelia DINDELEGAN, Florina SERAC-POPA
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE AT STRESS LEVEL 519
PERCEIVED BY THE PEOPLE DIAGNOSED WITH DEPRESSION
Mihaela GURANDA
THE ANALYSES OF SIGNIFICANT CHANGES 527
IN THE FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL CAREER
Ramona HENTER, Elena Simona INDREICA
533
REFLECTIVE JOURNAL WRITING AS A METACOGNITVE TOOL
Elena HURJUI
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN THE 541
WORK OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR
Elena HURJUI
COUNSELING OF CHILDREN COMING FROM DISADVANTAGED
547
ENVIRONMENTS TO PREVENT FAILURE AND AVOID SCHOOL
ABANDONEMENT
Diana ILIŞOI
553
IMPACT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVES
Nicoleta LIŢOIU
TRAINING PROGRAMS APPROACHES IN THE CONTEXT OF ADULT
559
EDUCATION. CASE STUDY ON A TRAINING PROGRAM IN DEVELOPING
ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCES

10
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

Roxana Viorica MAIER

THE EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP THE PARENT-STUDENT-TEACHER 565
RELATIONSHIP
Roxana MAIER, Angela BLOGUŢ
PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION- A PREMISE FOR A HARMONIOUS 571
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Loredana MANASIA, Alina BOZON
THE EFFECTIVE TRIAD: IMPACT, DIGITAL CONTENT AND ADULT 577
EDUCATION. A CASE STUDY APPROACH
Aurelia MORARU
IMPLICATION OF PARENTAL AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN PERSONALITY 585
DEVELOPMENT
Aurelia MORARU, Adina MORARU
THE TEENAGERS AND YOUNG BEHAVIOUR, DETERMINATION AND SELF- 589
ADJUSTING VALUES
Daniela NAGY
INSTANCES OF FEMINITY IN THE NOVEL “VOICA”, BY DE HENRIETTE 603
YVONNE STAHL
Gabriela Carmen OPROIU
A STUDY ON THE TRAINING AND FORMATION NEEDS OF TEACHING STAFF 609
IN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES
Maria Dorina PAŞCA
615
THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
Mihaela PĂUNESCU, Clara – Maria NEACSU
619
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF PILOT ACTIVITY
Aurora SIMIGIU
A PREGNANT TEENAGER. ASSESSMENT, DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION 15 625
YEARS LATER
Constantin-Ioan STAN, Ecaterina CEPOI
631
CHALLENGES OF IRAQI INTELLIGENCE IN POST-SADDAM ERA
Mihaela Alina STATE
DEATH IN THE ROMANIAN CULTURE 639
CASE STUDY PRESENTATION/ ADLERIAN APPROACH
Marilena TICUSAN
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION, RECIPROCITY IN THE PARENT-CHILD 647
RELATIONSHIP

11
Marilena TICUSAN
653
SCHOOL DROPOUT IN CURENT SOCIETY
Otilia Anca TODOR
THE ROLE OF THE FEUERSTEIN INSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT PROGRAM 659
IN THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Otilia Anca TODOR
COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND R. FEUERSTEIN’S CONCEPT ON MEDIATED 665
LEARNING
Florin VANCEA
671
PERSONALITY, IDENTITY AND PSYCHIC MATURITY
Petronela Sorina VÎRBAN, Florin Marian ANTONESCU
INMATES’ PERCEPTION, MOTIVATION AND FEELINGS TOWARDS SCHOOL 677
ON EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED IN GIURGIU PRISON
Loredana VÎŞCU
685
BECOMING A PSYCHOTHERAPIST
Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA, Grigore DUMITRU
BioSpecter PSYCHOMETRIC SYSTEM OR EXPERT SYSTEM OF PERSONALITY 689
EVALUATION

12
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

PHASES ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

CuAlMnFe ALLOY 

Dragoş Cristian ACHIŢEI*, Petrică VIZUREANU*, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUNĂ*,

Bogdan ISTRATE**, Andrei Victor SANDU*

*Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iaşi, Romania,
** Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iaşi, Romania,

Abstract: The paper presents a study on alloy CuAlMnFe, analyzed in terms of phases and structural
aspects and physical and mechanical properties, after some heat treatments like annealing, quenching
and tempering.

Keywords: aluminum bronzes, micro-hardness, constituents

1. INTRODUCTION  Aluminum - improves castability and

plasticity.
The properties of cast alloys are dependent  Silicon - increases the fluidity.
on the chemical composition and structure.  Manganese - improves elasticity and
The introduction of one or more alloying electrical resistance.
elements in the metal alloy can be obtained for  Lead - improves plasticity and anti-
various compositions, structures and properties friction properties.
that will be suitable for technical purposes.  Nickel - increases the mechanical
Forming the non-ferrous alloys is strength and electrical resistivity.
influenced by development conditions and the  Beryllium and titanium - add further
configuration of the parts and on the casting strength.
and cooling thereof.
The most important copper alloys are Table 1
brasses, bronzes and copper alloys - nickel - Applications of aluminum bronzes
zinc.
Bronzes are characterized by good
mechanical properties, superior castability and
good corrosion resistance.
Alloying elements contained in a bronze
may have influence on the properties:

13
 AIR FORCE

Valve case for Bearing pivoting ne na  3 2 ;

railway industry for medical - phase γ - is formed on the basis of a novel
[3] applications[3] compound of formula Cu32Al19 electronic and
electronic concentration and the changes in the
ordering phenomena due to solid state at
780...870°C [1,9] .
β phase stable at high temperature
undergoes eutectoid decomposition
temperature of 570 ° C and 11.8 % Al :
570 C
     '.
Clutch
components for Rough-cast wheel
ship winch system gearbox [4]
[4]

Fittings [7] Spare parts [5]

Fig.1. Cu-Al equilibrium diagram [2].

The structural constituents of the
Six propeller aluminum bronzes [1] according to the
blades used to composition and the cooling rate are shown in
Valve case for
propel the ship. It table 2.
railway machines
weighs 107 tons
[3]
and is 9.1 meters Table 2
in diameter [6]. Composition Equilibrium Equilibrium
% weight constituents constituents
Aluminum bronze are alloys of copper - after slow after rapid
Cu Al cooling – cooling –
aluminum containing up to 15 % Al , which annealing quenching
may also contain other added materials (iron , 100 … 92.5 0 ... 7.5 α α
silicon , lead , manganese , nickel ) in order to 92.5 … 91 7.5 … 9 α α+β
improve certain physico - chemical properties 91 … 88.2 9 … 11.8 α + γ’ β→α+β
[1,8] . 88.2 … 84 11 … 16 α + γ’ β → β + γ’
According to the Cu- Al equilibrium
diagram (fig. 1), the structure of aluminum
bronzes can be found: 2. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
- Phase α - solid solution of aluminum in
copper substitution, with face-centered cubic a. Chemical compositions determination
lattice. The solid solubility limit is 7.4 % Al to Chemical composition determinate by
1037°C and is increased to 9.4 % at 570°C, spectral analysis, made on Foundry Masters
remains approximately constant up to the optical spectrometer, is presented in table 3.
normal temperature;
- β phase - intermediate solid solution based Table 3
on electronic compound Cu3Al, report Cu Zn Sn Mn Fe
88.8 0.0985 0.0053 1.97 0.741

14
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Si Cr Al As Co Scope of analysis was between 2θ = 20-
120°, step size being 0.0010, and the time step
0.0637 0.0265 8.19 0.0097 0.015
is 3 seconds / step.
It was used a proportional detector with a
Based on analysis bulletin, was establish
single channel, the analysis is performed as
that the studied alloy was from aluminum
Gonio.
bronzes classes, type CuAl8Mn2Fe1.
The analysis of copper alloys by X-ray
diffractometry, the samples will be obtained
b. Optimum heat treatment applied to
from the system alloy, Cu-Al-Mn-Fe section
studied aluminum bronze
having Ø15 mm and sample length 20 mm.
Heat treatments parameters recommended
to studied bronze are the following:
Figure 2 shows the diffraction pattern obtained
 Annealing:
for alloy CuAlMnFe - after annealing.
- heating 850…950°C
- cooling in air or once furnace.
 Quenching:
- heating 850…900°C
- maintaining 6…8 min/mm thickness sample
- rapid cooling in water or oil.
 Tempering:
- heating 380…420°C
- maintaining 2…3 min/mm thickness sample
- cooling in air

c. Investigation using X-ray diffraction Fig.2. X-ray diffractogram (indexed)

X-ray diffraction is a non -destructive obtained for alloy CuAlMnFe - annealed
analytical technique versatile, and with the
help they can get information on the X-ray diffraction is the process by which
identification and quantification of various the radiation, to wave lengths without change,
crystalline compounds known as "phase" is converted by interfering with the crystal
compounds that are present in the material. lattice of a large number of "reflection" of the
We analyzed and characterized, and observable characteristic spatial directions.
structural roentgeno method based on X-ray Indexing diffractometry is the association
diffraction crystallographic planes of the of maximum - diffraction peak and a plan.
structure, the alloy CuAlMnFe. Indexing diffractogram reveals the following:
Determination of structural constituents is The test phases are present as majority:
by diffraction is the dependence of the Fe3Mn7 with cubic crystal lattice, with the
diffracted radiation intensity and double main peak at 2θ = 42.6430 and Al60Cu30Fe10
diffraction angle. angle with cubic crystal lattice, with the main
Determination of the compositional phases peak at 2θ = 42.8920 angle.
was carried out by qualitative analysis by X - Figure 3 shows the diffraction pattern
ray diffraction, X -ray diffraction carried out to obtained for new alloy CuAlMnFe - after
Panalytical X'Pert PRO MPD. quenching heat treatment.

15
 AIR FORCE

d. Dilatometric analysis
The purpose of the experiments is the
record length (Δl) that a sample undergoes
when subjected to a certain temperature.
Dilatometer L75 is suitable for both the
expansion and the contraction of the sample.
Dilatometer analysis in this paper was
performed using differential dilatometer
L75H/1400 LINSEIS type (fig. 5).
Using large samples promotes good
accuracy for determining elongation, instead
Fig.3. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained
using small samples ensures a good
on the sample CuAlMnFe - quenched
temperature control precision and repeatability
condition.
of results.
To obtain accurate and repeatable
Indexing X-ray diffraction pattern reveals
experimental data is recommended that the
the following:
dilatometer to work with relatively low speeds
The test phases are present as majority:
of approx. 5 to 10 °C/min.
Fe3Mn7 with cubic crystal lattice, with the
The heating rate was required for the
main peak at 2θ angle = 42.54540 and Cu3Fe4
experiment at 10 °C/min.
with cubic crystal lattice, with the main peak
at 2θ = 42.1160 angle.
As a minor phase present AlCu3 compound
crystallized in the orthorhombic system, with
the main maximum at the angle 2θ = 44.7910.
Figure 4 shows the diffraction pattern
obtained for sample CuAlMnFe - after heat
treatment tempered.

Fig.5. Linseis L75H / 1400 dilatometer.

After applying heat treatment, the samples

with specific size dilatometer tests were
carried out dialatograme heating from ambient
temperature to 900 °C.
The dilatograms, obtained for CuAlMnFe
alloy, have the shape of the specific of alloy
Fig.4. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained shown in figures 6, 7, 8.
for sample CuAlMnFe - tempered condition.

X-ray structural analysis is the method by

which the direction and intensity of these
reflections is measured and deducted order
atoms.
The sample CuAlMnFe tempered condition
is present as majority phases: Fe3Mn7 with
cubic crystal lattice, with the main peak at 2θ
= 42.6430 and Cu3Fe4 angle with cubic crystal
lattice, with the main maximum at the angle 2θ Fig.6. Dilatogram of alloy after annealing.
= 42.59770.

16
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
328.73
Quenching 304.83 301.32
270.41
217.02
Tempering 184.91 203.39
208.24

All the measurements of micro-hardness

for studied aluminum bronze were in the
Fig.7. Dilatogram of alloy after quenching. specific values to the heat treatments applied.
The quenching effect to hardness is visible, but
the decrease of hardness after high tempering
is specific to mechanical parts used in
industry.

f. Microscopic analysis by optic

microscopy

Fig.8. Dilatogram of alloy after tempering.

It was found that the samples were small

oscillations of length, elongation is
approximately 200μm, in any state of heat
treatments that the samples are.
100X 200X
e. Micro-hardness measurements Fig.9. Alloy microstructure, annealing state,
To highlight the efficiency of heat ammonium persulfate attack.
treatments, applied to CuAlMnFe bronze, was
made HV100 micro-hardness measurements
on heat treated samples.
The measured values of micro-hardness are
presented in table 4.
Table 4
Measured
Average
Heat micro-hardness
value /
treatment in points /
sample
sample 100X 200X
181.40 Fig.10. Alloy microstructure, quenching state,
Annealing 174.68 175.84 ammonium persulfate attack.
171.46

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 AIR FORCE

good lifetime for industrial applications based

on aluminum bronze.

4. REFERENCES

1. Gâdea Suzana, s.a., Îndrumar de laborator

pentru metalurgie fizică – structura
100X 200X materialelor metalice, Editura Didactică şi
Fig.11. Alloy microstructure, tempering state, Pedagogică, Bucureşti (1967).
ammonium persulfate attack. 2.http://pwatlas.mt.umist.ac.uk/internetmicrosc
ope/index.html
In annealing state, the studied bronze has a 3.http://www.piad.com/aluminum-bronze-
homogeneous structure composed by α solid alloys.html
solution, recrystallized in the form of 4.http://www.copper.org/publications/newslett
polyhedral grains with macles and γ’ phase, in ers/innovations/2002/08/aluminum1.html
smaller quantity and uniformly distributed. 5.http://www.indiamart.com/mamahamaya-
After quenching and tempering heat engineering/products.html
treatments application, in the structure in 6.http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/05/su
addition to α Solid solution phase, appear and pership/source/6.htm
β phase, which improve the mechanical 7.http://www.sabtek.co.uk/aluminium.asp
characteristics of alloy. 8. Cimpoesu, N., s.a., Behavior simulation of a
cooper shape memory alloy under an external
3. CONCLUSIONS solicitation, Journal of optoelectronics and
advanced materials, ISSN 1772-1776, (2010).
Phases composition of the unit cell 9. Achitei, D.C.; Vizureanu, P.; Stanciu, S.; et
structure and characteristics of each phase al., Studies concerning thermal conductivity
identified were determined by X-ray for some copper base memory shape alloys,
diffraction, and the main objective was to Conference: 14th International Conference on
determine the phase composition, Modern Technologies, Quality and Innovation
microstructure and of alloy composition - ModTech 2010, NEW FACE OF TMCR,
CuAlMnFe after applying heat treatments PROCEEDINGS Book Series: Proceedings of
annealing, quenching and tempering. the International Conference ModTech, pages:
Physical and structural characteristics 15-18, (2010).
analyzed in the paper falls within the specific
parameters of the alloy and can guarantee a

18
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

UNMANNED COMBAT AIR VEHICLE: MQ-9 REAPER

Vladimír BEŇO*, František ADAMČÍK Jr.**,

* Kosice, Slovakia, ** Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia,

Abstract: Currently are increasingly we meet with the term flying unmanned aerial vehicles or also
drones. Also gets are into the awareness of the notion unmanned combat air vehicles, also known as
UCAV. Among the best known means of unmanned aerial vehicles in categories UCAV include MQ-9
Reaper, also known as the Predator B.

Keywords: Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle, UCAV, MQ-9 Reaper, Predator, Aircraft

1. INTRODUCTION

Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9 Reaper

belongs to a group of defense systems and its
primary purpose is finding, tracking and
destruction of land and sea targets. This flying
unmanned combat aerial vehicle has a
wingspan of 20 meters and a length of 11
meters. Maximum weight of take-off is 4,763
kg, can carry 1361 kg load externally, ie. in
underslung and 386 kg load internally in the
fuselage.
Fig.2 Drawing MQ-9 Reaper from above and
from the front

The aircraft is equipped with a 6-bearing

pylons for the possibility carrying of weapons
Fig.1 The Dimensions of MQ-9 Reaper and weapons systems, as well as underslung
fuel tanks for increase its range. MQ-9 Reaper
Drive provides turboprop unit from carries on its board 1769 kg of fuel (without
Honeywell TPE331-10, which allows this air underslung fuel tanks). On board there is also
vehicle achieve of maximum speed of 240 a multi-functional anti-ground radar LYNX
KTAS (445 km/h), has endurance in the air 36 ER, Multi-mode maritime radar, transmission
hours and altitude ceiling maximum 50 000 ft system, electro-optical infrared system MTS-B
(15 240 m). EO/IR, laser designator of targets, electronic

19
 AIR FORCE

support systems SIGINT/ ESM, electronic turbine speed is 41730 rpm, the maximum
jammers, various probes and sensors. The limit of speed propeller is 2000 rpm.
aircraft has the developed system for the
automatic take-off and automatic landing. It
also contains multi-spectral tracking and
targeting system (MTS-B) AN/AAS-52.
Communication link is provided via
SATCOM, via single channel, C-band (LOS),
Ku-band SATCOM bandwidth is 1.6/3.2
Mbps. For the operation and management of
the MQ-9 Reaper are required at least 2
people, 1 pilot and 1 operator.
Fig.4 Turboprop engine TPE331-10 of
2. CONSTRUCTION Honeywell company

Aircraft structure is composed primarily of As fuel for this power unit is most
advanced materials. It is a composite materials commonly used fuel JP-8 or also JP-4. Weight
made mostly up of carbon fiber, these of the entire power unit is 174,63 kg.
materials constitute up to 89% of the airframe
structure. Such a high percentage of these
materials contribute to the low weight of the
aircraft and the prolongation of its range.

Fig.5 Showing power unit TPE331-10 with

propeller in the cut

Fig.3 MQ-9 Reaper with underslung 4. ARMAMENT

armament
The primary armament which are uses for
Overall the construction, the shape and the unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9 Reaper is
materials are developed to contribute to the constituted of missiles AGM-114R known as
reduction of detectability by a radar, as well as Hellfire II which weighing 100 pounds and are
human senses. MQ-9 Reaper is in the basic designed to destroy armored objects on land
configuration 11 meters long, 3.6 meters tall and sea. Using modern semi-active laser head
and its wingspan is 20 meters, what allowing allows the launch also from great heights,
of this UCAV high ratio of buoyancy/weight. which is for the unmanned aerial vehicles very
important in view of their higher operational
flight levels. Due to higher flight levels is
3. DRIVE reached even higher angle of impact of the
missile to target which increases her
Drive of unmanned combat air vehicle effectiveness and thanks to the new navigation
MQ-9 Reaper provides turboprop engine unit unit is more accurate. Another frequently used
TPE331-10 from company Honeywell, which armament in MQ-9 Reaper are laser-guided
provides maximum power 944 hp (712 kW) 500-pounds aerial bomb termed as GBU-12
and allows the air vehicle to reach maximum Paveway II. These bombs using modern
speed of 240 KTAS (445 km/h). Maximum advanced semi-active laser-guidance warhead

20
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
to the effective destruction of solid-static 5. SYSTEMS
targets, mobile targets and moving targets.
With the new dual navigation units INS/GPS 5.1 AN/AAS-52 System
are accurate and destruction of targets is more
efficient with reduced collateral damage. Multi-spectral surveillance and targeting
system (MTS-B) AN/AAS-52 includes
electro-optical, laser and infrared sensors for
detecting, tracking and labeling of objects and
targets. Allows remote monitoring of targets in
high resolution, determine their distance,
Fig.6 Demonstration of a possible armament coordinates and label for Hellfire missiles, as
MQ-9 Reaper well as for all laser-guided munitions NATO.
The whole system is composed of two main
Between the further armament may be parts and namely from rotating tower unit,
included bombs GBU-38 JDAM and GBU-49 which is located in the inferior front part of the
laser-JDAM. Aerial bomb GBU-38 JDAM and MQ-9 Reaper and electronic optical unit,
its design is based on the Mk-82 bomb, but has which is located in fuselage UCAV. This
JDAM guidance system. Thanks tail part system also allows for lighting targets, is
bombs, which contains navigation system with designed to be modular and can be
GPS/INS is becomes accurate guided weapon, complemented with various optical sensors for
the which of accuracy is approximately 9.6 m. different wavelengths, as well as additional
Weight GBU-38 JDAM is 500 pounds (227 electronic circuitry, allowing wide-spectral use
kg), it may be drain her up to 28 km from the of the system and as well its development.
selected target, through day and night and in
all weather conditions. Construction of GBU-
49 laser-JDAM is based at bomb GBU-12 with
JDAM guidance system that includes dual
guidance system with laser and GPS-guidance
(Bomb GBU-12 was also developed from the
Mk-82).

Fig.8 Turret unit WRA-1 with electronic unit

WRA-2 of system AN/AAS-52 (MTS)

Fig.7 Munition GBU-38 JDAM 5.1 SIGINT/ESM System

The accuracy of the bomb is about six meters,
the maximum launch is 15,000 m from the System SIGINT / ESM allows conducting
target, this aerial bomb can also be found radio-electronic warfare and supports the
under designation EGBU-12 Paveway II. distribution of actions at capture, identify and
locate sources of electromagnetic energy. ESM
system provides information you how to avoid
menace, targeting and guiding of potential
missiles. Information on electronics systems

21
 AIR FORCE

can be used for creating signal intelligence - <85kg).

SIGINT.
6. Control
5.2 Radar LYNX ER
Drone MQ-9 Reaper disposes a modern
Multifunction radar Lynx ER provides management system and autopilot. The aircraft
selectable resolution, operation in all weather can operate fully autonomously without pilot-
conditions, day and night. This radar has to the operator during the entire mission, so as can
fight certificate, the ability to change detection take off, fly to the target of the mission, go
and as well can capture images SAR in high back and land safely without human-pilot
resolution. Thanks to the latest electronics and intervention to control. Such management
sensor delivers images of photographic quality requires careful programming of the entire
of objectives through the clouds, dust, smoke, mission of the aircraft to be able to fly fully
fog and total darkness. These its features are autonomous.
crucial for detecting and tracking targets at
greater distances and poor visibility when it is
not possible to use electro-optical and infrared
sensors. Radar is composed of the two
systems, namely from the radar antenna and
the electronics module. Also allows to work in
maritime search mode, also in mode the search
ground moving targets and is able to work in
so called mode of indication of movement on
the ground (GMTI).

Fig.10 Control panel of MQ-9 Reaper

Pilot-operator, however may intervene at

any time into control and take control. In the
event that the aircraft is in autonomous mode,
command signals are received from ground
control stations. Control of the aircraft is
possible with using multiple systems, such as
direct management (LOS) using small portable
stations consisting of laptops and antennas that
Fig.9 Radar Lynx ER with antenna and with
may use ground troops, also is possible to
electronics module
control UCAV using small mobile control
stations (OSRVT/ ROVER). For full control of
Radar range is 80 km, and its resolution is in
the aircraft and the manage of operations, it is
the range 0,1 to 0,3 m for mapping images -
necessary in most cases uses of the system
objects at surface depending on the mode
SATCOM respectively Wideband Global
selected. Can detect the even small vehicles
SATCOM (WGS).
moving with speed up to 70 km/h. At
maximum airspeed MQ-9 Reaper 445 km/h
5. Communication
can this radar to map the surface from a
altitude of 13700 m land area of approximately
Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9
60 square kilometers per minute. In mode
Reaper uses blos C2 data lines in the range of
SPOT is capable radar to map in detail the area
ultra high frequency UHF (300MHz) for the
300x170m from a distance of 40 km. On these
Ku band (15 GHz). Data lines Ku band of
images may view objects smaller than 10 cm.
system SATCOM are often used blos C2
AN/DPY-1 Block 30 radar may detected of
system (system of indirect command and
the car movement in real-time (system weight
control), this band is used for UAV means,

22
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
because has of the high resistance to targets, makes it from unmanned combat air
interference. Uses the frequency range from vehicle MQ-9 Reaper one of the most
11,7 to 12,7 GHz for downlink and 14-14,5 sophisticated aviation weapons systems of 21st
GHz for uplink. For maintaining domination in century, which is able to attack anywhere in
the conflict is needs to be effectively the world without finding was its presence.
command and control (C2). Blos C2 system is Development and modernization of systems
designed to build own network management this UCAV are will expand the already so
and control, capable of self-interference wide range of uses, as well as the possibility of
suppression and encryption. using other weapons systems. Aircraft MQ-9
For this aircraft can also be used so called Reaper has in currently been stable place in the
Common data line (CDL) and also tactical several armed forces different countries of the
CDL (T-CDL). There are two technologies for world and its use, as well as reports of him
CDL lines, the first data line uses the I-band even more rise.
SATCOM second data line uses Ku-band at
frequencies from 14,5 to 15,38 GHz for to
increase the available bandwidth. REFERENCES

6. CONCLUSIONS 1. Bréda, R. – Čižmár, J. – Soták, M. – Beňo

V.: Letecké prístroje, Vysokoškolská
Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9 učebnica, Technická Univerzita Košice,
Reaper represents in many aspects of the Letecká Fakulta, ISBN: 987-80-553-0626-
revolution in military aviation. This aircraft 1. (2011)
was among of the first unmanned flying means 2. Adamčík, F. – Adamčík, F. jr: Spacecrafts
which were armed and used in real conflicts. electrical power systems,. Acta Avionica
These experiences and information helped 2010. ISSN 1335-9479. – Roč. 12, č. 20,
at develop unmanned combat air vehicles S. 76-78. (2010)
(UCAV) in the world and also UAV systems. 3. Adamčík, F. : Artificial Intelligence
Properties of this UCAV, as well his stamina Technology on Board of Aircraft, Advances
in the air, modern tracking systems, the option in Military Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1,
to equip it exactly abetting ammunition as well pp.137-142, (November 2006)
as its price predetermine it for use in military 4. Valavanis, K. P. - Oh, P. - Piegl L.A.:
conflicts in various regions of the world. It is Unmanned Aircraft Systems, International
thanks to the fact that this system is managed Symposium on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,
automatically or remotely and eliminates the UAV ‘08. Springer, USA. ISBN 978-1-
risk of losing the crew in case of shooting 4020-9136-0. (2008)
down, as well as other potential costs and risks 5. General Atomics Aeronautical Systems,
associated with the tracing actions intended to Inc.: MQ-9 REAPER/PREDATOR B,
rescue the crew. Also provides support to Persistent Multi-mission ISR and Strike
ground and naval forces, is an excellent tool Aircraft: Brochure. Poway, California,
for guarding the border on land, and at sea, in USA. Available: http://www.ga-
day or night, in all weather conditions. With a asi.com/products/aircraft/pdf/Predator_B.pd
wide range of uses, its accuracy destruction of f (2012)

23
 AIR FORCE

6. Austin, R: Unmanned Aircraft Systems, 8. Raytheon Company, Missile Systems:

UAVS DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND Enhanced Paveway™II Dual Mode
DEPLOYMENT, Wiley, USA, ISBN 978- GPS/Laser Guided Bombs: Dual-Mode
0-470-05819-0. (2010) Precision-Guided Weapon. Tucson,
7. Cullen M, T.: The MQ-9 Reaper remotely Arizona, USA. Available:
piloted aircraft: Humans and machines in www.raytheon.com (2009)
action. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, USA. (2011)
 

24
  
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC  
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER
AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 

PLAYING WITH THE SAFETY DUE TO LACK OF RESOURCES

Oliver CIUICĂ*, Marcel PREDESCU**, Eduard MIHAI***

*Air Foce Academy, Braşov, Romania, ** Flight Safety Officer, Kabul International Airport,
Afghanistan, *** Air Foce Academy, Bra ov, Romania

Abstract: This paper deals with one of the common issue of the flight safety organization: limited
resources for Air Forces. Is it better to look forward for next days or for the next years? That is the
question. The article shows how the safety has to be, which are the steps of flight safety in aviation
history, and why the defense area from “Swiss cheese model” of J. Reason has to start from the top
management of organization. The paper argues that a collective understanding of these issues is essential
for those systems seeking to achieve an optimal safety culture to be able to maintain the requested level of
capabilities, with minimum resources, in the actual worldwide context.

Keywords: safety culture, Air Force, resources, management, capabilities, training. 

 
 
1. INTRODUCTION 2. SAFETY CULTURE
Risks in aviation vary depending on the
Flight safety. Two words. In fact it is a stage of aviation development. The history of
condition for airmen. Flight safety will never progress in aviation safety can be divided into
be just a task in aviation. It should be a way of three eras [1].
life from the beginning until the end of “story” Technical era - from the early 1900s
for each and any individual linked to aviation until the late 1960s
(pilots, air traffic controllers, maintenance First attempts to build, fly, and control
personnel, managers... ). an object heavier than the air had its tribute. In
It's main goal is to prevent the loss of the beginnings, identified safety deficiencies
aviation resources. were initially related to technical factors and
Flight safety is the desired condition technological failures due to the lack of
gained by organizations through their knowledge. The focus of safety was on the
individuals in order to be able to forecast air investigation and improvement of technical 
operations risks and produce a positive attitude factors. During the two World Wars, aviation
for safe use of the resources using the right was seen as a very effective tool in the battle
procedures, services, skills and knowledge to field and also an important element of the
reduce to a minimum level the risks to air transportation industry that was constantly
operations. growing. Technological improvements starting
Basically, it is a puzzle built by each in the early 1950s, were the first step in
member of an organization and everyone decreasing the frequency of accidents and the
having their own personality, behavior, and flight safety process started to be upgraded.
temperament.

25
 AIR FORCE

Human Factors era - from the early An organization is known as a social

1970s until the mid-1990s entity, such as an institution or an association,
The 1970s improved technology and which has a collective goal and is linked to an
materials used in aircraft construction. Despite external environment. Members of an
the progress in aviation, new flight safety organization usually share a common vision,
threats started to show up after the mission, values, and goals.
introduction of many new revolutionary design Members of an air organization have to
solutions and the new theories led for be seen as a system that includes product and
researching human factors and issues service providers. It is a complex system that
including the man/machine interface. An requires an assessment of the human
example of these types of risks can be found contribution to safety and an understanding of
in the causes of events connected with new how human performance may be affected by
aircraft automation, or in the increased its multiple and interrelated components.
maneuverability of combat aircraft resulting in Safety is a dynamic characteristic of
frequent incidences of high G-loads which the aviation system, whereby safety risks must
affect the pilot. Despite the investment of be continuously mitigated in response to the
resources in error mitigation, human social and technical request. Acceptability of
performance continued to be cited as a safety performance is often influenced by
recurring factor in accidents. The application domestic and international norms and culture.
of the Human Factors science, tends to focus [2] “Being in a situation where the risks of an
on the individual without fully considering the aircraft accident or air safety incident are
operational and organizational context. But reduced to a level as low as reasonably
individuals operate in a complex environment, practicable” [3]
which includes multiple factors having the As long as safety risks are kept under
potential to affect behavior. an appropriate level of control, a system as
Organizational era - from the mid- open and dynamic as aviation can still be
1990s to the present day managed to maintain the appropriate balance
The research until the early 1990s put between production and protection. [2]
first place the human factor as an individual So, as we see, all definitions of safety
even if this is strongly related with other include risk management and a solid culture
individuals from the organization. The theories that is supposed to be able to maintain and
that followed began to highlight that those focus on acceptable level of risk aimed by
individuals operate in a fully complex organization.
environment which includes multiple factors Culture is characterized by the beliefs,
having the potential to affect behavior, life values, biases and their resultant behavior that
style, or even knowledge acquisition. As a are shared among the members of the
result, the notion of “organizational accident” organization.
was introduced and since then it has gained Safety management is actually the
widespread acceptance and use in many understanding of these cultural components,
service domains including the aviation safety and the interactions among them.
industry. Many of them focus on so-called “the Linking the two definitions another concept is
cumulative act effects”. A new proactive defined: “safety culture”.
approach to safety was introduced in aviation AIR FORCE SAFETY CULTURE –
organizations based on routine collection. SOMEWHERE IN THE WORLD
Analysis and diffusion of data using proactive There is no system fully safe. “If you
and reactive methodologies to monitor known are convinced that your organization has a
safety risks and to guide all levels of good safety culture, you are almost certainly
organizations to aim one safety environment.  mistaken...a safety culture is something that is
  striven for but rarely attained. The virtue – and
SAFETY ORGANIZATION the reward – lies in the struggle rather than the
outcome” James Reason said.

26
  
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC  
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER
AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 

 
Is this organization safe? Does it have absence of lessons learned, premature aging of
a proper “safety culture”? Is there something planes, materials and systems used in aviation
to improve? If yes, which can be the starting activities.
point? James Reason found that most of the
Somewhere, time ago it was a country, accidents happened because of the weaknesses
NATO member, that had a vast history of in all levels of the system, including the
aviation; their predecessors were the pioneer decision makers’ level: organizational
of the flight, inventors of the jet plane. Due to influences, working conditions, unsafe acts
the limited resources, in last 20 years, its air (errors and violations) and the (improper)
power decrease so much and in our days the defense layers. The system as a whole
total number of hour of flight and training for produces failures when the weakness barriers
entire fleet per one year is about at the same align, permitting to the latent condition
level where only one single air base was years trajectory (hazard) passes through the holes in
ago. Despite of that it is still able to maintain, all of the defenses leading to a failure [4].
with a minimum number of forces, the Aerial
Police for the nation and for NATO. It is still
able to maintain minimum of capabilities for
air lift. But for how long?! Its pilots who are
doing these kinds of missions have an average
of 40-45 years old. And now some questions
come around. Who will be their replacements?
What level of training do they have now? How
many hours of flight and training do they need
to be fully capable for the kinds of missions
their aircraft where designed for? Is it able to
respond to NATO request?
The wings men for tomorrow will be
the actual 25-30 years old pilots, but the actual Fig. nr. 1 Swiss cheese model (ICAO) 
culture, from this Air Force organization, said  
that being young is not an advantage but Main target of this article is the
contrary, it's quite inadequate (it is redundant organization by itself mainly focusing on the
to remind that the spike of combat pilots in top level where the management decisions and
World War II had an average of 25-30 years organizational processes are making according
old), and even it will not be like this, the few to risk perception in order to reduce the
resources that it has are used only to possible accidents. A healthy safety culture
accomplish operational needs and to keep the relies on a high degree of trust and respect
actual level for CMR (Combat Mission Ready) between personnel and management and must
pilots. With a minimum (unacceptable) hours therefore be created and supported first at the
of flight and training it is impossible to senior management levels. As you see in the
maintain a safety environment, and that not defense area the training and regulations are
only for flying personnel but also for present but just for one single reason: to be
maintenance department, air traffic controllers, upgraded and improved for a better product of
ground operations and all elements linked to entire members work. Often, regulations and
aeronautical activities due to lack of practice,

27
 AIR FORCE

training are strongly related regarding the to this figure, the mentioned organization risk
objectives, the requests of the actual national perception is the same at all its management
or international context and not finally, the levels, but attitudes to safety and safety related
necessary level of practice training. We all behavior is completely understood on
know that training costs money, but often individual scale and pretty accurate at the
simple calculations suggest that failing to be tactical level of management. Speaking about
safe, or at least having incidents, costs more. that and the Swiss cheese model, in the
Because of the strongly budgetary restrictions, defense area where regulations, training and
the present training regulations have to be technology of organization is supposed to
changed to be able to aim the main objectives. close the existing holes, these will become
How can that be done?! Using the same people larger and larger and the hazard passes easier
that have themselves the necessary skills, through all of these defensing walls and leads
knowledge and training; grounding the others, to a failure.
making the youngest an inexperienced next Does it need that? No! A real country
victim. So, in that way, the Air Forces can air power should always be ready to respond to
maintain its priorities, its engagements and its duties. It has to be prepared at any times, in
objectives. But for how long can it do that? any weather conditions even if the attack
There will be a hole in human resources threat is minimum; it exists. “If we lose the
management. When can be fill that gap and war in the air we lose the war and we lose it
how? Nobody belongs forever to organization quickly” [7] . Don't wait to learn from your
and when those who now are ready for mission mistakes, it is better to learn from the others.
will be retired, next generation (if there will The elements of safety culture have to
still be one) will start to learn again without a be the guidance within every organization.
proper training, by doing mistakes, teaching a) learning culture – for implementing
one each other. It makes no sense to remind the major reforms an organization have to
that the actual laws will never give the have the competence and the willingness to
opportunity to the ex-members to come back learn from mistakes, so named lessons learned.
for teaching from their experience the Flight debriefings, reports even safety issues
remaining “future Air Force”. Despite of that, between the members must be visible at any
more resources will be spent in a short period level.
of time for getting the requested level of b) informed culture – if the
capabilities, not mentioning that during this management understands the hazards and the
time frame the air power level will be as risks of its members, (and this is the best way),
lowest as it could be or it will not even exists. they will be encouraged to identify the safety
According to Reason, the elements of safety threat streams and to seek real solutions for
culture include: learning, informed, just, overcome them. 
flexible and reporting culture. [5] c) just culture – people are able to
define and clearly understand where must be
the line between acceptable and unacceptable
behavior. Also there has to be a better
understanding that the punishment is not
always a solution to improve the safety
environment. All is related to circumstances
(no blame culture).
d) flexible culture – the ability to
reconfigure and take different forms but is
characterized as shifting from the conventional
Fig. nr. 2 [6] hierarchical mode to a flatter professional
structure.
The most suggestive representation of e) reporting culture – sharing safety
Reason's definition is the fig. nr.2. According information. This element depend on how the

28
  
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC  
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER
AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 

 
organization is able to handle the report, blame behavior, needs and last but not least the top
and punishment. Having a strong reporting management level has to be filled with airmen.
culture is one of the success keys. It is easy to say that the most safety stage of
It is well known why something have Air Force is not to fly. If somebody we'll think
to be changed regarding that organization. like this he will have the most safest air
Because it has to be efficient for maintaining organization in the world, but this should not
its capabilities and to increase the safety status. be the only goal. The leaders must try to
That can only be done by understanding the maintain the balance between safety and air
short chart of safety culture. What should be power. Take a look around the actual political
changed? status. Try to act like NATO not only be a part
One underlying reason why cultural of NATO.
change often fails to succeed is that the new
situation is unknown to the participants. If this REFERENCES
is added to existing beliefs, such as the belief
that the current situation is as good as it gets, [1,2] International Civil Aeronautical
then there is little real need to change and Organization, Safety Management Manual
failure is almost certain. If these failures are at Doc. 9859 AN/474 Third Edition – 2012 p. 12,
the level of the workforce, then strong 13.
management commitment may save the day. If [3] Airservices Australia 2001, AA-Safe-
the problems lie with management, then there 001, p. 1.
is little hope because they will enforce the old [4] Reason, James T, Human Error, New
situation, which feels most comfortable, on the York Cambridge University Press 1990, p. 203
most proactive of workforces [8] [5] James Reason, Safety paradoxes and
safety culture, Department of Psychology,
3. CONCLUSION University of Manchester, U.K. Injury Control
& Safety promotion – 2000, p. 12.
“To invent an airplane is nothing. To [6] Civil Air Navigation Services
build one is something. To fly is Organization, Safety culture; definition and
everything”[9]. enhancement process, p. 3.
Starting from that statement and from [7] Bernard Law Montgomery.
the airplane history it's easy to remark and to [8] Patrick Hudson, Safety Culture –
understand the three steps of the progress in Theory and Practice, Center for Safety
aviation safety. Beside the technical and Science Universiteit Leiden p. 11 Paper
human factor the most complex one is presented at the RTO HFM Workshop on “The
organization with all its concepts, behavior Human Factor in System Reliability – Is
and cultural values. The first maneuver for Human Performance Predictable?”, held in
improving the safety culture is the quality of Siena, Italy,1-2 December 1999, and published
communication (reports, briefings, requests, in RTO MP-032. )
human needs...) inside the company between [9] Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896), early
management and the rest of the members. For inventor of mono-plane and bi-plane gliders .
a better understanding of communication 1. A-GA-135-001/AA-01, Flight safety
every part of the command chain has to be for the Canadian Forces, (2013).
familiar with the conceptual environment
regarding cultural background, people

29
 AIR FORCE

2. European Organization for Safety of Air Biennial Hellenic Observatory PhD

Navigation – Revisiting the “Swiss Symposium, LSE, (2-3 Jun 2011).
cheese” model of accidents, EEC Note 5. Reason, J., “Human error”. New York:
13/06, (2006). Cambridge University Press, (1990).
3. IFATCA, A just culture in safety 6. Reason J., Managing the risk of
reporting, paper presented at the 43rd organizational accidents, Burlington:
annual Conference, Hong Kong, China Ashgate Publishing Company, (2000).
MAR (2004) 7. Roughton, E. J., Mercurio, J. J.,
4. Panagopoulost, I., Flight Safety in Developing an effective safety culture: a
Combat Training: A revised pilot’s error leadership approach, Woburn:
framework for EU Air Forces, 5th Butterworth-Heinemann, (2002). 
 

30
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

THEORETICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO FLIGHT SAFETY SYSTEMS

IN EARLY WARNING AIR TRAFFIC CONFLICT

Ionică CÎRCIU *, Andrei LUCHIAN **

*
“Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov,Romania,
**
University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The quick evolution of global demographic component and the intense increase in the number
of aircrafts of all types, resulted a significant congestion of air routes especially in areas near large
airports. To meet the new demands of air traffic services we must modernize and implement new systems
for flight safety. Air collision risk is still present and therefore is remarket the idea and concept of
accepting a standardized and effective warning system.

Keywords: collision, traffic and resolution advisory, protected volume

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the 1950s, international civil aviation TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision
forums discussed the concept and development Avoidance System) and pilot procedures
of a system to avoid collisions. ICAO regarding the use of these systems [2,3,4].
(International Civil Aviation Organization) has The alerts provided by ACAS depend on how
developed standards for ACAS (Airborne sensitive is the aircraft transponder in the
Collision Avoidance Systems). considered area:
ACAS is designed to operate independent • There can be no warning if the
of both the navigation systems of the aircraft transponder is not working or is not
and ground equipment used for the provision compatible with ICAO standards;
of air traffic services [1,2]. Airborne Collision • TA (Traffic Advisory), intended to help
Avoidance System (ACAS) is the ultimate the pilot to visually identify aircraft in the
method accepted at global level regarding area considered sensitive;
search and solve critical situations of air traffic • RA (Resolution Advisory) are
between aircrafts. recommended pilot maneuvers, if the
The system mainly consists of the transponder reports the altitude
implementation of ACAS equipment onboard (Figure 1).

31
 AIR FORCE

Fig.1 RA coordination example

2. ROLE
equipped with a transponder or is not
operating [3,4,5, 6].
The functionality of TCAS is based on the
There are three types of standardized ACAS:  
transponder on board. The level of protection
­ACAS I provides only TA;  
provided by TCAS equipment depends on the ‐ACAS II provides TA and RA vertically;  
type of transponder which operates with the ‐ACAS III provides TA and RA both vertically 
nearby aircrafts. So it is obvious that TCAS and horizontally. 
can provide protection against an aircraft not

The protected volume (Fig. 2) is the 3D position of the aircraft equations of n and
represented by the airspace volume
surrounding each aircraft equipped with = (2),
TCAS. As shown in FIG. 2, τ is a threshold
3D expression rates  where the indices x, y axes 
value expressed as the mean length up to the are  horizontal  coordinate  system  and  z  is  the 
point of maximum proximity between the altitude. 
aircrafts or till it reaches the same altitude on On the  horizontal  dimension  the amount of 
both aircrafts [4, 5, 10]. protection  is  not  defined only by the  distance 
threshold,  but  also  for  a estimated buffer  τ  . 
In order to determine the distance and altitude, However it depends on  the size  and  speed  of 
the aircraft is identified in a Cartesian the aircraft head  intruder.  
coordinate system. The first implementation of a  mandatory 
collision avoidance  system,  TCAS  II,  was 
= (1), requested  in the airspace  of the United States 
starting with30 December 1993.  All  civil

32
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
aircrafts with  turbine engine  having  on board  with  ACAS  II  and  
more than  30  passengers  flying in  American  ‐  starting  from  January  1,  2005,  all  civil 
airspace must be equipped with TCAS II. fixed‐wing  aircraft  and  turbine  engine 
In 1995,  EUROCONTROL  Comitee  of  having  a  maximum  take‐off  over  5700 
Management  has approved  a policy  kg,  or  a  maximum  approved 
implementing  a  mandatory  program  of  ACAS  configuration  for  passenger  seats  more 
II  equipment  in Europe.  It was  ratified  by the than  19,  will  have  to  equip  themselves 
Council of  the  European  Air  Traffic  Control 
with ACAS II , [7, 8, 9]. 
Projects  Harmonisation  and Integration 
Programme (EATCHIP)  [6,  7,  8].   3. COMPOSITION
The approved policy requires that:
‐  starting  from  January  1,  2000,  all  civil  TCAS II system components
fixed‐wing  aircraft  and  turbine  engine  A TCAS II (Figure 3) [1, 4, 11, 12].
having a maximum take‐off over 15,000 
kg  or  a  maximum  approved 
configuration  for  passenger  seats  more 
than  30,  will  have  to  equip  themselves 

Fig.3 TCAS II system block diagram

Is composed of: recommendations on avoiding collisions. Dual

• a computer - which processes microprocessors are used to introduce
information regarding airspace surveillance, surveillance system algorithms and collision
coordinates and tracking potential dangerous avoidance to decide if a transponder response
aircrafts, detect potential threats, calculate and should be considered a threat and then to
determine avoidance maneuvers and making calculate the appropriate climb speed to avoid

33
 AIR FORCE

the collisions. In addition data is transmitted to • It was established the fact that the use
the screens of the pilots to inform them that of the information on the TCAS display, by
they should be able to avoid the collision. pilots, as a aerial surveillance equipment is
• TCAS control panel - built into the misinterpreted due to the fact that the shown
transponder. It is a 3-position selector: - Stand- information is approximate regarding the
by - TCAS off - TA Only - are issued only TA aircraft position relative to others around him.
- Automatic or TA / RA - TCAS operation.
• two antennas - one mounted on top of 5. REFERENCES
the airframe, and the second at the bottom.
Above is a directional antenna to increase 1. James K. Kuchar and Ann C. Drumm, 2007
surveillance aircraft in the sensitive area. - The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
These antennas are separated by the System, Volume 16, Number 2, 2007
transponder antenna. Queries are transmitted Lincoln Laboratory Journal
on 1030 MHz and the responses are received 2. PANS-ATM(ICAO Doc 4444) and in
on 1090 MHz, the same frequency used by PANS-OPS (ICAO Doc 8168)
SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar). 3. *** PANS-OPS (PROCEDURES FOR AIR
• Connections that make it possible to NAVIGATION SERVICES - AIRCRAFT
receive information from other navigation OPERATIONS - VOLUME I FLIGHT
systems of the aircraft: PROCEDURES - ICAO DOC. 8168 OPS/611),
• Mode S transponder connection - to FIFTH EDITION – 2006 PLUS AMENDMENT 3
generate complementary and coordinated RA 4. *** ICAO ANNEX 10, VOL. IV
when both aircraft are equipped with TCAS; (AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS -
• Connection with altimeter - to provide SURVEILLANCE AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
pressure altitude, and / or ADC (Air Data SYSTEMS), FOURTH EDITION, JULY 2007 –
Computer) if it is equipped with it; DEFINITIONS
• A radar altimeter connection - on one 5. *** PANS-ATM (PROCEDURES FOR AIR
hand to restrict RA when the aircraft is near NAVIGATION SERVICES - ICAO DOC. 4444
the ground, and on the other hand to determine FIFTEENTH EDITION 2007-ATM/501)
whether the aircraft followed by TCAS is on 6. *** ICAO Doc. 7030/4 (Region
the ground; Supplementary Procedures), Fifth Edition,
• Speakers - for warning sound. The 2008
speakers which are in the cockpit alert the 7. *** AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE
crew by acoustic means, and are recommended SYSTEM (ACAS) MANUAL (DOC. 9863)
by TCAS. Acoustic messages are detailed in 8. *** T S O C119B ( TECHNICAL STANDARD
the table below according to the type of ORDER ) - TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION
recommendation: Traffic Advisory (TA) and AVOIDANCE SYSTEM AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
Resolution Advisory (RA) 9. *** EUROCONTROL BROCHURE ACAS
• Displays - to display relevant data. TRAINING VERSION 2.0
10. Fedja Netjasov, Andrija Vidosavljevic,
4. CONCLUSIONS Vojin Tosic, Henk Blom, 2011 - Systematic
Validation of a Mathematical Model of
• The implement of TCAS system on ACAS Operations for Safety Assessment
aircrafts has led to significant air safety, event Purposes, Ninth USA/Europe Air Traffic
which will require that all aircrafts around the Management Research and Development
globe to be equipped with these systems Seminar (ATM2011);
• The operating characteristics of the 11. http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/
system provides a significant improvement in standard_page/ACAS
the safety of flight, however, ACAS is not 12. http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/gallery
perfect. ACAS can not eliminate all risks of a /content/public/documents/ACAS_guide71.
collision. pdf .

34
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING

OF THE ANTI FRICTION MATERIALS USED IN AERONAUTIC
CONSTRUCTIONS

Ion DINESCU*, Gabi MOLDOVAN**, Ovidiu MOSOIU*

* “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy Brasov, Romania,

** “Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The designing of a product which must be fulfilled by the product, thus it is worth to mention
the issue of selecting the material out of which that particular product will be made.
The experimental researches are those concerning the assurance of high mechanical and physical
characteristics under special regimes, where as the weight of the finished product must be minimized by
diminishing the density of the samples.
This paper presents a few characteristics of materials used in the production of friction materials 
used in the aeronautic constructions.

Keywords: manufacturing, material, friction bearings, aeronautic, construction.

1. INTRODUCTION explained by the inter-atomic forces from the

microstructure.
The paper present some aspects regarding
the experimental researches of the antifriction 2. MATERIALS USED
materials used in the aeronautic constructions:
AS20 – Steel Support Plated with Anti- At present, the main categories of metallic
Friction Material: 20% Tin, 1% Copper, the materials used in the production of friction
rest - Aluminum (radial, axial and hydrostatic) are the following
and ones: [2, 4]
CP10S10 – Steel Support with Anti- - alloy from the Lead-Tin system;
Friction Material Sintered from: 23% Lead, - cast piece or sintered Cooper-based alloy;
10% Tin, the rest - Copper). - Aluminium-based alloy;
The anti-friction sample based on Cooper, - other alloys etc.
Tin, Lead, sintered powders end not sintered, The tin based alloys (babbit – the
has a metallic structure, the relations composition 88% Sn, 8% Sb and 4% Cu). This
established during the sintering process alloy has rapidly become the most frequently
between the granules powders can be used in the production of anti-friction

35
 AIR FORCE

materials. The white metals have capacity of - the transfer of the material,
incorporating the particles, which conferred degasification, de-oxidation and maintenance
them certain clear advantages in comparison at the casting temperature;
with other anti-friction materials. But the - the casting.
white materials have lost ground in the The properties of the anti-friction material
production of friction materials because of the are greatly determined by its chemical
reduced mechanical resistance, especially at composition. It decides the good behaviour
high temperatures. following lamination operations in which the
Pb based alloys (especially the alloys with material suffers structural transformations.
as content) are used in the world because of Except the basic elements Sn, Cu, Al, Ni, the
the advantages offered by the Pb which other two elements Fe and Si are undesired
replaced Sn, the Pb which is not short. The impurities, thus they must be limited at the
hardness and the mechanical resistance, they minimum value. [1, 4]
are similar to the Tin-based alloys. These The temperature must reach 750-760°C.
materials are inferior from the point of view of The temperature plays an important role must
the fatigue strength. be transferred into the soaking furnace, period
Bronze alloy with Lead, on steel support – of time in which the temperature decreases.
is applied by casting or sintering. The Cooper- This is followed by a heating over the best
Lead alloys sintered on steel support are more casting temperature leading to the excessive
modern than those directly cast on steel strip burning of Sn.
or support. These materials have a charging The casting of the anti-friction material
capacity and a strength resistance which are 3- represents a important operation which greatly
5 bigger, the high hardness of the copper- determines the quality of the cast material.
based alloys requires a higher pin hardness. The appreciation of the quality of the cast
The Aluminium-based alloys – anti-friction material is made according to the standards.
materials have been cast, because are There are rejected presenting gaseous
obtaining an alloy having a structure similar to inclusions, faults as “metallic beads”, cold
the babbit, that is a hard stage alloy in a soft welding or other casting faults. In order to get
basal mass. an ingot with great properties, deprived of
An disadvantage at the Al-Si alloys is the casting faults, the ingot butt must be removed,
fact that, having constituents with high melting that is the crop end proper.
points, they do not present the advantages of The Production Technology of the Al-Sn
those with low hardness. In order to replace material requires the use of the pre-alloy made
the lack of conformability, other companies up of Aluminium-Nickel and Aluminium-
use the method of working surface galvanic Cooper. Because of the huge differences
coating of the Al-Si layer or the AlSn6 with an between the melting temperatures of the
extra Pb-Sn layer thick of about 0.25 mm. This alloying elements, the nickel and copper will
layer achieves a micro-conformability of the not be introduced directly, he form of the pre-
bushing working surface during exploitation, alloy Al-Cu and Al-Ni, respectively, which
thus intertwining the qualities of the Al-Si and have low melting points.
AlSn6 alloys (high buoying force lift, The pre-alloy casting temperature is of
chemical stability etc.). 850-860°C.
The main operations for obtaining the
3. TECHNOLOGIES USED double strips of Aluminium-Tin based anti-
IN THE PRODUCTION friction material are the following ones:
- pre-lamination of the AS20;
3.1. The Production Technology of the - annealing of the pre-laminated;
AS20 material (Aluminium – Tin 20%) is - plating the alloy ingots with Al foil;
made in the following stages: - lamination of the plated;
- the preparation of the pre-alloys of Al-Ni, - plating the steel strips with alloy strip;
Al-Cu and raw material; - annealing the double strips.
- the melting of the charging;

36
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
The pre-lamination thicknesses of the alloy The technological process of obtaining the
ingots are chosen according to the final double strip based on sintered Cooper-Lead
thickness of the alloy from the double strip. consists of the following:
The annealing temperature of the pre- - the preparation of the strips for sintering;
laminated ingots is made at the best of 355- - depositing the powder on the steel strip
360°C, and the best annealing time duration is having in view the sintering;
of 150 minutes. - the sintering of the powder on the steel
After plating the alloy ingot with the Al strip;
foil and laminating the plated ingots, after a - lamination of the double strip.
series of secondary operations, the shift is The preparation of the steel coils on which
towards plating the steel (support) strips with the Cooper-Lead powder is sintered consists in
alloy strips, thus obtaining the double strips. executing certain operations aiming at assuring
a continuous technological process: butt
3.2. The stages of the Production welding of the strips, straightening the
Technology of the CP10S10 are the following curvatures and unevenness resulted after
ones: welding, washing at the 77-88°C with water
- production of alloy powder; mixed with a degreasing and washing, drying
- sintering of the powder on the steel at the 95°C through infrared rays heating.
support (obtaining the double strip based on Depositing the powder for sintering on the
sintered Cu-Pb). steel strip is made by means of a complex
The technological process of obtaining the plant: the plant for the strip speed control and
alloy powder consists of the following adjustment, the depositing plant proper and the
operations: the preparation of the cold suction hood.
charging, melting, casting and production of To avoid the oxidation the powder and the
powder. [2] steel, a neutral atmosphere is in the furnace
The best melting temperature ranges in and the sintering speed will be established
between 1200°C and 1280°C. according to the heating curve of the furnace.
The casting, the mode of action of the The sintering process ends with the strip
atomizers and which will form the powder cooling. The cooling takes place in a complex
from the melted alloy is monitored. and closed plant, the same neutral atmosphere
The powder should be highlighted certain being maintained, just like in the sintering
parameters: the pressure of the filtered water, furnace.
the water softening degree, the regeneration of The lamination of the sintered aims
the de-ionized water, the pressure of the de- obtaining the density of the deposited powder.
ionized water at the atomizers, the moisture of The Cu-Pb based powder sintering on the
the powder at the entrance of the drier, the steel support is made in the sintering furnace
temperature at the exit of the drier, neutral air (tsint.=900-950°C).
supply in the drier, powder sieving manner, According to the hardness of the alloy
the sieve quality and in the end it can be layer as well as to the tolerance of the double
noticed if the powder corresponds to the strip thickness, it is recommended to deal with:
requirements. [3, 4] - a final sintering and lamination;

37
 AIR FORCE

- two sinterings and two laminations (a Cu-Pb (CP10S10) and steel OLC 45. These are
lamination in between the sinterings and a presented in the figures 2 and 3.
final lamination).
The lamination reduction will be made so
that not to appear the melting of the lead from
the alloy.

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The materials used in the production of the

friction pieces for which there have been used
samples and have been carried out studies and
experimental research are the following ones:
[1, 3, 4]
- Al-Sn plated on the steel support;
- Cu-Pb sintered powders on steel support.
AS20 (Steel Support Plated with Anti-
Friction Material: 20% Tin, 1% Copper, the Fig.2. The mobile semi coupling (steel OLC 45)
rest - Aluminum).
CP10S10 (Steel Support with Anti-Friction In figure 2 there are presented the four
Material Sintered from: 23% Lead, 10% Tin, mobile semicuplings made out of steel OLC
the rest - Copper). 45.
These samples are presented in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Samples of Materials Used

Concerning these materials, there have

been studied the following properties:
chemical composition, micro-structure,
resistance (hardness, stretching resistance,
shearing, bending, adherence of the anti-
friction layer), values of friction static
quotients.
Experimental research studies have been
made on a six couplings made out of different
materials used when making the anti-friction
materials: anti-friction material based on b
Aluminium-Tin (AS20) and steel OLC 45, anti
friction material based on synthesized powders Fig.3. Fixed semi couplings (sintering materials)

38
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
In figure 3 (a, b) are presented the four The structures with superficial corrosion of
fixed semi couplings (sintering antifriction tin melt at the alloy surface during annealing
material. and inter-crystalline corrosion are
unappropriate.
3. CONCLUSIONS The double strips must not present a series
of faults, such as: overlaps, surface slag
The anti friction material based on imprints, oxide traces after pickling, foreign
Cooper-Lead sintered powders has a metallic bodies inclusions, cracks.
microstructure. During the sintering process
between the granules can be explained the REFERENCES
inter-atomic forces.
There is a metallic contact between the 1. Bardocz, G., Dinescu, I. Cercetări
powder granules. This contact is seldom experimentale privind proprietăţilor de
realized due to an oxide coating at the surface rezistenţă ale materialelor bimetal pe bază
of the granules. The concentration of oxide de Cu-Pb şi Al-Sn. Sesiunea de comunicări
cannot exceed the imposed value of 0.55% in ştiinţifice cu participare internaţională
the case of the powder under research, in order „Educaţie şi cercetare ştiinţifică la
to preserve the metallic structure. standarde europene”, 11-12 mai, Editura
At the heat temperature from the sintering, Academiei Forţelor Aeriene “Henri
the powder deposited on the steel suffers the Coandă” (mai 2007).
phenomenon of surface and volume diffusion 2. Dinescu, I., Bardocz G. Materials for the
(in solid phase). This is explained by the fact Bushings, REVIEW of the Air Force
that the atoms situated on the prominences of Academy, The Scientific Informative
the powder granules move on the surface of Review No. 1/2007, The Air Force
the other granules, concentrating themselves in Academy “Henri Coandă” Printed House,
the surface unevenness. At the heat ISSN 1842-9238, p. 19-22 (May 2007).
temperatures, the diffusion between the 3. Dinescu, I., Bardocz, G. Remarks Regarding
powder granules and those of the steel takes the Friction within the Bushings, Bulletin
place. [4] of the “Transilvania” University of Brasov,
The factors which influence the Cooper- Supliment BRAMAT 2007, “Transilvania”
Lead powder sintering on the steel are: the University Press, ISSN 1223-9631, p. 503-
sintering temperature, the heating speed, the 508 (2007).
cooling speed, the atmosphere, the size of the 4. Dinescu, I., Bardocz G. Technologies of
granules, diffusion, the powder. Obtaining the Materials Used in the
The mixture of alumina and tin oxide is Production of Bushings (Friction
accepted only if the surface occupied by them Bearings), The 21st International
doesn’t exceed 80% of the interface length. Conference NAV-MAR-EDU 2009, 12th-
The sulphide inclusions, the foreign bodies 14th, “MIRCEA CEL BATRAN” Naval
inclusions and small cracks are accepted Academy, Constanta, Romania, ISSN
according to the adherence tests (chiselling, 1843-6749, p. 494-501(November, 2009).
peeling).
 

39
AIR FORCE

40
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINI-

UAV CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING

Adrian-Ioan LIŢĂ*, Ioan PLOTOG*, Lidia DOBRESCU*

*Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology, POLITEHNICA University

of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The paper describes an electronic multiprocessor system that assures functionality of a
miniature UAV capable of 3D flying. The apparatus consists of six independently controlled brushless
DC motors, each having a propeller attached to it. Since the brushless motor requires complex
algorithms in order to achieve maximum torque, efficiency and response time a DSP must be used. All the
motors are then controlled by a main microprocessor which is capable of reading sensors (Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input commands (remote controller or
trajectory plan) and sending independent commands to each of the six motors. The apparatus contains a
total of eight microcontrollers: the main unit, the IMU mathematical processor and one microcontroller
for each of the six brushless DC motors. Applications for such an apparatus could include not only
military, but also search-and-rescue, geodetics, aerial photography and aerial assistance.
.
Keywords: hexacopter, brushless, IMU, search-and-rescue, BLDC

1. INTRODUCTION multi-rotor systems is much harder than a

classic helicopter.
Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) The apparatus presented by the authors is
vehicles have been developed in the past an electrical powered small-sized vehicle with
century starting with the helicopter. The main six vertical propellers.
advantages between VTOL vehicles and The applications that can be developed on
airplanes is hovering over a small area and such a vehicle are of two types: imagery and
being able to operate in areas with no runway. transportation of small payload. From
Comparing to a helicopter, having six conception and design point of view, the
propellers instead of two highly increases the transportation no needs extra processing.
useful payload, the stability and Imagery on the other hand introduces a whole
maneuverability. Multi-rotor systems (with 4, new set of applications, especially when the
6 or 8 propellers) can run faster, maintain image can be sent back to base in real time for
stability in tougher winds and execute turns more complex analysis, according to the
much faster (also used in aerobatics) than a mission requests.
traditional helicopter [1]. The main drawback
of such systems is that building gas-powered

41
 AIR FORCE

2. THE MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM All the movements are combined and

PROOF OF CONCEPT calculated by the main controller unit in order
to achieve 3D flying. In (Fig. 2) the scale
2.1. The multiprocessor system solution. drawing of the apparatus is presented, noting
The authors have chosen brushless DC motors the fact that the red leg represents the front
(BLDC) as solution for electrical powered of direction. Also drawn with a circle around
multi-rotor apparatus in order to assure each motor is the propeller occupied area. The
capability to operate with a payload of 4 Kg. small arrow on the circle indicates the
The reason for this requirement is that imagery spinning direction of the propeller.
applications demand high-resolution cameras,
which are usually heavy.
Taking into account the necessity to
implement a complex algorithm capable to
achieve maximum torque, efficiency and
response time for the motor, a digital signal
processor (DSP) type controller was chosen.
All the BLDC controllers are then controlled
by a main microprocessor which is capable of
reading sensors (Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input
commands (remote controller or trajectory
plan) and sending independent commands to Fig. 2. Six propellers apparatus general view.
each of the six motors. The apparatus (Fig. 1)
contains a total of eight microcontrollers: the 2.2. Design of movement control. While
main unit, the IMU mathematical processor designing the apparatus (next referred as
and one microcontroller for each of the six “hexacopter”), in order for it to be able to fully
BLDC. execute three-dimensional maneuvers each
movement axis was considered, resulting in
three separate moves: roll, pitch and yaw.
For maximum efficiency, all the propellers
push air down.

Fig. 1. Movement on Y axis – Roll.

The roll and pitch maneuvers are

obtainable just by modifying the push force on
some of the propellers. In order for the
hexacopter to be able to modify the yaw angle
and in order for it not to keep spinning at all
times due to added momentum, half of the
Fig. 1. Block schematic. propellers need to spin in one direction and the
others in the opposite direction. For best

42
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
response time, the propellers spin is alternated can be more than one variation, but the fastest
clockwise and counter clockwise. is the one illustrated in (Fig. 7).
Considering the red motor-propeller pair as
the front of the hexacopter (parallel to Y
Cartesian axis), we can define the roll and
pitch movements as following: roll moves the
apparatus left and right, while pitch moves it
forward or backward. (Fig. 3, 4, 6, 7) depict
the propellers spinning speed as follows:
transparent – normal spin, red – faster spin,
more thrust and green – slower, less thrust.
This makes the hexacopter modify its angle
and execute the maneuver.
Fig. 3. Forward Movement.

Fig. 2. Movement on X axis – Pitch.

It is worth noticing that the roll is done Fig. 4. Movement on Z axis – Yaw.
using only 4 out of 6 propellers, while pitch
uses all. The reason behind this is that the
pitch maneuver dictates the maximum forward
speed of the apparatus, which is used more
often. (Fig. 5) presents the forward movement
of the UAV: red – faster spin, pink – faster
spin, but slower than red.
The yaw maneuver is illustrated in (Fig. 6),
using all 6 propellers. Fewer propellers may be
used for steadier control, with the condition
that the total yaw momentum remains Fig. 5. Take-off and Landing.
constant.
The last described movement is 2.3 The motor controllers. The authors
represented by the take-off and landing. have chosen BLDC motors NX-4006-530
Basically all propellers have the same speed, having speed constant Kv = 530 rpm/v, maxim
which is either higher (take-off) or lower current = 10A, phase resistance = 75mΩ,
(landing) than the steady altitude speed. There phase inductance = 10uH, power = 150W and

43
 AIR FORCE

weight = 67g [7]. While using brushless not to create acoustical disturbance, the PWM
motors without any sensor, the usage of a frequency used is 20 KHz. High frequency
microcontroller with is mandatory. The require more expensive MOS-FET transistors
microcontroller contains a sensorless to keep the losses to minimum.  The duty-cycle
trapezoidal six-step algorithm which drives six is set by a PI (proportional integral) controller,
MOS-FET transistors in a three half-bridge which receives the speed as the measured
configuration used to connect the three phases parameter and the desired speed from the main
of the brushless motor. controller unit as the input parameter.
Six-step trapezoidal commutation (Fig. 8) The communication between the main
requires the use of PWM channels. Two half controller unit and the motor controllers is
bridges drives two of the phases while the done via I2C protocol.
third remains floating and is measured by the
ADC module of the microcontroller.

Fig. 6. Six-step trapezoidal commutation. Fig. 7. Zero-Crossing detection.

The floating phase is used to compute The microcontroller used in this case is the
when the next commutation occurs. This can dsPIC33EP64MC502 made by Microchip, for
be usually implemented by two methods, both its motor control dedicated PWM channels, its
requiring prior filtering: comparing it either to 10-bit ADC module and its communication
half the DC voltage or to the reconstructed protocols (I2C and also CAN, leaving room
motor neutral point. The algorithm used in this for further implementation) [2]. The devices
paper uses the first method as it requires fewer consume less than 100 mW of power, which
electronic components and makes full use of minimizes the losses.
the microcontroller’s DSP functions. 2.4 The main controller unit. The main
Comparing the floating phase voltage (also controller unit is responsible for sensor data
known as back electro-magnetic force – acquisition, wireless communications with the
BEMF) to half the DC voltage will result in base station, communication with the motor
finding the zero-crossing point (Fig. 9) of the controllers and for the main movement
voltage. The zero-crossing point is the exact computations. It contains a 32 bit
moment at which the floating phase voltage is microcontroller capable of making all the
equal to DC bus voltage divided by two, and is calculations required in order for the apparatus
the exact moment at which the rotor moved to be stable and to have a fast response. The
30° out of 60° of a sector. By measuring the main controller unit also has access to the GPS
time between the sector change and zero sensor. The main controller unit has the
crossing moment (30°), the algorithm then possibility of sending all its data to another
waits this exact amount of time before system (faster, such as a PC) via wireless link
changing the sector again. This approach is or directly via UART or SPI. This was
used to replace the sensor by using the floating designed to allow running of higher
phase as a sensor.  By using PWM modulation complexity applications such as automatic
to control the MOS-FET transistors, the motor search and rescue, or monitoring. They require
speed is controlled by increasing or decreasing a color camera and image analysis software,
the duty-cycle. In order for the commutation which is very demanding and can’t be ran on

44
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
the main controller unit. The interface allows and a 1.8 Kg apparatus gives us a total of
full control of the hexacopter by the 3rd party about 4 Kg of useful payload, exactly as
computer, but still allowing for manual designed.
override of the commands if needed. The
processor used for the main controller unit is
the PIC32MX795F512L made by Microchip.
It offers a lot of communication protocols, 4
UART modules, 4 I2C modules, and over 100
MIPS of processing power on 32 bits
mathematical sets, while requiring less than
400 mW of power [2].
The main sensor is the inertial
measurement unit (IMU) which uses a three-
axis accelerometer, a three-axis gyroscope and  
a three-axis magnetometer in order to compute Fig. 8. Hexacopter.
the angles of roll, pitch and yaw. Initially,
when the hexacopter is not started, all angles The brushless DC motor controllers
are reset in order to set the forward direction. provides very fast response, low commutation
The sensor uses UART communication to send noise and excellent performance (Fig. 11).
the data back to the main controller unit. New speed information is fed to the motor
controller with a frequency of 500 Hz.
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Build. As seen in (Fig. 10), the six

motor-propeller pairs are connected to the
main unit through carbon-fiber tubes to a
central aluminum hexagonal plate. Carbon-
fiber and aluminum were chosen for being
very lightweight materials with increased
durability and strength. The total weight of the
apparatus is 1.8 Kg. The central plate was
chosen to be hexagonal instead of round in Fig. 9. Motor BEMF and driving voltage.
order to provide higher contact to carbon-fiber
tubes. Also, for increased strength, the carbon- The total power consumption of the
fiber tube profile is square instead of round. hexacopter while standing, with no motors
The tube houses the wiring needed to provide running was of 850 mW, which, with a battery
power and commands to the motor controllers. of 16.8V and 5800 mAh (a total of 97.4 Wh) is
3.2. Lift and power consumption tests. less than 1%.
Tests have shown that each motor-propeller Each of the motors running in full thrust
pair is capable of pushing air up to a thrust (when able to lift approximately 1 Kg each)
capable of lifting 1 Kg / pair. Having 6 pairs had a current consumption of 9.8 A at 16.8V.
With the hexacopter running in full thrust, this

45
 AIR FORCE

would give about 6 minutes of flight time. The ability to execute 3D maneuvers gives
However, while hovering (keeping a steady virtually any possibility to any application
altitude in no-wind conditions) with no which requires 3D flight. More complex
payload, the total power consumption is algorithms can be implemented when using
170W, giving a total flight time of over 30 more than one hexacopter to perform a
minutes. The exact case is somewhere between collaborative work. Other example would be
6 and 30 minutes, depending on the payload: that the estimated flight time is around 20
when the apparatus is required to have extra minutes, and the charge time is around 1.5-2
payload (1 Kg), it is still fast in response, but hours, meaning that in order to fully monitor a
the total consumption is 290W, which means perimeter, at least four are needed, one to be
about 18-20 minutes of flight. When operational and the others to charge.
maximum load is applied, the response time is 4.2. Acknowledgment. This work has
slow, since there isn’t a lot of reserve power to partial supported by the SIOPTEF project (PN-
make the fast movements: all the power is II-PT-PCCA-2011-3, C-121/2012).
consumed to lift and keep the payload.
The BLDC controller (Fig. 12) was REFERENCES
designed in respect of Design for
Manufacturing concept [8], so it would fit 1. Gablehouse C. Helicopters and autogiros: a
below the motor, in order to save space and chronicle of rotating-wing aircraft
increase efficiency. Lippincott (1967)
2. Lita, A., Cheles M. AN1160 Sensorless
BLDC Control with Back-EMF Filtering
Using a Majority Function [online].
Available: http://www.microchip.com
3. Alamio A., Artale V., et all.   PID Controller
Applied to Hexacopter Flight Journal of
Intelligent & Robotic Systems. Issue 1-4
(Jan 2014).
4. Oursland J., The design and implementation
Fig. 10. BLDC controller board – all layers
 
of a quadrotor flight controller using the
Further development require designing QUEST algorithm South Dakota School of
new algorithms which can be applied to the Mines and Technology (2010)
hexacopter in order to automatically perform 5. Markley, F. L., Mortari D. Quaternion
complex tasks, most in the field of digital altitude estimation using vector
image processing: automatic search for certain observations The Journal of the
objects on an area, monitoring perimeter, etc. Astronautical Sciences (2000)
6. Erginer B., Altug E. Modeling and PD
4. CONCLUSIONS & control of a quadrotor VTOL vehicle IEEE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (2007)
7. NX-4006-530kv Brushless Quadcopter
4.1. Conclusions. The main controller unit Motor. Source. [online]. Available:
initially has a simple PID controller to feed the http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto
output for the motor controllers. Though the re/__17923__NX_4006_530kv_Brushless
response time is good, some oscillations are _Quadcopter_Motor.html.
present. Tuning the PID loop parameters is 8. Plotog I., Marin A., Boanta L., Model of
mandatory, and the PID was added complexity assembling process for electronic parts
by adding an auto-tuning sequence to be integrated in mechatronic products, The
executed on every start of the hexacopter. Romanian Review Precision Mechanics,
Optics & Mechatronics, 2013, No. 44,
ISSN 1584 – 5982.

46
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

THE DRIVELINE ANALYSIS OF

HYPER SUSTENTATION DEVICES
Doru LUCULESCU

Air Force Academy “Henri Coandă” Braşov

Summary: The flaps is a device used for the expansion of the hyper sustentation flight
envelope. The flaps kinematics driveline control mechanisms require a dimensional study by
dimensional parameterization kinematic rods and bearings used. This paper presents an
optimized driveline analysis of the flaps control.

Key words: flaps, driveline, kinematics analysis, depending on the position.

1. INTRODUCTION

The flaps is a hyper sustentation device plain flap

placed usually at edge of the wing
(aerodynamic surface) which works on the
voucher principle, see Figure 1.1. The flaps split flap
role is to increase the coefficient lift by
changing the local geometry. The flap
actuation leads to a change in curvature of the
wing that will produce an increase in lift at the slotted flap
same speed or a reduction in the constant
incidence rate.
Fowler flap

double slotted flap  

Fig. 1.2 Types of flaps placed on the edge of the
wing  

Fig.1.1 The effect of operating flaps

A series of papers [3, 5, 11] presenting
the type of flaps highlighted in Figure 1.2.

47
 AIR FORCE

Fig. 1.3. Flaps down Cessna 172 The kinematics of mechanisms from
command driveline of the flaps requires a
rigorously dimensional study to prevent
buckling phenomena and reduce the friction
and the kinematic parameterization games in
the rods and bearings.
The flaps actuator transmits force and
Fig. 1.4. Flaps down L-29 Delfin [4] motion in the powertrain, which includes
sticks scenes and kinematic coupling elements
According to the papers [8, 9, 10] the with different degrees of freedom [1].
introduction of smart materials and system The voucher command includes a
drive control surfaces define the concept of number of constructive landmarks, such as the
morphing (biologically inspired) which control lever assembly, support for indexing,
deleted the joints, the structure of the bearing control rods, bearing assembly, lever
surfaces being flexible. assembly, damper, fasteners (screws, nuts,
washers, split pins), [2]. In Figure 2.1 is
shown a rigid driveline (plan) for actuating the
2. KINEMATIC ANALISYS flap, where B is the retracted position of the
flap (00) and the flap position is removed
2.1. Defining the components (250).

Fig. 2.1 The kinematic mechanism for operating the rigid flaps

l0

Fig. 2.2 Rigid kinematic mechanism for actuating the flaps (CAD solution)

kinematic couplings resulting connectivity,

2.2.Theoretical considerations. the number of independent contours, namely
The kinematic analysis of the mobility mechanism. Based on kinematic
articulated plan mechanism analyzed scheme and the law of motion it is necessary
previously assumed structural analysis of to determine the intrinsic kinematic

48
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
parameters mechanism (defining Unghi levier φ1 400
parameters) and the independent coordinates Unghi flaps φ9 450
(input data).
The necessary reference system is adopted According to [7] we can define the
and the flap actuator relations between the kinematic mechanism function:
unit vectors of the reference relatively to the Conform [7] putem defini funcţia
base. In every contour considered a cinematică ale mecanismului:
independent mechanism we each attach our  nj   nj   li , l k ,  k  (1)
own verse and fixed unit vector establish our
Depending on the position of the mechanism
own basic expressions for reference system.
it is analyzed as:
The stated problem for the analyzed case, is
the vector equations which is written for  f   l ( i , l1 , l 2 , l 3 , l 4 , l 5 , l 6 , l 7 , l 8 ) (2
each of the independent contours closing )
mechanism.
The equations reveal the unknown where φ – parameter position
vector and closing through appropriate
algebraic operations, we determined the 2.3. The kinematics analysis of the
necessary scalars and most importantly the control mechanism of the flaps.
law of motion transmission. We can For the kinematic analysis, we used a
determine successive derivations which software tool called Artas SAM 6.1. This is
require angular velocity and acceleration an interactive software environment for the
kinematics torso writing (reduced design, analysis, synthesis and optimization
appropriately to chosen points). To control of planar mechanisms. SAM integrates a
the flaps mechanism in the embodiment numeric preprocessor and post-processing
shown in Figure 2.2 it is necessary to analysis of animation and graphic display of
determine the speed and acceleration parameters. The mathematical model is
functions. based on finite elements with a large number
We took into consideration the of characteristics allowing a unified
geometry mechanism in Figure 2.2 and approach for a number of highly complex
Table 2.1 data analysis. mechanisms (ex. planetary gears). SAM 6.1
has a number of tools such as: design and
modeling mechanisms, CAD interface,
Tabel 1. Data analisys optimization mechanisms, post-processing
Element antrenare l1l2 500 mm and analysis of results [6].
Element execuţie l9 500 mm
Timp de analiză 3s

 
 
49
 AIR FORCE

φ1 

φ9 

Fig. 2.3 The kinematic representation of a optimized rigid flap actuator SAM 6.1
Element 1/2 – control levers Element 5/6 şi 8 – sticks
Element 3, 4 şi 7 – link connections Element 9 – flaps

Fig. 2.5 Flaps coordonates

Tabel 2.1. Kinematic characteristics

Time x(1) y(1) x(9) y(9)
[s] [m] [m] [m] [m]
0 0.576 1.187 3.7 0.272
0.5 0.545 1.157 3.703 0.276
1 0.519 1.124 3.744 0.33
1.5 0.497 1.088 3.799 0.416
2 0.479 1.05 3.857 0.536
2.5 0.467 1.009 3.907 0.703
3 0.461 0.967 3.926 0.949

3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Fig. 2.4 Kinematic characteristics
3.1.Conclusions
We analyze the kinematic mobility
The kinematic analysis of the
(l1,l2) and a kinematic running element (l9)
mechanism can build a driveline of
separately and have the characteristics shown
dimensional design commands for a simple
in Figure 2.4 and 2.5, values in Table 2
type of damper flap.

50
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
3.2. Acknowledgment 6 Artas, SAM 6.1 The ultimate mechanism
designer, manual 2010, 160p.
The authors wish to thank the “Henri 7 Luculescu, D., Lazăr, I. (2008) - Cinematica
Coandă” Air Force Academy of Braşov for mecanismelor plane, Editura Academiei
supporting the research necessary for writing Forţelor Aeriene “Henri Coandă” din
Braşov, ISBN 978-973-8415-65-2, 2008,
this article. 218p
8 Cîrciu I., Prisacariu V., Commnad and
BIBLIOGRAPHY control of the flying wing in the morphing
concept, Review of the Air Force Academy,
1 Creţu Mariana-Simona, Mecanisme, Analiză no.1(23)/2013, ISSN 1842-9238, p13-18
structurală – teorie şi aplicaţii, Editura 9 Prisacariu V., Sandru V., Rău C.,
Sitech, Craiova, 2010, ISBN 978-606-11- Introduction morphing technology in
0760-5, 160p unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAV),
2 ICA Braşov, Catalog piese de schimb, International Conference of Scientific
comandă volet, avion IAR 28MA, 1984, 41p Paper, AFASES 2011, Brasov, 26-28 May
3 McCormick, B. W., 1994, “Aerodynamics, 2011, Romania, available at
Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics”, 2nd http://www.afahc.ro/site_nou/ro/afases/2011
Edition, Wiley /uav/Prisacaru_SANDRU_RAU.pdf
4 http://www.airliners.net/photo/Aero-L-29- 10 Prisacariu V., Cîrciu I., Boşcoianu M.,
Delfin/1887338/L/ Morphing concept of UAVs of the swept
5 Rebbello da Silva B.M., Mattos B., and flying wing, Recent journal, ISSN 1582-
others, Flap Optimization for Take-off and 0246, vol.15, 1(41) march 2014, p.26-33
Landing, Proceedings of the 10th Brazilian
Congress of Thermal Sciences and
Engineering, ENCIT 2004, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, Paper CIT04-0229, 10p
 

 
 
51
AIR FORCE

52
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 
 

PRECISION APROACH SYSTEM BASED ON GLOBAL NAVIGATION

SATELLITE SYSTEM

Eduard MIHAI

“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper will present an intelligent system for high precision approach. The current core
satellite constellation is unable to provide accuracy and integrity to achieve precision approach. This
system uses the concept of differential corrections to augment satellites signal in order to meet these
requirements.

Keywords: navigation, satellite, augmentation, approach, GLS

1. INTRODUCTION thereby reducing flight times and ultimately

fuel consumption. Since it is a three-
Unfortunately, typical, ground-based dimensional system, descent, approach, and
navigation aids failed to keep up with the landing operations can be monitored more
global navigation requirements and modern closely.
aircraft. The old method of navigation through Today, GPS is used on land, sea, and in the
the use of a sextant and dead reckoning is just sky to provide life saving information to
not adequate for modern day systems. The navigation systems around the earth.
development, initially by the United States, of
a global system providing positioning and 2. GROUND-BASED
timing services allowed the introduction of an AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
alternative to those conventional navigation
and approach aids with the possibility of using For precision approach, standard GPS
new concepts in air navigation capable of information alone does not offer the required
satisfying the new needs of the aeronautical quality level. The Ground-Based
community. Augmentation System (GBAS) is a system that
The International Civil Aviation provides enhanced GPS positioning to aircraft
Organization (ICAO) had actively promoted with the accuracy, integrity, continuity and
the use of Global Navigation Satellite System availability that precision approaches demand.
(GNSS). A wide area of applications have The GBAS principle relies on differential
already demonstrated the enormous benefits to corrections of the GPS signal. A ground
be gain from onboard Global Positionong station is fitted with a number of GPS
System (GPS) receivers, including safety receivers. Given the pin pointed position of the
enhancements. In air operations, GPS accuracy receivers, errors in the received signal can be
streamlines enroute and terminal navigation, measured and corrections calculated. Together

53
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with final approach information this – follows desired approach path to

corrections are transmitted to the aircraft via decision height – continue with GLS
Very High Frequency Data Broadcast (VDB). approach or execute missed approach.
The aircraft benefits from accurate lateral and
vertical positioning enabling procedure 3. GBAS BENEFITS
approach and landing operations.
GBAS works based on three segments: Why is GBAS such a good system? It
satellites constellation, ground station and allows to fly very accurately approaches to
aircraft receiver, as shown in Figure 1. airfields or towards runways, but with a
ground installation which is more simpler,
more cheaper and more flexible than the
Instrumental Landing System (ILS).
SATELLITE/GNSS One GBAS station can support
multiple runway ends and reduce the total
number of systems at an airport. With one
ground station on an airfield you can feed all
AIRCRAFT the runways and fly GLS approaches to all
those fields with just one station which is
located inside the airfield. A GBAS is sited to
minimize critical areas which place fewer
GROUND
restrictions on aircraft movement during
Figure 1 – GBAS architecture ground taxi and air operations. ILS requires
one frequency per system and GBAS requires
• Satellite subsystem: one VHF assignment for up to 48 individual
– provides satellite status, position and approach procedures. This reduces the Very
timing signal; High Frequency (VHF) requirements and
– has sufficient number of satellites to simplifies airport infrastructure. Also, GBAS
determine user position. requires less frequent flight inspections
• Ground subsystem provides: compared to those required of ILS systems.
– pseudorange corrections for each From a pilot’s point of view, GBAS has
satellite in view; been architected to work identically to ILS
– integrity of aircraft subsystems (figure 2). The only difference is the
(protects against satellite signal errors, nomenclature the pilot sees on the display and,
ground subsystem errors and instead of tuning into a frequency, they now
anomalous ionospheric errors); tune a channel to select a specific procedure.
– approach paths (Final Approach From a flying perspective, it is identical to
Segment – FAS – for all runway ends); ILS, which simplifies training. No specific
– local tropospheric parameters, simulator training or checking is required as
necessary to adjustment; pilots.
– predicted availability for precision
approaches and estimates aircraft
protection levels against alert limits.
• Aircraft Subsystem:
– applies broadcast pseudorange
corrections (PRC’s);
– computes position using corrected
PRC’s only;
– computes deviations from broadcast
approach path;
Figure 2 – GLS and ILS flight display
– determines if GBAS Landing System
(GLS) approach is safe;

54
 

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”

AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 
 
“You fly the same, you have the same 3. EUROCAE ED-114 - Minimum
signals you have the same information instead Operational Performance Specification for
of reading ILS here you read GLS here, Global Navigation Satellite Ground Based
instead having here a frequency you read what Augmentation System Ground Equipment to
we call a channel, but for the rest, is exactly Support Category I Operations – EUROCA
the same thing. You fly exactly the same 4. ICAO, Annex 10 to the Convention on
way”.[8] International Civil Aviation, Volume I Radio
Navigation Aids’, International Civil Aviation
3. CONCLUSIONS Organization, Sixth Edition (2006);
5. ICAO, Annex 14 to the Convention on
The future of GNSS appears to be virtually International Civil Aviation International Civil
unlimited. The aviation industry is developing Aviation Organization, Sixth Edition (2006);
the GBAS, a new positioning and landing 6. ICAO, Doc 8071, Vol. II - Manual on
system that integrates satellite and ground- Testing of Radio Navigation Aids, Testing of
based navigation information. Satellite-based Radio Navigation Systems,
In conclusion, potential benefits of the Fifth Edition, 2007
GLS include significantly improved takeoff 7. ICAO, Guide for Ground Based
and landing capability at airports worldwide at Augmentation System Implementation, 2013
reduced cost, instrument approach service at 8. Tarnowski, E. Airbus Indsutrie Engineering
additional airports and runways, and eventual Test Pilot. Source. [online]. Available:
replacement of the ILS. https://www.youtube.com (accessed at
March,2014)
REFERENCES

1. Article. Source. [online]. Available:

http://instrument.landing-system.com
(accessed at March,2014)
2. BONNOR, A. C. N., A Brief History of
Global Navigation Satellite Systems, The
Journal of Navigation, Volume 65 (2012)

55
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56
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

GAS SENSORS FABRICATED BY LASER-INDUCED FORWARD

TRANSFER

Alexandra PALLA PAPAVLU*, Fabio DI PIETRANTONIO**, Domenico CANNATÀ**,

Massimiliano BENETTI**, Enrico VERONA**, Valentina DINCA*, Thomas LIPPERT***,
Maria DINESCU*

*Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele,
Romania, **“O.M. Corbino” Institute of Acoustics, Italian National Research Council–CNR, Via del
Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy, ***General Energy Research Department, Paul Scherrer
Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland

Abstract: This work summarizes the developments in dynamic release layer (DRL) assisted LIFT of
complex materials such as polymers, biomolecules, or carbon nanotubes for applications as recognizing
elements in miniaturized surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators and chemiresistor devices.
As the functionality of such sensors depends on the applied laser source, target material, and transfer
geometry, first an optimization of the process parameters is reported.
Following a morphological and structural characterization of the active material, the performance, i.e.
the sensitivity, resolution, and response time of the laser-printed devices was evaluated by exposure of the
sensor arrays to different toxic vapors. Different sensitivities and selectivity to the selected chemical
agents i.e. dimethyl methylphosphonate, dichloromethane, dichloropentyhane, ethyl acetate, etc. have
been measured thus proving the feasibility of LIFT for applications in sensors and biosensors.

Keywords: laser-induced forward transfer, surface acoustic wave, sensors, chemiresistors

1. INTRODUCTION they can detect, response speed, reversibility,

energy consumption, and fabrication costs [1].
Environmental monitoring due to air A wide variety of natural occurring
pollution is a problem of current interest both substances (such as cells, enzymes, receptors,
for the industry, i.e. automotive (detection of and antibodies) are commonly used as sensing
polluting gases from cars) as well as for many elements in sensor technology. Besides these
research groups. Since sensors are the main biological materials, polymers and carbon
components in products and systems used to nanotubes (CNTs) are used as active materials
detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in in gas sensors.
air, there are always new and innovative Polymers are used as recognition elements
sensor technologies emerging. Several key in sensor structures, due to their wide range of
requirements for sensors include sensitivity, capabilities [2]:
the minimum concentration of target gases

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1. Polymers can collect and concentrate The microstructure of the active material in
vapor molecules on sensor surfaces by a gas sensor is a key parameter influencing the
reversible sorption. sensitivity of the material [19]. Therefore, the
2. They can be applied on device surfaces morphology and structure of the transferred
as thin adherent films. pixels is established. This work is
3. Their chemical selectivity is determined complemented by measuring the response to
by the chemical structure, which can be varied different gas exposure. Based on the
easily through synthetic design. requirements of National Institute for
4. They can yield sensors with rapid, Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), a
reversible, and reproducible responses. test range of 10-200 ppm of gas was
5. Diverse sets of polymers can be considered in this work.
assembled rationally for sensor arrays.
In addition to polymers, single walled
carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) are promising 2. EXPERIMENTAL
chemical sensing materials, due to their hollow
structure, one-dimensional nanoscale 2.1 Laser-induced forward transfer
morphology, and high specific surface area The LIFT setup used in this work consists
that benefits physical adsorption or chemical of the pulsed UV XeCl laser beam (308 nm
reaction with target molecules for signal emission wavelength, 30 ns pulse length, 1 Hz
transformations with higher efficiency and repetition rate) which is guided and imaged
speed [3,4]. with an optical system onto the donor substrate
The applicability of devices based on to transfer micropixels from the donor
polymer or SWCNT systems has been limited substrate to the receiving surface [1, 20]. The
by the complexity associated with the device laser fluence is varied from 100 mJ/cm2 to 700
fabrication. An interesting alternative to mJ/cm2. A computer-controlled xyz translation
conventional printing techniques is laser- stage allows the displacement of both donor
induced forward transfer (LIFT). LIFT is free and receptor substrates with respect to the
from clogging problems, which are laser beam. The donor and the receiver are
characteristic for inkjet printing, and avoids kept in contact while the laser irradiates the
the use of expensive photolithographic masks. donor from the backside. For each laser pulse
LIFT presents also a higher potential for single micropixels are obtained. All
integration than another possible deposition experiments were performed under ambient
methods, e.g. microspotting. pressure at room temperature. A scheme of the
This techniques is versatile and allows LIFT setup is shown in Figure 1.
printing a wide class of materials i.e. inorganic
inks and pastes, metals, oxides, polymers and
biological materials in solid or liquid phase [5-
15]. In LIFT the material of interest is
transferred by the laser beam from a
transparent support (donor substrate) onto an
appropriate substrate (receiver). For improving
the process efficiency and reducing the risk of Figure 1. Scheme of the LIFT setup.
damaging the layer to be transferred, the donor
substrate can be previously coated with a 2.2 Donor and receiving substrates
polymeric layer, which is called sacrificial The donor substrates are prepared by spin
dynamic release layer (DRL) [16-18]. coating the triazene polymer (TP) (with a
The aim of this work is to contribute to the thickness of 60 nm, 100 nm, and 300 nm) onto
study of applying a clean and versatile fused silica plates (area 5 cm2, thickness 1
fabrication method, i.e. DRL-LIFT of mm) and then spin coating the materials to
polymers and SWCNT based sensors for gas transfer: polymers and carbon nanotubes. The
detection. TP is synthesized as described by Nagel et al.
in [16] and is then prepared by spin coating
from a solution in chlorobenzene and

58
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
cyclohexanone (1:1, w/w). TP is chosen as
DRL layer, due to the fact that the emission
wavelength of the laser used in this work
matches the absorption maxima of the TP.
The chemoselective polymers,
polyepichlorhydrine (PECH), polyisobutylene
(PIB), polyethilenimine (PEI), poly(styrene-
co-maleic acid) (PScMA), and
hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) are
chosen to be deposited by laser based methods Figure 2. Atomic force microscopy image of a
as chemical interactive membranes on surface SWCNT donor film.
acoustic wave (SAW) resonators due to their
ability to specifically and selectively identify As receiver substrates, either SAW
target gases. resonators (for polymer deposition) or
As previously reported in [1, 20] the first chemiresistor structures are used.
step in the sensor array production process is
to deposit the five polymers as individual thin 2.3 Morphological and structural
films onto the same substrate plate by matrix- investigation
assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE). The deposited features as well as the target
The aim is to create multi-ribbon targets, prior to ablation are investigated by optical
which would allow single step transfer (by microscopy. The images are acquired with an
LIFT) of multiple polymer layers onto Axiovert 200 Microscope coupled to a Carl
different sensors arranged in a matrix. Zeiss AxioCam MRm camera.
Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT, Raman microscopy is used to check for
HiPco) are purchased from Nanointegris (as a any chemical changes in the structure of the
dry powder) and used without further SWCNT prior and after their deposition by
purification. LIFT. The Raman spectra of SWCNT are
In order to obtain SWCNT thin films, 10 recorded on a Labram confocal Raman
mg CNT are dispersed in water (15 ml) microscopy system from Jobin Yvon. The 633
containing the nonionic surfactant Triton X nm line from a HeNe laser is used as an
(100 mg), and the dispersion is bath sonicated excitation source for the Raman spectra. The
for 40 min. The dispersion is then spin coated laser power at the sample surface is typically
onto TP coated fused silica plates under 20 mW. For each measurement, the exposure
different conditions i.e. rotation speed 1500 – time and the accumulation were 20 s and 5
2500, ramp of 1000 – 2000 rpm, and spin times, respectively. Raman spectra are
coating duration of 30 s and 60 s. In order to collected over the range of 200–3000 cm-1. All
remove any trace of solvent from the donor spectra are recorded at room temperature.
films, the spin coated SWCNT were then left
to dry on a hot plate for 2 hours at 50 °C. In
Figure 2 an atomic force microscopy (AFM)
image of the SWCNT donor film deposited 2.4 Sensitivity tests
onto a TP film is shown.

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In order to test the SAW sensor arrays, a As reported previously [1, 20-22], the
custom sealed chamber equipped with performances of the SAW sensors are mainly
electronic oscillators, one for each SAW affected by the physical properties of the
resonator, is designed. The sensor arrays, polymer coatings. Therefore in the process of
composed of five polymer coated sensors and applying polymer layers onto SAW devices by
one reference device (uncoated devices), LIFT, parameters such as i) the laser fluence
fabricated on the same quartz substrate, are applied for the transfer, ii) the thickness of the
placed inside the sealed chamber and polymer layer, iii) the laser wavelength, or iii)
connected to the conditioning electronic transfer with DRL and without DRL, are of
circuits. In order to obtain different paramount importance.
concentrations of VOCs in N2, the sensor array Optical microscopy images of continuous,
was exposed to a total flux of 1000 sccm, debris free and with regular edges polymer
controlled by two flow meters: the main for pixels transferred onto the resonating cavity of
the gas carrier (N2) and the second for the SAW devices at laser fluences between 400
analyte. The vapor concentrations are obtained and 500 mJ/cm2 is shown in Fig. 3 a)-f). The
fluxing N2 in the liquid analyte by using a red square in Figure 3 a indicates the active
bubbler. The oscillation of the reference area of the SAW sensor.
sensors is measured and the influence of As shown in [1, 20-22], the laser fluence
humidity, temperature, pressure, etc. in the plays an important role in obtaining regular,
oscillation frequency is quantified by using the debris free polymer coatings. As the image
reference SAW devices. This information is reveals (Figure 3), only between 400 and 500
subtracted from the measurement of the mJ/cm2 the transfer is clean and well defined.
polymer coated sensors, allowing thus a Below 400 mJ/cm2, the polymer doesn't reach
precise measurement. the surface of the SAW device, or only debris
In order to carry out the sensitivity tests, from the polymer reaches the SAW surface,
the SWCNT pixels are transferred onto Pt most probably due to the limited available
electrodes. They are then mounted on a holder mechanical force from the DRL
and electrically contacted with Ag paste. decomposition. In contrast, at too high laser
Resistance is monitored continuously with fluences, debris from polymer, and destroyed
time by a computer controlled setup using a IDTs are noticed.
Keithley 2400 source meter. The holder is
placed in a closed chamber with a constant gas
supply and the baseline resistance is
monitored. In order to test the sensors for their
gas detection ability, different ammonia
concentrations were introduced in the test
chamber using a chromatography syringe.
Once the sensor reached saturation, the test
chamber is purged with N2 gas until the signal
Figure 3. a) Reference SAW sensor; SAW sensor
recovers the original baseline value. coated with b) PSCMA polymer; c) PEI polymer;
d) PECH polymer; e) HPMC polymer; f) PIB
polymer. The polymers are transferred at different
3. RESULTS & laser fluences (from 400 to 500 mJ/cm2). The scale
DISCUSSION bar is 100 µm.

3.1 Polymer SAW sensors Similarly, polymer pixels are LIFT

The SAW sensors consist either of 2-port printed onto SMR devices. The transfer is
SAW resonators obtained by two IDTs carried out in contact between the donor and
arranged between reflecting gratings and the receiver substrate, as it was shown
operating at approximately 392 MHz or solidly previously that the transfer across a gap is not
mounted resonators (SMRs) operating at possible [23] at ambient conditions.
approximately 2 GHz [1, 20].

60
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
sensitivity of 66.23 Hz/ppm and a detection
limit of 0.15 ppm are achieved. For all the
sensors, the detection limit is calculated
considering a maximum noise level of 10 Hz.
As expected, the response curve behaviours of
the three sensors demonstrate that PECH has a
Figure 4. Optical microscopy images of SMR higher sensitivity to DMMP vapour than PIB
devices coated with PEI, PECH, AND PIB and PEI [24].
polymers deposited at a) 400 mJ/cm2 laser fluence
(adopted from Ref. 20) 3.2 Chemiresistors based on single
walled carbon nanotubes
Furthermore it is shown that not only the The investigation of LIFT aiming
polymer pixels are regularly transferred onto applications such as the fabrication of
the active area of sensor devices, but the chemiresistor sensors requires a systematic
sensors are functional after LIFT. In Figure 5 variation of different process parameters and
the response curves for three different an analysis of the resulting morphological and
polymers upon exposure to different chemical features of the transferred materials.
concentration of dimethyl methylphosphonate As shown previously in [25] the triazene
(DMMP), i.e. from 2.5 to 40 ppm, are shown. polymer thickness is an important parameter
for obtaining a regular, “clean” transfer. TP as
DRL absorbs the laser radiation and
subsequently decomposes into gaseous
fragments which are used to transform the
energy into required mechanical push.
Therefore, the transfer of SWCNT with 300
and 100 nm TP release layer are investigated.
It has been seen in [25] that for 300 nm TP
layers and all applied conditions never results
in a transfer of uniformly distributed pixels,
i.e. never a CNT array, on the receiver
Figure 5. Response curves for PECH, PEI, and substrate. Thus only 100 nm TP layer
PIB sensors upon exposure to different thicknesses are used.
concentration of DMMP. (adopted from Ref. 1)
Another important parameter which is
investigated is the transfer of SWCNT onto
The response curves for the three polymers different flexible substrates, appropriate in the
(PECH, PEI, and PIB) to DMMP, DCM, and fabrication of intelligent clothing. An optical
EtOAc show a linear behaviour in the tested microscopy image of SWCNT transferred by
concentration ranges. For PIB, a sensitivity of LIFT onto different flexile substrates is shown
19.45 Hz/ppm is obtained with a calculated in Figure 6. As it can be seen in Figure 6, it is
detection limit of 0.51 ppm. In the case of PEI, possible to achieve a relatively “clean”
the sensitivity and the detection limit of the transfer, i.e. pixels with well-defined contours
sensor are, 32.34 Hz/ppm and 0.3 ppm, onto all the substrates investigated.
respectively. Finally, for the PECH a

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CNTs. This indicates that after LIFT the

SWCNT do not suffer any decomposition, and
can be therefore further used in sensors
applications.
The last step in order to determine the
sensing ability of the SWCNT transferred by
LIFT is to carry out measurements with ppm
concentrations of ammonia (an electron-
withdrawing vapor). In Figure 8 an example of
a typical sensor response to 100 ppm ammonia
is shown (adopted from Ref. 25).
Figure 6. Optical microscopy images of
SWCNT deposited onto flexible substrates (from
left to right and top to bottom): Kapton,
polystyrene, PDMS, Al foil. Scale bar is 100 µm.

In addition, for the fabrication of a

chemiresistor sensor it is important to control
the laser fluence. The laser fluence is varied
over a broad range, i.e. from conditions
insufficient to break the donor layer to high
irradiation fluences (0.1 – 1 J/cm2), in order to
optimize the shape of the transferred pixels
without any chemical modification of the
SWCNTs. The optimum laser fluence values Figure 8. Sensor response upon exposure to
are found in the range 200-400 mJ/cm2. 100 ppm of ammonia. (adopted from Ref. 25)
The transferred pixels are investigated
from a structural point of view to check for The LIFT-ed sensors show a repeatable
possible heat damage after the transfer. The response and recovery. The resistance
Raman spectra of the SWCNTs onto the increases sharply in the first minute, then the
receiver substrate are shown in Figure 7. response begins to saturate in the next 10
minutes. The test chamber is then purged using
N2 gas and a spontaneous signal recovery is
observed. The resistance spontaneously
recovers up to 80 % of its signal response
within the first 1 – 2 minutes from the removal
of the ammonia vapors. This behavior of these
sensors can therefore be explained in terms of
p-type characteristics.

3. CONCLUSIONS &
Figure 7. Raman spectra of a SWCNT ACKNOWLEDGMENT
pixel transferred at 350 mJ/cm2.
The results shown above clearly reveal that
The Raman spectra presents the typical laser-induced forward transfer is a suitable
Raman bands of SWCNTs: weak bands technique to fabricate functional SAW sensors
located between 100 and 300 cm-1 attributed to and chemiresistors. The deposition parameters
the radial breathing mode (RBM); the peak were optimized in order to minimize
near 1330 cm-1 (D-band) indicates disorder in scattering, diffraction and attenuation of the
the graphitic layer of the CNTs; while the peak SAWs. In addition, single walled carbon
near 1580 cm-1 (G-band) is due to the nanotube were successfully (with no structural
tangential modes of the graphitic planes in the

62
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
damage) transferred by LIFT onto metal The fabrication of small molecule organic
electrodes to fabricate chemiresistor sensors. light-emitting diode pixels by laser-
induced forward transfer, J. Appl. Phys.
Financial support from the Romanian 113, 043104 (2013).
NUCLEU Program, project PN 09 39 and the 6. Palla Papavlu A., Patrascioiu A., Di
Scientific Exchange Programme between Pietrantonio F., Fernadez-Pradas J.M.,
Switzerland and the New Member States of Cannata D., Benetti M., D’Auria S.,
the European Union (Sciex-NMS), through the Verona E., Serra P., Preparation of surface
Rectors Conference of the Swiss Universities acoustic wave odor sensors by laser-
(CRUS) project ALECSA “Application of induced forward transfer, Sens. Actuators
laser induced forward transfer for the B 192, 369–377 (2014).
fabrication of a flexible carbon nanotube 7. Rapp L., Serein-Spirau F., Lère-Porte J.-P.,
sensor array” is gratefully acknowledged. Alloncle A.P., Delaporte P., Fages F.,
Videlot-Ackermann C., Laser Printing of
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Small 2, 36-50 (2006). A (2014).
20. Cannatà D., Benetti M., Di Pietrantonio F.,
Verona E., Palla-Papavlu A., Dinca V.,
Dinescu M., Lippert T., Nerve agent
 

64
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THE STUDY OF ENERGY TRANSFER ON THIN LAYERS

ACHIEVED BY ELECTRO-SPARK DEPOSITION WITH TiC
ELECTRODE

Manuela-Cristina PERJU *, Petrică VIZUREANU *, Carmen NEJNERU *

*Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University from Iaşi,
România

Abstract: The paper aims to register tension, intensity, and time at the precise moment of mono pulse
deposition, with electrode of TiC used to achieve hard-alloyed layers by electro-spark deposition method.
Ferrite-pearlitic iron used as base material. An assembly used for determinations, which attached to
Elitron 22A spark installation. This installation consists in an electric resistance of 0,5 Ω inserted within
work system and an oscilloscope with two spots. By means of oscilloscope, intensity, tension and period
of mono pulse deposition measured. Diagrams achieved by using the software Statistica 5.5.

Keywords: electro-spark method, deposition regimes, vibration amplitude, current, electrode

1. INTRODUCTION the anode elements, diffusivity, density,

electrical resistance, thermal inertia,
Electro-spark deposition method is a flowability and parameters temperature
current research method, used for coating by dependence.
deposition on installation components, which Equally important is the base material,
works in hard conditions, abrasive wear, in meaning the discharging cathode, because the
moist or dry environment, in order to obtain arch character depends by the two electric
superficial layers of superior tribological poles of the discharge. Base material
qualities. Obtaining thin layers with special influences the technological and electric
properties (wear resistance, corrosion parameters by its conductivity, affinity
resistance and shock resistance) requires a absorption for discharge gases, melting point,
proper choice of filler material, in strict boiling point, carbon potential, (comparing to
correlation with the physical and mechanical the carbon potential for the plasma atmosphere
properties of the material support, [1,2,3,6,7]. may lead to carburizing or decarburizing of the
Discharge parameters regimes (voltage, base material), oxygen potential (comparing to
current and pulse time), depends on the oxygen potential from discharge may lead to
physico-chemical properties of the electric and oxidation or dezoxidation of the metal bath for
working circuit (device-electrode-piece). the deposition drop). When changing the
In this context, we can say that the discharge parameters, a significant importance
parameters depend on the type of electrode is the interaction between the cathode (base
deposition, and its melting temperature, the material) and anode (electrode) as a working
thermal conductivity, chemical reactivity of couple, meaning the alloying intensity, the

65
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melting temperature of the creating alloy, heat resistance of 0,5 Ω inserted into the working
capacity of the metal bath, electrical resistance system and a two spots oscilloscope was used.
of the metal bath, electrical conductance of the By measuring the resistor voltage the work
chemical combinations, layer porosity, affinity current was set. Time variation diagrams for
of the melted material to the plasma gases voltage and spark current was recorded using
(oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, CO2, CO). the two spots oscilloscope.
Another key factor is the existing state of For each experimental determination, from
tension during work, which is the surface the oscilloscope screen were taken the
tension of the droplet deposition, heat stresses following values: impulse time (10-4 [s]),
and also stresses caused by the rapid cooling, current (A), voltage (V). Power was calculated
which creates cracks on the layer due to the (with formula P=U·I [W]) and single-pulse
different expansion coefficients of piece-layer energy (with formula P=U·I [W]), [4,5].
system (depends on the plasticity and elasticity
of deposited layer), [4,5].
The multitude of factors that influence the
electrical parameters of the discharge regimes
(voltage, current, time, power and energy) led
to the conclusion that they should be measured
in terms of specific experimental work,
meaning the ferrite-pearlitic iron cast base
material TiC (titanium carbide) electrode
deposition at regimes and scales according to
 
the working range of the device Elitron 22A.
Fig. 1. Wiring diagram of installation: S1 – spot 1
2. METHOD for intensity of the discharge measurement;
S2 – spot 2 for discharge voltage measurement;
For experiments, an assembly was attached E – electrode; P – part; I – source; R – electrical
resistance 0,5 Ω.
to the Elitron 22A installation, [8], in order to
record the current pulses during work (Fig. 1).
Elitron 22A presents 9 amplitude steps and 6 The total duration of a pulse is between 5 ÷
working regimes. The installation parameters, 14 ms. Each electrode has a different
taken from the technical handbook are: ionization capacity, according with the
consumed power (kVA) – 0,5; productivity established working regimes, the control
(cm2/min) – 4; working voltage (V) – 220; device positions. Power and pulse energy are
working regimes (r), vibration amplitude (A) – different, depending on the physical properties
(A1=0,04 mm, A2=0,06 mm, A3=0,08 mm, and the quality of each electrode.
A4=0,1 mm, A5=0,12 mm, A6=0,14 mm,
A7=0,16 mm, A8=0,18 mm, A9=0,2 mm); 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
mass (kg) – 21, [4,5].
For recording the electrical signals Depending on the values obtained by
characteristics to the established working calculation, power and energy were rendered
regimes an assembly consisting of an electrical using spatial graphs obtained with the
Statistica 5.5 software.

66
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3.1. Deposition regimes for TiC. Single- Power single-pulse discharge electrode of
pulse energy deposition of titanium carbide titanium carbide varies between 145 W values
electrode has large fluctuations, ranging from (r2, A4) and 448 W (r4, A2), but with much
45·10-3 J (r1, A4) and 492,8·10-3 J (r4, A4). uniformity as of 48 schemes 32 values
Energy increases and decreases randomly with between 180 ÷ 270 W. The high values, above
regime change and amplitude of vibration. The 400 W are schemes 3 and 4, and the amplitude
mean value for the 48 experiments is Emedium= of between 2 and 6, (Fig. 3).
161,83·10-3 J, (Fig. 2).

Table 1. Unipuls discharge modes for cast iron electrode TiC

Fig. 2. Energy variation depending on the amplitude operating mode and working regime for TiC
electrode.

67
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Fig. 3. Power variation depending on the amplitude operating mode and working regime for TiC
electrode.

4. CONCLUSIONS 3. Liu Jun, Wang Ruijun, Qian Yiyu, The

formation of a single-pulse electrospark
Correlation amplitude regime and deposition spot, Surface & Coatings
deposition electrode and the base material type Technology 200, pp. 2433– 2437, (2005).
is important, both in terms of energy 4. Perju Manuela Cristina, Găluşcă Dan Gelu,
consumption and in terms of technology in Nejneru Carmen, Ştefănică Roxana Gabriela,
order to achieve uniform deposition without Răileanu Tudor, The study of energy transfer
burning achieve, pores or overlapping on thin layers achieved by impulse discharge
material. Energy analysis of deposits reveals with wolfram carbide electrode, Buletinul
that the energy deposit is inversely Institutului Politehnic, Iaşi, pg.69-76, (2010).
proportional to the size of electrical discharge 5. Perju Manuela Cristina, Găluşcă Dan Gelu,
pulse resistance. Nejneru Carmen, Agop Maricel, Straturi
subţiri: descărcări în impuls, Editura Ars
REFERENCES Longa, ISBN 978-973-148-049-7, pagini 339,
(2010).
1. S. Frangini, A. Masci, A study on the effect 6. Reynolds, J.L., Holdren, R.L., and Brown
of a dynamic contact force control for L.E., Electro-spark deposition, Advanced
improving electrospark coating properties, Materials and Process, 161 (3), pp. 35-37,
Surface & Coatings Technology 204, pp. (2003).
2613–2623, (2010). 7. Vermeşan, G., Vermeşan, E., Jichisan-
2. Liu Dongyan, Gao Wei, Li Zhengwei, Matiesan, D., Cretu, A., Negrea, G.,
Zhang Haifeng, Hu Zhuangqi, Electro-spark Vermeşan, H., Vlad M., Introducere în
deposition of Fe-based amorphous alloy ingineria suprafeţelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-
coatings, Materials Letters 61, pp. 165–167, Napoca, (1999).
(2007). 8. *** Instalaţie Elitron 22, Academia de
Ştiinţe, Republica Moldova, Chişinău, (1992).

68
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THE AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Vasile PRISACARIU1, Andrei LUCHIAN2

1
Universitatea Transilvania Braşov, 2Universitatea Politehnica Bucureşti
Abstract: High lift devices (DHS) are designed to expand the flight envelope by changing the
local geometry (mechanization wing), they generally camber changes depending on the phase of flight
(landing, take-off). As controls, the aircraft they developed aeromechanical has effects with implications
for the resistance structure of the wings, and the most important effect is the twisting of the wing. The
article desires a analysis of the 2D aerodynamic profile with changes in curvature at trailing edge.

Keywords: high lift devices (HLD), Clark Y, Javafoil 2.20, XFLR5 6.09, Profili 2.21

1.INTRODUCTION

High lift devices used for bearing

surfaces are designed to expand the flight
envelope by changing the local geometry
(wing mechanization) according to phases of
flight of the aircraft. Figure 1.1 is an example
of this general concept Fig. 1.2 Flaps of Cessna 172,

The use of high lift modern aircraft

derived from the need for speed with low
values (equation 1) for takeoff and landing
phases.

2G
Vat   at  (1)
  S  c zat
1.winglet, 2.low speed aileron, 3.high speed aileron,   V2
Fzat   S  c zat (2)
4.flap track fairing, 5.Krüger flaps, 6.slats, 7.three 2
slotted inner flaps, 8.three slotted outer flaps, 9.spoilers,
where:
10.spoilers-air brakes
Fig. 1.1 High lift devices (HLD) [1] μat - factor influencing soil landing, (0.94 –
0.96);
Figure 1.2 presents flaps at Cessna 172. ρ – Air density;
G – Weight of airplane;
S – Lifting surface;
Czat – lift coefficient in landing configuration

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 AIR FORCE

V∞ - speed Chart Cz-α

Fz at – lifting in landing configuration

In Figure 1.3 the most common types

of flaps lifting surfaces.

Plain flap Split flap

Slotted flap Fowler flap Fig. 1.4 Chart Cz-Cx [4]

When using flaps for negative cycle (up

to 50, 100) we have increased cruise by about
Slotted fowler flap 5% (transport planes) or better
Fig. 1.3 Types of flaps [2, 3] maneuverability for aerobatic maneuvers
(aerobatics aircraft).
The methods used to increase the
maximum lift coefficient Czmax rely on either
modifying the profile geometry (passive
systems) or boundary layer control (active
systems) or the combination of both methods.
High lift studies systems based solely on
increasing the bearing surface (type wing
folding or telescoping wing), [14]. In carrying
devices high lift continuity conditions are
imposed to the lifting surfaces produces by the
drag increase when high lift is un-prancing
and keeping balance during turning to avoid
decoupling aerodynamic moments.

Flaps effects
The operation of the wing flaps of
curvature increase will cause an increase in lift
Fig. 1.5 Flaps effects
at the same speed and the ratio T / Fx Fx is
changed due to the change value. In this case
Cp (pressure center) moves downstream as the To increase the effectiveness of flaps
steering angle of the flaps increases, thus we are using some constructive solutions and
changing the ratio Fz / G, so it induces a dive methods (operational or concept stage):
time, see figure 1.5. - Flaps with multiple sections, (Figure 1.6);

Fig. 1.6 Multiple slotted flaps - Boeing 747, [5]

70
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curvature), or the morphing trailing edge, see
- Spoiler on the upper side in front flaps, figure 1.10, [6, 7, 8];
figure 1.7;

Fig. 1.7 Spoilers - DC 9, [5]

- slotted flaps rolling extrados surfaces, see figure

1.8, drive / slot Δx ; Fig. 1.10 Morphing concept [6]

- command and control sequences during

takeoff / landing fully automated, which
eliminates discontinuities maneuver the pilot
(autopilot assisted steering gear intervals);
-implementation of the concept "full stall", the
landing sequence that leads to a landing speed
Fig.1.8 Slotted flaps
- blowing boundary layer flow on laminating flap almost zero;
by applying the Coanda effect, the jet flap, [15, 16,
17, 18, 19]; -flap actuation-correlation with other
commands such as thrust vectoring aircraft
(aircraft V / STOL), see Figure 1.11.

Fig. 1.9 Coandă effect [19] Fig. 1.11 Sukhoi VSTOL (flaps and vectoring
traction), [9]
- Usage of partially morphing to remove
pressure jumps in the joints (morphing - no 2. THE 2D FLAPS ANALYSIS
joints, offering a seamless active continuous

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 AIR FORCE

We propose to analyze a Clark Y profile

with simple flaps with different steering
angles, by using four 2D analysis software
tools (Javafoil 2.20, Profili 2.20, XFLR5 6.06
and web Airfoil tolls) that are based on Xfoil
code. [10, 11, 12, 13].

Fig. 2.1 Clark Y airfoil Fig. 2.3 Chart Cx-α (flaps 00)

The study aims to analyze the variation of

drag coefficient (Cx, Cz, Cm) depending on the
angle of incidence (α), the pressure coefficient
(Cp) along the I chord in different positions of the
flap deflection. Conditions of the analysis are
presented in Table 2.1. 

Table 2.1 Conditions of analysis

Definition 121 pct Viscosity 1,46 x 10-5
Reynolds 100000 Air density 1.221 kg/m3 Fig. 2.4 Chart Cm-α (flaps 00)

2.1. The 2D analysis with flaps 00 2.2. The 2D analysis with flaps 150.

Viewing the three graphs (Fig. 2.2, 2.3, We perform a comparative analysis on
2.4) the drag coefficient data depends on the 2D flow profile at different angles of
angle of incidence where we can observe the deflection with the same software tools.
differences in values of the code provided
Javafoil and for the three other software
environments (profile, XFLR, Xfoil web code)
which revealed close values. [11, 12, 13].

Fig. 2.5 Chart Cz-α (flaps 150)

Fig. 2.2 Chart Cz-α (flaps 00)

Fig. 2.6 Chart Cx-α (flaps 150)

72
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compare (Cz, Cx and Cm) using the software
environment XFLR5 6.09.

Fig. 2.7 Chart Cm-α (flaps 150)

2.3. The 2D analysis with flaps 300

Fig. 2.11 Chart Cz-α (flaps)

Fig. 2.8 Chart Cz-α (flaps 300)

Fig. 2.12 Chart Cx-α (flaps)

Fig. 2.9 Chart Cx-α (flaps 300)

Fig. 2.12 Cm-α (flaps)

The 2D analysis reveals differences in

the values provided by the software tools used,
but similar numerical developments.
Java foil 2D shows an evaluation tool for
highlighting ratio V / V (xfoil code), Figure x
shows changes in flow velocity profile
Fig. 2.10 Chart Cm-α (flaps 300)

The flap turning effect from 00 to 150

and 300 is illustrated in the graphs in Figures
2.11, 2.12. and 2.13 in the three coefficients

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 AIR FORCE

turbulence. Their drive and side effects such

Flap 00
as increased dive time decrease the horizontal
speed, increasing speed descension, so
intervention is required to prevent these
effects by correlating flight control (throttle
and stick). Aircraft flight control systems
V/V∞
Coandă effect can make 3D maneuvers
throughout the flight envelope. Next
Generation on HDL is morphing concepts
combined with smart materials that will
increase the efficiency reaction rate of HDL.

3.2. Acknowledgment
Cp
The authors wish to thank the
0
Flap 15 “Transilvania” University of Braşov and
“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy of
Braşov for supporting the research necessary
for writing this article.
V/V∞
BIBLIOGRAFIE

1 http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviati
on:wing
2 http://herschlogbook.blogspot.ro/2012/07/ae
rodynamics-flight-controls.html
Cp 3 Young A.D., The aerodynamic
characteristics of flaps, RAE technical
report Aero no. 2622, London, 1953, 56p.
Flap 300 4 http://www.zenithair.com/stolch801/design/
design.html,
5 http://www.airliners.net/aviation-
forums/tech_ops /read.main/281872/
6 Weisshaar, T.A. (2006) Morphing Aircraft
V/V∞ Technology – New Shapes for Aircraft
Design. In Multifunctional Structures /
Integration of Sensors and Antennas.
Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP-AVT-141,
Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: available at :
http ://www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp,
7 Prisacariu V., Rău C., Introduction
morphing technology in unmanned aircraft
Cp
vehicles (UAV), AFASES 2011: The 13th
Fig. 2.13 Flow velocity distribution International Conference of Scientific
Papers “SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND
3. CONCLUSIONS & EDUCATION IN THE AIR FORCE”, mai
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 2011, Braşov, Romania, , 6p
8 Barbarino S., Bilgen O., and others, A
3.1.Conclusions review of morphing aircraft, Journal of
The main effect of flaps is a generating intelligent material systems and structures,
flow vortex separation on the upper side Vol.22/2011, DOI:10.1177/1045389X1141
4084, p55.
especially in areas of the surface with air

74
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9 http://soni2006.hubpages.com/hub/Thrust- 16 Rudolf P.K.C., High-Lift Systems on
Vectoring-Sukhoi, Commercial Subsonic Airliners, NASA
10 Hepperle M., JavaFoil 2.20, JAVAFOIL contractor report 4746, 1996, 166p
User’s Guide, 2014, 44p., disponibil la 17 Cîrciu I, Dinea S., Review of application on
http://www.mh- Coandă effect, history, theories, new trends,
aerotools.de/airfoils/javafoil.htm Review of the Air Force Academy,
11 Duranti S. Profili 2.21 software, 2012, no.2(17)/2010, p14-20, ISSN 1842-9238
Feltre-Italia, www.profili2.com, consulted at 18 Cîrciu I., Boşcoianu M., An analysis of the
12.02.2014 efficiency of Coandă – NOTAR anti-torque
12 Drela M., Yungren H., Guidelines for system for small helicopters, INCAS
XFLR5 v6.03 (Analysis of foils and wings Bulletin, vol.2, no. 4/2010, ISSN 2066-
operating at low Reynolds numbers), 2011, 8201, p.81-88.
http://sourceforge.net/projects /xflr5/files; 19 Dumitrache A., Frunzulica F. , Ionescu T.C.,
13 Airfoils database, consulted at 10.02.2014, Mathematical Modelling and Numerical
http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/details?airfoil= Investigations on the Coanda Effect,
clarky-il Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos -
14 Mestrinho J.R.C., Felicio J.M.I., and others, Theory and Applications, ISBN 978-953-51-
Design optimization of variable-span 0816-0, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50403, ,
morphing wing, 2nd International Conference 2012, p101-132,
on Engineering Optimization, September
2010, Lisbon, Portugal, 11p.
15 Williams J., Butler S.F.J., Wood M.N., The
aerodynamics of jet flaps, no. 3304, London,
1963, 35p., dsiponibil la
http://naca.central.cranfield.ac.uk/
 

75
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CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE LIFE EXTENSION PROGRAMS

BY TECHNICAL RESOURCE RENEWAL
APPLIED TO THE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES

Marius RADULESCU*, Vasile SANDRU**

*Electromecanica Ploiesti, Romania, ** ,,Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The work-paper presents few considerations regarding the opportunity that a life
extension program to be applied in the case of a ground-to-air missile as an Air Defense Missile System
(ADMS) component. A model of a hypothetical AD missile is built and serves as a base for the technical
and economical reasons for the extension life decision. Using some market data for the missile’s
components, the authors try to balances the life-extension costs with those of the complete replacement
ones. The scientific, technical and technological support needed for applying such a program is set also.
The conclusions refer to the multitude of the factors which are involved in the life extension program
management.

Keywords: missile, lifecycle, efficacy, program, costs

1. INTRODUCTION The frequently replacement of the whole

ADMS involves great expenses, and requires
The air power represents the main force the access to the ultimate state-of-art in
multiplier of an armed force. This assertion branch. Only the major scientific and military
allows the huge efforts make by the owners to powers can practice this way and with
maintain the advance of the aerial features in corresponding costs.
the endowment. Any military organization The majority of other ADMS keepers may
must be able to counter the aerial menace at an take in account the possibility of the extension
appropriate technological level. This level is system’s life cycle using the life extension
done today by the Air Defense Missile processes as the technical resources carry-
Systems (ADMS) using the air defense (AD) over, the technical resource renewal and the
missile or SAM’s. If the aerial means evolves improving up-grade.
for increasing survivability and efficacy, the
ADMS’s and the SAM’s default must keep the
same trend [3]. 2. THE OPERATIONAL LIFE OF THE
This implies the quickly change the SAM SAM SYSTEM
generation every time when the aerial threat
significantly change the characteristics or the 2.1 The main ADMS composition
continuously up-grade of the existing ADMS An ADMS is a complex assembly, assuring
until the consumption of their operational life. not only the battle engagement, but also the

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 AIR FORCE

learning [2], the training and the maintenance this way being more accessible for a medium
functions as a base for the integration into the technological industrial support, and applied
armed forces architecture [6], generally for the main ADMS component – the SAM
composed by: only.
- Self-propelled launcher
- Missile 2.2 AD missile (SAM) – the most
- Mobile summary checking station perishable system element
- Maintenance checking station Between the ADMS components, the
- Replacement vehicle missile represents one of the most dynamic
- Mobile Command Post elements, direct connected with the potential
- Field training equipment target performance evolution. The main
- Class simulator hardware and software aspects including in the
- Descriptive documentation missile structure that are relatively quickly
- Flight employment documentation affected in time are the following:
- Maintenance documentation - The fuel and the igniters of the
- Teaching complete (pads, sliced inert propulsion unit
missile, system elements) - The explosive of the warhead
Every component of the ADMS has his - The thermal battery (or/and other power
own active life date, depending of some sources)
operational factors, like: - The guidance and control algorithm
- Complexity - The command and accord function of
- Using regime the proximity fuse
- Critical and expendable elements Generally a short / medium range SAM has
- Availability of sub-components on an operational technical resource of 10 years,
market while other ADMS’s components has 15 to 20
- Morale usage years of resource. Furthermore a system
operates 2 to 3 versions of the missile until
complete replacement.
By the technical resource renewal process a
system regains a new operational life period,
but without the increasing performances.

2.3 The principle SAM organization

Generally a missile destined to an ADMS
has an organization like the following
schedule:

 
Fuse Guidance Warhead Sustainer Booster
Figure 1 – A view of a SHORAD type ADMS
Figure 2 – General missile organization
Basically three life extension processes
creates the technological base to maintain in According with its type, the missile could
endowment a certain ADMS [4]. These have some differences in organization. For the
processes are: work-paper purpose we can suppose an
- The technical resources carry-over assembly composes from a succession of
- The technical resource renewal compartments comprising an electro-magnetic
- The up-grade fuse, a guidance section a warhead and a
This work-paper analyses the second propulsion unit with a booster and a sustainer,
process, having a medium complexity and in alongside three aerodynamically sets.

78
 Checking on
Fuse 200 64 10150
stands

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”

AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Even from the initial project, a relatively 3.2 The volume of the means that the
complex technical system like a missile program will be applied
disposes of the interfaces that permits to In order to have an economical reason to
change a compartment when a new equipment develop a technical resource renewal program,
generation will be ready or for the same type a number of systems and a number of missiles
replacement only. respectively must be the subject of the process.
However, for the accounting necessity, we
3. THE TECHNICAL RESOURCE can hypothetical consider a limited number of
RENEWAL PROGRAM CRITERIA systems in endowment like follows:
- 18 ADMS in three battalion type units,
3.1 Missile’s components lending to having 4 missiles each and another 4 in
replacement the unit depot
The main components that the program - 1 ADMS belonging to an application
will be applied are shown in the figure 3: school unit
- 1 reserve ADMS as forces generally
Aerodynamic sets
reserve
- 2 ammunition fire units as forces
Sustainer
reserve for each ADMS
This account a total of: 144 + 8 + 8 + 160 =
Fuse Guidance
320 of missiles.
For the calculus necessity we consider the
Booster price for a new missile as 1.33 USD millions
that climb the affair value to a total of about
Warhead 425 USD millions.
3.3 The resource renewal program
Figure 3 – The main SAM compartments Considering the entirely 320 pcs missile
For the purpose of concept here exposed, a batch into the resource renewal program, and
real close price data can be identified in the 10 pcs of this will be lost in partial/final tests
specialized literature [9], like the follows: for 310 remaining missiles we can evaluate the
* rounded financial effort needed to accomplish the task.
[25USD/hr]

Estimated
Material
Estimated
indicator

[USD]
Labor

[USD]
Weight

hours
price *

price
cost

Section Operation
Cost

# Component

[USD/lb 0 1 2 3 4
[kg] [USD] Battery
]
1 Guidance Unit 12 10400 275500 Guidance replacement
2 Proximity fuse 8 7400 130500 (cost / Interfaces refit 600 80 13900
3 Warhead 15 4800 159000 pcs) Checking on
4 Sustainer rocket motor 67 4200 621000 stands
5 Booster rocket motor 18 3600 143000 Checking on
Fuse 200 64 10150
stands
Sum 120 1329000

79
 AIR FORCE

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Dismantle Including 7700 2160
Cleaning Technolo
USD 66000
Destroy of the gical 1420
third-part co- for 310 missiles
old charge devices
work
Warhead Recharging 10 missile of 13.3
1500 16 5400
(cost / pcs) with new 1,33 USD USD 0
explosives Cote million each mill 42900
Replacement of batch
of igniters for 310 missiles
destroyed
Assembly Total 128460
Dismantle
Cleaning
This approximated result shows that for a
Destroys of medium-size air-defense missile [5], the
the old fuel resource renewal program involve a cost at
Sustainer Recharging
(cost / pcs) with fuel
4800 88 22750 less than 10% of the new one.
Replacement In the same time, the cost of the TRR
of igniters and program rejoins at approximately:
squibs
Assembly
310 missiles x 128.460 USD each ≈
Dismantle 40 USD millions.
Cleaning
Destroys of 3.4 The restored value of the missile
the old fuel The restored value of the missile will be
Booster Recharging
(cost / pcs) with fuel
1600 48 10900 calculated with the formula:
Replacement Va = (Vi + VTRR)*TLC/(TLC +TRL)
of igniters and where Va - actual value
squibs
Assembly Vi - initial value
Missile VTRR - technical resource renewal
general program value
checking
Sections
TLC - time of lifecycle
Airframe TRL - time of restored life
dismantle 300 64 12100
(cost / pcs)
Interfaces refit Supposing an operational resource of 12
Compartments
checking
years for a missile and a restored period of 10
Assembly years by applying the resource renewal
Sub- Capacity tests program, the value of the missile becomes:
Assembly after refitting 4200 420
tests 290
Va = (1329000 + 128460)*12/(12 + 10)
(cost / ≈ 795.000 USD
for 310 missiles
batch) i.e. approx. 60% of the new product value.
Boxes
Delivery
including at 3.5 The program implementing
USD 2200 100 16 6390
(cost / pcs)
third-part co- technical and scientific support
work In order to be capable to develop a missile
Missile life extension program by renewal of the
general
Final test checking,
6600 420 technical resource, an industrial organization
(cost / including 2 660 must disposes of the following facilities:
batch) targets at USD - Research and development capacity,
38000 third- for 310 missiles
part co-work including the tactical support doctrine
Technolog - Maintenance technological base
ical 1200 3240 - Production capacities, partially in
documenta
tion
1600 cooperation
(cost / for 310 missiles - Access on the branch technology
batch) market
- Access on the branch materials and
equipment market
- Financial support
- Testing infrastructure

80
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
A continuously attention must be allowed to       Using the available information, we look
the scientific, technical and industrial for few widespread missile models concerning
infrastructure and personnel in order to assures their up-grade programs and costs. Using an
the possibility of life extension programs inflation calculator [11] we has aligned the
applied to missiles and missile systems [7]. costs at the Fiscal Year (FY) 2013, in order to
calculate the growth of the costs by applying
3.6 Financial risk of the program the modernization program.
Considering the budgetary year allocation
at a cash flow of a half of the needed amount, System Previous* Following*
Version USD / FY USD USD FY13
with a 25% growth expectation and 20% of a FY13
discount factor, the NPV (Net Present Value) AIM-9 AIM-9L AIM-9X
method can be used [1] to verify the financial Sidewinder 84,000 / 1999 185,500 664,900
risk of the project: AIM-120 AIM-120C AIM-120D
AMRAAM 400,000 / 1998 567,700 1,492,000
RIM- SM-2ER SM-6ERAM
67/174 409,000 / 1981 1,032,470 4,284,000
  Standard
where *data from [10], [12], [13], [14]

WACC ­ weighted average cost of capital For the studied models, the costs growth is
I0             ‐ initial investment  balanced for a medium value of 245%.
i - numbers of years before cash flow
System Growth
occurs
AIM-9 Sidewinder 258 %
NPV must be > 0 in order to consider the AIM-120 AMRAAM 163 %
project feasible. RIM-67/174 Standard 315 %
If some uncertainty of budgetary cash flow Media 245 %
is considered, respectively did exist 50 – 50
Regarding in terms of costs to all the three
percent chance to have in the second year an
technological way for extend the life cycle of a
allowance of 25 USD millions or down at 20 missile (presented at #2.1) easily can be observed
USD millions, according [8] we can calculate that the TRR program represent an intermediary
the NPV as: solution.
  Type of life cycle Approx.
         = 0.5max[‐16.666+17.361, 0]+ 0.5max  extension program Costs *
[‐16.666+13.888, 0]= 0.3475 + 0 = 0.35 > 0  Technical resources carry-over 10 %
Technical resource renewal 60 %
Up-grade 250 %
4. CONCLUSIONS & * reported to the acquisitions unitary cost
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The technical resource renewal (TRR)
A superior process aiming to an extended solution is recommended when the assured
life cycle of a technical system – a missile performance of the system have an acceptable
peculiarly is represented by the up-grade level alongside of hole system life gained by
program, which can be applied to few or all program.
the system components. But such a process is The TRR is a process that aims to refits the
most expensive and in many cases requires operational life of an expired system replacing
unavailable know-how type technical data. some pieces and sub-assemblies olds with the

81
 AIR FORCE

new made ones. The TRR supposes the antiaeriene, Revista Gandirea Militara
technologies and equipments destined to: Romaneasca Nr. 5, pp. 70 – 79, ISSN 1454-
- dismantling of the systems 0460, Bucuresti, Romania
- replacement of the pieces and sub- [5] Rădulescu, M., Calefariu, E., (2012),
assemblies Aspects Regarding Technical and Economic
- mechanical and electric assemblies Upgrade Elements in the Case of an A.D.
- adjustments and repairs Missile System, Proceedings of the 14th
- coating and watermark WSEAS International Conference on
- general and specific tests Mathematical and Computational Methods in
The TRR is a process similar to fabrication, Science and Engineering, pp. 236-242,
executed in a technical-skilled entity, equipped ISSN: 2227-4588, ISBN: 978-1-61804-117-3,
with adequate production and testing facilities. Sliema, Malta
After the TRR program the system resource [6] Şandru, V., (2013), The current stage of air
is refitted at the nominal value and can be defense systems' structure and performances.
extended in the future. In the TRR process a SAM systems comparative analysis in
higher number of products from the Romanian inventory, Review of the “Henri
application batch are destroyed, so the new Coandă” Air Force Academy, No 1 (23), pp.
certified batch is smaller than the initial 107 – 112, ISSN 1842-9238, Brasov,
number. Romania
An essential aspect regarding the TRR [7] Şandru, V., Rădulescu, M., Ciufudean, C.,
program is the access to the pieces and sub- Boşcoianu, E.C., (2012), Critical Aspects
assemblies that will be replaced, these or Regarding the Integration of a Low-Cost Up-
equivalent ones must exist on market. That grade Architecture in High-technology Assets
means if the TRR impose the replacement of for Defense, Proceedings of the 17th WSEAS
equipment or pieces which is no longer International Conference on Applied
produces, the program cannot be executed. Mathematics, pp. 89-94, ISBN: 978-1-61804-
The TRR refits the system use capability at 148-7, Montreux, Switzerland
the initial values and parameters, but don’t [8] Shao Rong Song, (2006), Real Option
correct the morale usage of the equipment. Approach to R&D Project Valuation,
Dissertation for the degree of MA in Finance
REFERENCES and Investments, p.26
[9] ***, Cost estimating for air-to-air missiles,
[1] Luenberger,D.G., (1998), Investment (1983), The Congress of the United States –
Science, Oxford University Press Congressional Budget Office, January, Table
[2] Rădulescu, M., Şandru, V., (2014), 1, p.11
Advanced use of the e-resources in the [10] ***, GAO-13-294SP Defense
research activities regarding to missile Acquisitions Assessments of Selected Weapon
integrated systems development, the 10th Programs, US Government Accountability
International Scientific Conference Office, March 2013, p. 43
eLearning and Software for Education, April [11] ***, The inflation calculator,
24-25, Bucharest, Romania http://www.westegg.com/inflation/infl.cgi
[3] Rădulescu, M., Mihăilescu, C., Marinescu, [12] ***, Aerospace & Defense Intelligence
M., (2013), Some aspects of the air defense Report, US missile/munitions program,
missiles up- grading, Proceedings of 1st Raytheon AIM-120 AMRAAM,
International Conference New Challenges in http://www.bga-aeroweb.com/
Aerospace Sciences, ISSN 2344-4762, NCAS Defense/AMRAAM.html#DoD-Spending
2013, pp.129-133, 7-8 November, Bucharest, [13] ***, RIM-67 Standard,
Romania http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM 67_Standard
[4] Rădulescu, M., Şandru, V., (2013), [14] ***, RIM-174 Standard ERAM,
Prelungire de resursa, revitalizare si http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-
modernizare pentru complexele de rachete 174_Standard_ERAM

82
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC MODEL FOR AN AIRFOIL WITH TIME

DEPENDENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Constantin ROTARU*, Raluca Ioana EDU*, 0LKDL$1'5(60,+Ă,/Ă

*Faculty of Mechatronics and Armament Integrated Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania

Abstract: This paper presents a mathematical model of an unsteady fluid flow around an airfoil where the
time dependency is introduced through the boundary conditions. The methods of solution that were
developed for these models included the treatment of the zero normal flow on a solid surface and the use
of the unsteady Bernoulli equation. As a result of the nonuniform motion, the wake becomes more
complex than in the corresponding steady flow case and therefore the path along which the airfoil moves
was assumed to be prescribed. One of the more difficult aspects of the unsteady problem is the modeling
of the vortex wake’s shape and strength, which depend on the time history of the motion. In the paper the
wake shed from the trailing edge of the lifting surfaces was modeled by vortex distributions.

Keywords: unsteady aerodynamics, vortex flow, airfoil circulation

1. INTRODUCTION condition is applied, is described in a body-

fixed coordinate system (x, y, z) and the
In an incompressible and irrotational fluid motion of the origin of this coordinate system
flow, the velocity field can be obtained by (Fig. 1) is then prescribed in an inertial frame
solving the continuity equation. However, the of reference (X, Y, Z).
incompressible continuity equation does not
directly include time-dependent terms and the z y
time dependency is introduced through the Inertial frame
q
boundary conditions. The methods of solution r of reference
for steady flows can be used with only small
modifications that include the treatment of the Z Y
zero normal flow on a solid surface boundary
conditions and the use of the unsteady
p
Bernoulli equation. As a result of the
nonuniform motion, the wake becomes more x X
complex than in the corresponding steady flow Starting
case and it should be properly accounted for. vortex
The unsteady motion of the surface on
which the “zero normal flow” boundary Fig. 1. Coordinate systems

83
 AIR FORCE

⎛ x ⎞ ⎛1 0 0 ⎞
At the t > 0 , the relative motion of the ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ y ⎟ = ⎜ 0 cos(ϕt ) sin (ϕt ) ⎟
origin of the body fixed frame of reference is ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
prescribed by its location R 0 (t ) = (X 0 , Y0 , Z 0 ) ⎜ z ⎟ ⎜ 0 − sin (ϕt ) cos(ϕt )⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
and the instantaneous orientation
Θ(t ) = (ϕ, θ, ψ ) , where (ϕ, θ, ψ ) are the Euler ⎛ cos(ϕt ) 0 − sin (ϕt )⎞
⎜ ⎟
rotation angles [1]. × ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟
The fluid surrounding the body is assumed ⎜ ⎟
to be inviscid, irrotational and incompressible ⎜ sin (ϕt ) 0 cos(ϕt ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
over entire flow field, excluding the body’s
solid boundaries and its wake. Therefore, a ⎛ cos(ϕt ) sin (ϕt ) 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
velocity potential Φ (X , Y , Z ) can be defined × − sin (ϕt ) cos(ϕt ) 0 ⎟
⎜
in the inertial frame and the continuity ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 1 ⎟⎠
equation in this frame of reference becomes ⎝
∇ 2 Φ = 0 and the boundary condition requiring ⎛ X − X0 ⎞
zero normal velocity across the body’s solid ⎜ ⎟
⎜
× Y − Y0 ⎟
boundaries is ⎜ ⎟
(∇Φ + vr ) ⋅ n = 0 (1) ⎜ Z−Z ⎟
r ⎝ 0⎠
where v is the surface velocity and r
r The kinematic velocity v of the
n (x , y, z, t ) is the unity vector normal to this
undisturbed fluid due to the motion of the
moving surface (v is defined with minus sign airfoil as viewed in the body frame of
so that the undisturbed flow velocity will be reference is given by
( )
positive in the body’s frame of reference). r r r r r
r v = − V0 + v rel + Ω × r (4)
The location and orientation of n can vary
with time, so, the time dependency of equation where
r
∇ 2 Φ = 0 is introduced through the boundary ⎧V0 = (X & ,Y
0
& , Z& )
0 0
⎪r
condition. The second boundary condition v
⎪ rel = ( x
& , y
& , z
& )
requires that the flow disturbance due to the ⎨r (5)
body’s motion through the fluid, should ⎪Ω = (p, q, r )
diminish far from the body, ⎪rr = (x, y, z )
⎩
lim ∇Φ = 0 (2) At any moment the continuity equation is
R − R 0 →∞
independent of the coordinate system
where R = (X , Y , Z ) . orientation and the mass is conserved [3].
On the other hand, the Kelvin equation Therefore, the quantity ∇ 2 Φ is independent of
could be an additional condition for the the instantaneous coordinate system and the
unsteady flow, that can be used to determine continuity equation in terms of (x , y, z )
the stream wise strength of the vorticity shed
into a wake, so, the circulation Γ around a remains unchanged, ∇ 2 Φ = 0 .
fluid curve enclosing the body and its wake is
conserved, 2. WAKE SHAPE
dΓ / dt = 0 (3)
Because of the boundary condition this The zero velocity normal to the solid
problem becomes time dependent and it could surface boundary condition in the body frame
be solved easier in the body-fixed coordinate is
( )
r r r r r
system [2]. A transformation from ∇Φ − V0 − v rel − Ω × r ⋅ n = 0 (6)
(X, Y, Z ) coordinate system to (x , y, z ) in (x , y, z ) coordinates.
coordinate system should include the In the case of more complex flow field,
translation and the rotation of the (x , y, z ) when the modeling of nonzero velocity
system and may have the following form components across the boundaries is desired, a

84
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
transpiration velocity, Vn can be added, so, ⎛∂⎞
⎜ ⎟ =
the above equation becomes ⎝ ∂t ⎠inertial
( )
r r r r r
∇Φ − V0 − v rel − Ω × r ⋅ n = Vn (7) (12)
( )
r r r ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛∂⎞
For incompressible flows the instantaneous − V0 + Ω × r ⋅ ⎜⎜ , , , ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
solution is independent of time derivatives, ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ⎠body
therefore the steady-state solution techniques therefore, the pressure difference (p ∞ − p ) / ρ
can be used to approach the time dependent
has the form
problem by substituting at each moment, the
p∞ − p 1 ⎡⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞
instantaneous boundary condition 2 2 2⎤
(∇Φ + vr ) ⋅ n = 0 (8) = ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥−
ρ 2 ⎢⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎥⎦
For lifting flow conditions, the magnitude ⎣
of circulation depends on the wake shape and
( )
r r r ∂Φ
on the location of the wake shedding line [4]. − V0 + Ω × r ⋅ ∇Φ +
∂t
Taking into consideration that the wake is
force free, the Kutta-Jukovski theorem states The magnitude of the velocity ∇Φ is
that independent of the frame of reference.
V∞ × γ w = 0 (9)
so, when the wake is modeled by a vortex 3. PLAT PLATE MODEL
distribution of strength γ w the velocity
For a flat plate at an angle of attack α
V∞ should be parallel to the circulation moving at a constant velocity U ∞ in the
vector γ w . negative X direction (Fig. 2) the translation of
r r
Solution of the equation ∇ 2 Φ = 0 in the origin V0 , the rotation Ω and the normal
(x , y, z ) coordinates, provides the velocity r
vector n , are
potential and the velocity components [5] r
⎧u = ∂Φ / ∂X V0 = X & ,Y
0 ( 0 0 )
& , Z& = (− U , 0, 0)
∞
⎪ r
⎨v = ∂Φ / ∂Y (10) Ω = (0, 0, 0) (13)
r
⎪w = ∂Φ / ∂Z n = (sin α, 0, cos α )
⎩
The resulting pressure can be computed by
z
the Bernoulli equation Z
r
p∞ − p 1 ∂Φ
= (∇Φ )2 + = n
ρ 2 ∂t U∞
(11) α  x X
1 ⎡⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎤ ∂Φ
2 2 2
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥+
2 ⎣⎢⎝ ∂X ⎠ ⎝ ∂Y ⎠ ⎝ ∂Z ⎠ ⎦⎥ ∂t
Fig. 2. Translation of a flat plate
The time derivative in the (x, y , z ) system The boundary condition requiring zero
is normal velocity across the plate is
( )
r r r r
∇Φ − V0 − Ω × r ⋅ n = 0 (14)

85
 AIR FORCE

or On the other hand, an additional equation

⎛ ∂Φ ∂Φ ⎞ could be obtained from the Kelvin condition
⎜ + U ∞ , 0, ⎟ ⋅ (sin α, 0, cos α ) = 0 (dΓ / dt = 0 ) , namely
⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠
The above scalar product has the form Γ (t1 ) + Γw1 = 0 (19)
⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ∂Φ The above set of equations with the
⎜ + U ∞ ⎟ sin α + cos α = 0 (15) unknowns Γ (t1 ) and Γw1 gives the following
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂z
therefore solution
∂Φ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ⎧ U ∞ sin α
= −⎜ + U ∞ ⎟ tan α (16) ⎪Γ(t1 ) = ⎛ ⎞
∂z ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎪ 1 ⎜1 1 ⎟
If the airfoil (plate) is represented by a ⎪ ⎜ + ⎟
lumped-vortex element with the vortex placed ⎪ 2π ⎜ c c + 1 U Δt ⎟
⎪⎪ ⎜ ∞ ⎟
at the quarter chord (Fig. 3), the Kutta ⎝2 4 2 ⎠
⎨ (20)
condition is satisfied. ⎪Γ = − U ∞ sin α
⎪ w1 ⎛ ⎞
z Bound ⎪ 1 ⎜1 1 ⎟
⎪ ⎜ + ⎟
vortex Collocation 2π ⎜ c c + 1 U Δt ⎟
⎪ ⎜ ∞ ⎟
point ⎪⎩ ⎝2 4 2 ⎠
After the second time step, t 2 = 2 Δt , the
α t =0 airfoil is in a new location. For high Reynolds
Γ (t1 )  
x number flows, vortex decay is negligible and
Γw1   therefore the strength Γw1 will not change
t1 = Δ t   with time. At t 2 = 2 Δt the two equations
Γ (t 2 )  
describing the zero normal flow boundary
Γw 2   Γw1   U ∞ Δt  
condition and the Kelvin condition are:
t2 = 2 Δt   ⎧ Γ (t 2 ) Γw 2
⎪− c
+
⎛c 1 ⎞
+
U ∞ ⋅ 2Δt   ⎪ 2 π 2π⎜ + U ∞ Δt ⎟
⎪ 2 ⎝4 2 ⎠
Fig. 3. Development of the wake vortex ⎪⎪ Γw 2
⎨+ = − U ∞ sin α
The concentrated wake vortex has to be ⎪ 2π⎛⎜ c + 1 U ∞ Δt + U ∞ Δt ⎞⎟
⎪ ⎝4 2 ⎠
placed along the path traveled by the trailing ⎪
edge [6]. ⎪Γ(t 2 ) + Γw 2 + Γw 2 = 0
If the wake vortex is placed at the middle ⎪⎩
of this path, then the zero normal flow This set is solved for Γ(t 2 ) and Γw 2 ,
boundary condition at the plate’s three-quarter while Γw1 is known from the previous
point is
Γ(t ) Τw1 calculation at t = t1 . At t = 3Δt the two
− 1 + = − U ∞ sin α (17) equations can be written in a similar manner
2π
c ⎛ c U ∞ Δt ⎞
2
2π⎜ + ⎟ ⎧ Γ (t 3 ) Γw 3
⎝4 2 ⎠ ⎪− c
+
⎛ c 1 ⎞
+
This equation can be rewritten in the form ⎪ 2π 2π⎜ + U ∞ Δt ⎟
⎪ 2 ⎝4 2 ⎠
w body + w wake + U ∞ sin α = 0 (18)
⎪⎪ Γw 2 Γw1
which indicates that the sum of the normal ⎨ ⎛c 3 + =
velocity induced by the airfoil, w body , by the ⎞
⎪ 2π⎜ + U ∞ Δt ⎟ 2π⎜ + U ∞ Δt ⎟⎛ c 5 ⎞
wake, w wake , and by the free stream must be ⎪ ⎝4 2 ⎠ ⎝4 2 ⎠
⎪= − U sin α
zero. ⎪ ∞
⎪⎩Γ (t 3 ) + Γw 3 + Γw 2 + Γw1 = 0

86
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
This set is solved for Γ (t 3 ) and Γw 3 , to the vorticity shed during the corresponding
while Γw 2 and Γw1 are known from the time step Δt , such that
t
previous calculation at t = t 2 .
The values of Γ (t i ) and Γwi are found from
Γwi = ∫ γ wi (t )U ∞dt (21)
t − Δt
the following set of equations written in the The distance and relative angle to the
matrix form trailing edge are important numerical
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ parameters and the wake vortex location
⎢− c ⎛c 1 ⎞ ⎥ ⎡Γ(t i )⎤ should be closer to the position of the trailing
⎢ 2π 2π⎜ + U ∞ Δt ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥= edge (Fig. 5).
⎢ 2 ⎝ 4 2 ⎠ ⎢
⎥ ⎣ wi ⎥⎦
Γ Z
⎢⎣ 1 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ i −1 Γw (i − j) ⎤
⎢− U ∞ sin α − ∑ ⎥
⎢ j=1 2π ⎡ c + (2 j + 1) U ∞ Δt ⎤ ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 η ( x, t )
⎢ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎥ X
⎢ i −1 ⎥ z
⎢ − ∑ Γwj ⎥ Γ(t )
x
Path of
⎢⎣ j=1 ⎥⎦ Γw1 trailing
  d
U (t ) ⋅ Δ t
4. WORTEX DISTRIBUTION  
Fig. 5. Position of the discrete vortex
The wake shed from the trailing edge of
the lifting surfaces can be modeled by doublet The placement of the discrete vortex at the
or vortex distributions (Fig. 4). middle of the interval U (t )Δt is an
If the airfoil circulation is varying approximation that underestimates the induced
continuously, then a continuous vortex sheet is velocity when compared with the continuous
shed at the trailing edge and can be wake vortex sheet result. A numerical
approximated by a discrete vortex model approach to correct for this wake discretization
where the strength of each vortex Γwi is equal error is to place the latest vortex closer to the
trailing edge.
γ w (t )  
Γ(t )  
U (t )  

Γ(t )  
Γwi   Γw i −1   Γw i − 2   Γw i −3  
U (t )  

U (t )Δt   U (t )Δt   U (t )Δt   U (t )Δt  

Fig. 4. Discretization of the wake’s vortex distribution

87
 AIR FORCE

The Helmholtz theorem implies that there ∂Φ B 1 c ϕ(x 0 , t )

2π 0∫ x − x 0
is no vortex decay, that is if a wake vortex =− dx 0 (25)
∂z
element is shed from the trailing edge, its
strength is conserved. At each time step the so, the time dependent equivalent of the
combined airfoil and wake induced velocity steady-state boundary condition becomes
(u, w )i is calculated and the vortex elements 1 c ϕ(x 0 , t ) ∂η(x , t )
− ∫ dx 0 = U(t ) −
are moved by (Δx, Δy ) = (u, w )i Δt . The 2π 0 x − x 0 ∂x
(26)
system coordinate (x , z ) is selected such that ∂Φ w & ∂η(x , t )
the origin is placed on the path and the x − − θ(t ) ⋅ x
∂z ∂t
coordinate axis is tangent to the path. The with the Kutta condition γ (c, t ) = 0 .
airfoil camberline is given in this coordinate
Based on the classical approach of Glauert,
system by η(x , t ) , which is considered to be
a similar solution to the vortex distribution is
small (η / c << 1) and the path radius of
⎡ 1 + cos θ ∞ ⎤
curvature is also much larger than the chord c. γ (θ, t ) = 2U(t )⎢A0 (t ) + ∑ A n (t )sin nθ⎥
⎣ sin θ n =1 ⎦
5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION where
1 π w (x , t )
A 0 (t ) = −
π 0∫ U(t )
The time-dependent version of the dθ
boundary condition requiring no normal flow
across the surface is 2 π w (x , t )
A n (t ) = ∫
( )
r r r r r cos nθdθ
∇Φ − V0 − vrel − Ω × r ⋅ n = 0 (22) π 0 U (t )
where Φ = Φ B + Φ w is the equivalent of the The lift force per unit span L′ and the
steady-state velocity potential, divided into pitching moment about the airfoil’s leading
airfoil potential Φ B and to a wake potential edge M 0 are
r
Φ w , V0 is the instantaneous velocity of the ⎧⎡ 2 3c ∂ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢ U A 0 + 4 ∂t (U A 0 )⎥ + ⎪
coordinate system origin, V0 = [− U (t ), 0, 0 ] , ⎪⎣
L′(t ) = πρc ⎨
⎦ ⎪
r ⎬
v rel is the relative velocity of the chordline ⎪ ⎡+ U 2 A1 + c ∂ (UA ) + c ∂ (UA )⎤ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 2 4 ∂t
1
8 ∂t
2 ⎥⎪
within coordinate system (x , y, z ) , ⎦⎭
⎡ ∂η ⎤ r
v rel = ⎢0, 0, ⎥ , Ω is the instantaneous ⎡ U2 7c ∂ ⎤
⎣ ∂t ⎦ ⎢ A0 + (U A 0 ) + ⎥
[ ] r
rotation, Ω = 0, θ& (t ), 0 and n is the normal
π 2
M 0 (t ) = − ρ c 2 ⎢
2 ⎢ U2
8 ∂t ⎥−
⎥
3c ∂
vector to the surface ⎢+ A1 + (U A1 ) ⎥
⎡ ∂η ⎤ ⎣ 2 8 ∂t ⎦
⎢⎣− ∂x , 0, 1⎥⎦ ⎡ U2 c ∂ ⎤
n= (23) π ⎢ − A2 + (U A 2 ) −⎥
2
− ρc 2 ⎢ 4 8 ∂t ⎥
⎛ ∂η ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +1 2⎢ c ∂ ⎥
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎢⎣ − 32 ∂t (U A 3 ) ⎥⎦
If the wake potential is known from the
previous time steps then 6. NUMERICAL RESULTS
∂Φ B ⎛ ∂Φ B ∂Φ w ⎞ ∂η
=⎜ + + U − θ& z ⎟ − The results of the computations for a
∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ∂x (24) number of steps of 200, a velocity
∂Φ w & ∂η
− − θx + U = 50 m / s an angle of attack
∂z ∂t α = 5 ⋅ π / 180 rad and a time step
On the other hand, the downwash induced
by the airfoil bound circulation γ(x, t ) with Δt = 1 / (4 ⋅ U ) are presented in fig. 6. The
assumptions presented above is circulation at t = 0 is zero since the airfoil is
still at rest. At t > 0 the circulation increases

88
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but is far less than the steady-state value due to ⎧ ⎡ ∂ ⎤
the downwash of the starting vortex. ⎪L′ = ρ⎢ U ∞ Γ(t ) + ∂t Γ(t ) c⎥
⎪ ⎣ ⎦
⎨ (30)
1.2
⎪D′ = ρ⎡ w (x, t )Γ(t ) + ∂ Γ(t ) c α ⎤
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ w ∂t ⎥⎦
1
One important parameter used in the
The circulation ratio

0.8 description of unsteady aerodynamics und

unsteady airfoil behavior is the reduced
0.6 frequency, k, defined as k = ω ⋅ c / (2V ) , where
ω is the angular frequency, c is the chord of
0.4
the airfoil and V is the flow velocity.
According to the dimensional analysis, the
0.2
resultant force, F, on the airfoil of chord c,
can be written in functional form as
0
0 50 100 150
Time discretization
200 ( )
F / ρV 2c2 = f (Re, M, k ) . For k = 0 the flow
is steady and for 0 ≤ k ≤ 0.05 the flow can be
Fig. 6. The circulation ratio Γ(t ) / Γ(200) considered quasi-steady, that is, unsteady
effects are generally small. Flows with
In the above figure was represented the characteristic reduced frequencies above of
ratio between Γ(t ) / Γ(200) , where the number of 0.05 are considered unsteady [1].
time steps was 200. After approximately 200 The lift amplitude and phase of lift for pure
steps this ratio reaches the value equals with angle of attack oscillations are presented in
the unity. To compute the lift , the small Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, where the significance of the
disturbance approximation (U ∞ >> ∇Φ ) is apparent mass contribution to both the
applied to the unsteady Bernoulli equation amplitude and phase can be appreciated.
p∞ − p ∂Φ
= (U ∞ , 0, 0) ⋅ ∇Φ + (27)
ρ ∂t
Taking into account that
∂Φ
(x, 0, ± 0) = ± γ(x ) (28)
∂x 2
the pressure difference between the airfoil’s
lower and upper surface is
⎡ γ (x ) ∂Φ ⎤
Δp = pl − p u = 2ρ⎢ U ∞ + =
⎣ 2 ∂t ⎥⎦
(29)
∂x
= ρU ∞ γ (x ) + ρ ∫ γ (x )dx
∂t 0
For the lumped-vortex method there is only Fig. 7. Normalized lift amplitude
one airfoil vortex and therefore the lift and
drag per unit span are

89
 AIR FORCE

100 as an imposed unsteady upwash field, which

80
must be used to satisfy the boundary
conditions of flow tangency on the airfoil
Phase angle degrees

60 surface.
40 The airfoil can generate high lift as a result
of a vortex that is shed at the leading edge at
20
the instant of stall. The vortex travels back
0 over the top of the airfoil carrying with it a low
20
pressure wave that accounts for the very large
0 1 2 3 4 lift coefficient.
k
Circulatory Apparent mass
Total response REFERENCES
Fig. 8. Phase angle
1. Gareth, D. P., Helicopter Flight Dynamics,
At lower values of reduced frequency, the AIAA Education Series (2007).
circulatory terms dominate the solution. At 2. Gordon L., Principles of Helicopter
higher values of reduced frequency, the Aerodynamics, Cambridge University
apparent mass forces dominate. Press (2007).
3. Katz, J., Plotkin, A., Low Speed
Aerodynamics,Second Edition, Cambridge
6. CONCLUSIONS University Press, (2010).
4. Rotaru, C., Circiu, I., Boscoianu M.
The lift at t = 0 + is exactly half of the
Computational Methods for the
steady-state lift due to the acceleration portion Aerodynamic Design, Review of the Air
of the lift that results from the change in the Force Academy, No 2(17), pp. 43-48
upwash, not due to the airfoil circulation. (2010).
The drag force has two components, one 5. Rotaru, C., Mihăilă M., Matei, P., Stefan,
due to the wake-induced downwash which A., Computing Nonlinear Characteristics
rotates the circulatory lift term by an induced of Helicopter Rotor Blades, Review of the
angle w w / U ∞ and other due to the fluid Airforce Academy, Vol. XI, No I(23),
acceleration ∂Φ / ∂t which acts normal to the ISSN 2069-4733, pp.5-12 (2013).
flat plate, and its contribution to the drag is the 6. Rotaru, C., Arghiropol A., Maple soft
second lift term times α . One of the more solutions for nonlifting flows over
difficult aspects of the unsteady problem is the arbitrary bodies, Proceedings of the 3rd
modeling of the vortex wake’s shape and WSEAS international conference on
strength, which depend on the time history of FINITE DIFFERENCES - FINITE
the motion. ELEMENTS - FINITE VOLUMES -
The unsteady forces produced on a rotor BOUNDARY ELEMENTS, ISSN 1970-
blade arise primarily because of the vertical 2769, pp. 270-274 (2010).
velocity between the wake disturbance and the 7. Maple soft documentation
airfoil surface. In linear theory, this is treated
 

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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

ELECTRONIC WAR AND MODERNIZATION OF AIR DEFENCE

MEANS

Prof. Ing. Milan SOPÓCI, PhD.* Col. Eng. Ľubomír MATTA *

*Department of Management, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik in
Liptovský Mikuláš

Abstract: This article deals with current problems of evalution of the effectivity of radars protection against
electroning jamming. The first part examines experience with electronic warfare in local conflicts and electronic
countermeasures. The paper presents basic notions and division of electronic jamming.
The second part describes a new method of evaluating effectivity of influence of electronic jamming on
radars activity. Using Saaty method of multifunctional evaluation in computer environment gives distinctioned
values to differcut sorts of jamming. The example of Air Defence missiles system SA – 6 Gainfull shows the
possibility of using this methodic.

Keywords: electronic warfare, jamming, countermeasures, radar protection, AD missile system

Introduction machinery, different approaches, evaluations

A plane has gone missing. Not a small one, and policy of solving problems.
but a large Boening, Malaysia Aerlines with
more than two hundred people on board and 1. Electronic war
nobody can find it. It is just China that admit
they have more than 20 satellites in that region Electronic war – a term not many people
monitoring the area. Nobody knows how many know today. They do not know it first occured
satellites do the USA, Russia, Great Britain in 1967 in relation to the Third Arab-Israeli
and France have, but we can assume that it War also called Six-Day War due to its short
might be far more. And in spite of that, a plane duration and rapid progress. The author of the
goes missing. Could this be caused by term is major Edgar Ballance, the later Chief
Martians? Or are we witnessing another of Intelligence service of the British Air Force.
electronic war, the results of which will be He relates the usage of this term with
known in 20 or 30 years? We should appointing gen. Bar-Lev the Chief of Staff of
remember what the electronic war is and when Israeli army on 3rd December 1967. The
it arose. As a consequence, smaller countries general, who later became famous for creating
like us should modernize radar and missile the so-called Bar-Lev Line along the Suez
Canal on the occupied Siani Peninsula, has

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 AIR FORCE

probably for the first time realised what the mentioned measurements with a definite
electronics meanins especially within combat result – electronic warfare is becoming an
aviation and air defence. At the beginning of integral part of any operation. The concept of
the year 1968 Israel took action that is part of electronic war was born.
the electronic fight even today(1):
At present, there is probably nobody who
- equipping all planes (Phantom) with would doubt the importance of electronic
radiation warning receivers NRL and measures related to the success of an operation
launched missiles warning system, or combat. Essential elements are (2):
- equipping planes with jammers– especially
with active narrowband ones, - obtaining information superiority in the
- equipping diverse groups deployed to the desired region,
Egyptian coast of Suez Canal with simple - obtaining electromagnetic superiority in
radiolocation jammers – active and the field of electronic reconnaissance and
passive, while until this time they had been electronic warfare.
focused on direct elimination o fair
defence units (in the first part of the war up Elektronic war, as a military activity in
to 70% of air defence units were which the electromagnetic spectrum is used to
eliminated by diverse groups), obtain information about the enemy, performs
- determining special groups for seizing organizational and technical measures for
radiolocation means or their parts (this was preventing, disrupting or impeding the enemy
the way the special comando on 27th of and protect one´s own electronic resources.
December 1969 seized antenna set and
parts of radiolocation devices of a P-12 With the development of electronics the
telemeter, the predecessor of P-18), means of electronic warfare develop rapidly.
- elektronic monitoring of the Various forms and types of lighting weapons,
representatives of Arab forces and their laser weapons and high-frequency weapons
elimination (9th March 1969 the Chief of are becoming a bigger and bigger threat for air
Staff of the Egyptian Armed Forces gen. defence, radiolocators and anti-aircraft
Riad was killed, 9th September 1969 chief launchers. For the most types of radiolocators,
military advisor of USSR in Egypt killed). especially the older ones, the biggest threat is
active, passive, broad-band or narrow-band,
Egypt reacted to these measures adequately: modulation or non-modulation jamming and
all types reduce reconnaissance and firing
- enhancing and equipping all aviation options of launchers.
resources and air defence with unified The second part of this article deals with
identification device (at the beginning of fighting the enemy.
the war the ratio of shootdowns was 1:1),
- deploying air and underwater diverse The division and effect of individual types
groups to the other bank of Suez Canal, of radiolocator, evaluation of radiolocators
- equipping with the modernized PLRK SA- resistance and the effect of jamming on firing
2M and SA-3M, options of units, formations o fair defence
- arrival of soviet pilots and new MiG-21 Js were and continue to be current questions.
in Egypt and their deployment in direct air
defence of Nile road from Aswan to the 2. Air defence measures within the
Mediterranean sea, electronic war
- creating a system of early warning,
- creating systems of anti-aircraft missile Basic division of radiolocation jamming
defence around objects of state importance. can be found in many sources (3). To evaluate
the effect of individual types of jamming on
After the adoption of Rogers peace plan in the activities of radiolocators we can use the
1970 it was time for analyzing and evaluating method of multicriteria evaluation. A group of

92
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
evaluation experts has been chosen from - synchronous pulse jamming, response,
teachers with rich experience from practice - synchronous pulse jamming, non-response,
and lots of theoretical knowledge. Six types of - passive jamming.
jamming with a significant effect on activities
of radiolocators were compared: According to the Chart No 1, of comparing
the significance of individual types of
- active noise nawwor-band jamming, solutions we get a reciprocal matrix of
- active noise broad-band jamming, pairwise comparison - Chart 2.
- nonsynchronous pulse jamming,

Chart 1
A1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 x1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A2
A1 X A3
A1 X A4
A1 X A5
A1 X A6
A2 X A3
A2 X A4
A2 X A5
A2 X A6
A3 X A4
A3 X A5
A3 X A6
A4 X A5
A4 X A6
A5 X A6

Chart 2
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 Σ Ei
A1 24 21 11 26 33 115
A2 23 18 24 19 27 111
A3 0 13 5 3 3 24
A4 22 13 20 13 5 73
A5 7 5 0 7 0 19
A6 3 0 5 0 6 14

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After determining the maximum eigenvalue of matrix and determinant of the matrix,
6 ≤ λmax ≤ 23 det = 0,000381
eigenvector of matrix will be the solution of homogenous set of linear equations, that will after
modification be as follows:

w1 - 0,1985 w2 – 0,3971 w3 – 0,9927 w4 – 1,1919 w5 – 1,5883 w6 = 0

w2 – 0,4955 w3 – 1,2386 w4 – 1,4864 w5 – 1,9819 w6 = 0
w3 – 0,9334 w4 – 1,2081 w5 – 1,5375 w6 = 0
w4 – 0,4010 w5 – 0,8071 w6 = 0
w5 – 1,1310 w6 = 0

Values of eigenvector after solving the w1 = w2 = 0,3299, w3 = 0, 0574,

equation: w4 = 0, 1857, w5 = 0,0515, w6 = 0,0455

w6 = 1, w5 = 1,1310, w4 = 1,2607 The mentioned values can be used when

w3 = 4,0806, w2 = 7,2464, w1 = 7,2464 evaluating the quality of radiolocator devices.
Σ Ei = 21,9651 For better understanding there is an example in
Chart 3.
and after the modification of normalized
eigenvector representing the value of
individual types of jamming are as follows:

Chart 3
type of jamming  weight  protection device in RNRL 1S91 
    RRL 1S11M1 uses: 
    ‐  manual regulation of amplification of receivers; 
    ‐  realignment of transmitter frequency; 
    ‐  turning  off  the  channel  of  the  receiver,  in  which 
    jamminghas been detected; 
1.noise active  0,33   
narrow‐band jamming  NRL 1S31M1 uses: 
‐ manual regulation of amplification of receivers;  
‐ realignment of frequency; 
‐ switching on the „jamming 1S31M1“ regime; 
‐ semiautomatic monitoring c in D; 
‐ using inertial tracking  
    RRL 1S11M1 uses:  
    ‐  manual regulation of amplification of receivers; 
    ‐  realignment of transmitter frequency; 
    ‐  turning  off  the  channel  of  the  receiver,  in  which 
    jamminghas been detected; 
2.noise active  0,33   
broad‐band jamming  NRL 1S31M1 uses: 
‐  manual regulation of amplification of receivers;  
‐  realignment of carrier frequency; 
‐  switching on the „jamming 1S31M1“ regime; 
‐  semiautomatic monitoring c in D; 
‐  using inertial tracking 
 
    ‐ VNIS circuit 
    ‐ SMT circuit (selection of moving targets) 
3.non‐synchronous  pulse  0,057  ‐ reducing amplification of jammed channel using the 
jamming  „RRU“ knob. 
 

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    ‐  VNIS circuit 
    ‐  SMT circuit (selection of moving targets) 
4.  synchronous  response  0,186  ‐ reducing amplification of jammed channel using the 
pulse jamming  „RRU“ knob. 
   
     
5. synchronous pulse non‐ 0,051  ‐ realignment of carrier frequency; 
response jamming   
   
    both RRL 1S11M1 and NRL 1S31M1 
    ‐ next periodic compensation ‐2x or 4x subtraction; 
6.passive jamming  0,045  ‐ wind compensation circuit (internal phasing); 
‐ SPC ‐ with internal phasing; 
           ‐ with external phasing. 

For individual types of jamming the The bigger the KKV value, the better the
mentioned circuits are used for RNRL 1S91, quality of radiolocator regarding jamming
PLRK 2K-12 KUB. To determine the quality protection. The coefficient value in last
of radiolocator we can use the following generation radar technology will be close to
formula: one.
n Similarly we can apporach when counting the
Σ WI coefficient of jamming that affects the
i=1 reduction of firing options, especially for
KKV = determining the probability of eliminating the
n target and mathematical hope of the number of
Σ WJ eliminated targets. Professional literature
j=1 offers the relation to calculate the probability
of eliminating target regarding the coefficient
where: i – is the number of protection devices of jamming resistance – PCR (3).
in radiolocator,
j – is the number of types of jamming n
affecting the radiolocator, PCR = [ 1 – π (1 – Pi) ] KKV
w – is the weight of individual types of i=1
jamming.
or eventually P1 = P2 = Pi
With proof we can confirm the effectivity
of protection listed under numbers 1, 3 and 6, PCR = KKV . [ 1 – (1 – P1)n ]

The calculation itself or the way of

0,427 defining kru has has never been stated and in
then value KKV = = 0,427 practice various values kru have been used
1 depending on individual literature. However, if

95
 AIR FORCE

we have defined norstandardized weigh participating in input data of the multicriteria

coefficients characterizing the relation decision-making for the calculation of weights
between individual types of jamming and the of individual types of jammings.
coefficient characterizing the quality
(resistance) of radiolocator, we can also Conclusion
determine the coefficient of jamming, which
determines the value PCR. The above stated calculation of
To calculaze KRU we can use the following radiolocator coefficient and jamming
formula: coefficient is not a definite solution of the
1 given issue. The methodology represents just
K RU  m one of the possible ways of solutions. It can be
1   wi
i 1
a stimulus for a discussion, as well as serve
other researchers as one of the criteria for the
where: evaluation of radiolocators and anti-aircraft
m – number of protection device agens launchers, for the selection of machinery
radiolocator jamming, necessary for the AF of SR. It can also allow
wj – weigh of individual type sof jamming. to evaluate our own firing options in air
combat more wisely in the phase of planning
For the example of calculating the quality or operation.
of radiolocator the value PCR provided P1 =
0,7, when launching two rockets will be
determined by following values. Bibliography
1. BALLANCE, E.: Electronic War in the
 2
 Middle East 1968 - 1970. London: Faber
PCR  0,7 1 1 0,7   0,63
  and Faber, 1974, 148 p.
2. Commander EW, Air Force Headquarters:
The credibility of the calculations will be EW in present days. Nitra, 2011.
higher the higher the quality of experts 3. Manual rules of fire. Praha, 1976.

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
THE ANALYSIS OF THE ALLOY AlCu4Mg1,5Mn USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF
UTILITY AIRCRAFTS

Cătălin-Andrei ȚUGUI1,a, Petrică VIZUREANU1,b, Dragoş Cristian ACHIȚEI1, Ion

PALAMARCIUC1, Andrei-Victor SANDU1
1
Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” of Iasi-
Romania, Department of Technologies and Equipments for Materials Processing, Blvd. Mangeron, No.
51, 700050, Iasi, Romania
a
tzugui.andrei@yahoo.com, bpeviz2002@yahoo.com,

Abstract: In this paper we conducted a physic-chemical analysis for a AlCu4Mg1,5Mn alloy

propeller, from a small utility aircraft. Regarding the mechanical properties of the alloy, they
are very good, especially machinability. Thus, if to an aluminium alloy a heat treatment for
tempering is applied, it becomes more pliable and can be easily machined. After the processing
operations, the alloy may be subjected to ageing, such treatment leads to an hardening, thereby
improving the hardness thereof.

Keywords: aluminium, SEM, dilatometry, plane, propeller.

1. INTRODUCTION To the evolution of metallic and non-

metallic materials and building airplanes was
Aluminium is the most common metal in observed a close connection. The development
the earth's crust and in the chemical elements of this field, industry aircraft manufacturing
ranks third after oxygen and silicon. It has a was the collaboration result between
high chemical activity and therefore, is found metallurgists specialist’s and aircraft
in nature only as compounds. manufacturers. From this collaboration has
The first attempt of aluminium separation resulted efficient equipment and materials
dates from 1810 and belongs to Davy, an used to improve characteristics.
english physicist who achieved electrolysis for Aluminium alloys are numerous, with
aluminium hydroxide. Following this different and various properties. For example,
experience was not achieved aluminium but a Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy has a low weight and that
Al-Fe alloy [1]. is why it had been used with success in the
In 1854 Saint-Clair-Deville, used the aircraft manufacturing industry. This is
Wohler method to obtain the aluminium in highlighted in figure 1.
industry, replacing potassium with sodium and
aluminium chloride, unstable and hygroscopic
with double aluminium chloride solution [1].

2. ALUMINIUM IN THE AIRCRAFT

INDUSTRY

97
 AIR FORCE

categories, depending on the possibility of heat

treatment hardening by quenching and aging:
treatable and untreatable [4].
Propeller is a high strength 2024
aluminium alloy which is a commonly used
material in aviation, due to its advantages of
resistance to crack growth, good reparability,
and perfect damage tolerance properties [5].
Figure 1. Highlighting construction aluminium
Magnesium added to the Al-Cu alloy,
alloy features from a commercial aircraft [2].
improves its properties. Magnesium plays an
Alloys of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu may be used on important role in reducing the weight and
some resistance elements which are loaded increasing the hardness by heat treatment.
with compression stress due to high values of
yield strength of the alloy.
The components made from 7075 are:
aluminium fuselage, upper wing panels and
sustaining pillars.
Also from the Al-Cu-Mg alloy, which is a
hard aluminium, can be constructed elements
which requires higher hardness such as the
Figure 3. Image of the studied propeller.
exterior case and the front of the wings [3]. 4. HEAT TREATMENTS AND MICRO-
3. SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE ANALYSIS
THE AlCu4Mg1,5Mn ALLOY
The heat treatment is the technological
Spectrometric analysis on our aluminium process comprising in heating and maintaining
sample was performed using Foundry Master the metal or the alloy at a given temperature,
01J0013 optical spectrometer. usually followed by cooling with a certain
Following the three aluminium sample speed, in an environment. The heat treatment
tests, came out the following results as shown may be applied to such semi-finished and
in Table 1. finished parts in order to obtain superior
operating characteristics and properties of the
Table 1. Spectrometry analysis results of the
aluminium alloy.
material, by modifying the structure.
After performing spectral analysis and
No test Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn
determining the chemical composition of the
1. 91,7 0,294 0,522 4,850,683 1,38 0,0768 material, thermal quenching and ageing
2. 92,2 0,269 0,562 4,68 0,65 1,44 0,0356 treatments was applied. These treatments were
3. 92,2 0,269 0,565 4,590,664 1,46 0,417 applied to highlight hardened aluminium
Average 92,0 0,277 0,55 4,710,666 1,43 0,517 structure and ageing.
4.1. SEM analysis. After applying
quenching and ageing thermal treatments,
After spectrometry analysis we found an
microstructural analysis was performed on a
aluminium alloy which is AlCu4Mg1,5Mn.
scanning electron microscope SEM VEGA II
Aluminium alloys are divided into two
LSH, model shown in figure 4.
categories: foundry alloys and plastic alloy
Using this electron microscope we may
deformation.
determine material surface properties, based
AlCu4Mg1,5Mn is an aluminium alloy
on the study of its structure, i.e. based on the
plastic deformation. This alloy is part of those
constituent’s present and possible structural
who can be processed by hot or cold rolled, by
defects, cracks and inhomogeneities.
drawing, by extrusion, by stamping or forging.
Deformable alloys are divided into two

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Figure 4. Scanning electron microscope VEGA II

LSH SEM

4.2. SEM analysis of the hardened alloy.

Tempering is the most critical step in heat
treatment operations. The purpose of
hardening is to maintain the solid solution
formed at solubilization temperature after the

Figure 5. Fracture SEM image of a hardened

heat treatment by rapid cooling close to 20Ԩ. structure: a)500x SE; b)500x BSE; c)1000x SE;
d)1000x BSE.

When the alloy is subjected to solution

treatment for hardening, a partial or complete
dissolution of precipitates occurs, and the alloy
will have a good cold workability.
The SEM uses two types of detectors: SE -
secondary electrons and respectively BSE -
back scattered electrons.
Elongated grains are observed in the
fracture, also it is observed that fracture occurs
inter and intra crystalline. Grain elongation
occurs due to hardening thermo chemical
treatment, figure 5.
4.3. SEM analysis of the aged alloy.
Martensitic quenching heat treatment or
solution treatment is followed by tempering,
respectively ageing for increasing
machinability properties.

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Aluminium alloy ageing leads to hardening

by precipitation of the second phase. These are 5. DILATOMETER ANALYSIS
highlighted in the SEM fracture, in figure 6.
Also in figure 6 we noted the particularly In this work we performed the analysis
fragile structure, characteristic for biphasic using a differential dilatometer type LINSEIS
alloys. For the aged aluminium alloys inter- L75H/1400.
granular fracture is observed.

Figure 7. General Presentation: a) dilatometer

measurement system; b) furnace; c) command and
control system;

On this differential dilatometer can be

studied in the solid state phase
transformations.
When a phase transformation in the
material occurs, because the new phase
occupies a different volume, a discontinuity
will occur on the variation curve of the thermal
expansion coefficient with the temperature [6].
Figure 6. Fracture SEM image of the aging
structure: a) 500x SE ;b) 500x BSE; c)1000x SE;
d)1000x BSE.

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Figure 8. Dilatometer curve for alloy AlCu4 Mg1,5Mn.

Table 2. Elongation of the three samples according to the temperature.

Aluminium Sample 1 Aluminium Sample 2 Aluminium Sample 3
Temperature Elongation Temperature Elongation Temperature Elongation
C µm C µm C µm
21,5 0 20,6 0 21,2 1,6
158,8 55 135 42,9 125,5 38,9
231,4 97 232,3 97,5 226,6 94
271,9 125,1 275,2 126,1 264 120,5
307,2 140,5 311,9 142,2 302,4 139
386,6 181 389,1 183 377,7 176,5
478,4 241,5 480,4 244 468,6 235,6
550 286,6 550 291,6 549,3 275,4
Dilatometer diagram of the alloy studied is REFERENCES
shown in figure 8. From the chart we can see
that at 275C the alloy presents a state 1. Minea, A., Aliaje de aluminium -
variation passing from structure α+C" by Tratamente termice și echipamente de
dissolution of C" in a state of α saturation. încălzire (Aluminium alloy heat treatments of
This is important in finding the heating heating), Ed.CERMI Iași, (2006).
temperature in order to achieve heating 2. http://www.donmaxwell.com/masters
solution treatment at the variable solubility 3. Carabet, R.G., Nejneru, C., Comaneci,
line for the alloy system. A., Researches regarding aluminium alloys
Solution quenching treatment leads to a hardening through cyclic ageing (Buletinul
solution out the equilibrium, becoming more
Institutului Politehnic din Iași, Tomul
easily processed by cold plastic deformation.
LIV,Fasc. 3-4, Secția Știința și Ingineria
Materialelor, (2008).
CONCLUSIONS
4. Grămescu, T., Slatineanu, L. Braha, V.,
From our research we conclude the followings:
Sarbu I., Prelucrabilitatea materialelor
1. The studied propeller is made from hard
(Material processing), Ed. Tehnica-Info,
deformable aluminium alloy
AlCu4Mg1,5Mn. Chișinău, (2000).
2. This propeller was made by plastic 5. Kushan MC, Zafer N. Structure
deformation, previously solution treated, materials of aeroplanes (in Turkish), I. Ulusal
and after deformation aged, in order to offer Metalurji ve Malzeme Günleri (Prod. Conf.),
the necessary functioning hardness. Eskişehir, Turkey; May 27-28, (2004).
3. From the dilatometry analysis is observed 6. Rusu, I., Tehnici de analiză în
that between 26C and 550C there are no ingineria materialelor - Aplicații practice
phase transformations but only state (Analysis techniques in engineering materials -
transformation, due to the Mn percent. Practical Applications), Ed. PIM, Iași, (2011).

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STEFANIK”
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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

MOBILE APPLICATION FOR BUSINESS CONTROL

OF TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES

Alexandru BALICA*, Mihai MIJEA*, Florin SANDU*

* ”Transilvania” University,
Bd. Eroilor nr. 29, Brasov, 500036, ROMANIA

Abstract: The expanding telecommunication networks start to support services closer to business control.
Covering by default air-time account information management, they are extending to monetary
operations: bank transactions, accounts’ interrogations, recharge control. Thanks to smartphones
proliferation the user interface is done via applications (apps) built for Android, iOS, Windows Mobile,
etc. We propose Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) integration – a reliable and
universally available control medium – for enhancing Business control via apps. By doing this we are
implementing a Service Creation Environment (SCE) available to the operators in emerging economies
and also for establishing immediate control in the new Internet of Things (IoT) environment.

Keywords: App, m-Business, electronic recharge, USSD, Android, Eclipse, IoT, SCE

1. INTRODUCTION environment, becoming the access & control

medium towards domotics (Home IoT).
The growth in mobile applications (apps) Currently there are over 100 development
will represent a 77 billion market in 2017, media for apps. A very high number are free.
each user providing customized information The financial objective is not strong; some
via 100 apps per day, according to Gardner [1]. apps are developed just for product placement
The apps offer to the users an unrestricted or are purely infotainment-oriented. Because
access to services. This interactive model of this, only 0.01% are going to generate
represents the new apps paradigm, where the money [2] in a highly competitive market.
capabilities are limited only by the ability to Our application is intended for telecom
imagine and develop a service. This means operators in order to answer specific demands
expanding the apps towards m-Business and related to recharge capabilities and can be
mobile devices and even wearable devices. In extended to support interrogation and control
2014 we are in the first stages of apps requests for future Smart Grid and machine-to-
(infotainment) and we are expecting to machine (M2M) implementations. We are
continue with monetary services control detailing the application development and
(m-Business) and cloud integration. The apps business case for implementation in
would control a myriad of electronic devices production environment and suggest new
in the new Internet of Things (IoT) approaches related to the SCE (Service
Creation Environment).

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2. CONTEXT One of the reasons is that alongside direct

recharge, we can have other type of operations
2.1 Current usage an d risks. Telecom possible that can extend dramatically the
operators are relying on USSD frames or IVR number of USSD frames available to the
(Interactive Voice Response) to implement agents in their interactions with the subscribers
queries from subscribers (e.g. balance query) or with other agents. USSD frames, especially
or to allow various operations from authorized for voucher distribution, are too difficult to
agents (e.g. the sales network geographically remember (e.g. the example for sending 500
distributed). vouchers of 100 units to agent 07712345678 is
Using specialized Value Added Service *123*321*12345*07712345678*100*500# with
(VAS) solutions the operator will increase its SCs and USSD password present in the string
local presence by allowing selected individuals (123,321,12345), alongside the voucher
(commercial agents) to take the burden of quantity (500) and face value (100) of the
distributing voucher and recharge to voucher).
subscribers. This model, highly successful in In addition to that, account control is
emerging and developing markets (e.g. India, needed for an agent (e.g. password change,
Pakistan, Algeria) is allowing a fast and direct transfers to and from another agent,
interaction with the customer in the lack of transaction view). This leads to a lengthy list
banking and financial infrastructure available, of USSD operations available to the agents –
very often ahead of the grid (power both for initiating monetary transactions and
infrastructure is not yet available). The for managing the account.
situation we have encountered is that physical Because of these issues, there is a high risk
vouchers cannot be transported on the ground that the agents will get discouraged from using
(e.g. conflict zone or inaccessible due to the service.
natural disasters). For this reason, the 2.2 Opportunity and our goal. USSD can
electronic distribution of vouchers is needed, also be regarded as an opportunity, since it is a
and was implemented via USSD frame or reliable, tested medium for control. USSD,
WEB interface. Considering that WEB much like Short Message Service (SMS), is
interface is available to only a selected number transmitted bi-directionally and alternatively
of main agents (dealers) we are noticing that between subscriber and service, along core
the bulk of operations is going to be done via network on the signalization channels used by
USSD, by unspecialized individuals. Mobile Application Part (MAP) protocol.
Mitigating the access to the service is the main Available since 1993, it was developed in two
concern in this case. stages [1],[2] and it was finalized in 1999,
Any USSD frame is starting with ‘*’ and making it a tested and universally available
ending with ‘#’. The intermediary fields are service. Our proposition is that USSD should
also separated with ‘*’. The first field in the not be discarded from future implementations
frame represents the short code (SC) allocated in the context of the new app paradigm as it is
to this type of service and it is configured available by default in the telecom network of
along the core network in the Public Land all operators, it is secure and light.
Mobile Network (PLMN). An USSD frame Furthermore, the subscribers are used with this
example for voucher recharge is service. The USSD offers:
*123*123456789012# where 123 represents  stability in exploitation (standardized and
the SC followed by a 12 digit hidden recharge in production for over 15 years);
number (HRN) of a voucher.  functional simplicity (transmitted via the
Used mainly in the developing markets, the signaling channel);
USSD frames are especially useful in  ease of implementation, regardless of the
managing the m-Business in electronic service provided;
recharge (i.e. top-up subscriber’s balance).  global area of distribution, supported by all
However, in some cases, like the one we have mobile terminals and all mobile operators;
encountered, the USSD frames are becoming  provides increased interaction compared
too cumbersome for easy and rapid utilization. with SMS

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For this reasons we are proposing the app interface paradigm, providing a secure
integrating the USSD functionality via mobile channel.
apps, in this case, Android OS. Formatting USSD frames via apps is
2.3 Development environment. We are available through other applications (e.g. Easy
using for development the Android Eclipse USSD Lite, USSD Dialer, USSD Management,
Service Delivery Kit (SDK) [5] that includes: Mobile Balance Checker, cluBalance,
 Eclipse + Android Development Tools checkBalance, dBalance) [6]. However, none
(ADT) plugin of them is dedicated to limited experience
 Android SDK Tools commercial agents and they are not capable to
 Android Platform-tools support all the functions needed.
 The latest Android platform Via our implementation, it is also possible
 The latest Android system image for the to integrate special branding elements into the
emulator application, like logos or corporate on-screen
messages. The application icon, menus, color
scheme, can all be customized in order to be
consistent with the operator’s brand image.
Vendors and VAS suppliers are already
seizing the opportunity, but most of the
implementations are done using application
programming interfaces (API) and require an
Internet connection. Using USSD requests is
simpler and more reliable, especially given the
rough conditions available in emerging
markets. This approach will allow operators to
Fig. 1. Eclipse development and testing seize the app paradigm opportunity without
environment with the virtual machine (VM) opened
investing in PLMN infrastructure for Internet
Developing in Android Eclipse is done in access and it would not limit the service.
Java programming language and XML 3.2 SWOT analysis. To validate our app
integration for visual app content. The we are listing the strengths, weaknesses,
available simulator (fig. 1, right) is helping the opportunities and threats (SWOT) related to it.
design and validation, before deploying on real Using the SWOT analysis we can identify the
equipment. internal factors – the strengths and weaknesses
internal to the organization and the external
3. BUSINESS CASE factors – the opportunities and threats
presented by the environment external to the
3.1 Advant ages and previous implemen- organization.
tations. Our goal is a mobile app that will use Internal
visual graphical interface (GUI) to store and Strengths
collect data and then format it, transparently to  easy to use graphical interface
the user, into valid USSD frames. There are  rapid triggering of requests that, if done via
several obvious advantages from this point of USSD frame, would require separate
view: reducing transaction time, maintaining training

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 the operator has complete control over the  Recharge subscriber

application access medium and over the  Send voucher to subscriber
functionalities as it is built in-house:  Transfer credit to another agent
‐ USSD frames via the VAS provider  Transfer vouchers to another agent
‐ additional functionalities like  Check balance for credit or vouchers
lock/unlock can be supported  Account settings (account update)
‐ application flow and logic correspond
exactly to local market demands Other possible management operations
Weaknesses include:
 the current version is only available on  Frequent errors (e.g. via search in Action
Android OS Bar after Error ID)
 Mobile number selection from Contacts
External  Guide (screens with instructions, app Help)
Opportunities
 channeling the new app paradigm Implementing these operations must be
 no other operator, currently, provides this done so that the user is able to select easily and
tool to own commercial agents fast the desired option. We are proposing drop-
down menus for immediate selection and
 Android based smartphones have a large
usage of large fonts and select buttons. In
market share in Middle East and
order to ease the access, we are implementing
developing economies.
a 3 touch maximum selection criterion (i.e.
Threats
from any point of the application to reach
 As the app is using USSD channel for
another one in maximum three steps).
triggering the requests, there is no
additional risk. Password storage and login
via the app are done via Android OS’s
sharedpreferences function.

The SWOT matrix is important to later

steps in planning to achieve the objective and
in this case it validates our proposal.
3.3 M2M applications. M2M applications
using the apps are possible, providing there is
a database with information available for
query and control. One opportunity is
represented by the common share of the
records by the Smart Grid administrator with
the Telecom operator. This is part of the Fig. 2. Proposed schemes for
registration and login screens
vertical network integration scheme (power
transmission network, metering network and 4.2 Implementation. From programming
transmission network). One can see simple point of view, we are using already defined
applications being possible using already Android functions and schemes in order to
available USSD strings, even in emerging implement the functionality (i.e. registering,
economies, where power scarcity is still a saving the personal data, accepting selections
major issue (for example, balance query for via drop-down menus (spinners) and
power consumption, tariff plan interrogation formatting the USSD string and sending them
and management). accordingly). Apart from the functional side an
equally challenging task is devising an
4. APPLICATION interface that can be trusted and easily used.
4.1 Solution design. The functions needed Since the revenue expected from the sales
to be implemented are as follows: network is vital, the users must be able to
select and work in a familiar way.
 Register and login (store username and
For this reason we are adopting a
USSD password, fig. 2)
standardized graphical interface, the drawer,

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that is available in Google applications like An additional functionality allows the
Google Play (fig. 3), Google + or YouTube agent to set his/her own USSD password, also.
and also Facebook and others. This does not introduce any additional risk
other than normal operation with USSD
frames.

Fig. 3. Standardized, open source drawer menu

design (Google Play) and the implemented one
Fig. 4. Proposed scheme for direct recharge
Each screen from the drawer menu screen and implementation via Android app
selection will contain fragment type screens
according to our guidelines. In the recharge 5. CONCLUSIONS &
screen, for example (fig. 4), the user is FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
presented with an editfield to enter the
destination mobile number and a selection for The advantages in developing and using
the value to be recharged (via a spinner drop- apps come from reduced development costs
box). The keyboard is used to input the and use of already delivered platforms for
number in the exact location. distribution (e.g. Google Play, App Store).
The apps, even after delivery and
4.3 Security. As the app will only use
installation in the market, remain available for
USSD frames to communicate with the
corrections and updates using the open
system, there is no additional induced risk.
development environment we presented
The USSD frames are validated in advance
hereby as a SCE (Service Creation
and are part of the delivered package for
Environment).
electronic recharge system (license, security,
This is compliant with the perspective of
acceptance). An additional security restriction
IN (Intelligent Networks) where individual
can be implemented on the PLMN side: the
users (e.g. juridical persons like commercial
subscribers can be barred from accessing the
agents) and not only network infrastructure
USSD frames based on their mobile number.
manufacturers/ owners/ operators can develop/
Any commercial agent will have his/her
deploy/ configure/ administrate the services.
own USSD password and this can be used in
These features reduce maintenance costs as
parallel to trigger manually the USSD requests
well.
or can be stored in the application.

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CODE ACQUISITION WITH DOUBLE CORRELATOR IN DSSS

RECEIVERS

Otilia CROITORU

Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Transilania University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The spread spectrum (SS) communications system, use a pseudo-noise (PN) code to spread
the initial bandwidth occupied by data over a bandwidth much wider. In receiver, the SS signal is
despread using the same PN code. The most difficult task to achieve in receiver is to synchronize the
locally generated PN code with the code existing in the received signal. The purpose of this paper is to
present a receiver model for code acquisition that uses two active correlators, method derived from
acquisition with active correlator. The method proposes that, in some circumstance, the synchronization
of signals to be done by delaying the received signal, not the local PN code,with the advantages in
reducing the acquisition time and signal recovery.

Keywords: communications, spread spectrum, direct sequence, code acquisition,correlator.

1. INTRODUCTION • Tracking code – fine–tune process in

order to maintain the synchronization.
The spread spectrum (SS) communication In code acquisition, one of the critical
technique use a pseudo-noise (PN) code as a elements is during this process.
waveform to spread the initial bandwidth In order to reduce time acquisition, have
occupied by data over a bandwidth much been developed various methods, starting from
wider. In receiver, the SS signal is despread fundamental techniques (with active
using the same PN code used in transmitter. correlator, with matched filter, serial or
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS is parallel search, etc.) to advanced code
a method commonly used for spreading acquisition techniques [1,6,8].
spectrum where the PN code is multiplied with The purpose of this paper is to present a
input data [1,2,3]. receiver model for code acquisition that uses
The most difficult task to achieve in DSSS two active correlators, method derived from
receiver is to synchronize the locally generated acquisition with active correlator.
PN code with the code existing in the received
signal. This synchronization process is carried 2. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
out in two stages [1]: MODEL
• Code acquisition – coarse acquisition
process which beings the two PN 2.1 The work environment. Given the
sequences in the same range of chip; complexity of a SS communication system, it
is preferable that the experiments for

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development of new tyle of schemes to be − Two blocks for delay, one for received
made initially, in a software simulation. For signal and one for local code.
this study, as a working environment for
modeling and experiments was used Matlab &
Simulink software package.
2.2 System description. The structure of
the proposed system is shown in Fig. 1 and
consists of:
• The transmitter with: Data Generator,
PN Sequence Generator and BPSK
modulator;
• Communication channel with AWGN;
• The receiver with double correlator.

Fig. 1 Block diagram for communication

system structure proposed.

Proposed structure for the transmitter

Fig. 3 Block diagram for receiver structure
shown in Fig. 2 is a simplified version of proposed.
DSSS transmitter using a Gold Sequence
Generator (as PN generator) for spreading The basic idea is to use two correlator
spectrum and a BPSK modulator achieved blocks that have the role to calculate the phase
with product operator. shift between the received signal and the local
code, phase shift counted in number of code
bits (chips).
Delay Cou nter_LateRx calculates the
number of chips, NrSDelCode, that have
delayed the code to align it with the received
signal.
Delay Counter_EarlierRx calculates the
Fig. 2 Block diagram proposed for transmitter
with DSSS and BPSK modulation. number of chips, NrSDelBPSK, that have
delayed the received signal to align it with the
For DSSS receiver was designed a model code.
Pentru receptor a fost creat un model whose Through this mechanism, at the
scheme is shown in Fig. 3. The main blocks of demodulator input is brought or the received
the designed receiver are: signal BPSK_Rx, or the received signal
delayed with NrSDelBPSK chips. There are
− BPSK Demod – a coherent
two possible cases:
demodulator that extract the signal
1. If the transmitter is turned on later than
Encoded info_Rx from the BPSK
the receiver (the receiver waiting for
modulated signal present at its input.
the arrival of the signal from the
− PN Sequence Gen erator which
transmitter), becomes operational the
generates local replica of the spreading
Delay Counter_LateRx block and is
code used in transmission.
commanded local code delay with
− Two blocks with active correlator, NrSDelCode chips. On entering the
Delay Cou nter_LateRx and Delay
demodulator block is allowed access
Counter_EarlierRx.
for the received signal BPSK_Rx. The
delayed code, Synchro_code, is used to

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extract the data signal Data info_Rx (shortened notation used in this paper:
from the Encoded info_Rx signal. Lc = 63 chips);
2. If the transmitter is turned on earlier − The length of a chip, Tchip = 1/6300 s;
than the receiver (begins receiving a − Carrier frequency, fc = 18900 Hz, so
signal that it is not known when it that Tc = Tchip/3 (3 sinusoids/chip);
started), becomes operational Delay − Time simulation Tsim = 0.04 s,
Counter_EarlierRx block and the corresponding to 4 data bits.
other operation is inhibited with the
signal Enable = 0. Is commanded the 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
delay of the received signal BPSK_Rx
with NrSDelBPSK chips and on For each of the two cases (as described in
entering the demodulator block is 2.2) were chosen two values of delay to be
allowed access for the signal within:
BPSK_RxDelayed. In this case, the a. Δt < ½ Lc
local code delay is zero, so that the b. Δt > ½ Lc
Synchro_code signal is in phase In this way it may reveal to what amount of
(identical) with Local_code. delay it is good to make signals alignment by
2.3 Experimental studies. The delaying the PN local code or the received
experiments are intended to test the receiver signal. PN code length being Lc = 63 chips,
operation in the two cases above described: were chosen Δt = 20Tchip and Δt =50Tchip
1. The later transmission.
(shortened notations used in this paper: Δt =
2. The earlier transmission.
20 chips and Δt = 50).
The structure of the designed receiver
3.1 Ideal case. Its shows diagrams of
allows:
signals in ideal situation, when there are no
• Delay setting for any of the two signals
delay and the received signal BPSK_Rx and
(BPSK_Rx and Local_code);
Local_code are perfectly synchronized.
• Pursuit of signal processing at
important points;
• Comparing the transmitted data signal
to that recovered in the receiver;
• Delay analysis for recovered date
signal in reception, due to proposed
method.
2.4 The bas ic parameters of the system.
To make visible representation of signal in Fig. 4 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,
time diagrams measured at various points, Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
were chosen for system parameters the Data_info for ideal case.
folowing values:
− The length of a data bit for signal If it make a zoom in the diagram of Fig. 4
information, Tb = 0.01 s; around to t = 0 (see Fig. 5), can be observe a
− The length of PN code obtained from delay (marked with red) of 1 chip of Encoded
Gold Sequence Generator, Lc = 63Tchip info_Rx signal, due to signal processing in

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BPSK De mod block. This delay has to be

compensated by local code delay, in order to
correct alignment of both signals. The effect:
extract data signal is delayed by one chip
towards the transmission.

Fig. 7 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,

Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
Data_info for later transmission with Δt = 20.

b. For a delay Δt = 50 chips of BPSK_Rx

signal towards the local code, the behavior is
similar, Variable Delay Chips block performs
local code delay with Δt + 1 = 51 chips, to
Fig. 5 The delay (of extracted data signal) by synchronize the signals Encoded info_Rx and
one chip towards the transmitted data signal, for Synchro_code. The waveforms obtained are
ideal case. shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9.

3.2 The later transmission.

a. For a delay Δt = 20 chips of BPSK_Rx
signal towards the local code, Delay
Counter_LateRx block calculates the delay
value and generates the signal NrSDelCode =
21, as shown in Fig. 6. The block Variable
Delay Chips performs local code delay, thus
achieving the synchronization of the two
signals, Encoded info_Rx and Synchro_code Fig. 8 Waveforms for received signal with 50
chips delay, Local_code and Synchro_code
from which it is recovered Data info_Rx.
delayed with NrSDelCode chips for later
transmission with Δt = 50.

In Fig. 9 can be seen synchronization of the

two signals and a delay with Δt + 1 = 51 chips
for Data info_Rx signal.

Fig. 6 Waveforms for received signal with 20

chips delay, Local_code and Synchro_code
delayed with NrSDelCode chips for later
transmission with Δt = 20.

On the waveforms shown in Fig. 7 can be

seen synchronization of the two signals and a Fig. 9 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,
dealy with Δt + 1 = 21 chips of the signal Data Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
info_Rx. Data_info for later transmission with Δt = 50.

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3.3 The earlier transmission.

a. For the case of a signal BPSK_Rx
arrieved earlier with Δt = 20 chips towards the
local code, Delay Counter_LateRx block
calculates the offset value and generates the
signal NrSDelBPSK = 20 - 1, as shown in Fig.
11. The block Variable Delay BPSK
performs received signal delay with 19 chips
since turning on the receiver (obviously, the Fig. 11 Waveforms for BPSK_Rx, Local_code,
Synchro_code and NrSDelBPSK for earlier
part arrived in advance is lost, can not be
transmission with Δt = 20.
processed). The movement of the received
signal BPSK_Rx on the time axis and the loss
On the waveforms shown in Fig. 11 it can
due to late turning on the receiver are outlined
be seen that the signal Synchro_code is
in Fig.10.
identical to Local_code signal.

Fig. 10 The delay imposed to received signal Fig. 12 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,
to align it with the local code. Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
Data_info for earlier transmission with Δt = 20.
When the signal Enable = 0 are two
effects: On the diagram in Fig. 12 was marked with
• Is commanded the signal a red line (first from left to right) the moment
BPSK_RxDelayed access to when the receiver is turned on. The second red
demodulator; line marks the moment until which the
• Is inhibited operation of Delay receiver delays the received signal to
Counter_LateRx block. synchronize it with local code. Can be
The signal Synchro_code is, in this case, the observed the signal Encoded info_Rx delay
same as Local_code, because the Variable with 2Δt towards time of initiating
Delay Chips block receives from Delay transmission, namely Δt towards time of
Counter_LateRx block the information turning on the receiver, manner shown in Fig.
NrSDelCode = 0. 10. From the received signal was fully
recovered everything that has been received
from the receiver turning on. The section
between the second red line and the black line
is the area of received signal which would be

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lost with a conventional receiver structure,

using code acquisition with active correlator.
Fig. 13 shows the delay of the received
signal by Δt = 20 chips towards time of turning
on the receiver, respectively 2Δt towards time
of initiatind transmission, to the demodulator
input being allowed the access for BPSK_Rx
Delayed signal.
Fig. 15 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,
Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
Data_info for earlier transmission with Δt = 50.

In Fig. 16 can be seen the delay caused to

the received signal, to the demodulator input
being allowed the access for BPSK_Rx
Delayed signal.
Keeping marking convention described
above, it can be seen that, area between the
Fig. 13 The delay of the received signal
second red line and the black line,
towards time of turning on the receiver, for earlier
(representing the first portion of the receved
transmission with Δt = 20.
signal recovered) is lower than the case of
b. If the signal BPSK_Rx arrives earlier earlier transmission with Δt = 20.
with Δt = 50 chips towards the local code, the
Delay Counter_EarlierRx block calculates
the offset value and generates the signal
NrSDelBPSK = 50 - 1, as shown in Fig. 14.
The block Variable Delay BPSK performs
received signal delay BPSK_Rx with 49 chips
to synchronize the signals Encoded info_Rx
and Synchro_code. The waveforms are shown
in Fig. 14 , Fig. 15 and Fig. 16. Fig. 16 The delay of the received signal
towards time of turning on the receiver, for earlier
transmission with Δt = 50.

3. CONCLUSIONS

From these experiments it can be deduce

some conclusions.
In the case of later transmission, signals
synchronization is made by local code
Fig. 14 Waveforms for BPSK_Rx, Local_code,
delaying and, regardless of the time of
Synchro_code and NrSDelBPSK chips for earlier
initiating the transmission, if the receiver is
transmission with Δt = 50.
already turned on, do not lose anything from
the received signal. This behavior is identical
On the waveforms shown in Fig. 14 it can
to the receivers that make code acquisition by
be seen that the signal Synchro_code is again
one of the methods brief presented in
identical to Local_code signal.
introduction.
The proposed method is advantageous in
earlier transmission case, when the
synchronization is made by delaying the
received signal and not the code. In this way is
possible to recover the information contained

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in the received signal starting right from the Delay Counter_LateRx, counts the necessary
moment of turning on the receiver. delay to align the signals.
The alignment takes Δt chips from the
turning on the receiver (interval between the REFERENCES
two marks with red line).
If Δt < ½ Lc, the time taken for signals 1. Byeong Gy Lee, Byoung-Hoon Kim,
alignment is: Scrambling techniques for CDMA
• tsynchro = Δt, in case of proposed method communications, Kluwer Academic Publishers
in this paper; (2002).
• tsynchro = Lc – Δt, in case of code 2. Gibson, J., D., The communications
acquisition în cazul achiziției by basic handbook, Southern Methodist University,
method, where is made local code Dallas, Texas, CRC Press (2002),
delay. www.crcpress.com.
In other words, proposed method shortens 3. Haykin, S., Communication systems, 4th
time acquisition if the delay Δt is less than half Edition, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., (2001).
of length of PN code. 4. Ibnkahla, M., Signal Processing For Mobile
A possibility of extending this benefit is to Communications Handbook. Kingston,
combine the two methods as follows: Ontario, Canada: CRC Press (2005).
5. Madhow, U., Fundamentals of Digital
• delaying the received signal, if Δt < ½
Communication, Cambridge University Press
Lc;
(2008).
• delaying the local code, if Δt > ½ Lc.
6. Rappaport, T.S., Wireless Commu-nications
With the model receiver proposed in Fig. 3,
- Principles and Practice, Prentice Hall
combining those two methods can be done by:
(2002).
• Using the blocks Delay 7. Sarwate, D. V., Pursley, M. B.
Counter_EarlierRx and Variable Crosscorrelation properties of pseudorandom
Delay BPSK for delaying received and related sequences, Proc. IEEE, vol. 68, no.
signal (as in experiments described in 5, pp. 593–619, May 1980.
3.3 a.) if Δt < ½ Lc; 8. Yong - Hwan Lee, Sawasd Tantaratana,
• Reactivation of blocks Delay Sequential Acquisition of PN Sequences for
Counter_LateRx and Variable Delay DS/SS Communications: Design and
Chips for delaying local code (as in Performance, Proc. IEEE, vol. 10, no. 4, May
experiments described in 3.2 a), if Δt > 1992.
½ Lc.
This is possible because both blocks with
correlator, and Delay Counter_EarlierRx and

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HIGH POWER ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS FOR MILITARY

APPLICATIONS

Vasile DOBREF, Alexandru SOTIR, Octavian TĂRĂBUŢĂ, Cătălin CLINCI

*Marine Engineering Faculty, “Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy, Constanţa, Romania,
Abstract:
Generation of a high energy magnetic pulse with a flux compression generator requires first of all a good
mathematical approach followed by simulations of the theoretical model in laboratory and in the field.
The authors above have been members of a research team that developed an electromagnetic pulse device
started by a conventional explosion. This paper describes the main steps in simulating and testing the
compression of the magnetic flux needed to achieve the high energy magnetic pulse.

Keywords: electromagnetic, pulse, generator, compression

1. INTRODUCTION experimental flux compression generator

(FCG) presented in Figure 1.
Among the military applications of the Two types of coils have been used. The first
electromagnetic pulse (EMP), the most one was smaller and made up of off- the-shelf
common and used method is the flux components (Fowler et al., 1993). The second
compression generation (FCG) which was the solenoid was manufactured as a prototype in
path the project followed. The first the Romanian Naval Academy’s workshop
experiences involving the so called “E-bomb” according to some specific required
of the FCG type were conducted by the U.S.A. dimensions. Eventually, the actual
and the U.S.S.R. in the late ‘50s (Bykov et al., measurements in the experimentation facility
2001). have been done on this second variant.

2. FLUX COMPRESSION SIMULATION 2.2 The oscilloscope diagrams of the

experiments using the first coil are presented
2.1 The simulation of the flux compression in Figure 2. There have been recorded the
has been undertaken in a high voltage
current in the coil by using the current shunt
laboratory in order to check the actual flux
compression development. The goal of this (first two graphs) and the magnetic flux,
activity was to put into evidence the flux received by the frame-type antenna.
compression through the progressive
mechanical short-circuiting of the coil’s rings,
according to the electrical scheme of the

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Fig. 1. The electrical principles of the experimental

FCG

However, these experiments had been

considered as irrelevant because, as it can be
easily noticed, the vibrations of the contacts,
during the mechanical short-circuiting,
determine signals that have amplitudes
comparable to the surge of the current and
magnetic flux due to the progressive short-
circuit of the coil’s rings. The second
experiment of the flux compression simulation Fig. 2. Currents and magnetic fluxes in coil no.1.
used a second coil, identical to those tested in
the range. This time the shunt has been
removed from the circuit and only the resultant
magnetic flux has been recorded by the means
of the frame-type antenna (Dobref et al.,
2008). We could consequently put in evidence
very clearly the flux compression during the
short-circuiting of the coil’s rings, as presented
in the oscilloscope diagrams from Figure 3.

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Tektronix (TDS 724 D and TDS 5052)
oscilloscopes, placed in the second bunker.
The recordings were done in the same time.
The two coils used for the experiments were
identical.

Figure 5 presents the pulse recordings

corresponding to the first and second blast,
respectively
Fig. 3. Currents and magnetic fluxes in coil no.2.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

During the final stage of this project – the
experiments conducted in the range – the coil
rings have been continuously shorcircuited at a
very high speed (approximately 7200 m/s) by
the means of the explosive charge. The
explosive charge consisted of a mix of RDX Fig. 5. The experimental recordings of the
(hexogen) and TNT. The building principles of magnetic pulse
the FCG are shown in Figure 4 (Johns, 2004).
3. CONCLUSIONS

The authors take full responsibility for the contents

and scientific correctness of the paper. The main
conclusion rests in the compression of the flux
generated by the two coils. We noticed that the
signal in the receiving antenna is much greater
for the second detonation, which is possible
thanks to a greater starting coil current
(different timing) but also to a different
Fig. 4. FCG building principles evolution of the explosion (Dobref et al.,
2008). For establishing the maximum value of
The actual arrangement of the experimental the magnetic pulse we took in account the
device was the following: the coil with the second diagram in Figure 5. Then, the
explosive charge inside was put in the first magnetic pulse size has been calculated in
bunker. The two identical receiving antennas laboratory, after calibration. The tests in the
were mounted on the walls, simetrically with own facilities confirmed the simulation results
respect to the coil, on the same axis of the
REFERENCES
emitter antenna (the last ring of the coil). The
coaxial cables needed to transport the signal 1. Abrams, M. (2003). The dawn of the e-
from the antennas have been connected to two bomb, IEEE Spectrum

119
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

2. Bykov, A.I.; Dolotenko, M.I. & cel Batran” Naval Academy,

Kolokol’chikov, N.P. (2001). Constanta, Romania
Achievements on Ultra-High Magnetic 4. Fowler, C.M.; Caird, R.S. & Garn, B.
Fields Generation, Physica B, 294-295, (1993). An introduction to explosive
p.574-578 magnetic flux compression generators.
3. Dobref, V. et al., (2008). Research Abstract, Los Alamos
report: Modeling and design of a 5. Johns, D. (2004). Analysis of EMI/E3
conventional payload for an Problems in Defense Applications,
electromagnetic pulse generation Flomerics
destined to block C4I systems, “Mircea 6. Knoepfel, H. (1970), Pulsed High
Magnetic Fields, Nord-Holland

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MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR

MINI-UAV CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING

Adrian-Ioan LIŢĂ*, Ioan PLOTOG*, Lidia DOBRESCU*

*Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology, POLITEHNICA University

of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The paper describes an electronic multiprocessor system that assures functionality of a
miniature UAV capable of 3D flying. The apparatus consists of six independently controlled brushless
DC motors, each having a propeller attached to it. Since the brushless motor requires complex
algorithms in order to achieve maximum torque, efficiency and response time a DSP must be used. All the
motors are then controlled by a main microprocessor which is capable of reading sensors (Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input commands (remote controller or
trajectory plan) and sending independent commands to each of the six motors. The apparatus contains a
total of eight microcontrollers: the main unit, the IMU mathematical processor and one microcontroller
for each of the six brushless DC motors. Applications for such an apparatus could include not only
military, but also search-and-rescue, geodetics, aerial photography and aerial assistance.
.
Keywords: hexacopter, brushless, IMU, search-and-rescue, BLDC

1. INTRODUCTION multi-rotor systems is much harder than a

classic helicopter.
Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) The apparatus presented by the authors is
vehicles have been developed in the past an electrical powered small-sized vehicle with
century starting with the helicopter. The main six vertical propellers.
advantages between VTOL vehicles and The applications that can be developed on
airplanes is hovering over a small area and such a vehicle are of two types: imagery and
being able to operate in areas with no runway. transportation of small payload. From
Comparing to a helicopter, having six conception and design point of view, the
propellers instead of two highly increases the transportation no needs extra processing.
useful payload, the stability and Imagery on the other hand introduces a whole
maneuverability. Multi-rotor systems (with 4, new set of applications, especially when the
6 or 8 propellers) can run faster, maintain image can be sent back to base in real time for
stability in tougher winds and execute turns more complex analysis, according to the
much faster (also used in aerobatics) than a mission requests.
traditional helicopter [1]. The main drawback
of such systems is that building gas-powered

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2. THE MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM All the movements are combined and

PROOF OF CONCEPT calculated by the main controller unit in order
to achieve 3D flying. In (Fig. 2) the scale
2.1. The multiprocessor system solution. drawing of the apparatus is presented, noting
The authors have chosen brushless DC motors the fact that the red leg represents the front
(BLDC) as solution for electrical powered of direction. Also drawn with a circle around
multi-rotor apparatus in order to assure each motor is the propeller occupied area. The
capability to operate with a payload of 4 Kg. small arrow on the circle indicates the
The reason for this requirement is that imagery spinning direction of the propeller.
applications demand high-resolution cameras,
which are usually heavy.
Taking into account the necessity to
implement a complex algorithm capable to
achieve maximum torque, efficiency and
response time for the motor, a digital signal
processor (DSP) type controller was chosen.
All the BLDC controllers are then controlled
by a main microprocessor which is capable of
reading sensors (Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input
commands (remote controller or trajectory
plan) and sending independent commands to Fig. 2. Six propellers apparatus general view.
each of the six motors. The apparatus (Fig. 1)
contains a total of eight microcontrollers: the 2.2. Design of movement control. While
main unit, the IMU mathematical processor designing the apparatus (next referred as
and one microcontroller for each of the six “hexacopter”), in order for it to be able to fully
BLDC. execute three-dimensional maneuvers each
movement axis was considered, resulting in
three separate moves: roll, pitch and yaw.
For maximum efficiency, all the propellers
push air down.

Fig. 1. Movement on Y axis – Roll.

The roll and pitch maneuvers are

obtainable just by modifying the push force on
some of the propellers. In order for the
hexacopter to be able to modify the yaw angle
and in order for it not to keep spinning at all
times due to added momentum, half of the
Fig. 1. Block schematic. propellers need to spin in one direction and the
others in the opposite direction. For best

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response time, the propellers spin is alternated can be more than one variation, but the fastest
clockwise and counter clockwise. is the one illustrated in (Fig. 7).
Considering the red motor-propeller pair as
the front of the hexacopter (parallel to Y
Cartesian axis), we can define the roll and
pitch movements as following: roll moves the
apparatus left and right, while pitch moves it
forward or backward. (Fig. 3, 4, 6, 7) depict
the propellers spinning speed as follows:
transparent – normal spin, red – faster spin,
more thrust and green – slower, less thrust.
This makes the hexacopter modify its angle
and execute the maneuver.
Fig. 3. Forward Movement.

Fig. 2. Movement on X axis – Pitch.

It is worth noticing that the roll is done Fig. 4. Movement on Z axis – Yaw.
using only 4 out of 6 propellers, while pitch
uses all. The reason behind this is that the
pitch maneuver dictates the maximum forward
speed of the apparatus, which is used more
often. (Fig. 5) presents the forward movement
of the UAV: red – faster spin, pink – faster
spin, but slower than red.
The yaw maneuver is illustrated in (Fig. 6),
using all 6 propellers. Fewer propellers may be
used for steadier control, with the condition
that the total yaw momentum remains Fig. 5. Take-off and Landing.
constant.
The last described movement is 2.3 The motor controllers. The authors
represented by the take-off and landing. have chosen BLDC motors NX-4006-530
Basically all propellers have the same speed, having speed constant Kv = 530 rpm/v, maxim
which is either higher (take-off) or lower current = 10A, phase resistance = 75mΩ,
(landing) than the steady altitude speed. There phase inductance = 10uH, power = 150W and

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weight = 67g [7]. While using brushless not to create acoustical disturbance, the PWM
motors without any sensor, the usage of a frequency used is 20 KHz. High frequency
microcontroller with is mandatory. The require more expensive MOS-FET transistors
microcontroller contains a sensorless to keep the losses to minimum.  The duty-cycle
trapezoidal six-step algorithm which drives six is set by a PI (proportional integral) controller,
MOS-FET transistors in a three half-bridge which receives the speed as the measured
configuration used to connect the three phases parameter and the desired speed from the main
of the brushless motor. controller unit as the input parameter.
Six-step trapezoidal commutation (Fig. 8) The communication between the main
requires the use of PWM channels. Two half controller unit and the motor controllers is
bridges drives two of the phases while the done via I2C protocol.
third remains floating and is measured by the
ADC module of the microcontroller.

Fig. 6. Six-step trapezoidal commutation. Fig. 7. Zero-Crossing detection.

The floating phase is used to compute The microcontroller used in this case is the
when the next commutation occurs. This can dsPIC33EP64MC502 made by Microchip, for
be usually implemented by two methods, both its motor control dedicated PWM channels, its
requiring prior filtering: comparing it either to 10-bit ADC module and its communication
half the DC voltage or to the reconstructed protocols (I2C and also CAN, leaving room
motor neutral point. The algorithm used in this for further implementation) [2]. The devices
paper uses the first method as it requires fewer consume less than 100 mW of power, which
electronic components and makes full use of minimizes the losses.
the microcontroller’s DSP functions. 2.4 The main controller unit. The main
Comparing the floating phase voltage (also controller unit is responsible for sensor data
known as back electro-magnetic force – acquisition, wireless communications with the
BEMF) to half the DC voltage will result in base station, communication with the motor
finding the zero-crossing point (Fig. 9) of the controllers and for the main movement
voltage. The zero-crossing point is the exact computations. It contains a 32 bit
moment at which the floating phase voltage is microcontroller capable of making all the
equal to DC bus voltage divided by two, and is calculations required in order for the apparatus
the exact moment at which the rotor moved to be stable and to have a fast response. The
30° out of 60° of a sector. By measuring the main controller unit also has access to the GPS
time between the sector change and zero sensor. The main controller unit has the
crossing moment (30°), the algorithm then possibility of sending all its data to another
waits this exact amount of time before system (faster, such as a PC) via wireless link
changing the sector again. This approach is or directly via UART or SPI. This was
used to replace the sensor by using the floating designed to allow running of higher
phase as a sensor.  By using PWM modulation complexity applications such as automatic
to control the MOS-FET transistors, the motor search and rescue, or monitoring. They require
speed is controlled by increasing or decreasing a color camera and image analysis software,
the duty-cycle. In order for the commutation which is very demanding and can’t be ran on

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the main controller unit. The interface allows and a 1.8 Kg apparatus gives us a total of
full control of the hexacopter by the 3rd party about 4 Kg of useful payload, exactly as
computer, but still allowing for manual designed.
override of the commands if needed. The
processor used for the main controller unit is
the PIC32MX795F512L made by Microchip.
It offers a lot of communication protocols, 4
UART modules, 4 I2C modules, and over 100
MIPS of processing power on 32 bits
mathematical sets, while requiring less than
400 mW of power [2].
The main sensor is the inertial
measurement unit (IMU) which uses a three-
axis accelerometer, a three-axis gyroscope and  
a three-axis magnetometer in order to compute Fig. 8. Hexacopter.
the angles of roll, pitch and yaw. Initially,
when the hexacopter is not started, all angles The brushless DC motor controllers
are reset in order to set the forward direction. provides very fast response, low commutation
The sensor uses UART communication to send noise and excellent performance (Fig. 11).
the data back to the main controller unit. New speed information is fed to the motor
controller with a frequency of 500 Hz.
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Build. As seen in (Fig. 10), the six

motor-propeller pairs are connected to the
main unit through carbon-fiber tubes to a
central aluminum hexagonal plate. Carbon-
fiber and aluminum were chosen for being
very lightweight materials with increased
durability and strength. The total weight of the
apparatus is 1.8 Kg. The central plate was
chosen to be hexagonal instead of round in Fig. 9. Motor BEMF and driving voltage.
order to provide higher contact to carbon-fiber
tubes. Also, for increased strength, the carbon- The total power consumption of the
fiber tube profile is square instead of round. hexacopter while standing, with no motors
The tube houses the wiring needed to provide running was of 850 mW, which, with a battery
power and commands to the motor controllers. of 16.8V and 5800 mAh (a total of 97.4 Wh) is
3.2. Lift and power consumption tests. less than 1%.
Tests have shown that each motor-propeller Each of the motors running in full thrust
pair is capable of pushing air up to a thrust (when able to lift approximately 1 Kg each)
capable of lifting 1 Kg / pair. Having 6 pairs had a current consumption of 9.8 A at 16.8V.
With the hexacopter running in full thrust, this

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would give about 6 minutes of flight time. The ability to execute 3D maneuvers gives
However, while hovering (keeping a steady virtually any possibility to any application
altitude in no-wind conditions) with no which requires 3D flight. More complex
payload, the total power consumption is algorithms can be implemented when using
170W, giving a total flight time of over 30 more than one hexacopter to perform a
minutes. The exact case is somewhere between collaborative work. Other example would be
6 and 30 minutes, depending on the payload: that the estimated flight time is around 20
when the apparatus is required to have extra minutes, and the charge time is around 1.5-2
payload (1 Kg), it is still fast in response, but hours, meaning that in order to fully monitor a
the total consumption is 290W, which means perimeter, at least four are needed, one to be
about 18-20 minutes of flight. When operational and the others to charge.
maximum load is applied, the response time is 4.2. Acknowledgment. This work has
slow, since there isn’t a lot of reserve power to partial supported by the SIOPTEF project (PN-
make the fast movements: all the power is II-PT-PCCA-2011-3, C-121/2012).
consumed to lift and keep the payload.
The BLDC controller (Fig. 12) was REFERENCES
designed in respect of Design for
Manufacturing concept [8], so it would fit 1. Gablehouse C. Helicopters and autogiros: a
below the motor, in order to save space and chronicle of rotating-wing aircraft
increase efficiency. Lippincott (1967)
2. Lita, A., Cheles M. AN1160 Sensorless
BLDC Control with Back-EMF Filtering
Using a Majority Function [online].
Available: http://www.microchip.com
3. Alamio A., Artale V., et all.   PID Controller
Applied to Hexacopter Flight Journal of
Intelligent & Robotic Systems. Issue 1-4
(Jan 2014).
4. Oursland J., The design and implementation
Fig. 10. BLDC controller board – all layers
 
of a quadrotor flight controller using the
Further development require designing QUEST algorithm South Dakota School of
new algorithms which can be applied to the Mines and Technology (2010)
hexacopter in order to automatically perform 5. Markley, F. L., Mortari D. Quaternion
complex tasks, most in the field of digital altitude estimation using vector
image processing: automatic search for certain observations The Journal of the
objects on an area, monitoring perimeter, etc. Astronautical Sciences (2000)
6. Erginer B., Altug E. Modeling and PD
4. CONCLUSIONS & control of a quadrotor VTOL vehicle IEEE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (2007)
7. NX-4006-530kv Brushless Quadcopter
4.1. Conclusions. The main controller unit Motor. Source. [online]. Available:
initially has a simple PID controller to feed the http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto
output for the motor controllers. Though the re/__17923__NX_4006_530kv_Brushless
response time is good, some oscillations are _Quadcopter_Motor.html.
present. Tuning the PID loop parameters is 8. Plotog I., Marin A., Boanta L., Model of
mandatory, and the PID was added complexity assembling process for electronic parts
by adding an auto-tuning sequence to be integrated in mechatronic products, The
executed on every start of the hexacopter. Romanian Review Precision Mechanics,
Optics & Mechatronics, 2013, No. 44,
ISSN 1584 – 5982.

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FRACTAL SECTOR ANTENNA WITH RESONATORS

ARRANGED IN A SQUARE SHAPE
Gheorghe MORARIU*, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON**

*Electronics & Computers Department, “Transilvania” University, Brasov, Romania,

**Air Defense Department, Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper presents a model of stripline fractal antenna having resonant elements in the form of
a square shape. The model is presented in two versions, one with compact resonators and second with
frontier resonators, highlighting technical similarities and differences through electrical parameters. In
the same time, the paper emphasizes the concordance between theoretical and experimental results.

Keywords: fractal, stripline, antenna, directivity, field intensity.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. ANTENNA DESIGN

Development of mobile telephony and The two variations of the antenna model
portable phones miniaturization has imposed are shown in Figure 1 - frontier resonators,
dimensions reduction of the radiant elements respectively Figure 2 - compact resonators.
(emission-receiver antenna), keeping as much The frontier resonators are pairs, having
as possible their gain and efficiency at an dimensions and ecart between them as
optimum level. In the same time, it is specified in Table 1 (from the edge inwards).
necessary to ensure a wide frequency range,
directivity and a large aperture. These
requirements are best satisfied by
fractal sector antennas with different
geometric shapes of resonators. This paper
presents two versions of a fractal antenna
model with resonant elements arranged in a
square shape, with three levels of
demultiplication. In a radiant field resonators a. b.
arranged in a square shape behaves
Fig. 1. Fractal sector antenna: a. with frontier
simultaneously as a magnetic antenna (loop resonators; b. with compact resonators
antenna) and closed dipole.

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Table 1. Lengths of the frontier resonators and
ecart between them
Length [cm] Ecart [mm] (3)
L11 = 15 where: he - effective height of antenna;
10 N – contours number;
L12 = 13
L21 = 5 A - surface area [m2];
5 θ - the angle of incidence of the wave
L22 = 4
L31 = 3 relative to antenna plane [°].
5
L31 = 2

Table 2. Lengths of the compact resonators and (4)

ecart between them where Z0 - impedance of free space.
Length [cm] Ecart [mm]
L1 = 14 10 (5)
L2 = 4,5 5 where E - electric field intensity.
For stripline resonators, according to (2)
L3 = 2,5 5

Compact resonator lengths were chosen as λ=16L, and bandwidth is

the average length of the frontier resonators to
maintain the same central resonance
frequency.
Figure 3 shows the resonators phasing and (6)
the feeder adaptation circuit. where fc – central frequency.
According to (2), (3) N=1, A=L2 and

(7)
In case of frontier resonators the lengths
are given by

(8)
It is resulting in

Fig. 3. Feeder adaptation circuit.

(9)
Fractal series of the radiating surface is in
division with 4n.
(10)

(1) (11)
where S0 is the surface of the biggest According to (4), radiation resistance is
contour.

A. Analytical calculation of the resonator (12)

for magnetic antenna regime (***,
2013) Resonance frequencies of the resonators
are:
(2)
where L is edge length in meters.
 
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Central resonant frequencies are:
(13)
(21)

(14)
(22)

(15)
(23)
Taking into consideration (8) bandwidth of
frontier resonators is given by 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

(16) Experimental data obtained by spectral

analysis (scalar) and vector analysis (with
Calculation methodology presented is valid
VNA) are shown in Fig. 4 – 8 (experimental
also for compact resonators with the
diagrams).
observation that the bandwidth is different –
Fig. 4 and 5 are shown the directivity
eq. (6).
diagrams.
B. Analytical calculation of the resonator

for closed dipole ( /2) regime

(17)

(18)
where hd – height of the dipole.
Fig. 4. Fractal sector antenna with compact
resonators: Directivity diagram – E field.
For hd = /2,

(19)

(20)

 
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Fig. 9. Fractal sector antenna – VNA analysis

in the frequency band 3-3.5 GHz.
Fig. 5. Fractal sector antenna with frontier
resonators: Directivity diagram – E field.

Fig. 10. Fractal sector antenna – VNA analysis

in the frequency band 4-4.5 GHz.
Fig. 6. Fractal sector antenna with frontier
resonators: The reflection coefficient.

Fig. 7. Fractal sector antenna with compact Fig. 11. Fractal sector antenna – VNA analysis
resonators: The reflection coefficient. in the frequency band 5.8-6 GHz.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Due to the dual behavior, both the

magnetic resonator and closed dipole (λ/2),
fractal sector antenna allows operation in a
very wide frequency band with a gain around
10dB.
The small size and relatively simple
technical realization, it is recommended for 4G
and 5G mobile telephony.
Fig. 8. Fractal sector antenna – VNA analysis Through a judicious choice of fractal
in the frequency band 2.7-2.9 GHz. dimensions, antenna can cover frequency

 
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bands with quasi-constant gain for the entire Fractal Microstrip Antenna for Wireless
spectrum of mobile telephony. Application. ICT Journal, Volume 3 No.
3, ISSN 2223-4985
REFERENCES 5. Morariu, G., Zara, M.M. (2013).
Fundamente si aplicatii ale structurilor
1. Best, S. (2003). A Comparison of the fractale in antene pentru microunde.
Resonant Properties of Small Space- Brasov, Editura Universitatii
Filling Fractal Antennas. IEEE Antennas TRANSILVANIA
and Wireless Propagation Letters 2 (1): *** (2013). Magnetic  Loop  Antenna 
197–200. Theory‐SID  Monitoring  Station.
2. Bogdan, I. (2008). Antene microstrip, http://sidstation.loudet.org/antenna-theory-
îndrumar de proiectare. en.xhtml [11.06.2013]
http://staff.etc.tuiasi.ro/bogdani/Antene/Pr
AntMstrip.pdf
3. Dutca, M., Morariu, G., Croitoru, O.,
Machedon-Pisu, M. (2012). Logarithmic
Fractal Segment Antenna. Brasov,
OPTIM 2012, ISSN 1842-0133, p.1266-
1273 ,
4. Hephzibah Lincy, B., Srinivasan, A.,
Rajalakshmi, B. (2013). Wideband
 

 
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

THE ANALISYS OF NAVAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS USING

SOFTWARE PROGRAMS

Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Serghei RADU, Florentiu DELIU, Raluca MATES

*Academia Navală Mircea cel Bătrân,Constanţa,România,** Stena Group,

*** Academia Navală Mircea cel Bătrân,Constanţa,România, ****Academia Navală Mircea cel
Bătrân,Constanţa,România

Abstract: Modernization strategy of the naval power system is based on the following: high efficiency,
high flexibility with low emissions using combined systems consisting of multiple components and various
generators. In order to simulate electro-energetic processes in the naval system and reduce fuel
consumption, we built an application that performs the energy balance in each functioning regime of a
ship by charging each consumer. The program also optimizes underway regimes, offering alternative
changes in the system and thereby reducing electricity consumption on board. The optimization provided
by the program will be made by passing the consumers in a particular type of operation in various modes
so as the total energy consumption to be the lowest.

Keywords: power system, software program, maritime ship, underway and stationary regime

1. INTRODUCTION important in developing the next generation of

naval electro-energetic power systems [8,
In order to optimize electricity 21,16, 10, 5, 22, 9, 1].
consumption correlated with increased The program starts with the specifications
reliability of power systems aims in ships all of a LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) carrier:
equipment and facilities to be implemented on Maersk LPG/NH3 Glory. The program can be
board must be updated along with marine used for any other type of vessel by
propulsion development so as a greater introducing a new set of characteristic
efficiency and a reduced environmental impact parameters, can achieve a theoretical
to be achieved. [18, 6, 17, 14] calculation for a ship proposed for
The aim is to develop and use digital tools construction in any shipyard [11,20]. The
to achieve combined energy production program was developed using Microsoft
systems. [19,15] Developing component Visual Studio C # 2008, Microsoft Excel and
models at different levels of complexity, MathCAD 15. [2,3,4] The strengths of the
methods for their assembly into powerful proposed program: it can be applied to all
software simulators, the use of such simulators categories of ships, requiring only the
to analyze both the dynamic and operational introduction of the manufacturing nominal
behavior while identifying limitations are very parameters of the generator and consumers

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(which can be found in the technical series of steps, as follows: select the “After
documentation of the vessel) [13,7], it includes experimental data” from the “Simulation”
a study mode according to experimental data submenu of the menu. The selected option
measured onboard while underway, it takes appears in the “Show data I/O” window of the
into consideration weather conditions display;
(humidity air salinity of sea and air) in the a) In the display window select the option
calculation of the power system losses, it also “Show data”. Here the user can become
deals with time- damage of electrical familiar with the components and operating
consumers caused by harsh conditions on parameters of the power system on board (the
board usage (overload, mains transient), main features of the diesel engine used for
resulting in direct decreased efficiency of the inducting the generator, the generator
generator [1,12] . The program was tested on characteristics and high power electrical
board for the movement of the ship between consumers features). Figure 2.
two ports, leaving open the opportunity of b) Access submenu “Options” from the
using the program for the entire voyage. Weak menu. This sets the number of generators
points of the program: the format of the given (connected to the board net). During this
parameters is not checked , bowing program simulation the following underway regimes
on the premise that users are familiar with the will be used: Underway regime at sea / at
way the program can be used; the program is anchor - one DG, manoeuvre regime - 2DGs;
not applicable to the short-circuit protection of stationary regime when loading or unloading -
NPS. 2 DGs .
2. COMPONENTS OF THE If the emergency generator is the only one
PROGRAM connected to the network, it is considered that
The program is a Windows-Form the ship operates in an emergency regime.
application built in C # (Fig.1). The menu bar Further on, a study on the startup behavior of
contains seven submenus with functions to generators and large consumers is performed.
determine the energy balance in standard This particular step aims to analyze the
underway regimes and to select the consumers transient process of starting the generator with
according to the type of vessel. all the steps that are involved (starting the
diesel engine, generator excitation and
coupling to the network).

Figure 1. Block diagram of the program

Figure 2. General data display

3. MODEL SIMULATION c) From “Settings simulation” of the

To exemplify the developed program parent window select the option ”Synchronous
usage, we present an optimization algorithm Generator”, then click “Start simulation”. A
for a set of experimental values measured on new window with two modules will open:
board the reference carrier Maersk LPG/NH3 “The rated parameters of the chosen electric
Glory. This simulation model comprises a generator” and “The rated parameters of the
chosen electric engine”;

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Figure 3. DG starting simulation Figure 4. Generator excitation scheme

We will only work with the first module g) Close “AVR “window and click “Join
introducing the generator’s features (apparent in parallel” from the “Start Simulation”. A
power, active power, frequency, speed and new form containing in parallel connection of
type of electric machinery, voltage to bars, the main generators opens.
power factor, power generator, excitation h) Close all windows except the parent
current, and voltage excitation). window. Select the option “Induction motor”
d) In the “Diesel“ section special features from the section “Synchronous and induction
needed to run the engine are filled in (diesel electric machineries” in the parent window,
engine rated power, total yaw moment, boost then click “Start Simulation”. A new window
pressure, rated speed); select the “Position will appear (“Start Simulation”).
rack / cutting“ to ensure engine start and its i) We will apply the necessary settings to
operation at rated parameters. simulate the induction motor start in the
e) In the “Operations” section we will following sections: electric engine type,
simulate the startup, excitation and parallel original engine starting mode, operations. For
coupling for the parameters already this simulation, we consider the default option
introduced. Push the “Start Diesel Engine”. A “Rotor fault induction motor”, specific to the
text box with the message “Engine started electric motor of the reference vessel. In this
successfully” will appear. section there are also the main parameters of
f) Click “Excitation” from the “Start the electric motor: active power, apparent
Simulation”. A new form opens. It contains power, frequency, speed work, voltage,
the excitation of the generator. In the new impedance startup, number of pole pairs, the
window a set of buttons that separate parts of rotor resistance, load factor. For this
the excitation scheme appears. After pressing simulation, we will work with default values
each of the 5 buttons, the AVR window will specific to the electric motor of the reference
look like in Figure 4. vessel. We will fill in the “Rotor Resistance”

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

and “Choke start” only if the engine is a coil

winding rotor one. Otherwise we will fill in
the indicated fields with zero. In the section
“Original engine starting mode” the following
options are available: direct start, star
start/triangle, autotransformer start, start with
features given by the rheostat, frequency
converter start.
j) In the “Operations” section with the
settings given above, click ”MathCAD
Starting Calculus”. A new form will open
[Figure 5 ].

Figure 6. Comparing MathCAD calculus with

illustrated systems

We will do three tests, the first for the

underway regime, the second for the
manoeuvre regime, and the third one for
loading and unloading arrangements regime.
Underway regime analysis – we use
consumers that work continuously. We set up
the main distribution panel like in figure 7. We
obtain a power consumption of 507.44 kW.
Therefore it is only necessary to connect one
generator (507.44 kW represents 56% of the
Figure 5. MathCAD Starting Calculus for the power generator of 910 kW). Manoeuvre
analyzed Electric motor regime analysis - we use consumers that work
continuously. We will also add the consumers
In the section “Illustration of MathCAD used in manoeuvring: bow winches, stern
characteristics and calculus for major winches, and other deck installations that can
consumers” calculations are available for the be required. The necessary power will be
following consumers: 270kW Compressor 763.04 kW which is more than 75% of the
Motor, Deep Well Pump Motor, Booster Pump power generator. We will also add automatic
Motor, Water Pump Spray Motor, Fire and mode consumers and get a 906.64 kW power.
General Service Pump Motor Bilge, Ballast So, for this particular regime we will have two
Pump Motor, Fire Pump Emergency generators connected in parallel for the
generators Motor. We continue with the network.
generators stability study. To do this, click
“Check static and dynamic stability”. A form
that contains a number of options to illustrate
the different types of system stability will
appear. Press the button “Show complete
MathCAD calculus” to illustrate the generator
stability calculation considered in the current
simulation, and then press the four buttons.
Compare the result with the three already
shown systems [Figure 6].

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We obtain a total of 1206.96 kW

power consumption, having two generators
connected in parallel.

Figure 7. Main distribution panel for underway

regime

Loading and unloading arrangements

regime analysis – we have the following
configuration of the main panel, Figure 8:

Figure 9. Statistics for considered ranges and

regimes

Display the final data – we can observe all

steps of this simulation. From the Display
Mode window conclusions and proposals of
the analyzed ship power system are accessed.

Figure 8. Main panel for loading / unloading

regime

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

facilities that are to be implemented on board

so as to achieve greater efficiency and reduced
environmental impact. The control and
management of electricity consumption are
integral parts of achieving naval power system
monitoring functionality of the system. The
efficiency of electricity consumption has been
charted. It has also been made a selection of
marine equipment focusing on low power
consumption, high efficiency and low
pollution. The quality of power supply is
determined by the following factors: the
operational safety of the plant, power quality
at the point of separation between the
consumer and the supplier, the electromagnetic
compatibility of systems with the works.

REFERENCES

1. ***, Electric Ship Research and

Figure 10 . Final results of the simulation Development Consortium. Available:
www.esrdc.com.
4. CONCLUSIONS 2. ***, MathCAD 14 - Software.
The program will do the initial analysis of 3. ***, Microsoft Excel – Software (2008).
the existing energy system and then will 4. ***, Microsoft Visual Studio C # - Software
optimize each regime and seek alternatives for (2008).
reducing electricity consumption thus lowering 5. ***, The Frontrunner - A new era in ship
fuel consumption of internal combustion propulsion : The first large size ( 154K )
engines. The optimization made by the LNG carrier with electric propulsion is
program allows the passage of consumers from now in operation - ABB Marine (2007).
a given running curve on another due to 6. Badea, Eugene, Contributions to the
regime and charge changes, therefore, optimization of electrical and automation.
considering the calculated energy balance, the Bucharest: Technical University of Civil
total power consumption to be the lowest. It Engineering (2010).
also allows choosing the best alternative for 7. Chalfant, J.S., Chryssostomidis, C., Analysis
the consumers as to achieve better system of Various All - Electric Ship Electrical
reliability and to launch windows illustrating Distribution System topologies. Institute of
energy balance for standard regimes. Particular Electrical and Electronics Engineers, pp.
regimes could be created as needed by 72 -77 (2011)
selecting the consumers. Physical and Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ESTS.
functional integration of the power system and 2011.5770844
automation system, optimal allocation and 8. Dan, Florin, Contributions to identify,
power control for all subsystems are important optimize and forecast electricity
criteria in optimizing power consumption. The consumption. Oradea: Oradea University
aim was to use methods of analysis and (2011).
optimization of energy consumption so as to 9. Doerry, N., Next Generation Integrated
realize the analysis of dynamic behavior of the Power System (NGIPS) Technology
equipment with the support control and energy Development Roadmap. Washington: -
management. In order to optimize electricity Naval Sea Systems Command, Navy Yard,
consumption in correlation with the increased DC , Ser 05D/349 (2007).
reliability of power systems all equipment and

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10. Eremia , M., Cartin G. , et al , Artificial 17. Sarchiz, Dorin, Electric System Reliability
Intelligence Techniques In Power Systems Optimization. Publishing MatrixRom
Management. Bucharest: AGIR (2006). (2012).
11. Hawbaker, Benjamin Forrest, Analyzing 18. Scutaru, Gheorghe, Advanced Electric
the effects of component reliability on Systems. Brasov: Transilvania University
Naval Integrated Power System quality (2012).
service. Massachusetts: Institute of 19. Sohrab, A., Mohamad, D., A Maintenance
Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Optimization Program for Utilities '
Engineering, System Design and Transmission and Distribution Systems.
Management Program (2008). Available: Lincoln: Department of Electrical
http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/44844 Engineering Principal Research Engineer
12. Mamoh, J. A., Zhu, J.Z., Kaddah, S. S., University of Nebraska, Omaha Public
Optimal load shedding study of naval -ship Power District.
power system using the Everett 20. Spyropoulos, Dionysios V., Mitronikas,
optimization technique. Original Research Epamindas D., A Review on the Faults of
Article, Electric Power System Research, Electric Machines Used in Electric Ships.
Volume 60 , Issue 3 , Pages : 142-152, Hindawi Publishing Corporation,
(2002). Advances in Power Electronics, Volume
13. Mitronikas, E.D., Tatakis, E.C., Migrating 2013,Article ID 216870,
the experience of industrial electrical Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/2
systems to ships:propulsion motors and 16870
foul detection. "Proceedings of the 21. Stănciulescu, Florin, Highly Complex
International Workshop on Electric 1st Systems Modeling Applications (Modelling
Marinlive Machines and Power of high complexity systems with
Converters" (2012). applications). Boston: WIT Press,
14. Nemţeanu, Florin, Review ITS & S. (2010). Southampton (2005).
15. Rusinaru, D., Mircea, I. Mircea, P.M., Use 22. Zhou, W., Habetler, T.G., Harley, R.G.,
of dynamic simulation in the training Bearing condition monitoring methods for
process in power systems. Craiova: electric machines: a general review.
Universitaria Publishing House (2004). "Proceedings of the IEEE International
16. Samoilescu, G., Spiridon, B., Numerical Symposium on Diagnostics for Electric
methods in electrical engineering. Machines , Power Electronics and Drives"
Constanta: "Mircea cel Batran" Naval (SDEMPED ' 07) , pp. 3-6 (2007).
Academy Publishing House (2011).
 

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RULES FOR LIMITING RISK EXPOSURE OF THE HUMAN BODY TO

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU*, Radu SERGHEI**, Florenţiu DELIU*, Laura CIZER*

* Mircea cel Bătrân Naval Academy, Constan a, România, ** Barklav Company, Constan a, România

Abstract: This paper provides an analysis of the risk exposure of the human body to electromagnetic
fields based on the European and American reference exposure levels for the general population, in
controlled and uncontrolled environments, which are corroborated with our national documents
regarding technical norms for ship equipment and products, stipulated by the international conventions
to which Romania has adhered.

1. INTRODUCTION body exposure to the electromagnetic field

within in a frequency range from 0 Hz to
In order to interpret the data measured both 300GHz ("Radio-Frequency Radiation for
with and without protective equipment, a Transmitters: A Comparison of U.S. and
comprehensive documentation was carried out European Requirements"- paper authors: Steve
based on [1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, Dillingham and Nick Cobb);
14]. e) recommendations by 1999/519/EC
a) recommendations by Specific Directive European document - Council
96/98/EC on the "maritime equipment", Recommandation on the Limitation of
implemented in Romania by Law no. Exposure of the General Public to
582/2003 of the Minister of Public Works, Electromagnetic Fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz);
Transport and Housing approving technical f) provisions of FCC American standard:
type norms regarding marine equipment and Radio-Frequency Radiation Exposure Limits.
products, stipulated by international Rule Parts 1.1310, 2.1091, and 2.1036
conventions to which Romania has adhered, (frequency range from 3 GHz to 300 GHz);
MLPLTL.ANR-EM 2003 code; g) provisions of "General safety rules" no.
b) SREN 55011:2001 Romanian standard 880/06.12.2002, Sections 4 and 5, Annexes 72,
provisions – industrial radio-frequency, 73, 74 and 75;
scientific and medical equipment (ISM). Radio h) provisions of 50166-1 and 50166-2
and electrical disturbance characteristics. SREN standards regarding the permissible
Limits and methods of measurement; limits of induced current density and the
c) SREN 60945:2001 Romanian standard biological effects associated, the specific
provisions – Navigation equipment and absorption rate – SAR, the permissible limits
systems, and maritime radiocommunication. of the electric field and magnet intensities, of
General rules. Testing methods and outcomes; the peak power density in the human body in
d) comparative analysis of European and controlled and uncontrolled environments
American norms regarding limits of human within the frequency range 3kHz - 300GHz;

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i) Government Decision HG no. 59 of 1mA/m2 - lack of effects; between 1-10mA/m2

06.09.2006 on the minimum health and safety - minor biological effects; between 10mA/m
requirements regarding the exposure of and 100mA/m2 –biological effects that are
workers to electromagnetic field hazards - already known such as: visual
Annex: Exposure limits and activation values (magnetophosphenes) and possible effects on
for electromagnetic fields; the nervous system; between 100-1000 mA/m2
j) rules for limiting general public exposure - changes in the excitability in the central
to electromagnetic fields ranging from 0 Hz to nervous system; stimulation thresholds;
300 GHz, passed by the Ministry of Public possible health risks; over 1000 mA/m2 -
Health and published in the Official Gazette of potential extrasystoles and ventricular
Romania, Part I, no. 895/03.11.2006; fibrillation, imminent health risks.
k) NATO standard: Evaluation and Control In case of permanent exposure to electric
of Personnel Exposure To Radio Frequency and magnetic fields of 50 Hz, the norm
Fields - 3 kHz to 300 GHz, promulgated in requires limitation of induced current density
February 13th, 2003; in the head and trunk to less than 10 mA/m2.
l) ICNIRP recommendations – In defining the standard values for the
International Commission On Non – Ionizing average current density, the following limits of
Radiation Protection: Guidelines for Limiting magnetic induction – B – have been taken into
Exposure to Time – Varying Electric, consideration: ranging from 5 mT – for 12
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields (up to hours of daily exposure to 150 mT - for one
300 GHz); second of daily exposure; the limits of the
m) recommendations by 2004/40/EC electric field strength – E – have also been
Directive of the European Parliament and the considered: 50 V/m, for all times of daily
European Council, as of 29 April 2004, with exposure.
regard to minimum safety requirements for
workers’ exposure to electromagnetic fields; t ≤ 80 / E , (1)
n) restrictions regarding "specific norms on
labor protection", Volume 6, 1977, ch. NSSM where t (hours/day) is the exposure time limit,
for non-ionizing radiations, DoD, and E (kV/m) is the electric field strength.
Occupational Safety and Health Inspectorate. Normally the induced current density in the
International organizations recommend body is a resulting vector expressed by:
taking measures to reduce the risk of human
body exposure to electromagnetic fields. The J = J B + J E ,  (2)
standard values regarding the limits of both
electric and magnetic fields with a frequency where JB is the density corresponding to the
of 50/60 Hz to which the human body may be magnetic flux while JE - the one
exposed are: the electric field (exposure time = corresponding to the unperturbed electric field.
8/24 hrs.): 10kV/m - professional areas; 5kV/m Thus, the basic restriction has to be interpreted
- public domain, the magnetic field (exposure as follows:
time = 8/24hrs.): 500μT - professional areas;
100 μT – public domain. J B + J E ≤ 10mA / m 2 . (3)
At the industrial frequency of 50/60Hz, the
criterion for exposure limits is the induced
Normally the summation of the two
current density since the well-established
densities is a vector product, acknowledging
effects such as interactions with excitable
this simplification involves a significant safety
membranes of nerve and muscle cells depend
margin.
on this factor [10].
Current densities are calculated by the
In this respect, the SR EN 50166 1
following relations:
standard stipulates the following ranges of
values of the induced current density and the
J E = k E ⋅ E; k E = 0,2 ; (4)
associated biological effects [8]: under
 
142
 

climate area (temperature, humidity), people’s

J B = k B ⋅ B; k B = 2 , (5) health, their clothing, etc.
Establishing the basic derivative limits is
considering that the fields through the bodies done by entering a safety factor of 10
are homogeneous. [14, 17] compared to 4W/kg ( the threshold value), so
The current density limit for f = 10 kHz that the whole body will accept an average
will be 0.1 A/m and it will linearly increase, SAR of 0.4 W/kg - in controlled environments,
2

proportional to frequency as expressed by the and of 0.08 W/kg – in uncontrolled

relation: f/100  A/m2; these values are valid for environments (in uncontrolled environments
controlled environments. In uncontrolled an additional safety factor of 5 is entered).
environments, a new additional factor of 2.5 is The EN 50166-2 Standard stipulates the
applied, so that the new relation will be f/250  allowed limits of the electric field strength as
A/m .2 well as the ones of the magnetic field in the
For frequencies of the electromagnetic human body, starting from the basic
2 2
field ranging from a few MHz or GHz, the restrictions  f/100 A/m and  f/250 A/m .
Specific Absorption Rate – SAR – is used as a When exposed to pulses of the
significant size in order to establish the electromagnetic fields in the microwave range
exposure limits of the human body. (over 300 MHz), the Specific absorption - SA -
An increased risk to health was reported at represents a significant measure, its basic limit
the threshold value of the SAR ranging is 10 mJ /kg, in controlled environments, and
between 1 and 4W/ body kg, depending on the 2mJ/kg in uncontrolled environments [15,16].

Table no. 1. Limits of field strength and power density in controlled environments, in case of continuous
exposure

Value of Electric Power Density,

Value of Magnetic
Field Frequency (MHz) Field Strength average value
Field Strength (A/m)
(V/m) (W/m2)
0.01-0.045 614 35.6 -
0.045-1.000 614 1.6/f -
1.000-10.000 614/f 1.6/f -
10,000-400,000 61,4 0.16 10
400-2000 3.07 x f 1/2 8.14 x 10-3 x f 1/2 f/40
2000-300,000 137 0.364 50

Table no. 2. Limits of field strength and power density in uncontrolled environments, in case of
continuous exposure

Field Frequency Value of Electric Value of Magnetic Power Density,

(MHz) Field Strength (V/m) Field Strength (A/m) average value (W/m2)
0.01-0.045 275 15,6 -
0.045-1 275 0.7/f -
1-10 275/f 0.7/f -
10-400 27.5 0.07 2

 
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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

Field Frequency Value of Electric Value of Magnetic Power Density,

(MHz) Field Strength (V/m) Field Strength (A/m) average value (W/m2)
400-2000 1.37 x f 1/2 3.64 x 10-3 x f 1/2 f/200
2000-300,000 61.4 0.163 10

Table no. 3. Limits of field strength and peak power density in controlled environments

Field Frequency Value of Electric Value of Magnetic Peak Power Density

(MHz) Field Strength (V/m) Field Strength (A/m) (W/m2)
0.01-1 20,000 x f 0,675 50 -
1-10 20,000/f 50/f -
10-400 2000 5 10, 000
400-2000 100 x f 1/2 0.25 x f 1/2 25 x f
2000-300,000 4500 11.5 50, 000

Table no. 4. Limits of field strength and peak power density in uncontrolled environments

Field Frequency Value of Electric Value of Magnetic Peak Power Density

(MHz) Field Strength (V/m) Field Strength (A/m) (W/m2)
0.01-1 8700 x f 0,675 22 -
1-10 8700/f 22/f -
10-400 900 2.24 2000
400-2000 45 x f 1/2 0.112 x f 1/2 5xf
2000-300,000 2000 5 10.000

In case of simultaneous exposure of the actual reference levels was made on the
body to multiple independent sources of field principle of the accumulation of heat effects or
of various frequencies, the assessment of electrical stimulation effects on the body.

Table no. 5. A comparison between the European and American reference exposure levels for the
general public in controlled and uncontrolled environments

Whole Localized
Current Localized
Body SAR Power
Frequency Magnetic Flux Density SAR
Average (Head and Density,
Range Density (mT) (mA/m2) (limbs)
SAR Trunk) S (W/m2)
(rms) (W/kg)
(W/kg) (W/kg)
0 Hz 40 — — — — —
0–>1 Hz — 8 — — — —
1–4 Hz — 8/f — — — —
4–1000 Hz — 2 — — — —
1.0–100 kHz — f/500 — — — —
0.1–10 MHz — f/500 0.08 2 4 —
0.01–10 GHz — — 0.08 2 4 —
10–300 GHz — — — — — 10

 
144
 

Equivalent
H-field
E-field Strength B-field Frequency Plane-Wave
Strength
(V/m) (µT) Range Power Density
(A/m)
Seq(W/m2)
0–1 Hz — 3.2 x 104 4 x 104 —
1–8 Hz 10,000 3.2 x 104/f2 4 x 104/f2 —
8–25 Hz 10,000 4000/f 5000/f —
25–800 Hz 250/f 4/f 5/f —
0.8–3 kHz 250/f 5 6.25 —
3–150 kHz 87 5 6.25 —
0.15–1 MHz 87 0.73/f 0.92/f —
1–10 MHz 87/f1/2 0.73/f 0.92/f —
10–400 MHz 28 0.073 0.092 2
0.4–2 GHz 1375 f1/2 0.0037 f1/2 0.0046 f1/2 f/200
2–300 GHz 61 0.16 0.20 10

2. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF electromagnetic fields (unperturbed RMS

THE RESULTS OF FIELD values)" drawn up by ICNIRP - International
MEASUREMENTS, WITH AND Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
WITHOUT PROTECTIVE Protection, also mentioned in the Romanian
EQUIPMENT Labor Protection Rules no. 880 as well as the
NATO - STANAG standard regulations -
Following a well-documented research Evaluation And Control of Personnel
work, our choice for comparison was "The Exposure to Radio Frequency Fields - 3 kHz to
reference levels for occupational exposure to 300 GHz.
electric and magnetic fields and time varying

Table no. 6. Reference levels for occupational exposure to time varying electric and magnetic
fields, and electromagnetic fields (unperturbed RMS values)

Equivalent Plane
H- Magnetic B- Magnetic
E - Electric Field Wave Power
Frequency Range Field Strength Flux Density
Strength (V/m) Density - Sech
(A/m) (µT)
(W/m2)
Up to 1 Hz - 1.63 · 105 2 x 105 -
1 – 8 Hz 20,000 1.63 · 105/f2 -
8 – 25 Hz 20.000 2 x 104/f 2 x 105/f2 -
0.025 – 0.82 kHz 500/f 20/f 25/f -
0.82 – 65 kHz 610 24,4 30.7 -
0.065 – 1 MHz 610 1.6/f 2.0/f -
1 – 10 MHz 610/f 1.6/f 2.0/f -
10 – 400 MHz 61 0.16 0.2 10
400 – 2000 MHz 3f1/2 0.008f1/2 0.001f1/2 f/40
2 – 300 GHz 137 0.36 0.45 50

 
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Table no. 7. Permissible levels of RF field exposure, uncontrolled environments

Medium Time,
Frequency E - Electric H- Magnetic Power Density,
Tmed (min)
Range (MHz) Field (V/m) Field (A/m) S (mW/cm2)
E2, S sau H2
0.003 – 0.1 614 163 (102; 106) 6 6
0.1 – 1.34 614 16.3/f (102; 104/f2) 6 6
1,34 - 3 823,8/f 16.3/f (180/f2; 104/f2) 2
f /3 6
3 - 30 823,8/f 16,3/f (180/f2; 104/f2) 30 6
(0.2; 9,4 x 30
30 – 100 27.5 158.3/f1,668
105/f3,336) 0.0636f1,337
100 - 300 27.5 0.0729 0,2 30 30
300 - 3000 - - f/1500 30 -
3000 – 15,000 - - f/1500 90,000/f
15,000 –
- - 10 616,000/f1/2
300,000

With reference to the above tables the of 10-400 MHz, and respectively a level of
foolowing remarks are to be pointed out: 1.375·f 1/2 - 3·f 1/2 V/m - for the electric field,
1. At a mains frequency of 50/60 Hz, the 0.0037·f 1/2 – 0.08·f ½ A/m - for the magnetic
reference level of the electric field strength is field and f/200 – f/40 W/m2 - for the power
10 kV/m (according to the table) and 0.5 mT density in the range of 400 - 2000 MHz. The
for the magnetic field.; NATO - STANAG standard regulations
2. For frequencies (occupational exposure) stipulate levels of: 27.5-61.4 V/m - for the
of up to 100 kHz, the limit for the electric electric field, 0.0729-0.163 A/m - for the
fields may be exceeded by a factor of 2. magnetic field and 2-10W/m2 - for the power
The data resulted from measurements density in the range of 100 - 300 MHz, and
reveal that within the considered frequency respectively a level of f/1500 – f/300 mW/cm2,
ranges (88-200 MHz and 200 MHz - 2.2 GHz) or f/150 – f/30 W/m2 for the power density in
the electric field strengths and radiated power the range of 300 - 3000 MHz .
densities do not exceed the basic restrictions
for the health protection according to both the 3. CONCLUSIONS
European norms and the U.S. standards due to
the fact that the power strengths of the radio Due to the lack of measurement sensors in
stations working in the frequency ranges the analyzer used in frequency ranges below
covered by the measurements are of small 80 MHz and above 2 GHz, no measurements
values. The power standard of stations were taken for the frequency ranges with
working in the range of 156-174 MHz powerful signal sources (radio and radar)
(maritime VHF) is 1W in ports, and 25 W onboard the ship, which are the main risk
outside them. factors for the onboard personnel. For certain
Thus, the maximum values measured radio stations in the range of 4-30 MHz
for the electric field strength do not exceed 1 (marine HF) the power strength ranges
V/m, whereas for the electromagnetic power between 400-750 W, while for other stations,
density they do not exceed 0,02 µW/cm2. strengths of up to 1.5 kW are used. For some
The European Standard stipulates radar stations, the 9 GHz- range transmission
levels of: 28-61 V/m - for the electric field, strengths are 15 and 25 kW.
0.073 - 0.16 A/m – for the magnetic field and Due to the fact that both the constitutive
2-10W/m2 – for the power density in the range parameters of the propagation medium (ε, μ)

146
 

and the air wave impedance (Z0)are practically generale. Metode de încercare şi rezultate
constant, in the absence of suitable sensors the impuse;
measured values can be linearly extrapolated 4. Analiza comparativă a normelor europene
to other frequency ranges in order to see the şi americane cu privire la limitele de
exact values that can be reached by the field expunere la câmp electromagnetic a
strengths and power density. Thus, by organismului uman în gama de frecvenţa O
extrapolating the electric field strength Hz la 300 GHz, lucrarea „Radio-Freqnency
radiated by the radio station at the power of Radiation for Transmitters: A Comparison
100 W (0.2509 V m - value measured on the of U.S. and European Requirements”,
bridge), at 25 kW (the value of the autori: Steve Dillingham şi Nick Cobb);
transmission strength power), a value of the 5. Documentul european 1999/519/EC –
radiated electric field strength of 62 725 V / m Council Recommandation, of 12 Iuly
is obtained. This value is particularly 1999, on the Limitation of Exposure of the
dangerous for the human factor onboard the General Public to Electromagnetic Fields
ship and exceeds by far the permissible levels (OHz to 300 GHz);
for the human body, according to both 6. Standardul american FCC Radio-Frequency
European and American standards. Radiation Exposure Limits. Rule Parts
The standard values of the electric field 1.1310, 2.1091, and 2.1036 (gama de
strength allowed are 27 V/m in the frequency frecvenţă 3 GHz – 300 GHz);
range of 100-300 MHz. 7. Normele generale de protecţia muncii nr.
Since all regulations in force stipulate the 880/06.12.2002, Secţiunile 4 şi 5, Anexele
limitation of emission power in VHF range to nr. 72, 73, 74 şi 75;
1 W when in port, the power densities 8. Standardele româneşti SREN 50166-1 şi
measured on deck have small values. In order SREN 50166-2, referitoare la limitele
to obtain conclusive values of the radiated admise ale densităţii curentului indus şi
power density, onboard measurements are efectele biologice asociate, limitele ratei
required in all frequency ranges of stations specifice de absorbţie – SAR, limitele
outside the port as well, while sailing in admise ale intensităţii câmpului electric ale
formation. celui magnetic şi ale densităţii de putere de
vârf în corpul omenesc, pentru medii
REFERENCES controlate şi necontrolate, în gama de
frecvenţă 3kHz - 300GHz;
1. Directiva Specifică 96/98/EC, referitoare la 9. Hotărârea Guvernului României, HG nr. 59,
„Echipamentul maritim”, obligatorie de la din 06.09.2006, privind cerinţele minime
1 ianuarie 1999, transpusă în România prin de securitate şi sănătate referitoare la
Ordinul ministrului lucrărilor publice, expunerea lucrătorilor la riscuri generate
transporturilor şi locuinţei nr. 582/2003, de câmpurile electromagnetice – Anexă:
pentru aprobarea normelor tehnice de tip a Valori limită de expunere şi valori de
echipamentelor şi produselor pentru nave declanşare a acţiunii pentru câmpurile
maritime, prevăzute de convenţiile electromagnetice;
internaţionale la care România este parte, 10. Normele privind limitarea expunerii
cod MLPLTL.ANR-EM 2003; populaţiei generale la câmpuri
2. Standardul românesc SREN 55011:2001 – electromagnetice de la 0Hz la 300GHz,
Echipamente de radiofrecvenţă industriale, elaborate de Ministerul Sănătăţii Publice şi
ştiinţifice şi medicale (ISM). Caracteristici publicate în Monitorul Oficial al României,
de perturbaţii radioelectrice. Limite şi Partea I, Nr. 895/03.11.2006;
metode de măsurare; 11. Standardul NATO: Evaluation and Control
3. Standardul românesc SREN 60945:2001 – of Personnel Exposure To Radio
Echipamente şi sisteme de navigaţie şi Frequency Fields – 3 KHz to 300 GHz,
radiocomunicaţii maritime. Reguli promulgat la 13 febr.2003;

 
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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

12. Recomandările ICNIRP – International 15. Hortopan, G., Principii şi tehnici de

Commission On Non – Ionizing Radiation COMPATIBILITATE
Protection: Guidelines for Limiting ELECTROMAGNETICĂ, Editura Tehnică,
Exposure to Time – Varying Electric, Bucureşti, 1998
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields (up 16. Ignea, A., Măsurări şi teste în
to 300 GHz); Compatibilitatea Electromagnetică,
13. Directiva 2004/40/EC a Parlamentului Editura Waldpress, Timişoara, 1996
European şi a Consiliului European, din 29 17. Schwab, J.A., Compatibilitatea
aprilie 2004, privind cerinţele minime de Electromagnetică, Editura Tehnică,
siguranţă a lucrătorilor la expunerea în Bucureşti, 1996
câmpuri electromagnetice; 18. Sotir, A., Moşoiu, T., Compatibilitate
14. Radu, S., Introducere în Compatibilitate Electromagnetică, Editura Militară,
Electromagnetică, vol.I, Ecranarea Bucureşti, 1997
aparaturii electronice, Editura Gheorghe
Asachi, Iaşi, 1995

 
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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

ABOUT SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS OPERATION

Constantin STRIMBU*

*Faculty of Aeronautic Management, “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Some issues regarding the analysis of single-phase voltage rectifier operation will be presented
in this paper. The switch is an uncontrolled-type, a diode in this case, which is considered as an ideal
one. The expressions of the parameters characterizing the rectifier operation are computed in the paper.
Their variations depending on load are also discussed.

Keywords: rectifier, diode, single-phase

1. INTRODUCTION i S   i C  I S e   t   ctg 

        (2)
The schematic of an angle-phase voltage u S  R i S  U M sin  e   t   ctg 
rectifier is presented in figure 1. where:
   

 UM
 I S  sin   I M sin  (3)
 R
    p    ctg 
sin  p  sin  e
The following notations were used:

Fig.1. Single-phase voltage rectifier with diode tg  RC

R
The steady-state signals expressions are the Z
following [1]: 1  RC 2

The diode is “on”: t   p ,     IM 
UM (4)

 UM R
i S  R sin t  I M sin t U I
 Im  M  M
i C   C U M cos t Z cos 
      (1)
1
i  U
M   C  sin t    
2
 R2

 I m sin t   


The diode is “off”: t   , 2   p   

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

2. CIRCUIT ANALISIS UM
U m p 

2.1 The Voltages and Currents Average
Values U d ef 
p
 M
U
2
According to [2], the expressions of the (10)
average values of the circuit signals are the I p  1 U M  I M
following:  R 
 
Um - average value of the output
p I S p  I M
voltage: 

U  1 For pure capacitive load, RC   ,  
U m p  M cos  p  cos   2
2  (5)
 
it results:
 1  sin 2  e
 
  p    ctg
 p  9 0 0 ,   180 0 (11)
U m p  UM
U d ef  - RMS value of the output
p U d ef   UM
voltage: p
(12)
I p  0
U d ef  
UM

p 2 I S p  0

      p  sin  p   cos  p    A   
(6)
where 2.2 Rectifier Parameters

A
sin 3 
cos 

1  e 2   ctg  According to [2], the following parameters
are defined:
I p - average value of the current The periodicity factor:
U m p 1  1
flowing through the diode: km   cos  p  

I p  1 U M cos  p    1     UM 2  cos  (13)
 
(7)
2 R  1  sin 2  e p
 
     ctg
I S  - average value of the load (R)
p The k e factor:
current: 
U d ef
p
 1
I  1 ke   
I S  p  M cos  p   UM 2
2  cos  (8)

 1  sin 2  e
 
  p     ctg 
   
     p  sin  p   cos  p    A    (14)
unde
Limit cases:
For pure resistive load, RC  0 ,   0 it A
sin 3 
cos 

1  e 2   ctg 
results:
The shape factor:
 p  0 0 ,   90 0 (9) k
kf  e (15)
km
The wave factor:
k u  k f2  1                 (16)
 
 
  
The graphic representations of the four
parameters variation as functions of load

150
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
  arctg (RC )   are shown in the figures
below. The shape factor, k f
The graphing was performed by using 1.6
Mathcad.
1.4
8 
The periodicity factor, k m
1.3
1  kf  6 

1.2
0.8  4 

1.1
0.6  2 
 km 
1
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0.4 
2  3  a tan( 4RC
  )  6  7 

0.2 

0 
0.00157  0.32  0.63 0.94  1.26 1.57
    a tan( RC)   Fig.4 k f factor variation as function of load,
  arctg (RC )
Fig.2 k m factor variation as function of
load,   arctg (RC ) The wave factor, k u
1.
The k e factor 5
1.
5  1.
1.3 2
8 
1.2 0.
5  ku  9
1.1
 ke  3  0.
1
6
0.8 0.
8  3
0.7
5  0
0.6 0.0015 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
3  7  2   3 a tan( 4RC
  )  6  7 
0.
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
5 
2      a tan( RC)   6 
3   4   7 

Fig.3. k e factor variation as function of load, Fig.5 k u factor variation as function of load,
  arctg (RC )   arctg (RC )

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering

3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Considering the limit cases, the following
values of the rectifier parameters are The following conclusions are deriving
computed: from the study of the half-wave voltage
For the pure resistive load, rectifiers equipped with uncontrolled electrical
RC  0 , valves:
 p  00 The diode turn-on angle  p has an
it results: increasing variation of load (R);
1 The diode turn-off angle  has an
k m  0.318  decreasing variation of load (R);

1 The periodicity factor k m is an increasing
k e  0.707  (17) function of load (R);
2
The k e factor is an increasing function of
k f  1.571
load (R) too;
k u  1.21
The shape factor k f is a decreasing
For pure capacitive load, function of load (R);
RC   , The wave factor k u is also a decreasing
 p  90 0 , function of load (R).
it results:
km  1 REFERENCES
ke  2 (18)
1. Cerbulescu, D. Convertoare statice de
k f 1 putere: Redresoare Craiova: Editura
ku  Scrisul Românesc (1995).
2. Matlac, I. Convertoare electroenergetice
Timişoara: Editura Facla (1987).

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SOME ASPECTS ABOUT AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES RELIABILITY

Daniel BOSNICEANU*, Marian VATAVU*

* PhD students, Faculty of Mechatronics and Integrated Armament Systems,

Military Technical Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Based on the main factors which alter the durability of a structure (the loading range, the
mechanical features of the materials, the environmental and technological factors, etc.) the present paper
presents a way for assessing the aircraft structure durability. In this respect, there has been endorsed the
linear cumulative damage criterion Palmgren-Miner results, used in the assessment of average damage
level attained by the end of operating period.

Keywords: fatigue life, durability, failure, reliability

1. INTRODUCTION
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Take into consideration the main factors
which determine the service lifetime of an Although many techniques have been
item or an aircraft structure (the loading range, devised to satisfy specific conditions, the
she mechanical features of the materials, the simplest and the most practical technique is
environmental and technological factors etc ). Palmgrcn-Miner.
There has been estimated the structural life - This method merely proposes that the
based on a sample group of representative fraction of fatigue life used up in service is the
structures of a same kind - according to the ratio of the applied number of load cycles at a
romanian current standards. given level divided by the allowable number
There has also been considered the of load cycles to failure at the same variable
influence of fatigue phenomena (reiterated stress level. If several levels of variable
loads) upon the structures regarded. stresses arc applied to a detail, then the sum of
Prediction of the fatigue performance is a the respective cycle ratios is the fraction of
simple process but one beset by several fatigue life used up.
complexities. Load magnitude and sequence When the cycle ratio sum equals unity all
are very important features of the process. of the potential service life has been used. It is
The need to increase by 3-4 times the important to notice that there is just so much
landing gears durability to the fact that the potential fatigue life available for operational
problem of choosing the material brand, the utilization.
designing solution and the admissible stresses The landing gear's load range can be
is solved by reasons of fatigue strength and not expressed through working cycles ground-
static strength, as well using fracture air-ground (GAG) because within the landing
mechanics principles.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

gear is used up the biggest part of the The fatigue strength evaluation must show
structure's durability. by analysis and/or testing that the structure can
The durability fraction used up through withstand the typical loading spectrum
iterated loads (fatigue) by one GAG cycle is expected in service.
called wear cycle (relative damage) (1). With respect to fatigue life verification
1 testing of safe-life structures, the aviation
N=
Dt regulation (FAR) adheres to the use of the
(1) following scatter factors:
N - Total number of landings Table 1
Dt -damage produced by iterated loads Number of test Scatter factor
during one GAG cycle: Dt ∈ (0,11]. specimens
1 3.00
For instance, a relative damage of D t = 0.5 2 2.58
means that the landing gear should face a 3 2.43
double number of GAG cycles, thus for a 4 2.36
resource of 3000 landings, the structure should
resist up to 6000 GAG cycles. This means that the test should verify the
safe-life times the factor without failure, or, if,
D = PREDICTED _ LIFE = ∑ (
n1 n2
+
n
+ ..... + K ) = 1.0 failure occurs earlier the safe-life is designated
N1 N 2 NK as test life divided by the scatter factor.
(2) The above short review of the theoretical
where: notions and of the nowadays settlements in the
nK - number of loading cycles at the K th field of aircraft structures durability has used,
stress level; for the accomplishment of the testing program,
NK - number of loading cycles to failure for a chosen structure of the landing gear made of
th D.16 AT aluminium alloy.
the K stress level based on constant 2
σ
amplitude − N for the applicable material
The stress (daN/mm ) spectrum to be
applied locally to the part consists of 5 loading
and stress concentration factor.
sequences arranged as shown in table 2.
K - number of stress levels considered.
Table 2
Fatigue crack initiation is assumed to occur Mean Varying Number Max. Min.
when the predicted life is equal to 1.0 (2). stress Stress of Stress Stress
Cycles
There are three parameters which alter the (n)
magnitude of the summation of the cycle (1) (2) (3) (4)=(1)+(2) (5)=(1)-(2)
ratios: 13.0 8.7 70 21.7 4.3
12.0 10 25.0 1.0
1.First, there is the effect caused by the
13.3 150 26.3 -0.3
order of load applications. Consider, for 14.1 30 27.1 -1.1
example, two different stress levels, f1 and f2 14.5 6.1 50 20.6 7.4
and their cyclic lives. N2 and N2. respectively. 12.9 140 27.4 1.6
If f1 is greater than f2 and if it is applied first, 18.0 150 32.5 -3.5
the life will be shorter than if f2 is applied first. 18.8 40 32.8 -4.3
7.5 17.5 70 25.0 -10.0
2.The second effect on summation of cycle 18.5 60 26.0 -11.0
ratios is due to the amount of damage caused 20.1 40 27.6 -12.6
by continuous loading at the same level. The 20.8 40 28.3 -13.3
summation of cycle ratios for different stress 19.0 12.0 150 31.0 7.0
levels is accurate only if the number of 12.8 70 31.8 6.2
continuous cycles at each stress level is small.
10.0 14.6 180 24.6 -4.6
For the most aircraft structures, the loading 15.3 120 25.3 -5.3
is random and the stress level is constantly 15.9 50 25.9 -5.9
changing. 16.7 30 26.7 -6.7
3.The third parameter which affects the Total : 1450 cycles
summation of the cycle ratios is whether the
fatigued part is notched or not.

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3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND in order to increase the durability of the
CONCLUSIONS analyzed structures.

For the tested structure, after 1000 cycles REFERENCES

(landings) there has been determined
cumulative damage of D = 0.05751. 1. Cioclov. D., Rezistenta si fiabilitatea la
The calculated life. solicitari variabile. Timisoara: Ed. Facia
(1975).
1000 2. Draghici. I.. Indrumar de proiectare in
NC = = 17388cycles
0.05751 (3) constuctia de masini. Bucuresti: Ed. Tehnica
(1982).
The best estimate of predicted fatigue 3. Iordache. M., Aspects concerning the
life: durability of aircraft structures with regard to
the landing gear. Conferinta Nationala
17388
OPROTEH-95, Bacau (1995).
N cb = = 5796cycles 4. Kumar, R., Dash, P.K., Design and analyses
3 .0 (4) of main landing gear structure of a transport
aircraft and fatique life estimation for the
The bottom line is that by adopting the critical LUG, International Journal of
Palmgren-Mincr cumulative damage criterion, Mechanical and Production Engineering (Oct.
corrected with the stresses interaction factor, 2013)
there can be estimated the average damage 5. Niu C.Y. Airframe Structural Design.
level reached at the end of the operational Technical Book Company, Los Angeles
period and also, can be established (1988).
technological means for designing and repair

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COMPUTER SIMULATION BASED COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE

SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST IRON AND STEEL CASTING

Aurel CRIŞAN*, Ioan CIOBANU*, Daniela IONESCU*, Maria STOICĂNESCU*

*Transilvania University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The authors conducted a comparative study on the solidification of a part cast from three
different alloys. The study was achieved by computer simulation and concerned the solidification of a
stepped casting. The analysed cases were of castings from 0.1% C steel, 0.5%C steel and eutectic
spheroidal graphite cast iron, respectively. The alloys differ by their casting temperature and their
solidification temperature interval. Analysis included the influence of the alloy type on
macrosolidification parameters like solidification time, hot spot position, temperature distribution in the
casting at the end of solidification, map of the solidus front displacement, extent of the two-phase area
(solidus + liquidus) in the casting, aspect of the cooling curves, etc.

Keywords: alloys, steel, solidification

1. INTRODUCTION shows the part studied by simulation. Figure 2

shows the studied casting – mould subassembly.
A comparative study was carried out on the The mould is made from sand hardened with
solidification of stepped parts cast from two sodium silicate and CO2. Solidification was
simulated for parts cast from the following alloys:
steels of different chemical compositions, and
- carbon steel with 0.1%C;
from eutectic grey cast iron. In the three - carbon steel with 0.53%C;
studied cases both the casting temperature of - eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron with
the liquid alloy and the solidification time 4.2 % CE (equivalent carbon).
interval differ.

2. AIM OF THE PAPER AND WORKING

METHOD

The solidification of the casting (test piece)

from eutectic cast iron was simulated at
equilibrium (constant temperature solidifica-
tion without reproducing the undercooling and
the recalescence occurring during solidifica-
tion). The aim was to reveal the extent to which
the solidification interval influences the
solidification parameters of a casting
(solidification time, hot spot position, etc.). Figure 1
Figure 1 Casting

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

for the mould sand: density ρFO=1550Kg/m3,

specific heat cFO=1050J/KgK; λFO=0.65W/mK.
3. RESULTS

The influence of the solidification

interval (TL-TS) on the following
solidification parameters was analysed:
- the total solidification time (related
to the initial moment, tsol);
- the total actual duration of the
solidification of the hot spot (the time elapsed
between the beginning and the end of
solidification: tES= tsol – tstart sol);
- the position (coordinates) of the
ending point of solidification (xNOD; yNOD,
zNOD);
- the distribution of the isotherms in the
casting at the end of solidification;
- the map of the solidus front
displacement;
- the extent of the two-phase area
(solidus + liquidus) at a given time, in the
case of steels;
Figure 2 Casting – mould assembly used in - the aspect of the cooling curves
simulation. (temperature variation) in the hot spot;
- the variation in time of the solidus
In all cases simulation maintained the fraction (kinetics of solidification) in the hot
same overheating of the liquid alloy in spot;
relation to the liquidus temperature. The - the evolution of the instantaneous
overheating related to TL was ΔT= T0ME - TL cooling rate in the hot spot versus time;
– 1550C. - the distribution of temperature along a
line/row and a column, respectively in the
Table 1 shows the values for the thermo-
casting-mould assembly at a given time.
physical characteristics of the alloys considered
Table 2 and figures 3 to 10 feature the
in simulation. The following values were used
obtained results.

Table 1 Values of the thermo-physical quantities used in simulation

Overheating Overheating
Solidus Liquidus Initial of the alloy of the alloy
No. Type of alloy
temperature temperature temperature in relation to in relation to
TL TS
Symbol - TS TL T0ME ΔT ΔT
0 0 0 0 0
u.m. - C C C C C
1 0.1%C steel 1495 1530 1685 155 190
2 0.53%C steel 1430 1495 1650 155 220
3 Eutectic 1150 1150 1305 155 155
spheroidal
graphite cast
iron

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Specific
Specific Thermal Thermal Latent
Liquid alloy heat in
No. heat in conductibility conductibility solidification
density liquid
solid state in solid state in liquid state heat
state
Symbol ρ CS CL λS λL L
u.m. Kg/m3 J/kg/K J/kg/K W/m/K W/m/K J/Kg
1 7200 750 850 30 28 270000
2 7200 750 850 29 27 270000
3 6800 750 850 35 30 250000

Table 2 Results on the influence of the solidification interval on the parameters of solidification
Actual
Start time of End time of solidification Coordinates of
No. Type of alloy
solidification solidification time of hot the hot spot
spot
Symbol - TSTART SOL TSOL tEF SOL xNOD; yNOD;
zNOD
u.m. - s s s mm
1 0.1%C steel 166.5 589.5 423.0 68,132,104
2 0.53%C steel 166.5 684.0 517.5 60;132,104
4 Eutectic spheroidal 573.0 718.75 145.75 68,132,104
graphite cast iron

a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic spheroidal graphite cast  

iron
Figure 3 Isotherms at the end of hot spot solidification

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ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

a.) 0.1 %C steel b.) 0.53 %C steel c.) Eutectic spheroidal

graphite cast iron
Figure 4 Map of the displacement of the solidification front

a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic spheroidal graphite cast
iron
Figure 5 Distribution of the two-phase area (solidus + liquidus) at time t = 150s

a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic cast iron
Figure 6 Variation of temperature in the hot spot

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a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic cast iron
Figure 7 Variation of the solidus fraction in the hot spot

a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic cast iron

Figure 8 Cooling rate in the hot spot

a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic cast iron

Figure 9 Distribution of temperature along line L= 19 at time t = 150s

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a.) 0.1%C steel b.) 0.53%C steel c.) Eutectic cast iron

Figure 10 Distribution of temperature along column C=9 at time t=1500s

4. CONCLUSIONS - for steel parts the actual solidification

takes longer (tSOL - tSTART SOL) than for the
The results presented in table 2 and in eutectic cast iron part; this can be explained by
figures 6 to 10 yield the following conclusions: the larger overheating of steels in relation to the
- the position of the hot spot is identical solidus temperature, as the overheating in
in all three studied cases, what shows that the relation to the solidus temperature is equal to
solidification interval does not influence this the overheating in liquid state plus the
solidification parameter at all; this can be solidification interval. Thus during
explained by the fact that the dynamics of heat solidification the steel parts have to discharge a
transmission from the casting to the mould is larger quantity of heat – the latent heat plus the
not influenced by the solidification interval, but heat corresponding to the solidification
only by the geometry of the casting and of the interval;
mould. - the start time of solidification (tSTART
- for the same overheating in relation to SOL) and the end time of solidification (tSOL) for
the liquidus temperature (which in this case the eutectic cast iron part are higher than those
was ΔT = T0M -TL =1550C) the solidification for the steel parts; this is explained by the
time of the hot spot (in steels of different smaller casting temperature of cast iron; thus
chemical compositions and different solidus the intensity of heat transfer to the mould is
and liquidus temperatures and in eutectic cast smaller for cast iron parts and the solidification
iron) is influenced to a relatively great extent. time is greater;
This influence can be. explained by the - in the case of the two studied steels, at
different amounts of thermal energy (heat) the same overheating in relation to the liquidus
discharged by the alloy during solidification; temperature, the magnitude of the solidification
- in the case of steels solidification interval ΔT = TL – TS, (i.e. the liquidus and
starts at a significantly higher rate than in the solidus temperatures) has little influence on the
part cast from eutectic cast iron. (Table 2, extent of the liquidus area. For the same filling
tSTART SOL OTEL = 166.5s while tSTART SOL FONTA = time of the mould (for example at t = 1250s)
573.0s); this can be explained by the the position of the liquidus front is
temperature difference at the initial moment approximately the same (figure 5).
between the liquid alloy and the casting mould - in the case of the two studied steels, at
(T0ME – TFO ), which is significantly greater for the same overheating in relation to the liquidus
steels that are cast at a higher temperature; for temperature, the magnitude of the solidification
this reason the heat transfer from the liquid interval ΔT = TL – TS, (i.e. the liquidus and
steel to the mould immediately after filling of solidus temperatures) influences the magnitude
the mould is much more intensive for steels, of the two-phase area (solidus + liquidus) and
what determines a higher cooling rate of the its evolution in time in the section of the
alloy at the beginning of cooling in liquid state; casting. This is caused by the modification of
the position of the solidus front. For the same

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filling time of the mould (for example at t = time interval; alloys solidifying at constant
1250s) the two-phase area is smaller in the steel temperature (eutectic cast iron) have significantly
with a smaller solidification interval (0.1%C swifter solidification kinetics.
steel) and a higher casting temperature, the - the general aspect of the variation curves
solidified area being more extended (figure 5). of the cooling rates for the three studied alloys is
similar, given the presence of peaks of the cooling
- a two-phase area does not occur in the rates in the first stage of cooling and immediately
eutectic cast iron, only a liquidus area, and at after completed solidification of each volume
the same time (a-150s since the filling of the element;
mould) its extent is comparable to the extent of - in the studied steels and cast iron the
the two-phase + liquidus areas in steels with a aspect of the evolution curves of the cooling rate in
solidification interval (for the same initial the hot spot differs as regards the cooling rate
overheating) (figure 5); peaks, occurring prior to the beginning of
- in the case of the two studied steels no solidification and at the end of solidification;
differences occur as to the start time of - the temperature distribution curves along
solidification (tSTART SOL); differences occur, a line/row or column of the casting-mould system,
at a given time, are of similar shape, but differ by
however, related to the end of solidification
the values of the temperatures; the different values
(tSOL) and the actual duration of hot spot are explained by the different casting temperatures
solidification (tSOL - tSTART SOL); the 0.53%C of the studied alloys.
steel has a greater end of solidification time
than the 0.1%C steel, due to the larger 5. REFERENCES
solidification interval;
- in the studied steels (alloys with a 1. Ionescu D., Ionescu I., Ciobanu I., Monescu V. -
3D mathematical modelling of solidification of
solidification interval) the obtained evolution
castings from alloys solidifying within a
curves of temperature in the hot spot are temperature interval, in: Metalurgia International,
influenced by the casting temperature (by the Special issue no.6, 2013, pp. 105 - 110, ISSN
magnitude of the solidification interval and the 1582-2214
liquidus temperature), as well as by the fact 2. Ciobanu I., Ionescu D., Monescu V., Varga B.,
that during solidification temperature is no Munteanu I. S., Bedo T., Crişan A., Pop M. Alin –
longer constant; the slope of the variation curve Simulation of Solidification of Parts Cast from
of temperature within the solidification interval Alloys Solidifying within a Temperature Interval,
is greater when the casting temperature (liquidus Editura Universităţii Transilvania din Braşov,
temperature) is smaller; Brasov, 2014, ISBN 978-606-19-0337-5
- in the studied alloys with a solidification 3. Ciobanu I., Monescu V., Munteanu S.I., Crişan
interval (steels) the evolution curves of the solidus A. 3D Simulation of the Solidification of Castings,
fraction in the hot spot (kinetics of solidification) Editura Universităţii Transilvania din Braşov,
differ significantly from the solidification curve of Braşov (RO), 2010, ISBN 978-973-598-678-0.
the eutectic cast iron; in the latter the evolution 4. Ionescu D. - Research Concerning the
curve of the solid fraction is significantly more Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation
abrupt, what reveal s a slower solidification kinetics of the Solidification of Castings from Alloys
in steels (alloys with a solidification interval); the Solidifying within a Temperature Interval, Teză de
greater the solidification interval is, the kinetic doctorat [PhD Thesis], Universitatea Transilvania
curves (the variation of the solidus fraction) have a din Braşov, Braşov, 2014
smaller slope, what shows that the actual
solidification of the hot spot occurs within a greater
 
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A NOVEL APPROACH FOR ARMOR APPLICATIONS OF SHEAR

THICKENING FLUIDS IN AVIATION AND DEFENSE INDUSTRY

Melih Cemal KUŞHAN*, Selim GÜRGEN*, Tolga ÜNALIR**, Sinem ÇEVİK***

* Department of Mechanical Engineering, ESOGU, Eskişehir, Turkey

** Payra Design Co. Inc., Eskişehir, Turkey
*** Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey

Abstract: At the beginning of 2000s, armor technology introduced to a new material: shear thickening
fluid (STF). Due to the thickening behavior of this fluid under the stress, liquid state of the material turns
into a solid-like state in a very limited time interval. This unique behavior of STF is intended to be used in
armor systems. This paper offers an overview of STF properties and armor applications using the STF
technology.

Keywords: Shear Thickening Fluids, Armors, Aviation, Defense Industry

1. INTRODUCTION the other armor systems not only provides

protection also flexible motion for the users.
Armor systems have a remarkable 2. SHEAR THICKENING FLUIDS
importance for the area of security and
military. From past to present there have been Shear thickening fluids are an example of
different kinds of personal armor systems used non-Newtonian fluids which have increasing
to eliminate the attacking threats. Early viscosities since shear stress is applied. Even
applications used bulk layers of leathers the shear stress reaches the upper levels, fluid
covering around the body as the personal shows solid-like behavior for a split second.
armor systems. By the emerging of advance After removing the stress from the medium,
weapons, metal armor systems came into fluids turn to the initial liquid behavior [1-9].
prominence such as steel shields. Metal armors STFs are seen as appropriate armor materials
were safe but unfortunately heavy to act freely with their unique characteristics.
during the combats. For this reason, recent History of STFs in the investigation area is
studies have been focused on ceramic quite new and not more than 50 years.
composites and light ballistic fabrics such as Improvement of the research techniques such
aramid based fabrics. as latest rheometers, scanning methods, rheo-
At the beginning of 2000s, shear optical devices and Stokesian dynamics, gave
thickening fluids (STF) were thought to be us a chance to understand the STF mechanism
used as armor materials then inevitable profoundly [10]. Because discontinuous
development in the defense industry started. characteristics may be seen at the critical shear
Usage of these fluids merely or combined with rates, stress controlled rheometers are more
convenient than conventional type rheometers.

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Beside Stokesian dynamics simulation is used Behavior of the particles in the suspension
widely to simulate the behavior of many-body is seen in Figure 2. In the shear thickening
interactions in the suspension [11]. zone, dark particles indicate the hydroclusters
Plenty of non-Newtonian fluids can be in the suspension.
found in the nature, but STFs are very rare.
The most common example is wet sand at the
beaches. Another easily accessible example is
cornstarch in water suspension whose
rheological behavior is given in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Particles in suspension [18]

2.2 Particle effects in suspensions. STFs

are obtained by constituting suspensions with
solid particles in appropriate liquids. These
suspensions can be prepared in many different
ways. Since the mechanism of STF depends on
particles behavior, particles have strong
Figure 1. Rheological behavior of 55 wt% influence in the suspension characteristics.
cornstarch in water suspension [9]
Particle effects can be defined in terms of
particle volume fraction, particle shape,
2.1 Mechanism of STFs. There are two
particle size, particle size distribution, and
main theories explaining the mechanism of
particle interactions [1, 18-21].
STFs: order-disorder and hydroclustering.
Particle volume fraction is defined as the
Hoffman made the pioneering study about
fraction of total volume by particle volume
the micromechanical of shear thickening. This
and said to be the most important parameter in
study became the basis of order-disorder
the thickening mechanism. A lower limit value
theory. He proposed that below the critical
is reported for the thickening behavior by
shear rate, particles in the suspension are in a
Barnes et al. [20]. It is stated that above the
hexagonally packed order. After the critical
volume fraction of 0.5, behavior of fluid
shear rate, this packed particles disorder and
changes drastically with the change in shear
particles aggregate. This transition from order
rate. Critical shear rate, which is defined as at
to disorder causes a drastic increase in the
which the shear thickening begins, decreases
viscosity [12].
with the increase of particle volume fraction.
Hydrocluster theory was first introduced by
Figure 3 shows the effect of the particle
Bardy with Stokesian dynamics simulations
volume in the suspensions.
[13]. This theory was supported by neutron
scattering, rheological and rheo-optical tests as
well as computer simulations [14-17].
Hydrocluster mechanism arises from particle
interactions in the liquid suspension. Under the
high level stress, particles have contacts each
other. This effect yields an increase in the
hydrodynamic forces. Then hydroclustering
emerges which is defined as aggregation of the
particles with increased viscosity and jammed
behavior of the fluid [16, 17].

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Figure 4. Effect of particle shapes in the
suspension [20]

Particle size is another important parameter

in STF behavior. It is known that as the
particle size increases, critical shear rate
decreases [20]. Figure 5 shows the relation
between particle size and critical shear rate.
Particle size distribution affects the critical
shear rate in the suspension. It is noted that
critical shear rate increases when the particle
size distribution becomes wider. Shear
thickening can be achieved at lower shear rates
by eliminating the small particles from the
Figure 3. Effect of particle volume fraction [23] suspensions [20].
Particle shape is another parameter having
effect on the characteristics of the suspensions.
Sharp edged particles in the suspension cause
quick thickening as seen in Figure 4.
Suspension with rod particles has the critical
shear rate of 100s-1 whereas with sphere
particles this rate is about 300s-1 [20].
Beazley [24] also states that particle
rotation during flow may result in particle
interlocking and jamming. With the high
aspect ratio particles such interlockings will be
seen more easily at lower particle volume
fractions. Therefore, suspensions with high
aspect ratio particles require lower critical Figure 5. Effect of particle size in suspension [20]
volume fraction to achieve shear thickening.
Particle interactions have an influence on
the shear thickening behavior. Particles in the
suspensions may be neutral or repulsive to
another by the effects of electrostatic, entropic,
or steric interactions. It is stated that
viscosities of deflocculated suspensions are
lower at low shear rates. Shear thickening of
these fluids occurs at high shear rates. On the
other hand, viscosities of flocculated
suspensions are higher at low shear rates.
These fluids show shear thinning at high shear
rates [1, 20]. Figure 6 shows the effect of
chemically induced flocculation.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

3.1 Fabrics in protection. Ballistic fabrics

are made of high strength fibers and chosen
due to their high energy absorption capacity
and proper tenacity/weight ratio. Furthermore,
ballistic fabrics provide easy motion for users
with their flexible structures [27-29].
Energy absorption and propagation
capacity of fabric layers are related to the
tensile modulus of fibers. Fibers having high
tenacity and high elastic modulus are chosen
for production of ballistic fabrics. In addition
to this, construction of the fabrics has an
intense effect on ballistic performance. In the
Figure 6. Effect of chemically induced flocculation construction of these fabrics, warp and weft
[20] yarns are woven by using different weaving
Beside the parameters given above, types such as plain and basket types.
additional parameters can be shown as Generally, warp and weft yarns are selected
examples. Hardness of the particles is one of with identical strengths to achieve the same
these parameters. Shear thickening behavior properties in all directions [30]. Then, woven
increases with increase in hardness of the layers are piled on each other to obtain
particles [21]. Another parameter is laminated fabrics. Laminated fabrics are called
temperature which improves the shear 2D fabrics and the major problem is
thickening behavior by decreasing [25]. delamination. Latest studies focus on 3D
Some studies focus on the methods for fabrics in ballistic protection. 3D fabrics have
improving the shear thickening behavior. For yarns running in three directions therefore,
example, nano fillers are used to improve the delamination problem is decreased by the
shear thickening. In this method, nano fillers reinforcement of yarns along the third
increase the dispersibility of nano particles direction [31-41]. Figure 7 shows fabrics in 2D
which enhances the interaction between the and 3D forms schematically.
particles and results in a better particle
clustering. To achieve this, carbon nano tubes
(CNTs) are applied into silica-poly ethylene
glycol suspension. It is noted that CNT
reinforcement improves the dispersibility of
nano particles in the suspension [19].
(a) (b)
3. ARMOR APPLICATIONS Figure 7. Fabrics in (a) 2D form (b) 3D form

Armor technology has been continuously 3.2 Application of STFs in ballistic

improved like weapon technology. These two protection. Although STFs are worldwide
terms always keep up with each other. Ballistic known, application of these materials in
protection has to be actual to overcome the ballistic protection is quite novel. First studies
attacking threats. Therefore, every kind of were started at the University of Delaware in
material has been considered as armor mid 1990s. Considerable results were attained
materials such as aluminum, steel, leather and at the beginning of the 2000s. Composites of
silk. Principally, the method of protection uses Kevlar® and STFs were introduced as armor
a hard rigid material for resisting the systems in the publications. This technology
penetration of missiles. But, after the debut of was also supported by Army Research
synthetic textiles, better ballistic armors have Laboratory. In 2004, a patent application [42]
been developed [26]. was filed with the cooperation of University of
Delaware and Army Research Laboratory [1].

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The most important gains in STF based
armors are reduced weight and flexible
motion. In the combat zones, conditions are
already crucial. In additions to these
difficulties, struggling with the equipment and
the armor makes the soldiers daunted. Average
combat loads for U.S Army soldiers in
Afghanistan 2003 are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Average combat loads for U.S Army

soldiers in Afghanistan, 2003[43]

Average Fighting Load

Duty Position Weight Percentage of
Figure 8. Energy dissipations of targets [45]
(kg) Body Weight
Rifleman 28 36
Automatic rifleman 36 45 In another study using STF-Kevlar®
60mm mortar gunner 29 38 composites, particle volume fraction of STF is
In 2001, U.S Army Chief of Staff investigated. As in the pure STF, thickening
expressed a goal that the combat load of the mechanism is more intense on fabrics with
individual soldier was not to exceed 23kg [44]. high volume fractions of particles.
Wagner et al. [45] studied characteristics Furthermore, at low particle loadings, ballistic
of STF impregnated Kevlar®. It is noted that performance is less than neat Kevlar® while at
starting shear rate values of thickening high loadings is better than neat Kevlar® [23].
behavior are between 10s-1 and 300s-1 whereas Tan et al. [50] studied single, double,
the shear rates estimated in the ballistic quadruple and six ply Twaron® fabric systems
shootings are at 45x103s-1 based on the with different percentages of STFs. Ballistic
projectile velocity. Therefore, the STFs used in tests showed that the best protective system is
the study are ready to exhibit thickening double ply fabric impregnated by 40wt% STF.
behavior in the ballistic tests. In the conclusion This system improves the ballistic limit by
of the study, it is stated that STF impregnated 65% compared to the neat double ply system.
Kevlar® has the highest energy dissipation In the studies, finite element method is
value with respect to the neat Kevlar® and preferred for modeling the STFs on fabrics.
ethylene glycol (EG) impregnated Kevlar®. But, it is quite complicated to define the
EG impregnated Kevlar® has the worst properties of STF in the model. To overcome
protection level because EG is Newtonian this problem, Kim et al. [51] modeled the STF
fluid and serves as lubricant between the yarns impregnated Kevlar® without modeling the
and the projectile. Figure 8 shows the energy liquid STF. Since STF increases the friction
dissipation percentages of armor constructions between the yarns, a friction function
by considering the armor weights. dependent to velocity was obtained by
conducting yarn pull-out energy tests. In the
conclusion, good agreements between
simulation and ballistic tests were achieved in
terms of residual velocities.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

Figure 9. Load-displacement curves for quasistatic

3.3 Application of STFs in stab loading [47]
protection. STF reinforced fabrics can also be
considered as protective armors against stab 4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
attacks. In the literature, studies investigating
this issue are available. STFs in armor systems are very new
Protection of STF impregnated ballistic technology and open to developments. This
fabrics is determined by conducted some tests. technology provides two main improvements:
These tests are generally performed in two reduced weight and flexible motion. Whenever
ways: drop stab test and quasistatic test. It is reduction in weight comes into question, any
proven that STFs reinforce the Kevlar® relation with aerospace industry may take
significantly for spike impacts while slight place. Thus, STFs can be applied to aerial
improvement is seen for knife impacts. Also in vehicles such as helicopters beside the
the quasistatic tests, for puncturing the same personal protection. Today it is just an idea
thick armors, STF-Kevlar® composites however, in the near future it might be
require two times more load by knife and five possible that this technology can protect the
times more load by spike with respect to the aerial vehicles.
neat Kevlar® armors [19, 46, 47].
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AN APPROACH FOR STATIC CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETER

MMA8451Q

Marin MARINOV*, Zhivo PETROV*

*Aviation Faculty, NVU ”V. Levski”, Dolna Mitropolia, Bulgaria

Abstract: In this paper an approach for low-cost MEMS accelerometer static calibration is proposed.
The approach is applied to estimate the MEMS accelerometer mathematical model, including scale
factors and bias. The method does not require a three-axis rotary platform to perform perfect alignment
to the Earth gravity. The measurement is easy to perform, the calculation is simple, and the proposed
approach provides a different choice for accelerometer calibration. Experimental data is analyzed to
prove that the bias and scale factors are eliminated.

Keywords: accelerometer, bias, calibration, scale factors.

1. INTRODUCTION In this paper an approach for low-cost

MEMS accelerometer static calibration
By analyzing MEMS accelerometer without precise orientation is proposed.
measurement principle and environment, it
could be proved that the main errors include 2. ACCELEROMETER
three gain factors and three biases [4, 5]. CALIBRATION METHOD
The manufacturers of the MEMS
accelerometers usually apply a calibration. The According to the characteristics of the
original factory accelerometer calibration measurement error, the MEMS accelerometer
becomes less accurate once the accelerometer error model is defined as:
is soldered, by the end users, onto its circuit ⎡a x ⎤ ⎡ S x − k4 S y − k 5 S z ⎤ ⎡ g x ⎤ ⎡b x ⎤ ⎡ n x ⎤
⎢a ⎥ = ⎢ k S ⎥ ,(1)
board as a result of thermal stresses during the Sy − k 6 S z ⎥ ⎢ g y ⎥ + ⎢b y ⎥ + ⎢ n y ⎥
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ 1 x ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
soldering process. ⎣⎢ a z ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣− k 2 S x k3 S y S z ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ g z ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ bz ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ n z ⎦⎥
Different approaches for recalibration are where: bx , by , bz are accelerometer bias;
used. Some of them require measurements in
only one or two positions of the accelerometer Sx , S y , Sz are scale factors for the
[3] but only bias can be estimated. Other accelerometer; n x , n y , nz , are random
approaches estimate more than 10 parameters
measurement noises; k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 , k6
[1, 6]. The approaches computing six
calibration parameters are most widely used are installation error coefficients.
[1, 3]. Most of these approaches require For an application demanding lower
precise orientation of the accelerometer. accuracy it could be assumed that the scale

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factors are equal to one and the equation (1) In this way six equations are formed. Each
becomes: equation is combined with other five and the
⎡ a x ⎤ ⎡ S x 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ g x ⎤ ⎡ bx ⎤ ⎡ n x ⎤ result is fifteen couples of equations.
⎢a ⎥ = ⎢ 0 S 0 ⎥ ⎢ g y ⎥ + ⎢by ⎥ + ⎢n y ⎥ . (2)
Equations in every couple are subtracted and
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ y ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ system of linear equations is created. The
⎢⎣ a z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 S z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ g z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ bz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ nz ⎥⎦ matrix form of the system is:
To determine the accelerometer bias and Hλ = A , (6)
scale factors six different static positions are where: 
used. In each position one of the axes is H j = [ Apx − Aqx , Apy − Aqy , Apz − Aqz ,
directed along or opposite Earth gravity. ;
The instantaneous outputs of the
2
, Aqx − A2px , Aqy
2
− A2py , Aqz
2
− A2pz ]
accelerometer in one of the positions [
λ = C x ,C y ,C z ,Δ x ,Δ y ,Δ z ]T ; p ≠ q ; 
a px , a py , a pz are given by:
a px = S x g px + bx + n1x
p = 1 ÷ 6 ;  (
Ai = A2p − Aq2 .0.5 ;  i = 1 ÷ 15 ;  )
q = 1 ÷ 6 ;  j = 1 ÷ 15 .  
a py = S y g py + b y + n y , (3)
An iterative algorithm is used to find the
a pz = S z g pz + bz + nz least squares solution of system (6):
∧ ⎡∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ⎤
where p = 1 ÷ 6 is the position number.
λ = ⎢C x , C y , C z , Δ x , Δ y , Δ z ,⎥ . (7)
Multiple measurements in each position are ⎣ ⎦
done and output data is averaged to decrease Using (7) the bias and scale factors are
the impact of noise. The averaged obtained:
accelerations are described by: ∧ ∧ ∧
Apx = S x g px + bx ∧ Cx ∧ Cy ∧ Cz
bx = ∧
,b y = ∧
,bz = ∧
. (8)
Apy = S y g py + b y ⇒ 1+ Δx 1+ Δy 1 + Δz
Apz = S z g pz + bz ∧ 1 ∧ 1 ∧ 1
Sx = ∧
,S y = ∧
,Sz = ∧
. (9)
1
Sx
( )
Apx − bx = g px
1+ Δx 1+ Δy 1+ Δz
The proposed method allows obtaining the
⇒
1
Sy
( )
Apy − b y = g py . (4)
bias and scale factors without requiring a
perfect orientation of accelerometers along the
Earth gravity.
1
( )
Apz − bz = g pz
Sz 3. TEST RESULTS
Both sides of each equation in (4) are
raised to the second power and then the The data from MMA8451Q is read using a
equations are summed to obtain: device described in [2]. The accelerometer is
A2p + 2 Apx C x − 2 Apy C y − 2 Apz C z + b 2 + set up to: 14 bits of resolution; ± 2 g full scale;
100 Hz output data rate. The accelerometer
+ Apx Δ x + Apy Δ y + Apz Δ z + , (5) was placed in six different positions and in
each position the data was collected for 50
+ Δ x a x2 + Δ y a 2y + Δ z a z2 = 1
seconds. Collected accelerations are shown in
figures from 1 to 6.
where: A2p = A2px + A2py + A2pz ; The proposed method is applied to estimate
b 2 = bx2 + b y2 + bz2 ; C x = (1 + Δ x )bx ; bias and scale factors of measurement. The
( )
obtained values of six parameters are:
Cy = 1 + Δ y b y ; C z = (1 + Δ z )bz ; ∧ ∧ ∧
1 1 1 b x = −16.1 mg ; b y = 4.7 mg ; b z = 4.6 mg ;
Δx = 2
− 1; Δ y = 2 − 1 ; Δ z = 2 − 1 . ∧ ∧ ∧
Sx Sy Sz S x = 0.9961; S y = 1.0023; S z = 1.0019

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

Figure 1. Accelerometer output data in position 1. Figure 4. Accelerometer output data in position 4.

Figure 2. Accelerometer output data in position 2. Figure 5. Accelerometer output data in position 5.

Figure 3. Accelerometer output data in position 3. Figure 6. Accelerometer output data in position 6.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

To verify proposed approach some data is whereas y-axis and z- axis bias are almost the
collected when accelerometer is arbitrary same.
orientated. Using measurements from each The obtained experimental results prove
axis the relative Earth acceleration is the validity of the method.
calculated (“a” on fig.7). The relative Earth
acceleration is also calculated after calibration REFERENCES
of measurements (“acal” on fig.7).
1. Pedley M. High Precision Calibration of
aThree-Axis Accelerometer, AN4399, Rev.
1, Freescale Semiconductor, (01/2013)
2. Petrov Zh., Marinov M., Dimitrov D.,3-axis
digital accelerometer data transfer
controller, Scientific conference , Aviation
Faculty, D. Mitropolia, Bulgaria (2013).
3. Tuck K., Offset Calibration of the
MMA8451, 2, 3Q, AN4069, Rev. 1,
Freescale Semiconductor, (03/2012)
4. Umeda A., Onoe M., Sakata K., Fukushia
T., Kanari K., Iioka H., Kobayashi T.,
Calibration of three-axis accelerometers
Figure 7. Accelerometer output calibration.
using a three-dimensional vibration
Figure 7 shows that calculated relative
generator and three laser interferometers,
Earth acceleration is closer to 1g, when
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical,
calibration is used. This proves that the
Volume 114, Issue 1, (2004)
proposed approach could be used to eliminate
5. Won P., Golnaraghi F., A trail
bias from measurement.
Accelerometer Calibration Method Using
a Mathematical Model, IEEE Transactions
4. CONCLUSIONS
on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol.
59, NO.8, (2010)
This paper proposes the Accelerometer
6. Zhang L., Li W., Liu H., Accelerometer
static calibration method using six parameters.
Static Calibration based on the PSO
The method is accurate, easy to implement and
algorithm, 2nd International Conference
doesn’t require additional equipment.
on Electronic & Mechanical Engineering
The bias and scale factors of MEMS
and Information Technology (2012)
accelerometer MMA8451Q are estimated. The
results show that the x-axis bias is the biggest

178
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ALLAN VARIANCE ANALYSIS ON ERROR CHARACTERS OF LOW-

COST MEMS ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q

Marin MARINOV*, Zhivo PETROV*

*Aviation Faculty, NVU ”V. Levski”, Dolna Mitropolia, Bulgaria

Abstract: This paper gives an evaluation of low-cost MEMS digital accelerometer errors. Such
evaluation is required to construct an appropriate model of the accelerometer. Allan Variance is a simple
and efficient method for verifying and modelling the errors by representing the root mean square random
drift error as a function of averaging time.
In this paper the characteristics of MEMS accelerometers stochastic errors are identified and
quantified, using Allan variance. The derived error model can be applied further to navigation systems of
small aircraft.

Keywords: accelerometer, Allan variance, bias instability, error, random walk, rate random walk.

1. INTRODUCTION integrating accelerometer measurements with

other sensors such as GPS receivers [8]. To
Advances in the Micro-Electromechanical achieve an accurate estimation of aircraft
Systems (MEMS) technology combined with navigation parameters a good model of
the miniaturization of electronics, have made sensors’ errors is required.
possible to introduce light-weight, low-cost The errors are caused by noise sources
and low-power chip based inertial sensors for which are statically independent, and many
use in measuring of angular velocity and approaches for modeling noise are developed.
acceleration [9]. The frequency-domain approach is based on
MEMS accelerometers output the aircraft the power spectral density (PSD) [7]. Several
acceleration which is used to obtain the time-domain methods have been devised for
position and velocity. The accuracy of stochastic modeling [4,14].The simplest and
accelerometer measurements usually depend most used is the Allan variance time-domain-
on different types of error sources, such as analysis technique, originally developed in the
bias, bias instability, velocity random walk, mid-1960s to study the frequency stability of
rate random walk, etc. By integrating these precision oscillators [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 12]. Allan
measurements in the navigation algorithm, variance is a directly measurable quantity and
these errors will lead to a significant drift in can provide information on the types and
the position and velocity. To improve the magnitude of various noise terms. The method
accuracy of aircraft navigation system, has been adapted to random-drift
different kinds of algorithms are used,

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characterization of a variety of devices 1

including MEMS accelerometers [15, 16]. δ= , (7)
⎛N ⎞
In this paper, the Allan variance time- 2⎜ − 1⎟
domain-analysis technique is used to ⎝n ⎠
characterize the 3-axis, 14-bit/8-bit digital where N is the number of samples in the data
accelerometer MMA8451Q. set.
To ensure percentage error less than 25%
2. ALLAN VARIANCE METHOD the following expression is obtained from (7):
N N
≥9 ⇒ n≤ (8).
If the instantaneous output of the n 9
accelerometer is a (t ) , the cluster average is Consequently the number of clusters has to
defined as: be not less than nine.
tk +τ Different types of random processes cause
1
a k (τ ) = ∫ a (t )dt , (1) slopes with different gradients to appear on the
τ tk log-log plot of Allan standard deviation [11],
where ak (τ ) represents the cluster average of as shown in Figure 1. Furthermore, different
processes usually appear in different regions of
the output acceleration for a cluster which τ , allowing their presence to be easily
starts from the k-th data point. The definition identified [16].
of the subsequent cluster average is:
tk + 2τ
1
a k +τ (τ ) = ∫ a (t )dt . (2)
τ tk +τ
The difference between the two cluster
averages d k (τ ) is:
d k (τ ) = a k +τ (τ ) − a k (τ ) . (3)
The variance of differences between every
two adjacent cluster averages σ d2 (τ ) is given
by:
σ d2 (τ ) = (d k (τ ) − μ k )2 , (4)
Figure 1. A possible log-log plot of Allan
where: μ k is the mean of d k (τ ) ; is the Deviation analysis results
The values of the parameters could be
ensemble average.
obtained directly from the plot. For a MEMS
The Allan variance as function of
device such as MMA8451Q the important
averaging time is defined as:
processes that have to be measured are random
σ d2 (τ )
σ (τ ) =
2
. (5) walk, bias instability and rate random walk.
2 The random walk is white noise and
Since in digital accelerometers the output appears on the plot with a slope −0.5. The
data are available in discrete form (5) deviation of random walk is obtained by the
becomes: following expression [11]:
1 K −1
σ rw = σ (τ 0 ) τ 0 , (9)
σ d2 (nT ) = ∑ (d k (nT ) − μ k )2 , (6)
2(K − 1) k =1 where the plot of σ (τ ) has the slope of −0.5
where: n is the number of samples in one for τ = τ 0 .
cluster; K is number of clusters; T is sample The bias instability appears on the plot as a
time. flat region around the minimum. The deviation
It can be shown that the percentage error of bias instability is given by [11]:
δ , in estimating the Allan standard deviation
π
of the cluster due to the finiteness of the σ bi = σ (τ 1 ) , (10)
number of clusters is given by [10]: 2 ln(2 )

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where τ 1 is chosen around the minimum of the
plot.
The rate random walk is represented by a
slope of +0.5 on a log-log plot of σ (τ ) and its
deviation is given by [11]:
3
σ rrw = σ (τ 2 ) , (11)
τ2
where the plot of σ (τ ) has the slope of +0.5
for τ = τ 2 .

3. RESULTS
Figure 3. Measured acceleration in y-axis.
The data from MMA8451Q is read using a
device described in [13]. The accelerometer is
set up to: 14 bits of resolution; ± 2 g full scale;
100 Hz output data rate. The data was
collected for eight hours. Collected
accelerations for each axis (x,y,z) are shown in
figures from 2 to 4.

Figure 4. Measured acceleration in z-axis.

The orientation of the accelerometer was

such that none of the axes was aligned with
Earth gravity. The alteration of acceleration in
each axis is of different character,
Figure 2. Measured acceleration in x-axis. consequently the accelerometer errors are
different too.
Allan standard deviations for each axis
(x,y,z) are presented in figures from 5 to 7.

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rate random walk is obtained from (11) at

τ 2 = 300 s and it is σ rrw = 0.0930 mg s .

 
Figure 5. Allan standard deviation for x-axis.

Figure 5 shows that the slope of Allan

Figure 7. Allan standard deviation for z-axis.
Deviation curve for τ = 0.1 ÷ 1 s is -0.5002.
The value of σ rw = 1.5742 mg is obtained for Figure 7 shows that the slope of Allan
deviation of random walk, using equation (9) Deviation curve for τ = 0.1 ÷ 1 s is -0.5019. The
with τ 0 = 1s . For the deviation of bias value of σ rw = 1.7118 mg is obtained for
instability is measured σ bi = 0.46508 mg at deviation of random walk, using equation (9)
τ 1 = 45s . The slope of Allan Deviation curve with τ 0 = 1s . For the deviation of bias
for τ = 70 ÷ 80 s is +0.4928. Deviation of rate instability is measured σ bi = 0.1266 mg at
random walk is obtained from (11) at τ 2 = 75s τ 1 = 940 s . There isn’t slope of Allan
and it is σ rrw = 0.0692 mg s . Deviation curve for obtaining the rate random
walk.
According to MMA8451Q technical data
the square root of power spectral density is
μg
126 for output data rate (ODR) of
Hz
400 Hz. The minimum and maximum value of
ODR
output data bandwidth is Δf min = and
3
ODR
Δf max = . Using these parameters a
2
following range of random walk is obtained
σ rw = 1.4549 ÷ 1.7819 mg .
Figure 6 Allan standard deviation for y-axis. The relative Earth acceleration is
calculated, using the following equation:
Figure 6 shows that the slope of Allan
Deviation curve for τ = 0.1 ÷ 1 s is -0.4978. a = a x2 + a 2y + a z2 . (12)
The value of σ rw = 1.9408 mg is obtained for The calculated relative Earth acceleration
is shown on figure 8.
deviation of random walk, using equation (9)
with τ 0 = 1s . For the deviation of bias
instability is measured σ bi = 0.3158 mg at
τ 1 = 142 s . The slope of Allan Deviation curve
for τ = 280 ÷ 320 s is +0.4970. Deviation of

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4. CONCLUSIONS

The Allan-variance technique presented in

this paper allows a systematic characterization
of the various random errors in the output data
of the digital accelerometer. The characteristic
curves are obtained and different types and
magnitude of error terms existing in the
accelerometer MMA8451Q are determined.
The eight-hour static data from the
MMA8451Q were investigated. Most of the
results from the Allan-variance analysis are
Figure 8. Relative Earth acceleration.
close to the manufacturers’ claim, which
proves that the method presented in this paper
Allan standard deviations for measured is valid.
Earth acceleration is presented in figure 9.
There isn’t a slope of -1 on plot of Allan
standard deviations (Fig.5-7). Consequently
the quantization errors are much less than
other errors and can be ignored.
The results of the MMA8451Q clearly
indicate that the random walk is the dominant
error term in the short cluster time, whereas
the bias instability and rate random walk terms
are the dominant errors in the long cluster
time.
The experimental results have provided a
useful evaluation of a low-cost accelerometer
MMA8451Q.
Figure 9. Allan standard deviation for measured
Earth acceleration. REFERENCES

Figure 9 shows that the slope of Allan 1. Allan D. W., “Statistics of atomic
Deviation curve for τ = 0.1 ÷ 1 s is -0.4991. The frequency standards,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 54,
value of σ rw = 1.8390 mg is obtained for no. 2, (1966).
2. Allan D. W., “Time and frequency (time-
deviation of random walk, using equation (9)
domain) characterization, estimation, and
with τ 0 = 1s . For the deviation of bias prediction of precision clocks and
instability is measured σ bi = 0.1746 mg at oscillators”, IEEE Trans. Ultrason.,
τ1 = 400 s . Ferroelectr., Freq. Control, vol. UFFC-34,
no. 6, (1987).

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

3. Allan D. W., Barnes J. A., “A modified 10. IEEE Std 952-1997, IEEE Standard
“Allan Variance” with increased Specification Format Guide and Test
oscillator characterization ability”, in Procedure for Single Axis Interferometric
Proc. 35th Annu. Freq. Control Symp., Fiber Optic, 16 (1997)
(May 1981,). 11. IEEE Std 962-1997 (R2003) Standard
4. Bendat J. S., Piersol A. G., Measurement Specification Format Guide and Test
and Analysis of Random Data, New York: Procedure for Single-Axis Interferometric
John Wiley and Sons, (1966). Fiber Optic Gyros, Annex C. IEEE,
5. Chaffee J.W., “Relating the Allan variance (2003).
to the diffusion coefficients of a linear 12. Lesage P., Audoin C., “Characterization
stochastic differential equation model for of frequency stability: Uncertainty due to
precision oscillators”, IEEE Trans. the finite number of measurement”, IEEE
Ultrason., Ferroelectr., Freq. Control, vol. Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. IM-22, no. 2,
UFFC-34, no. 6, (1987). (1973).
6. Conroy B. L., Le D., “Measurement of 13. Petrov Zh., Marinov M., Dimitrov D.,3-
Allan variance and phase noise at axis digital accelerometer data transfer
fractions of a millihertz”, Rev. Sci. controller, Scientific conference , Aviation
Instrum., vol. 61, no. 6, (1990). Faculty, D. Mitropolia, Bulgaria (2013).
7. EI-Sheimy N., Analysis and Modeling of 14. Sinha N., Kuszta K., B., Modeling and
Inertial Sensors Using AV, IEEE Identification of Dynamic Systems, New
Transaction on instrumentation and York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, (1983).
measurement, vol. 57, No.1, (2008). 15. Titterton D.H., Weston J.L., Strapdown
8. Grewal M. S., Weil L. R., Andrews A. P., inertial navigation technology -2nd ed,
Global positioning systems, inertial Institution of electrical engineers, UK,
navigation, and integration, Wiley, (2007). (2004)
9. Hulsing R., “MEMS Inertial Rate and 16. Woodman O.J., An introduction to inertial
Acceleration Sensor”, IEEE Position navigation, Cambridge, (2007)
Location and Navigation Symposium,
(1998). .
 

184
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

ON BOARD DIAGNOSIS IMPLICATIONS ON THE VIABILITY OF

MILITARY PATROL AND INTERVENTION VEHICLES

Marian MITROI*, Cornel ARAMĂ**

*Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,”Transilvania” University of Braşov, Braşov, Romania

**”Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The constant uses of sensors, high performance actuators, as well as informatics have imposed
an upward trend to the hardware and software electronics auto. In these situations the control and the
management of the vehicles is very important, mainly for those which have a military purpose. The need
of an on board computer diagnosis of military intervention vehicles is very useful and necessary, due, at
first, to the accoutrement of any kind of vehicle equipped with a lot of electronics equipment. Secondly,
the on board display of the operating parameters also offers the possibility to improve the vehicles
operating in order to succeed in the combat missions.

Keywords: viability, reliability, diagnosis equipment, experimental determinations.

1. VIABILITY/RELIABILITY d) increase the efficiency of transport by

reducing turnaround times.
The viability is the reliability of the e) spare inventory planning;
military technique assets to which a practical
and tactical assembly of measures and
preoccupations is added (the capacity of
military technique assets and people to avoid
the wastage, to avoid in time the enemy’s gun
strikes and their ability to fast recover their
strike, fire, maneuvers and protection
capacities) that guarantee the fulfillment of the
intervention [1].
The reliability studies need to be done
in order to:
a) freely operate the systems on which the
vehicle depends to travel safety;
b) ensure a level of reliability suitable for
relatively simple devices, but whose failure
could attract major faults; Fig.1 Interdependency of viability factors [1]
c) plan maintenance activities;

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

Characteristic situations:
Analyzing the expenses incurred, the * the technical criteria prevail ⇒ R → 1;
reliability of a device can be represented * the prevailing economic criteria ⇒ Reconomic.
according to the schedule: Take account of: the destination vehicle, the
user possibilities.
The viability factors of military
vehicles:
1. reliability;
2. vehicles performance;
3. efficiency of the maintainability and
maintenance works;
4. rules providing the movement;
5. combat service;
6. combat service support;
7. the quality of transport infrastructure;
8. human resources management;
9. cooperation and collaboration for
support.
From the qualitative point of view,
reliability is the ability of a device found in
Fig. 2 Economic level of reliability[2]
given conditions of use, to perform specific
functions for a certain period of time [2].

 Performance Constructive Operating Level Possibility of

values and functional characteristics design upgrading
characteristics

Free Ease of
operation         Level of technical satisfaction
manufacture

Durability Use of the

Reliability QUALITY Technology quality
Maintainability materials

Standardization
Conservation Meeting security requirements level

Robotics
The existence of Solutions that reduce Level of level
automatic protection the effect of traffic satisfaction of
accidents the norms

Fig. 3 Report of reliability, quality and technology[2]

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The approach of reliability, managed using electronic “On-Board”
maintenance motor performance as well as Diagnosis (OBD).
human resources management, is mostly Diagnostic work currently occupies a
similar in military and civil field. very important position within the
The reliability and durability of terotechnical system. Early detection of any
engines, as well as the other assemblies, malfunction during operation could reduce the
depend largely on the quality of maintenance consequences arising from their timely remedy
work carried out for every season, as well as as well as the subsequent intervention cost.
the quality of materials and supplies used for
this purpose. Also, the time and the quality of Pattern of asset maintenance system design
intervention, how this takes place has a special vehicles may be shown as follows:
role.
Maintenance represents all the
organizational and technical activities done in
order to maintain and re-establish the technical
state of a product so that this product could
fulfill all the functions it was created foră[3].
Depending on the technical condition
and the time they are performed, maintenance
can be:
- predictive;
- preventive;
- corrective;
- planned;
- based on diagnosis;
- based on state.
In the current conditions of military Fig. 4 Pattern of maintenance[3]
actions, when the reaction rate has an
important role, and the possibilities of The diagnosis in vehicles can monitor
unannounced interventions taken to the in real time, but it can also identify in useful
extreme are also present, the use of viable time the problems which occur to the entire
vehicles that meet successfully the imposed management system of the vehicle.
requirements is impetuously needed. The exploitation and the operation
The ability of technical systems of optimization are very important problems and
patrol and intervention cars to function need to maintain focus on the responsible
optimally can decrease from a mission to factors because this is the key to maintain a
another by the occurrence of abnormal high level for a good intervention and combat
functioning. They are found stored as codes in capacity.
the vehicle management system.
Errors generated on computer boards 2. DIAGNOSIS EQUIPMENT
about the engine system operation, broken
security, as well as ABS or ESP, can be The equipment for diagnosis are
designed to optimize maintenance activity for

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

different electric, electronic, electromechanic

or hydraulic systems existing in each vehicle
component by reducing the time allocated to
intervention on their operations.
An example of OBD system is shown
in the following figure:

Fig.6 Display of program [6]

A part of technical fault codes which

can be read by this OBD system is presented
Fig. 5 ELM327 BLUETOOTH MICRO [6] on the point 2.1 and the understanding of them
Very small size: 5 x 4.5 x 2.5 cm on the 2.2 point.
Weight: 32 g 2.1 Technical fault code (DTC)
High baud rate: 38400 bps
Bluetooth 3.0 17965 – Overload control – positive deviation:
Reads: P1557 - 35-10 - - - intermittent;
01039 – Temperature transducer-G2-
• engine parameters;
30-10 – open or short circuit to plus –
• probes;
intermittent;
• flowmeters ; 00930 – Closing overall - F222- block left
• fuel intake : l/h and l/100km ; 27-00 - implausible signal;
• power calculation ; 01312 - Bus date drivetrain
• time calculation from /to 100km ; 37-10 - Defect – intermittent;
• clear the error message. 00778 – Steering angle sensor -G85-
It supports the following communication 49-10 – No communication-
protocols: intermittent;
ISO15765-4 (CAN) 00516 - Contact closed throttle idle-F60-
ISO14230-4 (KWP2000) 30-10 - Open or short circuit to B+
ISO 9141-2 – intermittent;
J1850 VPW 01249 - Cylinder injector 1.-N30-
J1850 PWM 31-10 – Open circuit or short to ground
It can diagnose almost any type of car – intermittent;
mode after 1996 which plug s type is OBD II. 00532 – Power supply B+
It supports the functional operating - low signal – intermittent;
systems: 1316 - Control module ABS
• Windows XP, Vista, Windows 7; 49-10 –No communication
• Mac; intermittent [5].
• Symbian;
• ANDROID[6]. 2.2 The understanding of fault codes
Because its operating system is
ANDROID, this device is very practical and it Positive deviation load: the signal comes from
can easily be used before every mission by all the air inlet circuit. It can be a problem at the
the drivers by simply using a cellphone soft pressure regulator or at the valve that makes
named: “Torque”. the turbine not to work property;

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Open circuit or short to plus (B+)- 62.1*C Antifreeze - Temperature (G62)
intermittent: sensor fault occur after cooling Group 003: Gas Recirculation (EGR)
circuit located on the cylinder head; 861 /min Engine Speed (G28)
Implausible Signal: error occurs when closing 285.0 mg/race Air Mass Absorbed (req.)
door system detects continuity in the electrical 416.5mg/race Air Mass Absorbed (meas.)
signal; 4.8 % Activity EGR-Valve
Bus date drivetrain: failure occurs due to lock Group 004: Aquator Valve for
of electrical signal on one of the relay that Pump/Duse
sends tension to the ECU; 861 /min Engine Speed (G28)
Open or short circuit to ground – intermittent: -0.0 *DPMS Start Injection TEOR-Wert
the code is generated due to a short circuit to 7.7*KW Duration Injection TEOR-Wert
ground or to the control circuit of the given 1.7*KW Sync - Angle
circuit; Group 005: Start Conditions (last start )
Low signal– intermittent: in this case it is a 4641 /min Engine Speed (G28)
low voltage on the positive < 11,5v; 9.1 mg/race Quantity Start
No communication –intermittent: due to an 48.0 Start - Sync
inappropriate tension, the command mode of 52.2*C Antifreeze - Temperature (G62)
the system can not send date to ECU. Group 007: Sensor Temperature
(engine warm)
3. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS 69.3*C Energy - Temperature (G81)
0.0 % Fuel cooling status
Monday, 25th , February, 2014,15:12:19:55062 49.5*C Manifold Admission-
Data version: 20100326 Temperature (G42)
Addresses scanned: 01 02 03 08 15 16 17 62.1*C Antifreeze - Temperature (G62)
19 35 36 37 46 47 55 56 57 58 75 76 77 Group 010: Mass air
Controlled composition: 1,9l R4 EDC 426.3 mg/race Absorbed - Mass air
G000AG 1464 999.6 mbar Atmospheric Pressure
Workshop: WSC 02410 994.5 Pressure Adm.
Determinations were made on 0.0 % Accelerator Position Pedal
intervention and patrol vehicles type VW Group 011: Turbo Pressure Control
Transporter Syncro. The diagnose equipment 882 /min Engine Speed (G28)
used was: ELM 327 Blue Tooth, VCDS 12.12, 1091.4 mbar Turbo Pressure (pres.)
and software Torque, Vital Scan, Vag-Com 994.5 Turbo Pressure (meas.)
ROJ 12.12. 19.9 % Activity Solenoid Valve
Group 013: Idle Adjustment
3.1. Functional parameters 0.71 mg/race Cylinder 1
-0.26 mg/race Cylinder 2
Group 001: Quantity Injection 0.05 mg/race Cylinder 3
882 /min Engine Speed (G28) -0.54 mg/race Cylinder 4
8.2 mg/race Quantity Injection Group 015: Fuel Consumption
7.1*KW Injection Duration Magnetic 882 /min Engine Speed
Valve 8.2 mg/race Quantity Injection (meas.)

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

1.00 l/h Fuel - Consumer is above normal. This is due to the function of
0.0 mg/race Injection Quantity (desire) the injection above normal parameters.
[7].
4. CONCLUSIONS

3.2. Diagnostic interpretation A simple On-Board Diagnosis, which

usually takes between 7-10 minutes, may
Group 003 highlight certain aspects of operation of
It can be seen the fault of the air military vehicles patrol on response, manager
received by the engine. This is mainly due to issues that can make it hard or impossible to
the peacemaker valve which does not come accomplish the mission given. The On-Board
back to the normal position after leaving the Diagnosis operation significantly reduces
circuit in order to open the admission circuit. maintenance time spent from the military
Group 004 vehicles without being operational and it can
Injection occurs immediately after improve their viability.
TDC and creates a mismatch between the So, we can say that the possibility of a
angle of camshaft timing that normally has a vehicle to execute the mission in the best
value up to 1,5 KW. Situation occurs due to conditions can be expressed best by viability
the change of distribution or some operation factors and a lot of them are directly and
where the camshaft sprocket was at the significantly influenced by OBD systems.
beginning.
Group 011 REFERENCES
The lock of adequate pressure on the
blower at a small value creates a negative 1.Aramă, C., Investigation of Possibilities to
deviation and it is caused by some air leakage Improve the Performances of Special Vehicles,
on the hoses path or connections, but it can “Transilvania” University of Braşov, Doctoral
also be generated by the malfunction of the degree thesis, 2006;
turbocharger geometry. 2. University” POLITEHNICA”of Bucharest
Group 013 Reliability Vehicles Courses
The injectors from the 1-st and/or 3-rd 3. Pomazan, N., Termotechnica Car Guide,
cylinder work on unsuitable parameters. The Publishing House: “Ovidius “ University of
1-st injector shows a light un-calibration Constanţa, 2006;
distributing a larger amount of diesel fuel or it 4. Mitroi, Marian, University Courses,
compensates the 3-rd injector that seems to be Publishing House: “Ovidius “ University of
stifled. Constanţa, 2013;
Group 015 5. Mitroi, Marian, Individual Tests and
It can be noticed that although the Measurements, Constanţa, 2014
vehicle is running at idle and the consumption 6. http://www.elm327.net
7. http://www.Ross-Tech.com
 

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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE

OF THE ON-BOARD HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
ON THE ENGINES COMBUSTION

Marius Nicolae MOLDOVEANU*, Cornel ARAMĂ**

*Sunrise Technology Co. Ltd, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, China,

** “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The rational use of fuels and the decreasing of IC (Internal Combustion) engines pollution are
fundamental requirements which were globally emphasized by the traffic authorities. As a transition
solution to the propulsion system which is nowadays named “unconventional” but, at the same time, as a
viable possibility to improve the IC engines performances of the future HV’s (Hybrid Vehicles), some
researchers suggest the solution of Semy-Hybrid hydrogen fuelling system. This study is included in the
same activity area but it has to be mentioned that the researchers have begun from a different idea: the
hydrogen is not “the real culprit” for the positive results which were sometimes reported. The key of
problem is a substance which is fully presented but it was neglected by the majority: the nitrogen.

Keywords: Semy-Hybrid vehicle, nitrogen, nitro-hydrogen additivation, Pre-Combustion Treatment

Technology (PCTT)

1. INTRODUCTION “unconventional” but, at the same time, as a

viable possibility to improve the IC engines
The rational use of fuels and the decreasing performances of the future HV’s, some
of IC (Internal Combustion) engines pollution researchers suggest the solution of Semy-
are fundamental requirements which were Hybrid fuelling system. These fuelling systems
globally emphasized by the traffic authorities. are based on the on board hydrogen supply
Due to these, the OEM’s invest more and more equipment. All of them insist on the
resources. The HV’s (Hybrid Vehicles) and unquestionable positive effects of the
first of all the EV’s (Electric Vehicles) are hydrogen use together with conventional fuels
remarkable developing in the last years. (first of all, gasoline and diesel fuel).
Unfortunately the global economic crisis Unfortunately, the researchers who were
influenced this process negatively and partly interested in the scientific study of these kinds
stopped it before some aspects (which had of fuelling systems (which are sometimes
decreased the costumer’s interests: the named Semi-Hybrid) have noticed that the
acquisition price, the limited range, the results from the tests were contradictory in too
technological constructive difficulties etc.) to many situations and in the end, the energy
be solved. balance was a negative one.
As a transition solution to the propulsion The aim of this paper is to explain why this
system which is nowadays named phenomenon is happening and to try to explain

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

how it is possible that the use of hydrogen 3. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS/ NITRO-

does not have a positive effect on the fuel HYDROGEN ADDITIVATION
consumption and on the IC engines pollution
for all the working conditions… For our situation, the IC Engine seen as a
thermodynamic and thermochemistry system
looks as in figure 3.1.
2. GENERAL RESEARCHES TRENDS IN Note: the other components from the air
THIS DOMAIN were neglected because of lower percentage
and the low influence on the combustion.
Hydrogen as a fuel for automotive IC Nitrogen is essentially chemically neutral
engines has had a long history of study in the and does not react in the combustion process.
academic and industry area. The properties Its presence, however, does affect the
that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel temperature and pressure in the combustion
are well known: wide range of flammability, chamber. This is a general statement of the
low ignition energy, small quenching distance, researchers in the IC engines. But, in case of
high auto ignition temperature, high flame On-board electrolyzers the situation could
speed at stoichiometric ratios, high diffusivity change radically.
and very low density. Nowadays, the main The nowadays situation:
researches are focused on using it as The lean-burning nature of diesel engines
independent fuel or in developing the fuel and the high temperatures and pressures of the
cells. In this paper it is going to be discussed combustion process result in significant
the situation of the IC engines which are using production of Nitrogen oxides, and provide a
the conventional fuel enriched with hydrogen. unique challenge in reducing these
The use of hydrogen as an additional fuel compounds. Modern on-road diesel engines
to gasoline has been considered since the early typically must use selective catalytic reduction
’70, the alternative to the full hydrogen to meet emissions laws, as other methods such
powered engine. Relying on its characteristics, as exhaust gas recirculation cannot adequately
all the producers or commercial firms reduce NOx to meet newer standards in many
advertise for their on-board hydrogen system jurisdictions. However, the fine particulate
gadgets because, from their points of view the matter (sometimes visible as opaque dark-
Oxy-Hydrogen gas (the mixture called HHO, colour smoke) has traditionally been of greater
Aguygen gas, Brown gas, Hydroxy or EEW- concern in the realm of diesel exhaust.
Electrically Expanded Water) obtained from Actual pollution reduction technologies are
water electrolysis may improve the sophisticated (and expensive): electronic
combustion’s chemicals reaction and also injection systems correlated to various sensors
increase the water formation as by product of and coordinated by ECU (Electronic Computer
combustion. Unit) corroborated with EGR (Exhaust Gas
This work, which was performed at Recirculation) systems, DPF (Diesel
JIAXING SUNRISE TECHNOLOGY CO. Particulate Filters), catalysts systems and DEF
LTD is included in the same activity area but it (Diesel Exhaust Fluid) (commonly referred to
has to be mentioned that the researchers have it as AdBlue).
begun from a different idea: the hydrogen is A new approach of the emissions problem
not “the real culprit” for the positive results was highlighted by US Department of
which were sometimes reported. The key of Transportation report from 2007: “Onboard
problem is a substance which is fully electrolyzers are used with hydrogen injection
presented but it was neglected by the systems for diesel engines. In this case, only a
majority: the nitrogen. small amount of hydrogen and oxygen is
produced to supplement, not replace, the
diesel fuel used in the engine. The electricity to
operate the electrolyzer is typically supplied
by the engine’s alternator or 12/24-VDC
electrical system”.

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Fuel (CnHm) 
• NOx (NO and NO2 - nitric
Air (21%O2, 79%N2)  Reaction/  oxide and nitrogen dioxide)
Products
Reactants  combustion  • CO, carbon monoxide
• HC, unburned hydrocarbons
HHO gas  chamber  • H2O

Fig. 3.1 The IC Engine seen as a thermodynamic and thermochemistry system

Fig. 3.2 The Pre-Combustion Treatment Technology (PCTT)

Oxy-Hydrogen (the mixture called HHO) system, the type of engine and operational
obtained from water electrolysis may improve parameters.
the combustion’s chemicals reaction and also In conclusion, all the technologies in use
increase the water formation as by product of are applied as a post combustion phase as
combustion. Water will be converted into passive methods or involve extra energy to
steam and that act as carbon deposits cleaner operate (in case of HHO methods). Post
and enhance the pressure on the explosion combustion methods are expensive and
stroke. The addition of HHO is effective resource consuming. NOx and unburned
technology but is limited to efficiency of the particulates generation and reduction
mechanisms are opposite and achieving both

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

results require a complex system. None of and the presence of extra volumes of water in
them are designed to solve the main pollution the form of steam.
problem: actual engines park! In short, for this situation, the chemical
The Pre-Combustion Treatment reactions are:
Technology (PCTT):
Considering the facts that diesel engines 2H2O = 2H2 + O2
already produce Nitrogen Oxides and the 2H2O = H3O + OH
addition of HHO increases the temperature and 3NO2 + H2O = 2HNO3 + NO
this fact creates conditions to produce NOx, an 4NO + 6H2O = 4NH3 + 5O2
active method called Pre-Combustion 2NO + 2KOH = 2KNO2 + H2
Treatment Technology (PCTT) was HNO3 + KOH = H2O + KNO3
developed in order to reduce both NOx and
soot – particulate matters - from exhaust gases. The bubbler is shown in figure 3.3 and the
A combination between HHO generator and a electrolytic cell in figure 3.4.
regenerative bubbler (RB) were used as it can
be seen in figure 3.2.
The RB is fixed to exhaust manifold and
use the EG (Exhaust Gas) temperature to
warm up the water content where a small
amount of EG is bubbled then transferred to
HHO cell. The alkaline type Oxy-Hydrogen
generator (an electrolytic cell) produces the
HHO gas and water vapors, contaminated with
electrolyte (usually KOH).
The Regenerative Bubbler contains water
which is bubbled a small amount of EG in
order to produce HNO3 (nitric acid). As it is Fig. 3.3 The bubbler
well known, the nitric acid is one of the
strongest inorganic (mineral) acids. It is, at the
same time, in pure state or concentrated, a very
powerful oxidant. The nitric acid is very toxic,
very corrosive and it can destroy different
materials which get in contact with it (from the
weaves to the metals). The nitric acid is very
used in explosive industry where it is one of
the most important substances. An example:
the nitro-glycerine and other explosive
substances are obtained by nitration.
Combined, the oxidant KNO2/HNO3 and
extra H2 and, in some conditions, ammonia, Fig. 3.4 The electrolytic cell
NH3, is generated in a Oxy-Hydrogen rich
flow of mixed steam. In terms of energy Preliminary results/conclusions:
conservation our technology is synergetic and The equipment based on the water
regenerative since the use of the elevated ionization/electrolysing in order to produce the
exhaust gases temperature to increase water HHO gas and which has been made so far for
temperature, induces the conditions of NOx decreasing the fuel consumption and pollution
reaction and produces supplemental steam, are not the final solution. The effects
then using a chemical reaction to neutralize sometimes positive are due to some
both KOH and HNOx vapors to almost neutral complicated chemical reactions which are
pH salt KNOx. Oxy-Hydrogen positive effect produced (or they should be produced) in the
is enhanced by Nitrogen’s chemical reaction combustion chamber as a result of captive fire
gases (which resulted from the former

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combustion cycle or captured with the support 4. CONCLUSIONS: POSSIBILITIES
of EGR) and mainly due to the different forms TO DEVELOPE THE ON-BOARD
of water which followed the electrolyse gas. HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
This is the reason why the dry electrolyse gas TOGETHER WITH SOME ORIGINAL
does not have significant effects. AUXILIARY INSTALLATIONS
The oxy-hydrogen which was produced by
the used generator provides steam and gases Briefly, the main developing directions for
with ammonia smell due to some volumes of this area are shown in Table 4.1.
the reactive nitrogen which are in the exhaust The situations 2, 3, 4 and 8 are the current
gases. When salt water (NaCl) was introduced on-board hydrogen supply equipment. In this
in equation, powerful explosions appeared into case A, B, E and G are obtained. The former
bubbler despite of lack of ignition source HHO supply plants are shown in 1, 3 and 8
which could explain the phenomenon (note: cases. These had a lower efficiency to produce
into the bubbler is a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen but they had high water volumes. In
hydrogen which is flammable but with the these situations A, B, C, E, F and G can be
condition of existence of ignition source). obtained. Nowadays, the situations 2, 3, 6 and
These explosions destroyed the bubbler. A 8 are tested. The water injection system
possible explanation: it is known that the (situation 9) has good results and it can work
gaseous ammonia has sometimes a violent with the possibilities 2 ,3 and 6.
reaction with the chlorine. In this situation, the The hydrogen cannot be used as a simple
gaseous ammonia inflames and the result is a engine fuel only if it is in high volumes which
fog consisting of ammonium chloride as it can are impossible to be produced  on-board.
be seen in the next chemical equations: Moreover, it is not more efficient than classic
hydrocarbons (because of generation
2NH3 + 3Cl2 = N2 +6HCl difficulties) and it is very dangerous in
6NH3 + 6HCl = 6NH4Cl exploitation. It is unlikely for a distribution
network to be realised soon in order to solve
Another possibility to create a the problem of “hydrogen economy”.
supplementary engine torque is forming As a final conclusion, the fundamental
ANFO mixtures (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil - paradigm (general conception) changing, the
blasting agents representing the largest use of nitrogen from the environment air, of
industrial explosive manufactured, in terms of the water and some chemical substances cheap
quantity, in the United States) by nitration of and abundant as ingredients in the combustion
engine lube oil and the ANFO detonation with chamber in order to obtain explosive
the support of hydrogen produced by the substances could ensure a slower and more
electrolysing on-board equipment. efficient transition to “electrical economy”.

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Table 4.1
Possibilities: It could be obtained:
The water electrolysing with acid Ionized water
1 A
electrolyte
The water electrolysing with alkaline Oxygenated water
2 B
electrolyte
The combustion chamber residual EG Nitrogen acids
3 C
use
The EGR (if it exists) exhaust gas use – Ammonia
4 D
without bubbling
The EG use by building of EGR type Nitrogen salts
5 E
route – without bubbling
6 Using of a bubbler for the recovered EG F Hydrocarbon nitrates
The using of additives or fuel mixtures Gas hydrogen, gas oxygen – HHO (the
7 G
or/and lube oil which could be nitrated name adopted in this situation)
The water injection into combustion
8
chamber
The water and different additives
9
injection

REFERENCES 4. Wiseman, G. Proof that On Board Brown’s

Gas (BG) Generation and Supplementation
1. Apostolescu, N., Chiriac, R., A study of Works, Available: http://www.eagle-
combustion of hydrogen – enriched research.com/cms/node/443 (March,
gasoline in a spark ignition engine, SAE 2011).
Paper 960603, (1996). 5. Thomas G., Parks G., Potential Roles of
2. Conte, E., Boulouchos, K., Influence of Ammonia in a Hydrogen Economy, A
hydrogen – rich – gas addition on Study of Issues Related to the Use
combustion, pollutant formation and Ammonia for On-Board Vehicular
efficiency of a IC–SI engine, SAE Paper Hydrogen Storage, U.S. Department of
2004-01-0972, (2004). Energy (December, 2006).
3. Shinagawa, T., Okomura, T., Effects of 6. Müllera I., Cederbaum L., Ionization and
hydrogen addition to SI engine on knock double ionization of small water clusters,
behavior, SAE Paper 2004-01-1851, The Journal of Chemical Physics 125,
(2004). (November, 2006).
 

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ASPECTS OF THE POWER BALANCE FOR LASER CUTTING PROCESS

Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTIŞ*, Remus BOBOESCU**,

*Mechanical Faculty, University Politehnica, Timişoara, Romania, ** Engineering, Faculty, University

Ioan Slavici, Timişoara, Romania

Abstract:.Oxidation of iron in oxygen is an important power source for cutting steel through thermal
processes.For oxygen-assisted laser cutting of steel plates energy to melt the material is given by the
oxidation reaction and the laser beam radiation.It provides a way to assess the contribution to material
melting of two physical phenomena.The material is removed in the molten state.On the basis of the cut
shape are calculated power consumed to start the oxidation reaction and power given by reaction.The
efficiency of the cutting process is expressed as dimensionless fractions.
Keywords: laser oxygen cutting,steel, specific energy.

1. INTRODUCTION layer which prevents contact between oxygen

and metal stops metal burning. This is the case
The cutting of materials by a thermal of alumina is formed on the surface of the
process can be helped by the presence of aluminum for thermal cutting of aluminum.
reactive gas which together with material The formation of a reaction product gas, such
removal effect support a chemical exotherm as carbon monoxide, is an obstacle. Gas layer
reaction which brings energy to the erosion produced adheres to the melt metal surface by
front [1],[2]. Using oxygen to cutting by absorption and hinder the access of oxygen.
melting of iron base materials is due to a Contaminate the oxygen which will slow
favorable conjuncture of situations that make down the combustion. Liquid oxide formation
this possible. Thus the combustion of iron is favorable to reaction propagation. They
from steel in oxygen liberates sufficient have a catalytic role. The liquid oxides can be
calories to compensate heat losses by removed simultaneously with liquid molten
conduction, convection and radiation and metal. To maintain the oxidation reaction is
heated the reaction products so as to keep the important contact between the reactants at the
local temperature of workpiece to iron molecular level.
ignition.
Temperature for ignition of the reaction should 2. OXIDATION REACTION
be close to the melting temperature of the
metal.  Also, the melting temperature of the Metals and gases that satisfy these
formed oxides` should be close to the melting conditions to enable the use of a reactive gas
temperature of the metal so that all the reaction for machining are limited:
products are liquid and can be removed by the - iron in oxygen:
kinetic effect of the gas as they are formed. 2Fe+2O2 = Fe3O4 +270.8 Btu; (1)
At forming temperature oxides can be, - copper in chloro:
solid, liquid or gas. For solid oxides forms a 2Cu +2 Cl = Cu2Cl2 + 70.8 Btu (2)

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

(Cu2Cl2 melts at 420oC);

- tin in chloro: 3. EXPERIMENTS
Sn + 4Cl = SnCl4 + 129.6 Btu (3)
(SnCl4 is liquid at ambient temperature). In experiments was used a CO2 laser
Cutting copper and tin with chloro in the MAZAC 1500. Maximum average power
role of reactive gas may not be made because emitted is 1500 W. In experiments using
chloro is a toxic gas. carbon steel sheet cold rolled SR EN 10025
In the presence of oxygen and iron from (OL 37 - STAS 500/2, S235), with a thickness
the steel oxidizes slowly to ambient of 3 mm [3], [4].
temperature. As the temperature increases the In the experiments have varied the following
oxidation is accelerated. For temperature of parameters:
1300oC reaction becomes quasi- -Oxygen pressure pO2 [bar]. Oxygen pressure
instantaneously. This temperature is called the is a process parameter that was measured at
ignition temperature.The ignition temperature the outlet of the gas tank. It has a direct
depends also on the material. It is known that influence on the gas speed in the cut and as
over the temperature of1000oC and the result in chemical reaction of burning material.
oxidation reaction becomes significant at - Average power P[W]. Average power is the
temperatures of 1350oC or 1400oC is almost energy emitted by the laser oscillator in a long
instantaneous [5] [6] .In some cases it is time. Average power is directly adjustable on
considered the temperature of 1200oC[5]. the machine control.
Following iron oxides are formed FeO, Fe2O3, - Cutting speed v [mm/min]. Cutting speed is
Fe3O4. All these oxides are formed by a strong the relative speed of movement between the
exothermic reaction while reaction is fast. For laser head and the workpiece. Its influence is
each atom of oxygen fixed in the form of iron considerable both in general cutting process
oxidation emit 66 calories. and particularly for irradiation conditions.
The chemical reactions of oxidation of iron Cutting speed is adjustable directly on the
have the following form: [6]: machine control.
Fe + O → FeO + 267 kJ (4) - Pulse frequency f [Hz]. Pulse frequency is
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3 O4 + 1120kJ (5) the number of pulses per unit time. Pulse
frequency is adjustable directly on the machine
2 Fe + 1,5O2 → Fe2 O3 + 825kJ (6) control.
For laser cutting showed that importance has - Cycle η [%] cycle (or duty cycle) is the ratio
only formation of FeO. It is estimated that the of pulse duration (or pulse time) and total
temperature of cutting front is between the duration of the between two pulses (period).
1950-2250oC. The oxidation reaction for 1mol Cycle is adjustable directly on a machine
of Fe requires a temperature of 1400oC to command.
initiate the reaction and the heat to boot Upper and lower levels influence factors
reaction is 275 J/g. It is noted that this is much are given in Table 1.Was measured cut width
lower than that obtained from the chemical on top of workpiece ws [mm] and bottom of
reactions. These values are given relative to workpiece wi[mm]. The top piece is
amount expressed in moles of reactants.  The considered that direct irradiated by laser beam.
chemical oxidation reaction of iron takes place In the calculations was used the average cut
with both reactants in excess. width:
In reality, the quantities of reactants vary w + wi
because iron can burn faster than laser source wm = s [mm] (9)
2
heat the material. Energy evaluation of laser cutting process was
From the existing alloy elements especially done by identifying a type power size a
in alloy steels and stainless steel which give associated with physical phenomenon. Thus,
additional heat at erosion front  by oxidation similar to the average power of the laser beam
noted:[6] material is considered power necessary to melt
Cr + 3O2 → 2 Cr2 O3 + 1163.67 kJ (7) the material a power consumed to start
Ni + 1.5O2 → NiO + 248 kJ (8) oxidation reaction and power released as a

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result of oxidation. These were calculated by Where:
the ratio of energy and time. e –sheet thickness, e= 3mm.
P
- linear energy E l = [J/mm](11)
Table 1: Levels of influence factors v
influence factor Lower Higher Specific energy to removing material
level level characterized cutting process relative to
Average power change of influence factors. Although the
800 1500
P [W] calculations are based on values for a cut
Cutting speed already achieved efficiency helps when you
1300 3000
v [mm/min] want to determine the linear energy for other
Cycle processes of laser cutting. From the
50 85
η [%] technological point of view, it is intended
Frequency situation that the specific energyf or material
150 400
f [Hz] removal is to minimal value.
Oxygen Minimum specific energy expressed as
pressure 0.8 2 minimum energy consumption as a quantity
pO2 [bar] expressed in J to remove the maximum of
material expressed in mm3.
As a general assumption is considered that the The reduction in the values specific energy
shape of the cut is kept constant during the may be associated with the oxidation reaction
process and the material is removed only in the contribution. The oxidation reaction increases
molten state at the melting temperature.Cross cut cros-section area through without changing
section of the cut is considered the shape of a the linear energy.
trapezoid. It neglects the removal of material Figure 1 shows the Pareto diagram for
as vapors. The process of cutting is uniformly specific energy Q. Decreased specific energy
and stable. Q means lower energy consumption to remove
To appreciate the area in which the unit volume of material. It is observed that the
oxidation takes place was considered cutting higher effect is the speed, followed by the
front surface. This is slightly larger than the power effect. Speed effect is a decreasing
cross-section area  through cut. Material effect and the power is increasing effect.
removal in laser cutting process is considered
relative to the cross-section area of cut.

2. SPECIFIC ENERGY

The specific energy to material removal of

in molten state Q is defined as the ratio of the
linear energy El consumed in the process and
cut cross section area As.
linear energy E ⎡ J ⎤
Q= = l ⎢ (10)
cut cross sec tion wm e ⎣ mm 3 ⎥⎦

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

- L0 –the heat required to bring the material to

the melting temperature and to melt the
material to be processed. L0 = 2396 J / g
- cut cross-section area
w + wi
As = s e = wm ⋅ e [mm2] (13)
2
Based on the similar reasoning, the
calculated power required to initiate the
oxidation reaction. is:
energy for preheating
Pin =
time [W] (14)
= ρ ⋅ A f ⋅ v ⋅ Lin
- where the cutting front area is:
1 ws + wi w − wi 2 2
Af = π⋅ ( s ) + e 2 [mm ] (15)
Figure 1 Pareto chart for specific energy 2 2 2
Heating occurs at the front of erosion. In
The following effects are cycle and frequency order to activate the oxidation reaction is
efects. It is noted that the oxygen pressure and necessary to heat the material more
its interactions have little effect. Increasing than1000oC. Was considered to Lin=550J/g
energy put to workpiece by increasing power value.
level increase specific energy Q. At the cutting front takes place a heat
It shows that some additional energy is used release after oxidation:
for vaporization and not in useful physical energy from oxydation
phenomenon of melting material. Pout = (16)
time
= ρ ⋅ A f ⋅ v ⋅ Lout [W]
3. POWER FOR MELTING AND
OXIDATION Lout value was considered: Lout=4600J/g

In the following we will analyze the Figure 2 shows the Pareto chart for useful
cutting process in terms of energy, using power. It is noted that for this highest effect is
experimental results. It is considered that speed effect. This effect is increasing effect.
cutting takes place continuously and the Thus, it is shown that the increase in speed
process is stable. It is characterized by the favors melting and reduces vaporization of the
following powers: material. Continuous irradiation given by cycle
- P– time average power of the laser beam; favors the melting and discontinuous
- Pu–useful power; the power needed to ensure irradiation given by frequency favors
the material melting; vaporization losses of heat by conduction.
-Pin–the power needed to provide the Power has significant effects by its
necessary heat to initiate the oxidation interactions. Highest effects have parameters
reaction; that control the interaction time between laser
- Pout–power resulting from the oxidation radiation and material. Oxygen pressure has
reaction. little effect.
The useful power is determined by the
relation:
energy for melting
Pu = = ρ ⋅ As ⋅ v ⋅ L0 [W](12)
time
where :
- ρ=7.85 g/cm3, density of the material;

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Figure 4 shows the Pareto chart for the
power given by the oxidation reaction. It is
noted that the highest effect is the speed effect.

Figure 2 Pareto chart for useful power

Figure 3 shows the Pareto chart for the

power required to initiate the oxidation Figure 4 Pareto chart for the power given by the
reaction. oxidation reaction
Hierarchy of factors influence for three powers
considered is similar because the difference
that appears in calculus formula is only for
amount of latent heat.

4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Are defined the following cutting process

yields:
a) efficiency for erosion front ε1
power for melting P
ε1 = = u [%] (17)
average laser power P
The yield for the erosion front shows the
cut obtained by melting with laser beam
Figure 3 Pareto chart for the power required to irradiation and ignore presence of the
initiate the oxidation reaction oxidation reaction. Yield ε1 can have
supraunitary values just due to oxidation
The highest effect is speed effect. This a reactions.
increasing effect is. The second effect is the b) efficiency for initiation of the
interaction between the speed and cycle. The oxidation reaction ε2
interaction between cycle and oxygen pressure power to i ntiate oxidation Pin
has high effect. ε2 = = [%] (18)
average laser power P

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

In defining for this ratio was considered between the two effects is reduced compared
that the laser beam have one role that of to previous cases.
initiation the oxidation reaction.
c) overall efficiency of the process ε3
power for melting [%](19)
ε3 =
laser power + power from oxidation
The efficiency of the cutting process ε3
takes into account the energy given by the
laser beam energy and the oxidation reaction.
Figure 5 shows the Pareto chart for
efficiency e1. It is observed that the speed
effect is the highest.

Figure 6 Pareto chart for initiation of the

oxidation reaction efficiency

Figure 5 Pareto chart for efficiency for erosion

front
This effect is increasing effect. The second
effect is the power effect. This effect is a
decreasing effect. Thus, it shows that
increasing speed has a positive effect for
material melting while increasing power
favoring vaporization. The effects of the Figure 7 Pareto chart for overall efficiency of the
higher are the parameters that control the process
irradiation. Under thats are located effect of
oxygen pressure and interactions in which it We notice the high effects of speed, cycle
participates. and interactions between speed and oxygen
Figure 6 shows the Pareto chart for pressure. It shows increasing the oxygen
efficiency e2. It is noted that the highest pressure effect for overall efficiency of laser
effects are speed and power effects.The cutting process.
hierarchy of effects is similar to that for
fraction e1 due to the calculation method.It 5. CONCLUSIONS
shows that the main energy balance is between
power and speed. Modeling performed on quantities which
Figure 7 shows the Pareto chart for characterize energy for laser cutting process
efficiency e3.It shows that highest effect is the showed that:
speed effect. This effect is a increasing effect. - Cutting speed has a high effect on the
The second effect is that of power effect. This analyzed quantities.
effect is a decreasing effect. The difference On the experimental field studied, cutting
process optimization is possible by increasing

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the cutting speed. This means lower energy 3. Valentin Glod, Remus Boboescu
transmitted to the workpiece to get the same “Experimental study on the oxygen flow in
volume of material eroded. oxygen assisted laser cutting” Proceedings
Power and cutting speed provides the main of the 21st International Conference NAV-
energy balance of laser cutting process. MAR-EDU2009 Editura Academiei Navale
„Mircea cel Bătrân” Constanţa p: 411-416,
REFERENCES 4. Valentin Glod ”Effects of Oxygen pressure
in Laser Cutting”, Metalurgia Internaţional
1. J Powell, D Petring, R V Kumar, S O Al- nr. 1/ 2011
Mashikhi, A F H Kaplan, and K. T. 5. J.F.Chaussier, A.B. Vannes, La decoupe par
Voisey, Laser–oxygen cutting of mild procedes „haut energes”,Universite de
steel: the thermodynamics of the oxidation Bourgogne 2003  
reaction J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 (2009) 6. K. Abdel Ghany, M. Newishy ”Cutting of
015504 (11pp). 1,2mm thick austenitic stainless steel sheet
2. Koji Hirano, Remy Fabbro, Experimental using pulsed and CW Nd:YAG laser”,
Observation of Hydrodynamics of Melt Journal of Materials Processing
Layer and Striation Generation during Technology 168 (2005) p:438–447
Laser Cutting of Steel Physics Procedia 12
(2011) , pp:555–564.
 

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STRUCTURED DESCRIPTION FOR OXYGEN ASSISTED LASER

CUTTING PROCESS
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTIŞ*, Remus BOBOESCU**,

Mechanical Faculty, University Politehnica, Timişoara, Romania, ** Engineering, Faculty, University

Ioan Slavici, Timişoara, Romania

Abstract: Oxygen assisted laser cutting is carried out by penetration of the material  followed by
stabilizing and movement of the cutting front. Pulsed irradiation can be expressed as peak power and
ratio spot overlap indepndente sizes.Using a factorial experiment allowed the evaluation of the effects of
varied parameters on the cut width. It followed the correlation between varied parameters and physical
phenomena for laser cutting.
Keywords: laser oxygen cutting, pulse wave regime, spot overlap ratio, cut shape.

1. INTRODUCTION grouping of physical phenomena for laser

cutting in the form of steps  and associating
The oxygen-assisted laser cutting is a variable parameters with sizes that have
process having a complexity of the physical physical independent effects.
phenomena that take place.
From the physical point of view the it is 2. LASER CUTTING STAGES
noted study of individual physical phenomena
such as absorption of laser radiation, material To estimate the effect of influence factors
melting, oxidation reaction, heat losses by controllable the process of cutting is
conduction and gas dynamics to cutting front. recommended sequential developmental
From the technological point of view it is approach to laser cutting process. The laser
preferred approach as a model of type inputs cutting process has three important stages:
(influence factors or varied parameters) - - material penetration;
output (objective functions sizes directly - stabilizing cutting front;
measured or calculated on the basis of - cutting front propagation;
measurements). These steps are shown in the figures 1-3.
There are important differences between the In the first stage irradiation conditions
two approaches. Physical exclusive approach ensure material melting and its penetration by
leads to detailed consideration of issues melting and vaporization. This is expressed by
ignoring the overall context, and technological the intensity of the laser beam and laser-
approach ignores the basic physical aspects material interaction time. In the second stage
associated with the variation of parameters. oxidation reaction and removal of molten
This paper proposes a rapprochement material creates an unstable cutting front.
between the two approaches. It will consider a
tiered approach to physical phenomena in laser
cutting process. This takes into account

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Pulsed irradiation is specific of many

technological laser systems. This is a
characteristic design of technological laser
systems allow that peak power to be much
higher that average power. To laser materials
processing submitted advantage stands in the
possibility that in relaxation time to dissipate
heat into material. Pulsed irradiation increases
the number of quantities characterizing the the
irradiation.
Thus, it is necessary to understand the
Figure 1 Material penetration relationship between them. A simplified
scheme (rectangular pulses) for pulsed
irradiation is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2 Stabilizing cutting front

Figure 4 Sizes for pulsed irradiation

Period time tc[s], represents a full cycle

repetition pulses composed by pulse time and
pause time between successive pulses. Period
is calculated as the inverse of the frequency of
pulsation.
1
t c = [s] (1)
f
The pulse time tp[s], is the time in which
the laser light emission takes place. Depending
on the cycle and frequency, the pulse time is
Figure 3 Propagation of cutting front given by the following relationship:
η
tp = [s] (2)
In the third stage by adjusting the cutting f
speed ensure the cutting front stabilization, Length of the interval between pulses
and its movement in the cutting direction. toff[s], is that time during laser oscillator does
The advantages of a sequential approach to not emit radiation. In relation (2) intervenes
laser cutting process are that each parameter coefficien η (cycle or filling ratio for
takes effect only at a certain stage. Action of a irradiation), which can be calculated from the
parameter is considered in the context of relationship:
existing action of other parameters. The last tp
stage is the laser cutting process in the η= = t p f [%] (3)
development. t p + t off
3. IRRADIATION CONDITIONS where:

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1 The laser beam intensity present relativity in
t p + t off = [s] (4) definition because variation of the time that
f
For technological equipment used in the peak power is kept constant and the
experiments directly  adjusts cycle and considered surface. To assess the effects of
frequency, pulse duration is a derived quantity irradiation, laser beam intensity should be
from them. On the other technological systems defined to define relative to the workpiece
laser pulse duration is controlled directly. surface. It is considered the area of intersection
Knowledge of two sizes in relations (2), (3) or between the laser beam and workpiece.Laser
(4) defines the pulse irradiation regime used. beam intensity is not adjusted directly, but can
The average power P [W] is the power be evaluated from the experimental conditions.
emitted from laser oscillator in a long time and It is important to evaluate the maximum
is equivalent to the power emitted intensity of the laser beam.
continuously. Laser beam intensity values will show if that
The peak power Pp[W] represents the irradiation can cause some physical
maximum laser power. To a rectangular pulse phenomenon such as melting, vaporization or
shape peak power is related to the duration of burning.
the pulse. The peak power is calculated based Linear energy El [J/cm] is the ratio
on its relationship with average power. between the average laser power and cutting
P speed:
Pp = [W] (5) P
η El = [J/cm]
v
Pulse energy Ep [J] is the energy emitted
(8)
during the pulse and is calculated as the ratio
Linear energy is used to describe
of average power and frequency.
irradiation both for continuous CW and the
P pulse regime PW. This size ignores the
E p = Pp ⋅ t p = [J] (6)
f characteristics of pulsed regime. It will be
In experiments performed was directly set useful for characterization of physical
the average power and frequency of pulsation, phenomena that are less sensitive to temporal
pulse energy is determined by them. and spatial differences in irradiation for pulsed
Understanding how that can be driven regime. It should be material melting and the
pulse wave irradiation for technological laser heat affected area of material.
system is a first step for ensuring Irradiation in pulsed regime PW produces
controllability of interaction process laser – spatial differences on the workpiece surface.
substance. Laser spot on the surface of the workpiece is
Laser beam intensity I[W/cm2] is defined considered to be circular, and is identified for
as the ratio between the peak power and the his center point or either through one of its
laser beam cross-section area. ends.
Ep Pp Regardless of how the laser spot is
I= 2
= 2
[W/cm2] (7) identified and his dimensions, spot moving
D D
t p ⋅ (π ) π over a period is given by:
4 4 v
D - laser beam focal spot diameter d = v ⋅ t c = [mm] (9)
f

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The movement of the laser spot is shown the surface of the material to interact with the
in Figure 5. To characterize the spatial laser beam during the interaction time:
irradiation is introduced as a criterion the way D
t ic = [s] (12).
in which the irradiated laser area by one spot v
covers an area irradiated by the previous spot. This is defined as the ratio between the
diameter of the laser beam and speed. It
represents the maximum duration that a point
on the material surface can be irradiated and is
independent of pulse time, duty cycle and
frequency, quantities characterizing the pulsed
regime. During the interaction time several
laser pulses  can be produced. To establish a
link between the characteristics of pulsed
regime and interaction time is introduced ratio:
t
Figure 5 Moving of laser spot. D[mm] - diameter r = i c [-] (13)
tc
of the spot; d[mm] - moving of spot
The ratio r indicates how many pulsation
Ratio spo (spot overlap) represents the periods was included in the time during a point
ratio between difference of spot diameter and on the workpiece.surface was seen in the area
the distance d traveled during a period and the of the laser beam. Integer part of the ratio r
laser beam diameter. (exception value 0) indicates the number of
D−d consecutive pulses radiating a point on the
spo = [-] (10) workpiece surface.
D
The fractional part of the fraction r
Depending on the speed and frequency is
indicates that the differences for irradiation
obtained the following relation:
times for different points on the workpiece
v surface are lower than pulse time.
1 − spo = (11)
D⋅ f
Ratio "spo" has values lower than 1. A 4. EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATION
value of 1 means there is not displacement.
Successive spots are overlap. A value of 0 for In the experiments was used a laser with
ratio "spo" means that successive spots are CO2 with maxim power 2kW of type MAZAK,
side by side. Negative values mean that the operation were in pulsated regime PW. The
successive spots acting individually and sheet cold rolled OL 37 3mm thick was used
distant  each other on the piece surface. The [4] [5]. Cuts were made without completely
distance between spots is increasing as the separated parts named as cut or kerf. For cuts
ratio spo is smaller, with negative values. performed have been measured cut width at
Relation (11) plays a role in practical the top Ls [mm] and at bottom of the
establishment to the cutting speed. workpiece Li[mm]. Each of these
There are cases where when the discussion measurements was the average of three
is confined to positive values of the ratio "spo" different measurements equally spaced along
it is expressed as a percentage. the cut. The cut width Lm[mm] was calculated
Parameters that characterize irradiation as the average between the cut width at the
plus the laser spot diameter can be grouped so workpiece top surface (irradiated by the laser
as to use only two independent quantities: beam) and one at the bottom.
- Peak power (depending on cycle and L + Li
average power); Lm = S [mm] (14)
2
- Ratio spo (dependent on speed, frequency To describe the shape of the cut was
and spot diameter). introduced cut shape ratio given by:
To express irradiation time differences fpr L
one point on piece surface is considered R p = 1 − i [-] (15)
continuous irradiation model. Thus, a point on LS

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Parameter variation was performed according
to a factorial full factorial design type 25.
Values in central point were: average power
P=1150 W, cutting speed v=2150 [mm/min]
cycle η=67.5% frequency f= 275Hz, oxygen
pressure pO2 =1.4 bar.
Figure 6 shows the Pareto chart for top cut
width.Parameters effects and second order and
interactions between them were considered.
The most high is the frequency, it is followed
by the interaction between power and cycle.
Although speed has low effect is noted that the
interaction between speed and power has a
high effect. Thus, the higher effects are the
parameters effects that control the irradiation.
Frequency dependence of top cut width shows
that the pulse time has a great importance. It is Figure 6 Pareto chart for top cut width
shown that repeated pulses favor evaporation.
The qualitative aspect for possibility of Figure 7 shows the Pareto chart for bottom
material penetration is given to the power. It is cut width of the piece. It is noted that the
noted that there are three interactions of power highest effect is the interaction effect between
in the first three effects. It is shown that speed and cycle. Power and its interaction with
increase irradiation by increasing power, the cycle have the following effects.Effect of
frequency and cycle has the effect of oxygen pressure is high by its interaction with
decreasing the cut width of the at the top piece frequency. It is shown that the bottom cut
surface by increasing the vaporization. It is width is much more dependent on the speed
noted that the effect of oxygen pressure is and oxygen pressure than the top cut width. It
greater than the interactions effects in which it is shown that within five effects are found all
participate. The oxygen pressure has a parameters. Effect of oxygen pressure is low
increasing effect that is less than the and weaker than the interactions effects in
parameters effects that control the irradiation. which it participates. It is shown that by
increasing the pressure of oxygen favors the
the removal of the material in the molten state.
This leads to a decrease for contribution of the
oxidation reaction and thus decrease the
bottom cut width.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

show that the time interaction between laser

radiation and material has the most
importance.
Figure 9 shows the Pareto chart for the cut
shape ratio.This shows the deformation of the
kerf. It is shown that the high effect is the
interaction between speed and cycle. It is
noted that interactions have higher effects than
parameters.

Figure 7Pareto chart for bottom cut width

Figure 8 shows the Pareto chart for the

average cut width. It is noted that the highest
effect is the interaction between speed and
cycle.

Figure 9 Pareto chart for cut shape ratio

It is noted that the highest effects contain

all parameters and decreases frequency role in
determining the shape of the cut. For
parameters their own effects is observed that
the higher effectis the power effect. Power
effect of can be directly associated with the
penetration of the material. In this case, this
effect is related to the deformation of the cut.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Figure 8 Pareto chart for average cut width The work was carried out a structured
description of the steps to achieve oxygen
The second and third effect is the frequency assisted laser cutting. The work was done a
interactions with power and oxygen pressure. time separation of the laser cutting process
It is observed so that into the first three effects steps.
are included all parameters. It is noted that the For evaporation laser cutting elements
effects of interactions between parameters are physical of cutting front were presented in
higher than their parameters effects.It is noted [1].Here were identified areas of cutting front.
that more interaction of oxygen pressure have From the physical point of view irradiation
high and close together effects.It is shown that is expressed by laser beam intensity and time
pulse time setting by duty cycle and frequency of interaction between laser radiation and
has a significant effect on the average cut material.
width. In determining time interaction time Sizes that characterize irradiation regime
between laser radiation and material also for pulse wave PW were presented in [2] and
cutting speed contributes. Pareto diagram [3]. For pulsed irradiation regime peak power

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is an expression of the intensity of the laser 2. Unitek Miyachi Lasers Understanding
beam. Interaction time between laser radiation Laser Parameters for Weld Development
and material has a continuous component and Technical Aplication Brief Volume 1 no.3
a repetitive component. There are differences 2003 .
between the times of irradiation at different 3. Yih-Fong Tzeng Effects of operating
points on the workpiece surface. parameters on surface quality for the
For cuts made on steel plate was put in pulsed laser welding of zinc-coated steel
evidence the high effects of frequency for top Journal of Materials Processing
cut width the piece and the speed for bottom Technology 100 (2000)pp: 163-170.
cut width. 4. Valentin Glod, Remus Boboescu,
“Experimental study on the oxygen flow in
REFERENCES oxygen assisted laser cutting” Proceedings
of the 21st International Conference NAV-
1. H.Abakians, M.F.Modest, Evaporative MAR-EDU2009 Editura Academiei Navale
Cutting of a Semitransparent Body With a „Mircea cel Bătrân” Constanţa p: 411-416.
Moving CW Laser, Transaction of the 5. Valentin Glod ”Effects of Oxygen pressure
ASME, Vol. 110 November 1988 p.924- in Laser Cutting”, Metalurgia Internaţional
930. nr. 1/ 2011.
 

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WOOD PROCESSING BY LASER TOOLS

Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA

Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transilvania University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Nowadays the laser is used more and more in industrial application. This gains more and more
uses in wood industry. Operations which cannot makes with traditional technology can be made by laser
technology. This paper is a study about laser using in the wood industry. The paper is a synthesis about
scientific literature and papers from this domain. It shows an approach of the processing as wood cutting,
burning and engraving. This study brings together all processing parameters found in literature. Some
particular characteristics of the wood processing by laser are also presented. Advantages and
disadvantages of the laser working are presented, as well. The most used woody species are presented,
too.

Keywords: laser, wood processing, cutting, pyrography, engraving

1. INTRODUCTION [12]. Metals can reach to 22570kg/m3 densities

[7], which is the osmium density.
Wood processing by laser is less developed Regarding to the woodworking precision, it
than other similar areas. The laser machining should not be very high due to swelling and
for metal working has developed enhanced shrinkage by varying moisture content. These
because of high power lasers which can cut natural phenomena are permanent.
high density materials. High costs of Laser beam machining has several
producing laser effect are offset by the reduced advantages over conventional methods.
costs due to premature wear of the tool. Because it is a non-contact process, laser
In the medical field the laser has imposed, beam machining it well suited for advanced
because it has high accuracy than conventional cutting of engineering materials such as
processes, but also due to the fact that the side difficult to be cut, brittle materials, electric and
effects are greatly diminishes. Lasers have non-electric conductors, and soft and thin
very precise control of the working materials [2].
parameters. Laser beam machining is a thermal process
The advantages listed above do not have and materials with favourable thermal
shown interest in woodworking because this properties can be successfully processed,
material does not have a density comparable to regardless of their mechanical properties.
metals. The species with the highest density Laser beam machining is a flexible process
wood is Lignum-vitae wood (Guajacum [15].
officinale L.). The density of this is 1400kg/m3 Other advantages include narrow slot width
(minimum material lost), straight cut edges,

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low roughness of cut surfaces, easy integration programs, but this time is much less than the
with computer numerically controlled (CNC) time required for preparing the classical
machines for cutting complex profiles [18]. technology. It done and saves material by
By combining the laser beam and the using the laser cutting for intarsia veneers
machine providing motion, in addition to the because it is not necessary that the veneers to
applied numerically controlled system, it is be cut in package.
possible to provide for a continual sheet Cutting photonics is based on the wood
cutting along the pre-determined contour. influence of light rays with high power
A laser beam is a high intensity beam of (106...109 W/cm2) [5], which it heats the
light that can be tightly focused onto a spot material to the burning temperatures.
only 0.1...0.2mm in diameter [17]. The most common lasers, both as
About researches in this domain, there applications and as manufacturing, are that
were studied more articles about CO2 laser cut with gas. The advantage is that the emitted
quality from year 1996 till 2011 [17]. This wavelengths can be determined with precision,
paper confirm the great interest about laser are set up and remain independent of
using in metal domain and low interest about environmental conditions. These lasers use a
other domains that including the wood gas mixture of CO2, He and H2 [5].
engineering.
The laser is use to cutting, etching,
pyrography in the woodworking.

2. WOOD CUTTING BY LASER

The main reason that laser are used in the

wood industry is the technological flexibility
and speed with which good results are
obtained. Wood processing industry puts
particular emphasis on design. Repeating an
ornament or a shape decreases the value of the
item. Figure 1: Wood cutting by laser [1].
An example of wood cutting by laser beam  
is shown in Figure 1. CO2 lasers dominate this application due to
As a particularity, in the case of the wood their good-quality beam combined to high
behaves differently depending on the direction output power [19].
of the cutting plane. When using high power lasers, the feed
This operation is suitable for intarsia jobs, rate is closer to the industrial speed, this
where it needs precision cutting for decorative depends essentially by thickness of wood
veneers. This technology is preferred because pieces, density, moisture content and
of the relatively small thickness of the veneer, adhesives.
and its low density, it does not require high- Feed rate for beech and spruce is
power lasers, all thus reducing the processing 0.31...0.43m/min and laser power range is
costs. The second reason for preferring this from 150 to 500W [5].
technology is that it presents great flexibility, The cut width is 0.1mm, the distance of the
being virtually eliminated costs of production timber from the slot 1.5mm, and the lens focal
patterns and dies and the processing time, length of 12.7cm [5].
while increasing the accuracy of execution. About quality of surfaces obtained by laser
Execution time decreases by eliminating cutting there have made a series of
design and implementation templates and photographs of surfaces by electron
moulds. The preparation time of manufacture microscopy and then were compared with
is not eliminated because execution patterns photographs of the surfaces cut by
and dies is replaced with achieving control conventional methods. It was thus evident that

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laser cut surfaces are smoother than the The cut geometry comprises the following:
sawing. By sawing, it results cut surface of kerf (kerf profile and kerf width),
beams tracheid. It also results deep traces of perpendicularity and slant tolerance, and
tooth setting, especially of its unevenness. At rounding out of the cut edges.
the laser cutting, it was observed small damage Kerf is an important characteristic of the
of the wood cutting area. laser cutting. That ensures the advantage in
The roughness of the cut surface can be regard to other contour cutting processes. Kerf
compared to the milled surface. profile by laser cutting has form of taper. The
The laser cut is a narrow, accurate and channel effect of a focused beam minimizes
right cut. The edges are straight and sharp. The taper of the kerf.
width cut decreases with increasing cutting The perpendicularity and slant tolerance
feed rate and it is higher at the entrance than at determine the cut quality also.
the exit to the material, the difference being The side inclination of cut angle increases
visible to increase the feed rate. By increasing along with the sheet thickness, but it decreases
the density of the wood, the cutting width is with increasing of the laser power.
reduced. The cut edges at the laser beam entrance
Using laser for the wood cutting offers a side are rounded out due to the Gauss
number of advantages over conventional distribution of radiation intensity over the laser
machining process: does not produce sawdust; beam cross-section. The rounding-out of the
provides the ability to cut complex profiles; edges is very small [17].
surfaces are cut very fine; not cutting forces About woody species which can be cut by
acting on the parts clipped; very small width of laser there is no ban. However have to an
cut; no tool wear occurs and there is no attention about the wood density. A low laser
question of their maintenance; the noise is power cannot cut all material thickness and a
reduced. high-power of the laser burns the wood.
With respect to various other cutting Studied woody species cut by laser are shown
processes (such as oxy-fuel cutting, plasma in Table 2.
cutting, sawing and punching), its advantages
are numerous, namely, minimal area subjected
to heat, a proper cut profile, minimal 3. WOOD COLOURING BY LASER
deformation of a work piece, the possibility of (PYROGRAPHY)
applying high cutting speed and fast adaptation
to changes in manufacturing programs. Wood surfaces treatment has two goals:
The disadvantages using laser for cutting • increases wood resistance (especially
wood are: cut surfaces are burned, it is resistance against the pest attacks) and
difficult to know the density for calculating the dimensional stability;
laser power for cutting because wood is a • obtaining the decorations.
heterogeneous material. These two goals cannot be separate
Evaluation of laser cut quality bases on: because they are complementary.
geometry of cut, surface of cut, burr formation Wood treatment by laser darks the colour
and characteristics of material in zone of cut. surface. This is one of the reasons that the
laser did not developed in the woodworking.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

This drawback will be minimized if the A criteria for choosing of the material is its
colouring makes through artistic pyrography. homogeneity. A homogeneous wood will be
In a short action at a constant and relatively treated uniform; the colour will be without hue
low energy laser on wood a charring of the sudden change and properties will be
material decorative shapes occurs. uniformly distributed.
An example of wood burning by laser is Woody species funded in literature are
shown in Figure 2. shown in Table 2.

4. WOOD ENGRAVING BY LASERS

The laser beam is used to detach a large

proportion of wood, following pre-set patterns.
Sculpture is obtained through repeating this
process for each thin layer successively.
An example of wood engraving is shown in
Figure 3.
It has already shown that the laser
treatment the wood areas are burned, but the
Figure 2: Wood burning by laser [6]. laser can also be used for making ornaments in
  relief.
For decoration it uses especially CO2 [4] The free carbon formed on the surface can
[14,21] He [4], oxygen and nitrogen [3] lasers. easily be removed with a jet of air or light
Colouring of the wood surface is brushing, only faint brown remaining.
influenced by the species of wood burned, by MDF is the most used wood material for
the laser power, the feed rate, the material engraving. This has the advantage that
thickness and the energy flow density. The consisting of wood fibres (small anatomical
colour varies from pale brown to black. The elements), the surface is cleaned against free
colour changes will be more pronounced if carbon very well.
feed rate is reduced. The Q-switched diode-pumped frequency-
The carbonized depth of the wood is equal doubled Nd:YAG green laser can be
to the width of tracheid or fibres, i.e. successfully used to machine different types of
30...60μm [5]. wood, obtaining decorative drawing and 3D
By decreasing the feed rate, the wood has engraved geometries without burning [10].
more time to carbonize itself, it increases the The advantages of engraving by laser are:
energy expended per unit length of cut, also. high work precision, it is eliminated the risk of
Increasing the moisture content decreases the fibre pull-out.
carbonization effect; the excess energy is used The disadvantages are: surfaces are burned,
for evaporation of water from the wood. that will be removed it is necessary; it
Wood treating by laser technology is in increases the number of passes because the
laboratory stage due to high costs of power decreases.
implementation at industrial scale. However Another aspect is about heterogeneity of
this technology even in the laboratory opens the wood; the laser should be variable power
new perspectives in research phenomena or a high enough power to cut the maximum
occurring in wood. density of the material but, sufficiently low to
The advantages of wood colouring by laser does not burn the minimum density area.
are: surfaces can be differently coloured; it can Studied woody species engraved by laser are
be obtained images with high resolution. shown in Table 2.
The disadvantages are: uneven colouring  
due to heterogeneity of wood, increases the
surface roughness, the lines are drawn too
strict. The last one will be a disadvantage just
if it wants to make an artistic pyrography.

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Usually just a single machine can do all
these three operations.
Generally, woodworking by lasers has a
number of advantages over the conventional
processing: decreases working time, increases
working precision, can be make complex
operations, for all these operations it is need
just one machine, the operations are
automates.
Generally, the disadvantages are: high
costs of the equipments, high cost for
production of the laser effect.
The production costs can be reduced using
other lasers instead lasers with gas. Q-
switched diode-pumped frequency-doubled
Nd:YAG green laser reduces the cost but
increase the working time. It is possible
because wood density is low and a high laser
power is not necessary. The material with high
density can be processed trough more passes.
The parameters for lasers used in wood
industry are shown in Table 1.
Figure 3: Wood engraving by laser [20].  
Table 1. Main parameters for woodworking by
laser.
5. CONCLUSIONS Cutting Pyro- Engraving
graphy
Woodworking by laser is a domain
Laser Gas CO2, Gas CO2, Q-
unexploited at the maximum in this moment
type He and He [4], switched
and it has some aspects unknown.
H2 [5] O2 and diode-
Because the relatively costs of production
N2 [3] pumped
are high, especially for lasers pumping, they
frequency-
are very little used in the wood industry.
doubled
The woodworking by lasers creates new
Nd:YAG
prospects in terms of phenomena research that
[10]
occur during and after wood processing.
Power 106...109 W/cm2 [5]
Wood surfaces treatments by laser can be
Speed 50800 91500 mm/min
controlled in small details. It is possible to
study wood burning mechanisms (especially mm/min
chemical wood degradation). Also it is
 
possible to isolate insoluble wood components.
In wood industry the lasers are not used
just for woodworking. They are used for:

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

dimensional and roughness measuring, 6. Grathio Labs, Making Wooden Nickels.

marking etc. Among these, the lasers are used With Lasers. [online]. Available:
the most at the timber working, where it is http://grathio.com/2011/06/making-wooden-
difficult to determine the volume of log. That nickles-with-lasers/ (March, 2014)
because the log shape is irregular. 7. Gugnin, A. A. , L'vov, S. N. , Mal'ko, P. I.,
  Nemchenko, V. F., Starodubov, I. P.,
Table 2. The woody species and materials 
Electrical and thermal conductivities of
processed by lasers, found in literature. 
rhenium, osmium, and iridium and some of
Cutting Beech, Spruce, Douglas, their alloys with thorium and lanthanum in
Particleboards [4] a wide temperature range. Soviet Powder
Pyrography Black locust [3], Beech Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics. 11 (1972)
[8,14,16,21,13], Lime [14],
Spruce [14,16,21], Ash 8. Kacík, F. , Kubovsky, I., Chemical changes
[14,16], Scots pine [16], Pine of beech wood due to CO2 laser irradiation.
[13], Maple [9], Sapelli [21], Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology
Moso bamboo [11]
A: Chemistry. 222 (2011)
Engraving MDF,
9. Kubovsky, I. , Kacík, F., FT-IR study of
Walnut, Mahogany, Chestnut
Oak, Poplar, Pine [10] maple wood changes due to CO2 laser
irradiation. Cellulose Chemistry and
Technology. 43 (2009)
REFERENCES
10. Leone, C. , Lopresto, V., De Iorio, I. ,
1. American woodworker, Tool Talk - Epilog Wood engraving by Q-switched diode-
CNC Lasers. [online]. Available: pumped frequency-doubled Nd:YAG green
http://www.americanwoodworker.com/blogs/t laser. Optics and Lasers in Engineering. 47
ools/archive/2010/07/13/tool-talk-epilog-cnc- (2009)
lasers.aspx (March, 2014)
11. Lin, C.-J. , Wang, Y.-C. , Lin, L.-D. ,
2. Chen, M., Ho, Y., Hsiao, W., Wu, T., Chiou, C.-R. , Wang, Y.-N. and Tsai M.-J.,
Tseng, S., Huang, K., Optimized laser cutting Effects of feed speed ratio and laser power
on light guide plates using grey relational on engraved depth and color difference of
analysis. Optics and Lasers in Engineering. 49 Moso bamboo lamina. Journal of Materials
(2011) Processing Technology. 198, no. 1-3 (2008)

3. Chen, Y. , Gao, J. , Fan, Y. , Tshabalala, M. 12. Lunguleasa, A., Wood physics and
A. , Stark, N. M., Heat-induced chemical and mechanics. Braşov: Editura Universităţii
color changes of extractive-free Black Transilvania (2007)
Locust (Robinia Pseudoacacia) wood.
13. Panzner, M. , Wiedemann, G. , Henneberg,
BioResources. 7(2) (2012)
K. , Fischer, R. , Wittke, T. and Dietsch, R.,
4. Dogaru V., Aşchierea lemnului şi scule Experimental investigation of the laser
aşchietoare. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi ablation process on wood surfaces. Applied
Pedagogică (1981) Surface Science. 127-129 (1998)

5. Dogaru, V., Bazele tăierii lemnului şi a 14. Petutschnigg, A. , Stöckler, M. ,

materialelor lemnoase. Bucureşti: Editura Steinwendner, F. , Schnepps, J. , Gütler, H. ,
Tehnică (1985) Blinzer, J. , Holzer, H. and Schnabel, T., Laser
Treatment of Wood Surfaces for Ski Cores:

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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An Experimental Parameter Study. Advances pulsed mode CO2 laser. Optics and Lasers in
in Materials Science and Engineering. 2013 Engineering. 43 (2005)
(2013)
19. Riveiro, A. , Quintero, F. , Lusquinos, F. ,
15. Prasad, G., Siores, E., Wong, W.,, Laser Comesana, R. , Pou J., Parametric
cutting of metallic coated sheet steels. investigation of CO2 laser cutting of 2024-
Journal of Materials Processing Technology. T3 alloy. Journal of Materials Processing
74 (1998) Technology. 210 (2010)

16. Preklet, E. , Papp, G. , Barta, E. , Tolvaj, 20. Thompson, J., Kumiko Pattern. [online].
L. , Berkesi, O. , Bohus, J. , Szatmári, S. , Available:
Changes in DRIFT spectra of wood http://www.jeffreythompson.org/blog/tag/woo
irradiated by lasers of different wavelength. d/ (March, 2014)
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology
B: Biology. 112 (2012) 21. Wust, H. , Haller, P. and Wiedemann, G.,
Experimental study of the effect of a Laser
17. Radovanovic, M. , Madic, M., beam on the morphology of wood surfaces.
Experimental investigations of CO2 laser In Proceedings of the 3rd International
cut quality: a review. Nonconventional Symposium on Wood Machining, Lausanne,
Technologies Review. 4 (2011) Switzerland: (2007)

18. Rao, T. , Kaul, R. , Tiwari, P. , Nath, A.,

Inert gas cutting of titanium sheet with
 

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

COLOUR MEASUREMENT USING DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS

Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA

Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transilvania University, Braşov, România

Abstract: This paper presents an original colour measuring method using an assembly consisting of a
computer system equipped with a scanner. One of the advantages of this method is that one it can
determine the colour on small surfaces just of 1x1pixels using a common equipment. This means that the
errors resulting when measuring the colour on larger surfaces (when actually an average colour of the
surface is assessed) are avoided. Transforming from RGB colour system to CIEL*a*b* system is also
presented. The CIEL*a*b* system was elected because it is the most widely used colour system. A
measuring example is presented.

Keywords: measuring, colour, wood, pyrography, Lazarus, Pascal.

1. INTRODUCTION wood of the species from Romania and,

generally, from the temperate climate area, has
Colour holds an important role in human moderate colours as in contrast to the species
life and activity. In nature and science, colour in tropical areas.
represents an essential clue for defining The colour of wood is an important
species of plants, animals, minerals etc. parameter, taken into account in several stages
Colour is defined as “the property of wood processing, such as timber steaming,
possessed by an object of producing different drying and dyeing.
sensations on the eye as a result of the way the Likewise, the measurement of wood colour
object reflects or emits light” [6]. is very important in the pyrography refining
Colour is an important wood property process of wood. To this end the present
when evaluating its aesthetically potential and research has been conducted.
especially when it is going to be used for Colour instrumentation has experienced a
decorative purposes. tremendous advancement in technology during
The wood colour varies within very large the past 40 years. During this time, the
limits from white for Sycamore (Acer instruments have become more accurate,
pseudoplatanus L.) to black for Ebony reliable, flexible, smaller, and faster than their
(Diospyros ebenum Koenig.) [4]. It is predecessors, at significantly lower cost to the
characteristic for each species. It meets many user.
hues which vary around a basic value at the The most important devices for colour
same wood species. Different species have measurement are:
different base colours. • colorimeter;
The colour of the one and the same species • spectrocolorimeters;
can be uniform or with different nuances. The • spectrophotometers;

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

• portables. The present study used the computerized

Colorimeter is a device of fairly simple method for measuring the wood colour,
design based upon the visual concepts of through an original procedure by means of
colour. The sample is illuminated at a 45° original software named Colour Manager,
angle relative to the perpendicular line to the developed in to Lazarus programming
plane of the mounted sample. The method of environment [3]. That use Pascal programming
the trichromatic colorimeter allows for the language [2].
quick obtaining of the trichromatic Using a PC system can measure the colour
components X, Y and Z. of the scanned surfaces in different
Spectrocolorimeters are somewhat of a colorimetric systems, such as:
hybrid instrument which is capable of • RGB: Red (R); Green (G); Blue (B).
providing colorimetric data such as X,Y,Z or Colour is expressed through values
CIEL*a*b* values for various standard varying from 0, for black, to 255, for
illuminations. white, for each component.
Spectrophotometers provided wavelength • hexadecimal code. Colour is expressed
by wavelength measurement and data through values varying from 000000
collection at each 1nm or lower if is desired. for black, to FFFFFF for white.
The spectral method of determining the
trichromatic components is based on the
spectrophotometric raise of the curve of
radiance spectral factors; this is a relatively
laborious method.
Micro-processors are capable of
calculating colour differences, pass/fail, shade
sorting, whiteness, grades of fastness, and
many other shows of colour and appearance. A
colour is expressed through different
intensities of the system basic colours
depending on the chosen colorimetric system.
Many portables do not meet the same
performance specifications as bench-top
Figure 1: Colour characterization through
models in areas such as spectral resolution,
brightness (L*), chrome or satiation (C*ab) and
bandwidth, and large-to-small viewing areas.
The main disadvantage of the measuring hue angle (hab).
apparatus is that they do not have possibility to The colorimetric system CIEL*a*b*,
modify measuring area. defined by the International Commission of
It studied measuring wood colour by illumination (CIE) in 1976, is widely used in
means of the CorelDraw program [8]. This colorimetry. It is standardised in Romania [9].
method presents a disadvantage that read data Within this system, a colour is featured
need transfer to other software for processing. through the rectangular proportions L*a*b*
Another disadvantage is that the surfaces can (Figure 1), where:
be only by 1x1pixels, 2x2pixels and 5x5pixels.
• L* represents the brightness of the
colour. L*= 0 yields black and L*=
100 indicates diffuse white; specular
white may be higher;
• a* negative values indicate green while
positive values indicate magenta;
2. MEASURING
METHOD AND APPARATUS • b* negative values indicate blue and
positive values indicate yellow.

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Using the rectangular coordinates L*, a* The technical characteristics of the
and b*, the chroma (C*ab) and the hue angle employed computer are:
of the colour (hab) with values ranging • Processor: Genuine Intel(R) CPU 2140
between 0° and 360° can be determined, @ 1.60GHz;
according to the following relations:  • 0.99GB of RAM memory;
• Video in board;
C * ab= (a* 2 +b *2 )1/2 • Hard disk: 80GB;
(1)  • Monitor: Acer AL1716s.
The technical characteristics of the HP
* LaserJet 3055 all-in-one printer, fax, copier,
b
hab= arctg ( *
) scanner type for scanning are:
a
• supported file types: JPEG, TIF, BMP,
(2) GIF, PDF, PNG;
The colour characterization by means of • Resolution: 1200 ppi, 24-bit full-colour
the brightness (L*), the chrome (C*ab) and the scanning from letter/A4-size scanner
hue angle (hab) according to is shown in glass;
Figure 1 [9] , in which the measured sample is • Hi-Speed USB 2.0 port and port for
represented as A point of coordinates L*A; a*A, connecting to a 10/100 Base-T network
b*A. The L*A, value (which is the brightness • 64-MB RAM. 
of the respective sample) is on the L* axis at
the cross-section of this axis with the a*b*
plane where is A point.
The device used for the colour
measurement consisted of a PC-scanner-screen
assembly.
Before starting the measurements, this
assembly was calibrated so the values read by
the PC, for the R, G, B trichromatic
components, to be as close as possible to the
ones given by the colour specimen. The
assembly was calibrated with white standard
specimen. To this end, the colour specimen
have been scanned and the R, G, B values
were determined.
Calibration is made in computer software.
Measured values of the specimen are entered Figure 2: The Settings tab with
as a correction factors in calibration group Calibration tool.
box. These values are entered separately for
each parameter (R, G or B). This tool is shown It can scan the samples after calibration.
to Figure 3. Images need save in to BMP format.
The images were scanned by means of a The saved images are open into program.
Pentium 4 computer and a HP LaserJet 3055 After image is loaded, the program determines
all-in-one printer, fax, copier, scanner type. the dimensions of the image. This is an

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

important parameter because it defines the • the position of the pixel on X axis;
measuring area limits. • the position of the pixel on Y axis;
Before analysing image, it sets the • R value in the RGB measuring system;
diameter of measuring circle from Settings tab. • G value in the RGB measuring system;
This is a main advantage of this method • B value in the RGB measuring system;
because it can set the surface area. Others • X value in the XYZ measuring system;
apparatus use for colour measuring, especially
• Y value in the XYZ measuring system;
portable apparatus do not have this possibility.
• Z value in the XYZ measuring system;
After a point is selected, the computer
• L* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
defines a circular surface defined by centre in
system;
the selected point and diameter defined by the
specified diameter of measuring point. The • a* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
measuring surface shape is similar with system;
surfaces defined by the other apparatus. • b* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
This surface is analysed with computer system;
pixel by pixel and colour value for each point • C*ab value in the CIEL*a*b*
is split into three values; for red, green and measuring system;
blue. • hab value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
The selected areas are stamped with white system.
colour. It does not affect the original image The software determines the minimum
file in any way. value, the maximum value, average value and
A measurement example is shown in standard deviation for each parameter, as well.
Figure 3. Average value is calculates by formula
[1]. 

Figure 3: Image tab with selected point.

Figure 4: Table tab with read data.

Afterwards, the colour, represented by Standard deviation in calculates by formula

RGB system, is converts to XYZ system using [10].
proper formulae [7]. These values are shown in Table tab, also.
Next step is to convert values from XYZ The values can be saved and exported to other
system to CIEL*a*b* system. It uses formulae application.
provided for this the purpose [9]. An example of measured data is shown in
In the Table tab are shown the measured Figure 4.
data for each pixel. Data recoded in this table The graphical representation of measured
are: data variations are shown in the Chart tab. The

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chart has on X axis the measured pixel and on measurement surface. Usually, it use surface
Y axis the colour values of pixel. Y axis has marking with a pencil, but this method affects
values from -100 (for CIEL*a*b* measuring the results. Another method uses a template
system) to 255 (for RGB measuring system). from Plexiglas, but this method is expensive
Values for XYZ colour system is not show [5]. It needs to make a template for each
for clarity of representation. sample. The method presented in this paper
The purpose of this representation is to does not need any devices or marks. The
show the dispersion data. A dispersed coordinates of the points from first measuring
representation means the measuring is failed can be saved and they are ready for use to next
(average value is not represent the global measurement session. It saves money and time
colour). and measures are not affected in this case.
An example of measured data This is an easy and accessible method. The
representation is shown in Figure 5. devices used for this purpose is at hand for
every user. A particularly important advantage
of employing this method is that the program
enables the colour measuring for very small
surfaces. This is not possible as regards the use
of the colorimeter, which makes the average of
the colour for a larger surface.
The method has the advantage of being
cheap, it uses available equipments.
This method presents an advantage that
read data do not need transfer to other program
for processing.
Another advantage is that the surfaces can
be larger than 1x1pixels.
The measuring precision is less than
professional apparatus but, it is reasonable for
a material heterogeneous like as wood.
Figure 5: Chart tab with values representation. Even if the method is designed to measure
the colour of the wood, it can be used for any
material.
The measurement is influenced by scanner
3. CONCLUSIONS properties. The scan resolution influence
measurement but not significant because
It is made measuring on some wood between pixels are not empty spaces.
samples. It can notice the measured values are Because the colour is a sensation it is
dispersed but still closed (especially for difficult to quantify that.
CIEL*a*b* series). That means the
measurement accuracy is good.
In the most cases it is necessary to
measurement the colour difference of two or
more measurement in same place. For that it
needs to know the exact location of the

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REFERENCES

1. Brenci, Luminiţa-Maria, Programarea http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definiti

calculatoarelor şi limbaje de programare în on/american_english/color (March, 2014)
industria lemnului - Statistică matematică
aplicată, internet şi limbajul HTML. Braşov: 7. Popa, E. , Popa, V., Lemnul de anin, plop,
Editura Universităţii Transilvania (2010) salcâm. Proprietăţi, colorare (Alder, Poplar,
Robinia Wood. Properties, Coloration).
2. Laurenzi, W., Intoducere în programarea Braşov: Editura Universităţii Transilvania
vizuală în Delphi. Braşov: Editura (2004)
Universităţii Transilvania (2012)
8. Popa, E. , Popa, V., Măsurarea culorii
3. Lazarus, Homepage. [online]. Available: lemnului cu ajutorul programului CorelDraw /
http://www.lazarus.freepascal.org/ (January, Measuring Wood Color by Means of the
2014) CorelDraw Program. Pro Ligno. Vol.4 / No. 2
(2008)
4. Lunguleasa, A., Stiinta lemnului. Braşov:
Editura Universităţii Transilvania (2001) 9. STAS 6880/1-88, Colorimetrie.
Colorimetrie de reflexie. Noţiuni generale.,
5. Millis, M. S., Understanding pyrography, Bucuresti: ASRO (1988)
the photochemistry of ‘scorched’ decoration.
Pro Ligno. Vol. 9 / No. 4 (2013) 10. , Parametri descriptivi. [online].
Available:
6. Oxford dictionaries, Color: definition of http://statisticasociala.tripod.com/parametri.ht
color in Oxford dictionary (American m (February, 2014)
English). [online]. Available:

226
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THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE

WEAR RESISTANCE OF TITANIUM ALLOYS

Camelia PITULICE, Ioan GIACOMELLI, Maria STOICANESCU

Transilvania University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: Titanium and titanium alloys are on the full rise in their fields of use and, as a consequence, the
studies related to them enjoy a growing attention. The wear, one of the common applications in practice
can be improved through changes in structure and through the composition and nature of the superficial
layers. This paper examines both the opportunities provided by heat treatments on the structural changes
of the mass of alloy, respectively the surface treatments on the durability in the abrasive friction. Among
the thermal treatments that have been applied there are: hardening and annealing in air atmosphere and
in vacuum installations; the surface treatments is consisted by nitriding and laser pulsed process coating.
Wear tests have established the hierarchy of the efficiency of these processes.

Keywords: titanium, heat treatment, surface treatment, wear, nitriding, resistance

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATION

Titanium alloys with wide applications in

various fields, from manufacturing to
aviation, electrotechnics, electronics,
medicine, present multiple structural systems,
possibilities offered by their polymorphism.
Various structural compositions can be
obtained through heat and thermo chemical
treatment operations. In titanium alloys, there
are typically three types of layers, as in the Ti-
Al system (figure 1).

Figure 1. The Ti-Al equilibrium diagram

[1]

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Also, both in binary alloys of titanium, but efficient due to allotropic transformation of
especially in the polynary alloys, more complex titanium: the α allotropic form under 882°C
structures can be found through the presence of with hexagonal compact lattice (h.c.),
intermetallic compounds. respective the β allotropic form above this
These structures give produce different sets temperature, with centered cubic volume lattice
of extremely different properties. (c.c.v.). The alloying elements, extremely
Various structural aspects may be obtained numerous in the case of titanium, may cause
both though chemical composition, but also stabilization for α phase Al, Ge, C, N, O, Ca) or
through heat treatment, treatment that can be for β phase (V, Mo, Cr, Si, Mn) as in figure 2.

Figure 2. The Ti-X equilibrium diagram for alphagene (a) and betagene (b) alloy elements
[2]
In addition, the alloying elements form, as range of values to the alloy in equilibrium or
it has been shown, defined TimXn type heat-treated, according to the quantitative ratio
compounds and out of balance phases (through of them.
thermal treatments) such as:
- the α′ phase: supersaturated in 1. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
betagene elements solid solution with deformed
hexagonal lattice; For the experimental tests, it has been
- the α″ phase: the martensitic solid chosen the Ti6Al4V titanium alloy, which can
solution with rhombic lattice; be found in applications from many areas. The
- the βsem phase: supersaturated solid standardized and the experimentally
solution; determined chemical compositions are
- the ω phase: solid solution with provided in table 1.
hexagonal lattice.
Each of these phases, with their own
properties, imprints features included in a wide

Table 1. The chemical composition for Ti6Al4V titanium alloy

No. Values Chemical composition [%]

Al V Fe C N O H Ti Residual
elements
1 after 5,5- 3,5- ≤0,4 ≤0,08 ≤0,05 ≤0,2 ≤0,015 rest ≤0,4
AS9100 6,75 4,5
ISO 14001
2 measured 6,23 4,14 0,2 0,02 0,02 0,19 0,003 rest <0,4

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A large number of specimens for the three for each type of treatment. The
wear tests have been produced from the treatments applied, the technological
material with the composition given above, parameters as well as some mechanical
delivered by the supplier in the form of a 20 properties obtained are shown in table 2.
mm diameter bar. These were distributed in

Table 2. Treatments applied to the samples for wear tests [3]

No. Kinds of The treatment applied The technological parameters Hardness Resilience
material Temp. Time Quenching [HRC] KCU
[°C] [min] medium [J / cm2]
1 Delivery status - - - 42,56 55,30
2 Hardening in the 850 60 water 53,46 36,58
furnace with
controlled atmosphere
3 Hardening in vacuum 1020 90 nitrogen 56,56 37,17
ventilated
4 Hardening and 500 60 air 54,63 40,42
Ti6Al4V
annealing
5 Hardening in vacuum 500 30 air 58,13 46,33
and annealing
6 Hardening, annealing 520 240 air 844,56 -
and nitriding [HV 0,3]
7 Hardening, annealing 540 240 air 881,06 -
and nitriding [HV 0,3]

The samples that had been taken were 25 TAYLOR HOBSON PRECISION
tested for resistance to wear. It was used a component, to determine the profile of the
TRIBOMETER device with a SUBTRONIC wear surface (figure 3).

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

a) b)
Figure 3. The tribometer device to determinate the wear resistance:
a) the test facility; b) connecting the tribometer to a PC

The tests were carried out by pressing a specialized software is the one that provides
sphere with a diameter of 6 mm on the surface the test results.
of the sample, with a force of 10N, a linear In table 3, there are presented the
speed of 10cm/s and a stop after 5000 laps. average wear rates of the samples with
The wear rate is provided directly after different structures, coming from the heat
measuring the surface of the wear trace with treatments previously applied.
the help of the tribometer surface analyser, the

Table 3. The wear rate

No. Kinds of The treatment applied The metallographic The wear rate
material structure of [10-6 cm3/ N·m]
samples
1 Delivery status α+β 0,934
2 Hardening in the furnace α+α′+β 0,561
with controlled atmosphere
3 Hardening in vacuum α″+ βx+ω 0,729
4 Hardening and annealing α+TimXn+β 0,472
5 Ti6Al4V Hardening in vacuum and α+βx+ω 0,314
annealing
6 Hardening, annealing and nitrogen 0,522
nitriding
7 Hardening, annealing and nitrogen 0,336
nitriding

During the series of trials, there have different periods of time. The test conditions
also been done the measurements of the were the same as above. The table 4 and figure
volumes of material lost through wear, at 4 show this aspect of the wear process.

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Table 4. The volume losses during the trials

The lost volume, [10-6 mm3]

Sample hardened Sample hardened
Sample in
Time [min] Sample hardened from 850°C, from 850°C,
delivery
from 850°C annealed to annealed to
status
500°C, 60 min 500°C, 120 min
5 0,05553838 0,04801529 0,07312854 0,06000434
10 0,1319666 0,115608 0,1475726 0,1824015
15 0,2070887 0,1999108 0,1818821 0,150185
20 0,3082072 0,2079159 0,2743207 0,1758861
25 0,3866197 0,3643489 0,3383027 0,2352871
30 0,4385598 0,3898323 0,3658791 0,2675284
35 0,4730372 0,3924167 0,4068844 0,3590557

Figure 4. The variation of loss wear volume in the samples analyzed

The above mentioned ideas prove that through the hardening; the annealing can be
there are notable differences in wear achieved through the precipitation of ω phase;
resistance, depending on the treatment. the hardness further increases with favorable
Based on the sample values in as- effects on durability. Good results can also be
annealed (delivery) status, there can be obtained through thermo chemical treatment
obtained significant increases of them, (respective nitriding). In all the analyzed
determined by the metallographic structure. variants, the resilience is being kept relatively
An increase of the hardness and the high, with good effects on shock resistance.
decrease of the wear rate can be achieved

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2. CONCLUSION REFERENCES

The experimental tests have [1] Dumitrescu, C., Şerban, R., Metalurgie
demonstrated the capability of the titanium fizică şi tratamente termice, Ed. Fair Partners,
alloys to respond to the heat treatments Bucureşti, vol. II, 2001
through structural changes. This layout allows [2] Fătu, S., Tudoran, P., Studiul materialelor
modifications of certain mechanic features metalice. Tratamente termice. Oţeluri aliate.
depending on the necessities. Aliaje neferoase. Materiale noi, Vol. II,
It has been proven that there is a Editura Libris, Braşov, 1997, pag. 74-75, 80-
significant correlation among the structure, the 82, 99-111
mechanic properties and the wear resistance. [3] Pitulice, C., Giacomelli, I., Stoicănescu,
Also, it has been demonstrated that M., Studii privind modificări structurale în
there are advantages of vacuum heat treatment, aliaje de titan prin tratamente termice,
especially after annealing, over the one in air susţinută la sesiunea ştiinţifică a ASTR
atmosphere or atmosphere controlled. [4] Pitulice, C., Veţeleanu A., Giacomelli, I.,
The nitriding thermo chemical Influenţa tratamentului termic asupra
treatment proved to be more effective at biocompatibilităţii aliajului Ti6Al4V, Cercetări
540°C, when the diffusing layer proved to be metalurgice şi de noi materiale, Institutul de
more consistent. Cercetări metalurgice, Camera de comerţ şi
industrie a municipiului Bucureşti şi
Universitatea Transilvania Braşov, vol. XXII,
nr. 1, 2014

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ESEM AND X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRA OF TITANIUM ALLOY IN

DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL STATUS

Camelia PITULICE, Adriana ZARA, Nicoleta TORODOC, George VASILE

TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRASOV

Abstract : Upon Ti6Al4V titanium alloy there were effectuated different heat treatment operations. The
results obtained were tested by numerous processes such as optical microscopy, mechanical and
technological attempts, and also ESEM - Enviromental Scanning Electron Microscopy investigation and
X-ray analysis , respectively. The latter are the objectiv of this paper. Trough these observations there
has been highlighted a series of aspects regarding the composition and internal structure of the alloy in
different states obtained by heat treatment . There has been also establish the proportion between the
structural phases. These analyzes come to complete the data necessary for an accurate assessment of the
influence of thermal treatment concerning use characteristics. Thus, it can be chosen the structural state
according to practical necessites. There are presented in this paper, some of this investigations.
Keywords: titanium alloy, metallographic structure, hardening and tempering, ESEM- Enviromental
Scanning Electron Microscopy , X-ray spectra.

1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloys, they benefit from addition elements of titanium, the most
numerous advantages concerning the common are aluminum, vanadium,
properties, as compared with other metallic molybdenum, chromium. The titanium alloys,
materials, such as low density (about 4.5 with properties that can appear in a wide
g/cm3), high refractoriness, corrosion range of value found accordingly and varied
resistance, good weldability, mechanical utility such as in aeronautics, marine,
properties appreciable. Meanwhile, the two chemical energy, chemical industry, in
allotropes Ti α compact hexagonal lattice and medical prostheses, etc.[2]. For the
Ti β with volume centered cubic lattice, present research it has been chosen Ti6Al4V
offers them application availability of many titanium alloy whose chemical composition is
heat treatment operations. [1, 3]. Among the given in Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the alloy Ti6Al4V

Sort of Chemical composition, [%]
alloy Al V Fe C N O H Ti

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Ti6Al4V 6,23 4,14 0,20 0,02 0,02 0,19 0,003 rest

2. APPLIED THERMAL TREATMENTS

From the above composition of semi-finished, These were subjected to heat treatments given
there were made attemps specimens required. in Table 2.

Table 2. Thermal treatments applied titanium alloy Ti6Al4V

Nr. Applied Treatments Temp. Time Cooling Hardness Resilience
crt. [°C] [min] Medium [HRC] [KCU]
1 Delivery status - - - 42,56 55,30
2 Hardening 850 60 apă 53,46 36,58
3 Tempering (aging) 500 60 apă 54,63 40,42

The heating temperature was set to 850 ° structural changes. Considering the increase
C, found in the stability domain of the α in hardness after heating at 500 ° C
phase. Maintanance duration it was subsequent hardening, it appears that this
determined so that to be realized both, the operation is actually an artificial aging.
temperature uniformity on section and also Successively the samples treated, they had
the development time needed to make structures such as:

hardening from 850°C aging at 500°C

iniţial α+β ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯→ α+α"+β ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→ α+TimXn+β [2]

in which: - α" - has a martensitic structure - TimXn - an intermetallic phase which

with a rhombic chrystalline lattice; precipitates during cooling and maintaining
from 500 ° C.

3. THE RESULTS OF ANALYSIS BY ESEM AND SPECTRAL X

Enviromental Scanning Electron the samples and structure. Investigations
Microscope - ESEM - is a method for revealed the following:
investigating of surfaces studied micro and - For sample in delivery status. Figure 1
nano scale. On the analyzed area it is sent shows the micrograph of the existence of
an electron beam that scans an certain area; two main constituents, one with an aspect
it will generate more signals, which received compact α and another with a cvasilamelar
and processed generates information aspect, a mixture of α + β.
regarding on the chemical composition of

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Figure 1. Micrograph alloy Ti6Al4V in delivery status obtained by ESEM .

The emission spectrum of compact phase of aluminum also vanadium in addition rate of
solid solution α, identifies an content of 3.25%. The X-ray emission spectra for these
titanium and aluminum. In the lamellar two constituents and the chemical
phase was identified among titanium and composition are shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
Al 7.91
Ti 92.09
V 0
Total 100

Figure 2. The X-ray emission spectrum of the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Delivery status.

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Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
Al 6.92
Ti 89.82
V 3.25
Total 100

Figure 3. Ray emission spectrum in the lamellar phase.

According to program ImageJ analysis radical change compared with the previous ,
resulted a 62% proportion of compact phase the two constituents being more accurate
and 38% lamellar phase. - for the sample delimited. The compact phase of solid
water hardening from 850° C. For this case solution reduced quantitatively; the
also there have been effectuated ESEM constituent on mechanic mixture type
analysis and X-ray emission spectrum. gained an acicular aspect with a higher
Metallographic structure (fig. 4) reveals o share.

Figure 4. ESEM micrograph for Ti6Al4V alloy, hardened in water at 850 ° C.

This is composed of a mixture of qualitatively different from the original

phases α "+ β + TimXn. Changing the mixture phases ( acicular phase ) explains
quantitatively report between constituents, as the differences measured of some
well as finely dispersed structure and mechanical properties.

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Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
Al 7.37
Ti 92.63
V 0.00
Total 100

Figure 5. X-ray emission spectrum in the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Hardening in water
from 850 ° C.
Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
Al 6.94
Ti 90.97
V 2.09
Total 100

Figure 6. X-ray emission spectrum in the acicular phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Hardening in water
from 850 ° C.
The quantitatively report of constituents in was shown this heating , by its effects is an
this state is 38,6% compact phase and 61,4% aging ; more specifically this is an artificial
acicular phase : - for sample hardening from aging, which place the alloy in second
850° C and aging at 500° C. After hardening stadium of this process. During the heating
from 850°C effectuated with a higher speed occurs an complete process of precipitation
in water, on some samples it has been of a secondary phaseTimXn .
applied a one hour reheating at 500° C. As

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Figure 7. ESEM image of Ti6Al4V alloy, water hardened from 850 ° C and aged at 500 ° C.

Emission spectrum of the compact mixture with acicular aspect indicates also
phase found the presence of titanium and the presence in a proportion of 4.81% of
aluminum components (see Figure 8). vanadium (Figure 9).
Emission spectrum of the mechanical

Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
AlK 8.36
TiK 91.64
VK 0.00
Total 100

Figure 8. Emission spectrum in the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Tempering and aging at
850 ° C to 500 ° C

Percent by
Element weight
Wt [%]
AlK 7.06
TiK 88.12
VK 4.81
Total 100

Figure 9. Emission spectrum in the RX acicular phase . Ti6Al4V alloy. tempering and aging
at 850 ° C to 500 ° C.
In this case, the quantitatively report of constituents is 65.5% compact phase and
34.5% acicular phase .

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4. CONCLUSIONS the artificial aging. The temperature of 500

Thermal treatments aim to change some ° C places the alloy in stage II of the aging
physical-mechanical characteristics in order process.
to obtain the necessary properties for further
processing or use. These properties are 5. REFERENCES
determined by the structural composition of 1. Collings, EW, Boyer, R., Welsch, G.,
alloy and the quantitatively report of the Materials properties handbook. Titanium
phases. Alloys, ASM International, pp. 3-170, 483-
Experimental attempts of the present work 609, (1994).aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaa
were able to produce significant changes in 2. Dumitrescu, C., Serban, R., Physical
the structural aspect of Ti6Al4V alloy, metallurgy and heat treatment, Ed. Fair
supported also by mechanical properties Partners, Bucharest, vol. II, (2001).
(density, resilience). 3. Fatu, S., Tudoran, P., Study of metallic
Through investigations effectuated by materials. Thermal treatments. Alloy steels.
electron microscopy and X-ray it was Alloys. New Materials, Vol. II, Ed. Libris,
revealed internal structure of the alloy in Braşov, pp. 74-75, 80-82, 99-111, (1997).
three different status, refering to the size and 4. Pitulice, C., - Studies and research on
shape of the grains, the nature of the phases biocompatible materials used in prosthetics,
of the structure, their reciprocally Thesis - Transilvania University of Brasov,
arrangement also quantitatively report of (2013).
phases.
All this is fully consistent both with the
sequence of thermal operations but also with
performed properties. Also, it is concluded
that in the case of the present alloys and
thermal parameters used, the heating
subsequently hardening could be enclose in

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EVALUATION OF STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES

OF SOME NEW POLYMER-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES
FOR AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE APPLICATIONS

Fulga TANASĂ, Mădălina ZĂNOAGĂ, Raluca DARIE

”Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Iaşi, România

Paper dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the

“Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of Romanian Academy, Iaşi, România

Abstract: This paper presents the effects of three different types of layered silicates, namely bentonite
(Btn), Montmorillonite K10 (K10) and Nanomer I.30P (I.30P), on the performance of some new hybrid
materials based on a commercial polypropylene. The study evaluated the dependence of mechanical
properties on the clay nature and particle size. Low volume additions (≈5%) of clay nanoparticles have
influenced differently the interfacial adhesion between matrix and filler, yielding in modified stress-strain
properties. Experimental data indicated that Btn and I.30P acted as reinforcing fillers, whereas K10
behaved as a plasticizer.

Keywords: polymer-clay nanocomposites, mechanical properties, interfacial adhesion

1. INTRODUCTION over the coefficient of thermal expansion,

enhanced fire retardancy, superior barrier
Starting from the Toyota Research Group properties against gas and vapor transmission
first polymer-clay nanocomposite, the (for military rations in defence industry, for
improvement of properties of this new class of barrier liners in storage tanks and fuel lines for
materials intended for structural applications cryogenic fuels in aerospace systems),
was demonstrated. They rapidly enjoyed a suppression of microcracking and increased
spectacular success in military and commercial modulus, enhanced scratch resistance and
aircraft equipment, the automotive industry ballistic performance, etc. [1-3]. The use of
and even sporting goods and health care such composites as structural materials in both
products. commercial and general aviation aircraft has
Polymer-clay nanocomposites have been been increasing, primarily because of the
considered as matrices for fiber-reinforced advantages composites offer over metals (e.g.,
composites for aerospace components, since lower weight, better fatigue performance,
the aerospace industry requires lightweight corrosion resistance, tailorable mechanical
materials with high strength and stiffness, properties, better design flexibility, lower
among other qualities. These enhanced assembly costs) [3]. While most of the Airbus
polymer systems provide opportunities to A 380 fuselage is aluminum, composite
address material limitations in advanced materials comprise more than 20% of its
system concepts: impact resistance, control airframe. Boeing 787 Dreamliner is 80%

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

composite by volume and each 787 contains makes it useful in aerospace and automotive
approximately 35 short tons of carbon fiber industry. MMT has the widest acceptability for
reinforced plastics (CFRPs), made with 23 use in polymer-clay nanocomposites because
tons of carbon fiber. of its availability, well known intercalation
Ongoing research and studies have shown and/or exfoliation chemistry, high surface area
that, in general, polymer-clay nanocomposites and high surface reactivity. The layer aspect
exhibit great improvement in mechanical ratio can be in the range 1000 in well
properties, such as strength and stiffness, dispersed state without breaking of layers
compared to pure polymers upon addition of (although, during preparation process of
minimal amount of nanosize clay particles. nanocomposite, the breaking of clay layers
Since the use of nanoscale fillers in polymers into small plates occurs and the aspect ratio
has granted the possibility to design new decreases to about 300-500) and surface area
materials with significantly improved is about 750 m2/g [6].
performance and multifunctionality, numerous Despite of its advantages, MMT is
polymers have been investigated: poly- incompatible with polymers, since it is a
propylene, polyethylene, polystryrene, poly- hydrophilic compound, as all nanoclays from
caprolactone, polyimides, polycarbonates, its class. Therefore, it is recommendable to use
poly(ethylene oxide) and epoxydic resins [2]. organically modified clays in order to improve
Polypropylene (PP) is one of the most the matrix-filler compatibility which strongly
widely used polyolefins and one of the most affects the interface adhesion properties of
interesting thermoplastic materials due to its nanocomposites. Even more, a compatibilizing
low cost, low density, high heat distortion agent, such as maleic anhydride grafted
temperature, processability and extraordinary polypropylene (PP-g-MA), in the case of PP-
versatility in terms of tailored properties and clay nanocomposites, may be used during
applications [4]. preparation [7,8].
Huge consumption of polypropylene in hi- Melt intercalation by twin-screw extrusion
tech industries motivates the scientific is the main method to obtain polymer-clay
community to find new approaches to improve nanocomposites. The success of the exfoliation
mechanical properties of this polymer, so they by melt blending is associated with the
don`t negatively affect other required presence of strong interactions between clay
performance properties like impact resistance, and polymer chains, as well as the diffusion of
controlled crystallinity, toughness and polymeric chains among clay layers. The
shrinkage. In order to improve polypropylene process efficiency depends on the temperature,
competitiveness in engineering applications, it processing time, and screw shear profile.
is desirable to increase dimensional stability, Moderate processing intervals, low process
heat distortion temperature, stiffness, strength, temperature, and medium shear rates were
barrier properties, and impact resistance proven to be the best experimental conditions
without sacrificing the processability. to obtain the dispersion of the clay in
Nowadays, clay nanoparticles play a key exfoliated and intercalated structures. Melt-
role in improving the mechanical, surface and mixing or compounding is the preferred
barrier properties of PP. The most commonly processing method in the case of PP-clay
used clays are from the smectite mineral nanocomposites because it is generally more
group, such as monmorillonite (MMT), attractive than solution preparation (or, in
hectorite and saponite [5]. Montmorillonite other cases, in situ polymerization), due to the
belongs to the layered silicates nanoclays better commercial feasibility and lower costs
class, consisting of nanoparticles with [9,10].
anisotropic, plate-like, high aspect-ratio This paper presents a study on the variation
morphology, which leads to an improved of mechanical properties of a series of new
permeation barrier. Using montmorillonite, the polypropylene-clay hybrid nanocomposites
matrix polymer is expected to display obtained by the melt compounding technique,
increased dimensional stability at low starting from a commercial grade PP and using
reinforcement loading, characteristic that three different types of nanoclays, namely:

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bentonite (Btn), a Romanian native clay from Nanomer I.30P is an organically modified
Valea Chioarului (Maramures), containing montmorillonite, was donated by Nanocor
70% MMT; Montmorillonite K10 (K10); Inc., USA. Main characteristics: natural
Nanomer I.30P (I.30P), an organically montmorillonite (MMT) modified by
modified MMT. The use of the Romanian octadecylamine (70-75% montmorillonite and
native bentonite as filler for hybrid composites 25-30% octadecylamine), white powder;
was investigated as a viable alternate option to density 1.7 g/cm3; mean dry particle size 10-25
other clays, because it is less expensive than μm, specific surface area of 9.51 m2/g and
commercial MMT. The comparative interlayer distance 2.10 nm.
evaluation of these new nanocomposites was 2.2 Hybrid nanocomposites preparation
performed in order to estimate their 2.2.1 Melt processing. The hybrid
competitiveness and to envisage the range of organic-inorganic composite samples with
applications. different clay types, added in the same amount
(5%), were prepared by melt mixing in a
2. EXPERIMENTAL HAAKE RHEOCORD 9000 mixer (equipped
with two internal roller mixers and a capacity
2.1 Materials. The polypropylene used in of mixing chamber of 48.3 cm3; fill factor 0.8).
experiments was an isotactic polypropylene Before compounding, PP and clays were
(Malen-PF 401), a product supplied by thoroughly dispersed in acetone for 1 h and
Petrochemia Plock S.A. Poland. Polymer has a dried, first in air and then at 80°C in a vacuum
melt temperature of 170°C; decomposition oven for 24 h to remove moisture and to
temperature range 250−430°C, Vicat softening enable uniform distribution of PP pellets and
point 148°C; melt flow index (2.16 kg/230°C) clay particles, which will subsequently
2.4−3.2 g/10min; volatile matter 0.3%wt.; influence the nanocomposites homogeneity.
isotactic index 95%. Samples composition is listed in Table 1.
Commercial additive agents, viz. Na- Table 1.
bentonite, Montmorillonite K10 and Nanomer Composition of the nanocomposite samples
I.30P were used as received. Clay Composition, %
Na-Bentonite was provided by S.C. Mateo Sample Clay particle PP Clay
size, μm
S.R.L. It was collected at the site Valea PP − − 100 −
Chioarului (Maramures County, Romania) PP-Btn Bentonite 9-20 95 5
[11]. Main characteristics of bentonite: PP-MMTMontmorillonite 5-10 95 5
K10
powder, light cream colored, specific surface
PP-I.30P Nanomer I.30P 15-25 95 5
area = 25-30 m2/g; apparent specific weight =
260-300 g/L; particle size 9-20μm. Processing parameters were chosen as to
Montmorillonite K10 is a sodium mont- minimize possible degradation of the matrix
morillonite (MMT) clay, with a high-purity polymer and the inorganic filler. The mixing
grade, supplied by Sigma Aldrich Co. (USA). temperature was maintained at 190°C, the
Main characteristics: specific surface area of rotor speed was set at 100 rpm and the time
220–270 m2/g; white powder; bulk density = was 7 min. After processing, samples were
300-370g/L; particle size 5-10 μm. removed from the mixer and cooled down to
room temperature.

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2.2.2 Test samples preparation. For the factors: properties of the polymer matrix, clay
mechanical tests, composites were cut into particle size and morphology (anisotropic,
small chips or granules, which were then platelet-like, high aspect-ratio), particle
dried. In order to prepare films of desirable loading and distribution, interfacial adhesion
dimensions, the composite chips were pressed between clay and matrix, etc. Mechanical
between Teflon sheets (12 MPa at 200°C for 5 properties of hybrid composites are strongly
min) in a laboratory heated press. The samples related to the interfacial adhesion between clay
were then cooled in the press to room particles and matrix, as known. The
temperature. Films with thickness of about 1.0 interactions in the polypropylene–clay systems
mm were obtained. Specimens were finally cut are responsible for significant changes in
in the usual dumb bell shape. mechanical properties. A strong interfacial
2.2.3 Mechanical testing. Tensile mea- adhesion leads to high tensile strength and low
surements, tensile strength, σ = F/A0 vs. elongation, whereas a weak interfacial
elongation ε (%) = (l - l0)/l0, were performed at adhesion leads to low strength and relatively
room temperature using a tensile test machine high elongation [12]. Table 2 shows
TIRA-TEST 2200 Germany, according to experimental data obtained for some
ASTM D-638-08. Measurements were made to mechanical properties of the hybrid
a crosshead speed of 10 mm/min. Bone-shaped composites.
test specimens were cut from a single test bar It was observed that the clay nature had
using a hydraulic knife along the same critical effects on the mechanical properties of
direction. Five specimens of each sample were samples. Of primary importance for our study
tested to establish testing reproducibility and are Young’s modulus, strength at the yield
average values are given with the standard point and tensile strength.
deviations. The deviation of the data around The Young’s modulus (elastic modulus) of
mean values was less than 5%. a clay–polymer composite is generally
determined by the elastic properties of its
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION components (filler and matrix), particle
loading and aspect ratio [13]. As known, the
3.1 Influence of the clay nature on the elastic modulus is a stiffness parameter which
stress-strain relationship in nanocompo- governs by the size and amount of the
sites. Mechanical properties of polymer-clay dispersed phase. In the light of the fact that the
nanocomposites can be altered by various
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the nanocomposites samples
Young modulus Yield strength Elongation Tensile Elongation
SAMPLE (MPa) (MPa) at yield (%) strength (MPa) at break (%)
PP 1512 31.97 5.06 26.11 8.20
95PP/5 Btn 2198 30.35 3.96 27.83 5.06
95PP/5 K10 1159 18.21 8.69 18.00 10.77
95PP/5 I.30P 2146 28.27 3.61 26.43 4.29

inorganic particles are rigid and have a much polymer matrix. At the same time, it was
observed that Young’s modulus for samples
with K10 decreased with approx. 25%.
higher stiffness than the thermoplastic matrix, This variation depends mainly on the
microstructure and the interface morphology
of the polymer-clay composites (including the
the composite modulus can be readily interfacial bonding, the form, size and spatial
improved by adding either micro- or distribution of the clay particles into the
nanoparticles. In our case, the Young’s matrix, as well as the thickness of the
modulus, determined from the slope of the interface) [14]. When there is a poor binding
initial elastic region, was 1512 MPa for neat between the matrix and clay, the composite
PP, whereas its values for PP-Btn and PP- becomes brittle because the applied load may
I.30P nanocomposites increased with 42-45% not be transferred to the clay [15]. Therefore,
upon addition of 5% clay, as compared to pure considering the nature of clays, it is obvious

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that I.30P had a beneficial effect on the Nanoclay particles are stiff materials with
nanocomposites elastic modulus than K10, due no elongation properties; therefore, their
to the presence of the aliphatic segments addition can lower composites elongation [16].
(belonging to the organic modifier, octadecyl- The elongation at yield for PP-Btn and PP-
ammonium) in its structure which acts as a I.30P decreased, as expected, with approx.
compatibilizing agent. An interesting behavior 22% and 28.5%, respectively, whilst for PP-
was recorded for the Romanian native K10 increased with 55%. Concerning the
bentonite: at the same clay content, the elongation at break, samples PP-Btn and PP-
corresponding nanocomposite samples showed I.30P displayed a decrease of 38% and 48%,
the highest value of Young’s modulus. As Btn respectively, but samples PP-K10 showed an
is not organically modified and despite the low increase of 31%. This behavior of hybrid
polarity of PP, we presume that its composites, consistent with data for elastic
strengthening effect, as result of adhesion modulus and upholding our hypothesis, was
forces at the interface, may be exclusively due induced by the stiffness of clays and caused by
to its particular composition and particle size, the clay-polymer interface adhesion.
as well as particles distribution in the matrix as A geometric model to correlate the
resulted from processing. interfacial adhesion and the fracture
On the other hand, the yield strength of the mechanism (Figure 1) is already available [17]
PP-Btn nanocomposites decreased about 5%, and it takes into consideration the voids
12% for PP-I.30P and 43% for PP-K10, formation and their evolution during stress.
respectively, compared with neat PP.
Concerning the tensile strength, values slightly
increased for PP-Btn (6.6%) and PP-I.30P
(1.2%), but for PP-K10 the tensile strength
registered a dramatic decrease of about 31%.
The strength of nanocomposites relies on
the effectiveness of stress transfer between
matrix and filler [13]. Factors like particles-
matrix interfacial bonding strength and particle Figure 1. A geometric model
loading, as well as particle size, significantly that correlates the interfacial adhesion and the
affect the composite stress-strain behavior. For voids formation mechanism
well-bonded particles, the applied stress can be (D=particle diameter; δ=interfacial layer thickness)
efficiently transferred to the particles in the It has been shown [17] that clay particles
matrix, which clearly improves the strength can facilitate the development of microvoids
(Btn and I.30P). However, for poorly bonded and activate dilatational yielding in the
particles (K10), the strength decrease occurs deformed zone close to the fracture surface. It
upon adding particles because the adhesion is is generally agreed that for toughening to
still weak at the interface, despite the increase occur in rigid filler systems, the particles must
of the interfacial layer volume on the expenses debond from the matrix, creating voids around
of the overall matrix volume. This explains the particles and allowing the interparticle
data we obtained for all our PP-clay ligaments to deform plastically [18]. The voids
nanocomposites. reduce the macroscopic plastic resistance of

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

the material, and thereby potentially increase particle restriction depends on the properties of
the fracture strain and the overall toughness. the filler and matrix [20].
Ideally, the voids are not likely to form Interfacial interaction strongly influences
immediately upon application of stress as this properties of polymer composites. In PP-clay
may reduce the elastic modulus. composites only van der Waals forces act
A schematic illustration of the fracture between polymer and filler. They are,
mechanism in PP-clay nanocomposites is however, sufficient to attach the polymer to
presented in Figure 2 [19]. For samples with the filler. Adsorption of the polymer on the
poor interfacial adhesion (Figure 2a), the filler surface leads to the formation of an
cracks start from the pole of the filler surface interphase in which molecules have decreased
and form a huge number of microvoids mobility. The existence of the interphase is
between the filler and matrix. proved by the increased composite viscosity
with increasing specific surface area of the
filler and by the similarly changing yield stress
and strength (see Table 2). The effect of
interaction depends on the size of the
contacting surfaces (specific surface area of
the filler) and the interaction strength. Smaller
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of fracture
particles have larger surface area, leading to
mechanism in polymer-clay composites with increased yield stress. Differences in the
(a) poor and (b) good interfacial adhesion strength of the interaction are less significant
than that of the specific surface area [18]. Two
The microvoids are dragged along the important structural phenomena must be
direction of the stress. This fracture considered: (1) small particles tend to form
mechanism leads to a low tensile strength and aggregates, which deteriorate properties; for
relatively high elongation (PP-K10). On the particles having specific surface area over
other hand, in samples with good interfacial 5m2/g, the aggregation tendency becomes
adhesion (Figure 2b), the cracks start from the significant; (2) orientation of anisotropic
equator of the filler and develop in the matrix particles determines their reinforcing effect.
or along the interface. Such fracture Despite some assumptions of conventional
mechanism leads to a high tensile strength and micromechanics for rigid clay systems (e.g.,
low elongation (PP-Btn and PP-I.30P). the zero thickness assumption for interfaces),
Experimental data presented herein are numerous studies have offered mathematical
consistent with the theoretical model, with a support for models which include the interface
special mention for PP-Btn samples that effect by taking into account an interphase
proved to have the best mechanical properties region between the matrix and particles [21],
in the series. Further confirmation will be such as the self-consistent scheme based on a
obtained by comparative SEM analysis which “particle-interphase-matrix” three-phase unit
is currently underway. cell model [22].
3.2 Effect of particle size on the stress- As recorded in many other studies, the
strain relationship in nanocomposites. The stress-strain relationship in nanocomposites
effect of particle size on the nanocomposites significantly exceeds classical micromechanics
mechanical properties has recently attracted predictions. Another possible explanation,
much attention. The particles restrict the apart from the contribution of the interphase,
mobility and deformation of the matrix by might be considered the natural trend of
introducing a mechanical restraint. The particles to aggregate. Therefore, in some
restriction in polymeric molecular diffusion in systems, the primary nanoparticles aggregation
the presence of solid particles occurs because (resulted from particles preparation prior to
of an effective attraction potential between melt mixing in the presence of the matrix
segments of the chain and the repulsive polymer) rather than polymer–nanoparticle
potential that the polymer is subjected to when interactions at the interface is mainly
it is close to solid particles. The degree of the

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responsible for the observed reinforcement MPa), or medium size particles, Btn (27.83
effect [23]. MPa), regardless of the presence of the
For the series of PP-clay nanocomposites primary agglomerates. This effect depends on
we studied, the experimental data obtained for the compatibility at the filler–matrix interface,
clays with different particle size, presented in which determines the thickness and the
Table 2, are consistent with theories available mobility of the interphase layer.
in the literature [24]. First observation is the
opposite effect of K10 platelet-shape 3. CONCLUSIONS
nanoparticles, compared with the other clays,
despite its low value of particle size (5-10 μm) This study is focused on the comparative
and narrow size distribution. The micrometric evaluation of mechanical properties of a series
dimensions of particles are given by the of new PP-based nanocomposites, prepared by
primary agglomeration, but the smaller the melt mixing method, using as fillers three
particle size, the thicker the interphase layer on different types of clay, in order to establish the
the expenses of the total volume of matrix, the level of competitiveness of a Romanian native
component that actually contributes to energy bentonite to be used as an alternative to
adsorption. Therefore, the sample had a lower commercially available clays.
resistance and the deformation increased by Experimental results proved that clay
55% at yield and by 31% at break. For Btn (9- addition strongly affects the stress-strain
20 μm) and I.30P (15-25 μm) containing dependence in the new composites. Thus, it
samples, the clay particles had a reinforcing was found that Young’s modulus and tensile
effect, although their particle size is higher and strength increased, whilst elongation at yield
have a wider size distribution. By this, the and break decreased for composites with Btn
secondary aggregation (caused by composite and I.30P. For composites with K10, Young’s
preparation) occurs in a lower measure. modulus and stress at break decreased, while
Both the larger (I.30P) and the smaller elongation at yield and break increased.
(K10) particles had a negative effect on the Therefore, K10 acted more as a plasticizer, in
stress-strain relationship due to the presence of opposition with Btn and I.30P which
large individual particles (I.30P) or effectively reinforced the matrix. The best
agglomerates (K10), which act as stress- results were obtained for samples containing
concentrators that trigger the fracture Btn, the natural unmodified filler having an
mechanisms. The effect in the K10 containing average particle size and size distribution.
samples was the result of particle–matrix For rigid clay systems, delamination of the
debonding and plastic stretch of the clay layers occurs and results in a moderately
interparticle ligaments [25]. Composites made increased toughness. Hence, it was suggested
with smaller particles would exhibit a larger that extensive matrix shear yielding, activated
reduction in the amount of deformable matrix by full debonding of the clay-matrix
because, at certain filler content, the interfacial interfaces, leads to improvements in
area between filler and polymer is larger. This toughness. The relationship between the
causes the composites made with K10 to toughness of composites and the particle size
exhibit lower fracture resistance (18 MPa) than becomes a competition of two effects: (1) a
those made with larger particles, I.30P (26.43 negative stress concentrating effect of particles

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

that increases with larger particles and nucleating agents. Polymer Bulletin.
agglomerates, and (2) a reduction in the 63(6) (2009).
amount of deformable polymer matrix that 5. Olad, A. Polymer/Clay Nanocompo-
dominates in composites with smaller sites. In B. Reddy, Advances in Diverse
particles. However, due to the low polarity of Industrial Applications of Nanocom-
PP, it is difficult to obtain nanocomposites posites, InTech Open. Available:
with homogeneous dispersion of the silicates http://www.intechopen.com/books/adv
at the nanometer level inside the polymer. ances-in-diverse-industrial-
Organoclay containing layered silicates applications-of-nanocomposites/
modified by nonpolar long alkyl groups are polymerclay-nanocomposites (March
still relatively more polar than PP and may act 2014).
as compatibilizing agents between matrix and 6. Pavlidou, S., Papaspyrides, C.D. A
clay particles. review on polymer-layered silicate
Considering this study results, we have nanocomposites. Progress in Polymer
concluded that enhancement in mechanical Science. 32 (2008).
properties might be achieved through two 7. Paul, D.R., Robeson, L.M. Polymer
approaches used simultaneously: (a) nanotechnology: Nanocomposites.
optimization of processing parameters, the Polymer. 49 (2008).
kinetic criterion being of major importance for 8. Pérez, M.A., Rivas, B.L., Rodríguez,
clay layers debonding; (b) enhancement of the S.M., Maldonado, Á., Venegas, C.
compatibility of the matrix-filler system by Polypropylene/clay nanocomposites.
using both the organically modified clays and Synthesis and characterization. Journal
the modified PP, namely maleic anhydride of the Chilean Chemical Society. 55
grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA), as matrix (2010).
compatibilizing agent. This will be the subject 9. Sinha, R.S., Okamoto, M. Polymer-
of an upcoming study. layered silicate nanocomposites: a
review from preparation to processing.
Progress in Polymer Science. 28
REFERENCES (2003).
10. Lertwimolnun, W., Vergnes, B.
1. Bokhari, W., Srivastava, D. Polymer- Influence of compatibilizer and
Clay Nano-composite materials for processing conditions on the dispersion
Thermal/Radiation shielding and Load of nanoclay in a polypropylene matrix.
Bearing Structural Applications in Polymer. 46 (2005).
Aerospace/Defence. 11. Humelnicu, D., Olariu, R.I., Arsene,
Available:http://www.caneus.org/mater C., Bertescu, M., Burghele, B.D. A
ials/downloads/A5-A6%20Final%20 comparative study on the removal of
Report.pdf (March, 2014). uranyl ions from artificially enriched
2. Bayar, S., Delale, F., Liaw, B. M. radioactive waters using clays from
Effect of temperature on mechanical Romania. Analele Ştiinţifice ale
properties of nanoclay reinforced Universităţii „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi.
polymeric nanocomposites – Part I: Geologie. LVI (2010).
Experimental results. Journal of 12. Dibaei, A.H., Abdouss, M., Angaji,
Aerospace Engineering. 26 (2013). M.T., Haji, A. Surface and mechanical
3. Dinca, I., Ban, C., Stefan, A., Pelin G. properties of polypropylene/clay
Nanocomposites as advanced materials nanocomposites. Chemical Industry &
for aerospace industry. INCAS Bulletin. Chemical Engineering Quarterly. 19(3)
4(4) (2012). (2013).
4. Ghugare, S.V., Govindaiah, P., 13. Fu, S.Y., Feng, X.Q., Lauke, B., Mai,
Avadhani, C.V. Polypropylene/organo- Y.W. Effects of particle size,
clay nanocomposites containing particle/matrix interface adhesion and
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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
properties of particulate–polymer 20. Drozdov, A.D., Dorfmann, A. The
composites. Composites: Part B. 39 stress–strain response and ultimate
(2008). strength of filled elastomers.
14. Ghugare, S.V., Govindaiah, P., Computational Material Science. 21
Avadhani, C.V. Polypropylene-organo- (2001).
clay nanocomposites containing 21. Dasari, A., Yu, Z.Z., Mai, Y.-W.
nucleating agents. Polymer Bulletin. 63 Transcrystalline regions in the vicinity
(2009). of nanofillers in polyamide-6.
15. Bikiaris, D.N., Vassiliou, A., Pavlidou, Macromolecules. 40 (2007).
E., Karayannidis, G.P. Compatibiliza- 22. Colombini, D., Hassander, H.,
tion of PP-g-MA copolymer on Karlsson, O.J., Maurer, F.H.J.
iPP/SiO2 nanocomposites prepared by Influence of the particle size and
melt mixing. European Polymer particle size ratio on the morphology
Journal. 41 (2005). and viscoelastic properties of bimodal
16. Selver, E., Adanur, S. Processing and hard/soft latex blends. Macromole-
property relationship of polypropylene cules. 37 (2004).
monofilaments containing nanoclay. 23. Dorigato, A., Dzenis, Y., Pegoretti, A.
Journal of Industrial Textiles. 40 Filler aggregation as a reinforcement
(2010). mechanism in polymer nanocompo-
17. Lazzeri, A., Bucknall, C.B. sites. Mechanics of Materials. 61
Applications of a dilatational yielding (2013).
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Polymer. 36 (1995). Volume strain measurements on
18. Pukanszky, B. Particulate filled CaCO3/polypropylene particulate
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Karger-Kocsis, Polypropylene: An A-Z Journal of Applied Polymer Science.
Reference, Dordrecht: Kluwer 91 (2004).
Publishers (1999). 25. Thio, Y.S., Argon, A.S., Cohen, R.E.,
19. Fang, Z., Hu, Q. Influence of Weinberg, M. Toughening of isotactic
interfacial adhesion on stress-strain polypropylene with CaCO3 particles.
properties of highly filled polyethy- Polymer. 43 (2002).
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MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE

WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMPRESSOR

Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE*

*Department of Electrical, Power Systems and Aerospace Engineering, University of Craiova,

Craiova, Romania

Abstract: The paper deals with an aircraft jet engine with cooling fluid injection in its compressor, meant
to temporarily increase its thrust, treated as controlled object. The author has established system’s
motion equations, consecutive to the new gas-dynamic and fluid mechanics conditions. Using the
equation system, the author has obtained engine’s new structure matrix description, as well as its transfer
function. A study concerning its time behavior, for two different fluids, was eventually performed (about
its speed, combustor temperature and thrust) and some conclusions were presented. The paper is useful
for students and researchers in their jet engine automation studies and may be improved by considering
the flight regime influence, where possible.

Keywords: engine, control, cooling, injection, compressor, thrust augmentation, step response.

1. INTRODUCTION make impossible the afterburning adapting as

well as a high flight speed achieving.
One of the aircraft jet engines’ thrust For these propulsion systems, alternative
increasing methods consists of fluid injection thrust augmentation methods are: a) fluid
in the front of its compressor. The phenomena injection into the engine’s compressor; b) fluid
are described in [3,4,5] and thermo- injection into the engine’s combustor. Both
dynamically explained and grounded in [5]. these methods are meant to increase the
From the practical point of view, the exhaust nozzle enthalpy fall, by reducing the
aircraft engine may be overboosted using turbine enthalpy fall, consecutive to a smaller
afterburning systems or alternative thrust compressor mechanical work necessity.
augmentation methods. The afterburning is the The first method consists of the injection of
most efficient thrust augmentation method, but a special volatile fluid (water, ammonia,
in the same time, it is the most expensive-one, methanol, water-methanol mixture etc) into the
because of its fuel consumption increasing, as front of the engine’s axial compressor. During
well as because of its mandatory constructive the air compression evolution the temperature
modifications and automatic control schemes grows; the injected fluid vaporizes itself and
implementation. Meanwhile, the afterburning extracts an important part of the resulted heat,
isn’t an appropriate thrust augmentation which cools the compressed air and grows its
system for turboprop engines, nor for twin-jet mass air flow rate, keeping constant the
turbofan engines. Especially for turboprops, volume flow rate. The extraction of that heat
the lack of air and the presence of the propeller from the compressed air transforms the

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

a −1
ai ⎡ ∗ ai ⎤
a −1
a ⎡ ∗ ⎤
( ) ( )
adiabatic (isentropic) compression evolution
into a polytropic one and determines a ⎢ πc a − 1⎥ = ⎢ πci i − 1⎥ , (4)
a −1 ⎢ ⎥⎦ ai − 1 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
mechanical work necessity decreasing. ⎣
It results an important thrust augmentation, ⎡ ∗ k −1 ⎤
caused by both the mass airflow increasing
i1∗
ai ⎡ ∗
⎢ πc ( )
ai −1 ⎤
ai − 1⎥ = i ∗
( )
⎢ πc k − 1 ⎥
and the exhaust nozzle burned gases’ speed ai − 1 ⎢ i
1⎢
ηc ⎥ − qi (5)
⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
increasing. ⎣ ⎦
where π∗ci is the new compressor’s pressure
2. THERMODYNAMIC EFFECTS OF ratio (when the fluid injection is active)
THE FLUID INJECTION ai
⎧⎪ a − 1 a ⎡ a −1 ⎤ ⎫⎪ ai −1
2.1 Compression evolution. The heat π∗ci = ⎨1 + i ⎢ π∗c a − 1⎥ ⎬
ai a − 1 ⎢
( )
. (6)
extraction through the fluid injection ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎥
⎦⎭ ⎪
transforms the adiabatic compression evo- From Eqs. (5) and (6) one obtains the
lution into a polytropic one, the polytropic relation between m& i and ai
exponent being smaller than 1.4 (which is the k −1
adiabatic exponent for air, denoted as k ). The ( ) π∗c k −1 a −1 a ⎡ ∗
= i ⎢ πc ( )
a −1
a
⎤ m& r f
− 1⎥ + l ∗  
greater the injected fluid flow rate m& l is, the ηc ai a − 1 ⎢
⎣ ⎥⎦ m& a i1
lower the polytropic exponent is, tending to 1
(7)
(which corresponds to the ideal isothermic
evolution), as figure 1 shows. which is the reason of the graphics in figure 1.
The curve in figure 1 was obtained The determined value for ai , used by the
applying the following algorithm [5]. Firstly, formula (6) leads to the new value of π∗ci , so
one considers the irreversible adiabatic air
one can obtain the new operation line position
evolution in the compressor as a polytropic
on the compressor characteristic.
one, which leads to
k −1
( )
π∗
i1* c
k −1
= i1*
k −1 a ⎡ ∗
( )
⎢ πc
a −1
a
⎤
− 1⎥ , (1)
2.2 Flow rate. Most of the nowadays
operational jet engines have critical flow in
ηc k a −1 ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ their turbines [5], so the flow parameter
where i1* is the air specific enthalpy in the front m& g T3∗
remains constant even if one uses the
of the compressor, π∗c − compressor’s pressure p3∗
ratio, ηc − compressor’s randament, a − poly- fluid injection, where m& g is the burned gas
tropic exponent of the equivalent evolution. flow rate, T3∗ − gas temperature before the
This non-linear equation’s solving gives the
equivalent n − value.
The injected fluid may extract the heat ai
1.4
Qi = m& l r f , (2)
1.35 .
where r f is fluid’s vaporization latent heat, ma=10 kg/s
1.3
which means, for the air flow rate m& a , that π*c=6
1.25
Q m&
qi = i = l r f (3) 1.2
m& a m& a
1.15
and the specific mechanical work of the
1.1
compressor diminishes exactly with this value.
Consequently, the new polytropic evolution 1.05 .
ml
(by ai exponent) should have the same 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 [kg/s]
mechanical work value, so
Figure 1. Polytropic exponent with respect to the
injected fluid flow rate

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turbine, p3∗ − gas pressure before the turbine,
1.4
proportional to the air pressure after the
( )
compressor p3∗ = σ∗CA p2∗ . Consequently, the 1.35

1.3
air/gases flow rate through the engine must
satisfy it, as follows 1.25
Fi
m& g T3∗ m& a T3∗ m& ai T3∗ 1.2
F
= = , (8)
p3∗ σ∗CA p2∗ σ∗CA p2∗i
1.15 cspi
1.1 csp
so the air flow rate with fluid injection m& ai .
1.05 ml
.
becomes proportional to m& a 1
ma
π∗c
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

m& ai = m& a ∗i . (9)

πc Figure 2. Engine’s performances with respect to
The burned gases flow rate becomes, if one the injected fluid flow rate
considers the fuel flow rate m& c , rate fraction are presented in figure 2 [5]. One
m& gi = m& ai + m& l + m& c . (10) can observe that for an injected water fraction
m&
ξl = l ≤ 0.04 , engine’s thrust increases up to
m& a
3. ENGINE’S PERFORMANCES 40%, which is a real success of the method.
Specific fuel consumption grows too, but
Engine’s thrust will, obviously, grow (as moderately, no more than 8%, because of the
figure 2 shows), both because of the flow rate T2∗ temperature, which decreases and engine’s
m& gi increasing and the specific thrust Fspi fuel system has to compensate this loss by
increasing supplementary fuel injection, in order to
(
Fi = m& gi C5i − m& ai V = m& ai ξ g C5i − V , ) (11) restore the requested T3∗ burner’s temperature.
where C5i − exhaust gases velocity, V − air- If the injection fluid is a combustible
substance, such as methanol, or a water-
speed, ξ g − gases mass fraction.
methanol mixture, T2∗ temperature’s decrea-
Assuming that the fluid injection is used at sing and the supplementary need for fuel are
low flight speed (only for short time periods partly compensated by the fluid’s burning,
during the aircraft take-off maneuver), one can which brings its own heat into the engine’s
neglect the V − term, so it results combustor; consequently, the supplementary
π∗c fuel injection becomes much smaller than
Fi = m& ai ξ g C5i = m& ai Fspi = m& a ∗i Fspi . (11)
πc when the injected fluid is pure water.
The described thrust augmentation method
If the injected fluid is pure (distilled) water
is very effective when the engine operates at
its flow rate being at most 4% of the air flow
high atmospheric temperatures (more than 25
rate, engine’s performances (thrust and o
C), low atmospheric pressures and low
specific fuel consumption) versus water flow

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

humidity (because it facilitates the injected injected fluid (pure water); b) combustible
fluid’s vaporizing). injected fluid (methanol).
One of the method’s disadvantage is One can observe that the flow rate equation
related to the possibility of air intake’s and is the same for both of these cases, the diffe-
compressor’s blades icing, as well as to the rence being given by the other equations.
suction of ice lumps into the compressor.
Fluid injection running time is the one who 4.1 Flow rate equation. The exhaust gases
limits the fluid necessary mass to be boarded, flow rate is given by Eq. (10), where the fuel
so, one has to optimize the on-board fluid flow rate is the smallest and can be neglected
supplies, according to the aircraft take-off
needs and the atmospheric conditions.
( ) ( )
m& gi p3∗ ,T3∗ = m& ai p2∗ ,n + m& l . (16)
The above equation should be linearised,
using the finite differences method, in order to
4. ENGINE’S NEW MOTION be used into the mathematical model
EQUATIONS ⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& ⎞
⎜ ⎟ Δp3∗ + ⎜ g i ⎟ ΔT3∗ = ⎜ ai ⎟ Δp2∗ +
⎜ ∂p∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∂T ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∂p∗ ⎟
Engine’s mathematical model consists of: ⎝ 3 ⎠0 ⎝ 3 ⎠0 ⎝ 2 ⎠0
- engine’s spool motion equation; ⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ Δn + Δm& l . 
⎟                (17)
- compressor’s and turbine’s characteristics;
⎝ ∂ n ⎠0
- combustor’s energy equation;
- air/gases flow rate’s equation. Assuming that p3∗ = σ∗CA p2∗ ,σ∗CA = const. ,
These equations are studied in [8] for a the above equation becomes
basic engine; a matrix description is also given ⎡⎛ ∂m& g ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& a ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞
[A]× (u ) = (b) , (12) ⎢⎜⎜ ∗i ⎟⎟ σ∗CA − ⎜ ∗i ⎟ ⎥ Δp2∗ + ⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟
⎟ ΔT3∗ −
where [A] is engine’s matrix, (u ) − output ⎢⎣⎝ ∂p2 ⎠0 ⎝ ∂p2 ⎠0 ⎥⎦ ⎝ ∂T3 ⎠0
parameters vector and (b ) − input parameters ⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟ Δn = Δm& l ,
⎟ (18)
vector: ⎝ ∂n ⎠0
⎡T1s + ρ1 − k1T 3 0 − k1 p 2 k1 p 4 ⎤
⎢ k − k 2T 3 0 ⎥⎥
p2∗0 ⎡⎛ ∂m& gi ⎞ ∗ ⎛ ∂m& ⎞ ⎤ Δp2∗
⎢⎜ ⎟ σCA − ⎜ ai ⎟ ⎥
( ) ⎟ ⎥ p∗ +
⎢ 2n 0 k2 p2 or
A= ⎢ 0 −1 − k3 p 2 − k3 p 4 ⎥ m& ai ⎢⎜⎝ ∂p2∗ ⎟
⎠0
⎜ ∂p∗
⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 ⎦ 20
1 0⎣
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 T3∗0 ⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞ ΔT3∗
k 4T 3 k 4T 4 k4 p2 k4 p4 ⎥
⎢ k 5n ⎜ ⎟ n0 ⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞ Δn
0 ⎥⎦ − ⎜ ⎟
( ) ( ) ⎟ n = 
k5T 3 0 k5 p 2
⎣
m& ai ⎜⎝ ∂T3∗ ⎟⎠ T3∗ m& ai ⎜⎝ ∂n ⎠0 0
(13) 0 0 0 0
(m& l )0 Δm& l Δm& l
u T = ⎛⎜ n T3* p*4 ⎞⎟ , = = ξl
⎝
T4* p*2
⎠
(14)
( )0
m& ai (m& l )0 (m& l )0
. (19)

(
bT = 0 0 0 0 k5QcQc . (15) ) ΔX
Assuming the formal annotation X =
The involved co-efficient are used with their X0
expressions, described in [8]. the above equation becomes
Based on previous chapters thermodyna-
mic considerations, one can affirm that the k2/ n n − k2/T 3T3∗ + k2/ p 2 p2∗ = ξl m& l ; (20)
fluid injection has influence on the compres- one can observe that the second line in matrix
sor’s characteristics, as well as on the air/gases [A] should be replaced by the new values of
flow rate balance along the engine. the co-efficient. Meanwhile, one has to
Consequently, one has to modify the equations complete the second element in the input
involving the compressor’s pressure ratio, the vector (b) with the term in the right member of
pressure and temperature behind the Eq. (20).
compressor, the temperature behind the 4.2 Combustor’s energy equation. The
engine’s combustor, as well as the equation of fifth equation in the mathematical model is
flow rate’s continuity. based on the combustor’s energy equation,
One has to study two cases: a) neutral

254
 . n .
mc mc + 1 u
. Aircraft T3* a1s+a0 Σ τms+ρm
ml jet engine . −
F ml
b1s+b0
“HENRI COANDA” a) b)
“GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”  
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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Figure 3. Aircraft jet engine as controlled system (object)
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which may have different forms, according to to 1, the value of the co-efficient of m& c , so it
the injected fluid’s nature:
may be neglected. Consequently, the above-
m& g i c p g T3∗ − m& ai c pa T2∗ = m& cζ CA Pc + m& l ζ CA Pl , determined equation may be re-written as
(21) k5n n + k5/T 3T3∗ + k5/ p 2 p2∗ = m& c (26)
where c p g ,c pa − specific isobar heat of the and the last line in matrix [A] should be
burned gases and air (assumed as equal), appropriate restored.
ζ CA − burning process’ perfection co-efficient,
Pc , Pl − chemical energy of the fuel, b) If the in jected fluid is a combustible-
one, the Eq. (21) must be entirely considered.
respectively of the injected fluid. Consequently, the quantity m& l ζ CA Pl adds a
Meanwhile, the term T2∗ should be expres- new term to Eq. (25) and modifies the co-
sed with respect to p2∗ efficient of m& c , so the right member of the
⎛ ∂T ∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂T ∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂π∗ ⎞ above-mentioned equation becomes
ΔT2∗ = ⎜ 2∗ ⎟ Δπ∗c = ⎜ 2∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗c ⎟ Δp2∗ , (22)
⎜ ∂π ⎟
⎝ c ⎠0
⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂p ⎟
⎝ c ⎠0 ⎝ 2 ⎠0
⎛ m& ⎞
⎜1 − Pl l0 ⎟m& c − l0 p 30
(
m& c T ∗ − T2∗0 )
m& l =
⎜ Pc m& c ⎟ &
m ζ P
p2∗0 ⎛ ∂T2∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂π∗c ⎞ ∗ ⎝ 0 ⎠ c 0 CA c
or as T2∗ = ∗ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ p2 . (23)
T2 0 ⎜⎝ ∂πc ⎟⎠0 ⎜⎝ ∂p2 ⎟⎠0 = k5c m& c − k5l m& l .
/ /
(27)

a) If the in jected fluid is a neutral-one , The fifth line’s new form is

the term m& l ζ CA Pl becomes null. Consequently, k 5 n n + k 5/ T 3 T 3∗ + k 5/ p 2 p 2∗ = k 5/ c m& c − k 5/ l m& l
Eq. (21) becomes , (28)
m& g i c pT3∗ − m& ai c pT2∗ = m& c ζCA Pc . (24) so, the mathematical model should be
completed. If the second line is multiplied by
Considering Eqs. (16), (17), (18) and (23),
one obtains from (24) k5/l
, then added to the fifth line, one obtains
(∗ ∗
)
c p T30 − T20 n0 ⎛ ∂m& a ⎞
⎜ ⎟ n+
( )
∗
c p m& a0 − m& l0 T30 ∗
ξl
T3 for this one the form
m& c0 ζ CA Pc ⎝ ∂n ⎠0 m& c0 ζ CA Pc
⎛ / k5/l ⎞ ⎛ / k5/l ⎞ ∗

+⎢
( ∗ ∗ ∗
)
⎡ c p T3 − T2 p2 ⎛ ∂m& ⎞ c p m& a − m& l
0 0 0 ⎜ a ⎟ −
( 0 0
×
) ⎜ k2 n
⎜
⎝ ξl
+ k ⎟
5n ⎟
⎠
n + ⎜ k
⎜ 2T 3 ξ
⎝ l
+ k ⎟
5T 3 ⎟T3 +  
⎠
ζ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ζ
⎢⎣ &
m P
c0 CA c ⎝ ∂p2 ⎠0 m& c0 CA c P ⎛ k/ ⎞
+ ⎜ k 2/ p 2 5l + k5 p 2 ⎟ p2∗ = k5/c m
& c .         (29)
⎛ ∗⎞ ⎛ ∗⎞ ⎤ & ⎜ ξl ⎟
∂T ∂π m ⎝ ⎠
× p2∗0 ⎜ 2∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗c ⎟ ⎥ p2∗ = m& c −
l 0
m& l .
⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂p ⎟ ⎥ m & ζ The [A]-matrix, as well as the (b)-vector
⎝ c ⎠0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 ⎦ c0 CA Pc
should be modified in appropriate modes, with
(25)  respect to the injected fluid nature.
One can observe that the co-efficient 5. SYSTEM’S QUALITY
m& l0
of the injected fluid flow rate
m& c0 ζ CA Pc Jet engine’s behavior, as controlled object
(system), should be studied for the new
& l has a very small value comparing
parameter m conditions. System’s quality consists of

255
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

engine’s step response (its time behavior for the same response of the combustor tempe-
step input or inputs). rature parameter and figure 6 contains engine’s
An aircraft engine with compressor fluid thrust behavior for the same conditions.
injection can be represented, as controlled The case of the injection of a neutral fluid
object, by a system with two inputs (fuel flow (pure water) into the compressor brings next
rate and injected fluid flow rate) and more mathematical model modifications
outputs (engine speed, combustor temperature,
thrust etc), as figure 3.a shows. n (s ) =
1
1.6348 s + 4.5158
(
1.283 m& c − 0.092m& l , )
Following the algorithm described in (33)
[6,7,8], each one of the outputs u can be
expressed with respect to the above-mention- T3∗ (s ) =
1
1.6348 s + 4.5158
[
(1.474 s + 2.748)m& c −
ned inputs, as formally shown in figure 3.b.
As main outputs were considered the next − (0.047 s + 0.034)m& l , (34) ]
[
three: a) engine’s speed non-dimensional
F (s ) = (1.385 s + 4.516 )m& c −
1
parameter n ; b) engine’s combustor tempera-
1.6348 s + 4.5158
ture parameter T3∗ ; c) engine’s total thrust
− (0.089 s + 0.315)m& l , (35) ]
parameter F . depicted with dash lines in figures 4, 5 and 6.
One has chosen, for a quantitative study, a The case of the injection of a combustible
VK-1A-type jet engine, with constant area fluid (methanol) into the compressor brings
exhaust nozzle, having in mind only the engine similar mathematical model modifications, as
as possible controlled object, without its follows
control systems (without the speed controller
and the temperature limiter). n (s ) =
1
2.161s + 4.7973
(
1.43 m& c − 0.184m& l , )
Output parameters’ expressions for the
VK-1A basic engine are (36)

n (s ) =
1.2606
m& c , (30) T3∗ (s ) =
1
2.161s + 4.7973
[
(1.816 s + 2.467 )m& c −
2.0859s + 5.1015

T3∗ (s ) =
1.3799 s + 2.3888
m& c , (31)
− (0.053s + 0.047)m& l , (37) ]
2.0859s + 5.1015
1.3762 s + 4.762
F (s ) =
1
2.161s + 4.7973
[
(1.584 s + 6.317 )m& c −
F (s ) = m& c ,
]
(32)
2.0859s + 5.1015 − (0.113s + 0.803)m& l , (38)
depicted with continuous lines for step depicted with dash-dot lines in figures 4, 5, 6.
responses in figures 4, 5 and 6.
Figure 4 shows the engine’s speed
parameters step response, while figure 5 shows

n
0.35
injection of injection of
combustible fluid neutral fluid
0.3

0.25

0.2
basic engine
0.15

0.1

0.05
t [s]
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 4. Engine’s speed parameter step response

256
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
T3* F
0.9 0.8

0.8 injection of 0.7

neutral fluid
0.7 0.6
0.6 injection of
0.5 neutral fluid
0.5
0.4
0.4 injection of
0.3 combustible fluid
0.3 injection of basic engine
combustible fluid 0.2
0.2
basic engine
0.1 0.1
t [s] t [s]
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 
Figure 5. Engine’s combustor temperature Figure 6. Engine’s total thrust parameter step
parameter step response response
6. CONCLUSIONS combustor’s burning process and supple-
mentary heat transfer).
Cooling fluid injection into the jet engine’s From the temperature’s parameter behavior
compressor determines gas-dynamic and point of view (see figure 5), when the injected
performance modifications, injected fluid’s cooling fluid is a neutral one (e.g. distilled
nature having a very important contribution. water), one can observe the same trend as for
As the technical literature shows, the the basic engine, but also a significant growing
of T3∗ − parameter’s value. This is the conse-
described method of thrust augmentation is a
very effective one, especially for turboprops,
thrust increasing being significant; meanwhile, quence of the air mass flow rate growing,
the specific fuel consumption has a moderate followed by a supplementary fuel injection.
growing (under 15%), definitely acceptable When the cooling injected fluid is a com-
because of the thrust augmentation advantages. bustible-one, the initial temperature growing is
Gas-dynamic changes entail both jet nearly the same (as for a neutral fluid), but,
engine’s mathematical model changes, as well because of its own heat input, the necessary
as performances improvements. fuel injection is less than before, so the
Mathematical model’s equation were temperature’s parameter tends to restore the
modified because of the air/gases flow rate’s basic engine’s behavior.
balance changes, as well as because of the new From the thrust-parameter point of view,
energy balance of the combustor, when a whatever the injected cooling fluid were,
combustible cooling fluid is involved. thrust is growing. As figure 6 shows, the
Whatever the cooling fluid were, engine’s combustible cooling fluid injection gives the
speed is less influenced (as figure 4 shows), most significant thrust increase, that because
small n − parameter’s increasing being both of air flow rate increase and the specific
observed, especially when the cooling injected thrust increase (due to the supplementary heat
fluid is a combustible-one (obviously, because input). Neutral cooling fluid injection assures
its supplementary contribution to the engine’s thrust increase too, but moderate.

257
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

From the engine’s time constant point of 3. Ispas, St. The Turbo-Jet Engine. Technica
view, this value remains nearly the same; Publishing House (1985).
whatever the method were, stabilization time 4. Mattingly, J. D. Elements of gas turbine
values are kept around (2.5÷3.0) sec. propulsion. McGraw-Hill, New York
One has performed the study for an engine (1996).
VK-1A-type, for sea level conditions. This 5. Pimsner, V. Air-breathing Jet Engines.
study could be extended for other flight Processes and Characteristics, Bucharest,
conditions (low altitude and take-off air Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing (1983).
speed), given that this thrust augmentation 6. Stoenciu, D. Aircraft Engine Automation.
method is useful for airplane’s (aircraft) Aircraft Engines as Controlled Objects.
taking-off, being a restore thrust method Bucharest, Military Technical Academy
(when the atmospheric temperature exceeds a Inprint (1977).
conventionally determined critical value for 7. Stoicescu, M., Rotaru, C. Turbo-Jet
each engine). Engines. Characteristics and Control
Methods. Bucharest, Military Technical
Academy Inprint (1999).
REFERENCES 8. Tudosie, A. N. Aerospace Propulsion
Systems Automation. University of Craiova
1. Berbente, C., Constantinescu, N. V. Gases Inprint (2005).
Dynamics, vol. I, II. Politehnica University 9. Tudosie, A. Aircraft Gas-Turbine Engine’s
in Bucharest Inprint (1985). Control Based on the Fuel Injection
2. Hill, P. G., Peterson, C. Mechanics and Control. In Max Mulder Aeronautics and
Thermodinamics of Propulsion. Addison - astronautics. Intech Open Acces Publisher
Wesley Publications, New York (1993). (2011).
 

258
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE

WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMBUSTOR

Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE*

*Department of Electrical, Power Systems and Aerospace Engineering, University of Craiova,

Craiova, Romania

Abstract: The paper deals with an aircraft jet engine with cooling fluid injection into the rear part of its
combustor, meant to temporarily increase its thrust, treated as controlled object. The author has
established system’s motion equations, consecutive to the new gas-dynamic and fluid mechanics
conditions. Using the equation system, the author has obtained engine’s new structure matrix description,
as well as its transfer functions. A study concerning its time behavior was performed (about its speed,
combustor temperature and thrust) and some conclusions were presented, comparing to other cooling
fluid injection methods results. The paper is useful for students and researchers in their jet engine
automation studies and may be improved by considering the flight regime influence.

Keywords: engine, cooling fluid, injection, combustor, thrust augmentation, flow rate.

1. INTRODUCTION for turboprops, the lack of air and the presence

of the propeller make impossible the
One of the aircraft jet engines’ thrust afterburning adapting as well as a high flight
increasing methods consists of fluid injection speed achieving.
in the rear part of its combustor, in the mixing For these propulsion systems, alternative
area. The phenomena are described in [3,4,5] thrust augmentation methods are: a) fluid
and thermo-dynamically explained and injection into the engine’s compressor [5,10];
grounded in [5]. b) fluid injection into the engine’s combustor,
The aircraft engine may be overboosted in its rear part (as figure 1 shows). Both these
using afterburning systems or alternative thrust methods are meant to increase the exhaust
augmentation methods. The afterburning is the nozzle enthalpy fall, by reducing the turbine
most efficient thrust augmentation method, but enthalpy fall, consecutive to a smaller
in the same time, it is the most expensive-one, compressor mechanical work necessity.
because of its fuel consumption increasing, as The first method was described in [5] and
well as because of its mandatory constructive engine’s new mathematical model was
modifications and automatic control schemes determined and studied in [10].
implementation. Meanwhile, the afterburning The second method is the subject of this
isn’t an appropriate thrust augmentation paper, which intends to establish the new
system for turboprop engines, nor for twin-jet mathematical model of the engine, as well as
turbofan engines in their outer jet. Especially to study engine’s time behavior (by studying

259
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

. swirl burning can

combustor
cooling fluid ramp
mc fuel injector
fuel

air burned gases .

air
mg
air burned gases
. cooling .
ma fluid ml
 
Figure 1. Aircraft jet engine’s combustor with cooling fluid injection facility
the step response of the engine concerning its injection is done at the rear part of the burner
speed, temperature and thrust). can, near its wall, in order to assure a
In both of the above-mentioned cases, it supplementary cooling of the burner’s wall
results an important thrust augmentation, and, meanwhile, to facilitate the mixing of the
caused by both the mass airflow increasing burned gases with the vaporized cooling fluid.
and the exhaust nozzle burned gases’ speed In most of the practical situations the used
increasing, until 60% for the first method and cooling fluid is the water, which means a
until 25% for the second method, corres- neutral fluid, the injection of a combustible
ponding to a cooling fluid flow rate fraction of fluid being unnecessary, even prohibited.
5% of the engines air flow rate. Figure 2 In some situations an air flow rate by-pas-
shows thrust and specific fuel consumption sing is necessary (see figure 3), when the
growing percentages with respect to the compressor’s air flow rate exceeds the
injected fuel fraction. Fuel consumption is necessary, in order to prevent an unstable
bigger than in the case studied in [10] (that engine operation (stall).
means in the case of cooling fluid injection
into the engine’s compressor).
One can observe that engine’s perfor- 2. THERMODYNAMIC EFFECTS OF
mances are a little smaller than in the first THE FLUID INJECTION
case, but this method offers some advantages,
such as constructive simplicity, the elimination 2.1 Flow rate balance. The fluid injection
of the icing possibilities, as well as the brings into the combustor (and into the general
elimination of the blades corrosion. A major flow) an extra flow rate m& l .
disadvantage is that an uncontrolled fluid Most of the nowadays operational jet
injection could obstruct an appropriate burning engines have critical flow in their turbines [5],
deployment and it could even extinguish the
combustor’s flame; that is the reason why the m& g T3∗
so the flow parameter remains con-
p3∗
1.3 stant even if one uses the fluid injection, where
1.25 m& g is the burned gases flow rate, T3∗ − gas

1.2
Fi temperature before the turbine, p3∗ − gas pres-
F
sure before the turbine, proportional to the air
1.15
(
pressure after the compressor p3∗ = σ∗CA p2∗ . )
1.1

csp i .
1.05 ml
csp .
ma
1
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

Figure 2. Engine’s performances with respect to

the injected fluid flow rate

260
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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The greater the injected fluid flow rate m& l , fuel, which is a supplementary propulsion
the less the compressor air flow m& a rate must system, offering its own thrust.
Obviously, as long as the extracted m& ap air
be and it leads to an important pressure
flow rate value depends on the cooling fluid
increasing (both p2∗ and p3∗ ); meanwhile, the
flow rate m& l value, the presence of an
operating regime becomes closer to the stall
appropriate fuel control system for this new
limit, which is an undesirable phenomenon.
combustor is compulsory, in order to correlate
Consequently, the burned gases flow rate must
the fuel flow rate injection to the air flow rate.
keep its value and becomes
Meanwhile, the main fuel flow rate control
. swirl burning can
combustor
cooling fluid ramp
mc fuel injector
. fuel
ma
air burned gases .
air mgp
air burned gases
cooling .
.
by-pass air exhaust
fluid ml
m air
ap nozzle
burned gases

fuel
supplementary combustor  
Figure 3. Jet engine’s combustor with cooling fluid injection, air by-pass and supplementary combustor
m& g = m& ai + m& l + m& c , (1) system must be reset for the new conditions.
where m& ai   is the new air flow rate value, The flow rate balance must be kept in both
of situations, without cooling fluid injection
smaller than the initial value m& a . (basic engine) or with cooling fluid injection.
In order to avoid unstable regimes, even For the basic engine
when the cooling fluid injection is operational, χ g +1
a combined thrust augmentation method can χ g ⎛ 2 ⎞ χ g −1
p3∗
be implemented. This method is meant to keep m& g = μA3 / ⎜ ⎟ , (3)
constant the compressor’s air flow rate and,
cr Rg ⎜⎝ χ g + 1 ⎟⎠
T3∗
meanwhile, to extract (by-pass) an air flow while for the engine with fluid injection
rate m& ap before the engine’s combustor, in χ gp +1
order to keep the flow rate balance p3∗ χ gp ⎛ 2 ⎞ χ gp −1
m& gp = μA3 / ⎜ ⎟ , (4)
m& gp = m& a − m& ap + m& l + m& c ≡ m& g . (2) Rgp ⎜⎝ χ gp + 1 ⎟⎠
cr
T3∗
The extracted air flow rate is not a loss for
the system; it can be used into another where μ is the flow rate co-efficient, A3cr
/
−
combustor (an external, independent, supple- turbine’s stator critical area, χ g ,χ gp − adiaba-
mentary combustor), provided with its own
tic exponents of the burned gases, Rg , Rgp −
exhaust nozzle and separately supplied with

261
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

gas constants of the burned gases (for both specific enthalpy, Pci − fuel’s chemical energy,
situations). ζ CA − combustor’s burning perfection co-
Considering the formal annotation for flow
efficient.
rate fractions (with respect to the m& a air flow
Assuming that burned gases enthalpy must
m&
rate) as ξ x = x , from Eqs. (2), (3) and (4) remain constant and, meanwhile, assuming
m& a that fuel’s enthalpy is very small, negligible
one obtains compared to fuel’s chemical energy (Pci ) and
χ gp +1 that burning perfection co-efficient (ζ CA )
⎛ 2 ⎞ χ gp −1
⎜ ⎟ remains constant (with or without cooling fluid
( )
1 − ξ ap (1 + ξl + ξc )
=
Rg ⎜⎝ χ gp + 1 ⎟⎠
,
injection), from the above-determined
(1 − ξci ) Rgp χ g +1 equation one can express the fluid injection
⎛ 2 ⎞ χ g −1 fraction as
⎜ ⎟
⎜ χg + 1⎟ 1 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞∗ ∗
⎝ ⎠ ξl = ∗ ⎢⎜⎜1 + ⎟i3i − i2 −
i3 − il ⎣⎝ λ CAmin L ⎟⎠
(5)
where ξc ,ξci − fuel flow rate fractions for the ζ CA Pci + il ⎤
− ⎥. (11)
basic engine, respectively for the engine with λCAmin L ⎦
cooling fluid injection (determined as Eqs. (6) and (11) may determine the
1 extracted air fraction, with respect to the
ξc = ), min L − stoechiometric
λ CAmin L injected cooling fluid fraction.
minimum air value for 1 kg of fuel, λ CA − air
3. ENGINE’S NEW MOTION
excess co-efficient in engine’s combustor,
EQUATIONS
ξ ap − extracted air flow fraction and
ξl − injected fluid fraction. Engine’s mathematical model consists of:
Assuming that burned gases properties are - engine’s spool motion equation;
nearly the same for both of situations, the right - compressor’s and turbine’s characteristics;
member in Eq. (5) becomes equal to 1, so - combustor’s energy equation;
ξci = ξc − ξl + ξ ap (1 + ξl ) . (6) - air/gases flow rate’s equation.
These equations are studied in [8] for a
basic engine; a matrix description is also given
2.2 Main combustor’s energy balance.
Energy balance equation for the combustor
[A]× (u ) = (b) , (12)
must be written in both situations (without and where [A] is engine’s matrix, (u ) − output
with cooling fluid injection). parameters vector and (b ) − input parameters
For the basic engine the equation is vector:
m& ai2∗ + m& c (ζ CA Pci + ic ) = m& g i3∗ = m& a (1 + ξc )i3∗ , ⎡T1s + ρ1 − k1T 3 0 − k1 p 2 k1 p 4 ⎤
⎢ k − k 2T 3 0 k2 p2 0 ⎥⎥
(7) ⎢ 2n
while for the engine with fluid injection A= ⎢ 0 −1 1 − k3 p 2 − k3 p 4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
m& ai i2∗ + m& ci (ζ CA Pci + ic ) + m& l il = m& gpi3∗i . (8) ⎢ 0 k 4T 3 k 4T 4 k4 p2 k4 p4 ⎥
⎢ k 5n k5T 3 0 k5 p 2 0 ⎥⎦
Given the formulas (1), (2) and (6), after ⎣
dividing Eqs. (7) and (8) by m& a , one obtains (13)

i2∗ + ξc (ζ CA Pci + ic ) = (1 + ξc )i3∗ , u = ⎛⎜ n

T
T3* T4* p*2 p*4 ⎞⎟ , (14)
(9) ⎝ ⎠
(
i2∗ + ξci (ζ CA Pci + ic ) + ξl il = 1 − ξ ap + ξl + ξc i3∗i) (
bT = 0 0 0 0 k5QcQc . ) (15)
(10) The involved co-efficient are used with their
where ic ,il are fuel’s and injected liquid’s expressions, described in [8].
specific enthalpy, i2∗ ,i3∗ ,i3∗i − air/burned gases Based on previous chapter thermodynamic
considerations, one can affirm that the fluid

262
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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
injection has influence on the air/gases flow T3∗0 ⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞ ΔT3∗ n0 ⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞ Δn
⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
rate balance along the engine, as well as on the
( )
m& ai ⎜⎝ ∂T3∗ ⎟⎠ T3∗ ( )
m& ai ⎜⎝ ∂n ⎟ n = 
energy balance in the engine’s combustor. 0 0 0 0 ⎠0 0
Consequently, one has to modify the equations (m& l )0 Δm& l Δm& l
= = ξl
involving the temperature behind the engine’s
combustor, as well as the equation of flow
( )0
m& ai (m& l )0 (m& l )0
. (19)

rate’s continuity. ΔX
Assuming the formal annotation X =
One has to neglect the new propulsion X0
system (supplementary combustor), which the above equation becomes
operates together with the basic engine,
because it has no influence above the k2/ n n − k2/T 3T3∗ + k2/ p 2 p2∗ = ξl m& l ; (20)
mathematical model; it may only be one can observe that the second line in matrix
considered as a thrust augmentation factor and [A] should be replaced by the new values of
it must be included, if possible, only in the the co-efficient. Meanwhile, one has to
global thrust calculation. complete the second element in the input
vector (b) with the term in the right member of
3.1 Flow rate equation. The exhaust gases Eq. (20).
flow rate is given by Eq. (10), where the fuel 3.2 Combustor’s energy equation. The
flow rate is the smallest and can be neglected fifth equation in the mathematical model is
( ) ( )
m& gi p3∗ ,T3∗ = m& ai p2∗ ,n + m& l . (16) based on the combustor’s energy equation,
which may have different forms, according to
The above equation should be linearised, the injected fluid’s nature:
using the finite differences method, in order to
be used into the mathematical model m& g i c p g T3∗ − m& ai c pa T2∗ = m& c ζ CA Pc + m& l ζ CA Pl ,
⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& ⎞ (21)
⎜ ⎟ Δp3∗ + ⎜ g i ⎟ ΔT3∗ = ⎜ ai ⎟ Δp2∗ +
⎜ ∂p∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∂T ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∂p∗ ⎟ where c p g ,c pa − specific isobar heat of the
⎝ 3 ⎠0 ⎝ 3 ⎠0 ⎝ 2 ⎠0
burned gases and air (assumed as equal),
⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ Δn + Δm& l . 
⎟                (17) ζ CA − burning process’ perfection co-efficient,
⎝ ∂n ⎠0 Pc , Pl − chemical energy of the fuel,
Assuming that p3∗ = σ∗CA p2∗ ,σ∗CA = const. , respectively of the injected fluid.
the above equation becomes Meanwhile, the term T2∗ should be expres-
⎡⎛ ∂m& g ⎞ ⎛ ∂m& a ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ∂m& g i ⎞ ∗
⎢⎜ ∗i ⎟ σ∗CA − ⎜ ∗i ⎟ ⎥ Δp2∗ + ⎜ ⎟ ΔT3∗ − sed with respect to p2
⎢⎣⎜⎝ ∂p2 ⎟⎠0 ⎜ ∂p ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠0 ⎦
⎜ ∂T ∗ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠0 ⎛ ∂T ∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂T ∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂π∗ ⎞
ΔT2∗ = ⎜ 2∗ ⎟ Δπ∗c = ⎜ 2∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗c ⎟ Δp2∗ , (22)
⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞ ⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂p ⎟
− ⎜⎜ ⎟ Δn = Δm& l , (18) ⎝ c ⎠0 ⎝ c ⎠ 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠0
∂ ⎟ ∗
⎝ n ⎠0 p2 0 ⎛ ∂T2∗ ⎞ ⎛ ∂π∗c ⎞ ∗
∗
or as T2 = ∗ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ p2 . (23)
p2∗0 ⎡⎛ ∂m& gi ⎞ ∗ ⎛ ∂m& ai ⎞ ⎤ Δp2∗ ⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂p ⎟
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
σCA − ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎥ ∗ +
T ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
( )
or 2 c 0 2 0
m& ai ⎢⎜⎝ ∂p2∗ ⎟⎠
0

0⎣ 0 ⎝ ∂ p 2 ⎠ ⎥
0⎦
p2 0 The cooling fluid, which is injected into
the rear part of the combustor is a neutral-one
and doesn’t participate at the burning reaction

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

. n .
mc mc + 1 u
. Aircraft T3* a1s+a0 Σ τms+ρm
ml . −
jet engine ml
F b1s+b0
a) b)  
Figure 4. Aircraft jet engine as controlled system (object)

(as flammable substance). Consequently, outputs (engine speed, combustor temperature,

Eq. (21) becomes thrust etc), as figure 4.a shows.
m& gi c pT3∗ − m& ai c pT2∗ = m& c ζCA Pc . (24) Following the algorithm described in
[6,7,8], each one of the outputs u can be
Considering Eqs. (16), (17), (18) and (23), expressed with respect to the above-mention-
one obtains from (24)
( )
ned inputs, as formally shown in figure 4.b.
c p T3∗0 − T2∗0 n0 ⎛ ∂m& a ⎞
+
( )
c p m& a0 − m& l0 T3∗0 ∗ As main outputs the next three were
⎜ ⎟ n T3 considered: a) engine’s speed non-dimensional
m& c0 ζ CA Pc ⎝ ∂n ⎠0 m& c0 ζ CA Pc
( )
parameter n ; b) engine’s combustor tempera-
⎡ c p T3∗ − T2∗ p2∗
+⎢ ⎜ ⎟
(
⎛ ∂m& a ⎞ c p m& a0 − m& l0 ) ture parameter T3∗ ; c) engine’s thrust para-
⎜ ∂p∗ ⎟ − m& ζ P ×
0 0 0

⎢⎣ m& ζ P
c0 CA c ⎝ 2 ⎠0 c0 CA ci meter F .
∗⎞ ⎛ ∗⎞ ⎤ One has chosen, for a quantitative study, a
∗ ⎛ ∂T ∂π ∗ m& l0
× p20 ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎥ p2 = m& c −
2 c m& l VK-1A-type jet engine, with constant area
⎜ ∂π ⎟ ⎜ ∂p ⎟ ⎥ m& ζ P
⎝ c ⎠0 ⎝ 2 ⎠0 ⎦ c 0 CA ci exhaust nozzle, having in mind only the engine
(25)  as possible controlled object, without its
One can observe that the co-efficient control systems (without the speed controller
m& l0 and the temperature limiter). Its flight regime
of the injected fluid flow rate is conventionally chosen as stationary
m& c0 ζCA Pci (airspeed V=0) at sea level (altitude H=0).
parameter m & l has a very small value comparing Output parameters’ expressions for the
VK-1A basic engine are
to 1, the value of the co-efficient of m& c , so it
n (s ) =
1.2606
may be neglected. Consequently, the above- m& c , (30)
2.0859s + 5.1015
determined equation may be re-written as
1.3799 s + 2.3888
∗ ∗
k5n n + k5T 3T3 + k5 p 2 p2 = m& c
/ /
(26) T 3
∗
(s ) = m& c , (31)
2.0859s + 5.1015
and the last line in matrix [A] should be 1.3762 s + 4.762
appropriate restored. F (s ) = m& c , (32)
2.0859s + 5.1015
The [A]-matrix, as well as the (b)-vector
should be modified in appropriate modes, with depicted with dashed lines for step responses
respect to the injected fluid nature. in figures 5, 6 and 7.
Figure 5 shows the engine’s speed para-
4. SYSTEM’S QUALITY meters step response, while figure 6 shows the
same response of the combustor temperature
Jet engine’s behavior, as controlled object parameter and figure 7 contains engine’s thrust
(system), should be studied for the new behavior for the same conditions.
conditions. System’s quality consists of The case of the injection of a neutral
engine’s step response (its time behavior for cooling fluid (water) into the rear part of the
step input or inputs). engine’s combustor brings next mathematical
An aircraft engine with combustor fluid model modifications
injection can be represented, as controlled n (s ) =
1
2.3761s + 4.817
( )
1.411 m& c − 0.167 m& l ,
object, by a system with two inputs (fuel flow
rate and injected fluid flow rate) and more (33)
 

264
 n T3*
0.35 0.9
fluid injection into 0.8
0.3 fluid injection into
the engine's compressor
the engine's compressor
0.7
0.25
0.6
0.2
0.5

0.15 0.4

basic 0.3
0.1 fluid injection into engine basic
the engine's combustor engine
0.2 fluid injection into
0.05 the engine's combustor
0.1
t [s] t [s]
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 5. Engine’s speed parameter Figure 6. Engine’s combustor temperature

step response parameter step response

0.7
F As the technical literature shows, the
described method of thrust augmentation
0.6
through fluid injection into the combustor is a
0.5 basic very effective one, especially for high altitudes
engine
flights, thrust increasing being significant
0.4
fluid injection into (until 25%, as figure 2 shows); meanwhile, the
the engine's combustor
0.3 specific fuel consumption has a moderate
0.2 fluid injection into
growing (under 15%), definitely acceptable
the engine's compressor because of the thrust augmentation advantages.
0.1 Gas-dynamic changes have as consequen-
t [s]
0 ces both jet engine’s mathematical model
0 1 2 3
  4 5 6
changes, as well as performances improve-
Figure 7. Engine’s thrust parameter step response ments.
Mathematical model’s equation was
T3∗ (s ) =
1
2.3761s + 4.817
[
(1.8732 s + 2.847)m& c − modified because of the air/gases flow rate’s
balance changes, as well as because of the new
− (0.0823 s + 0.0764)m
&l ] energy balance of the combustor, when a
combustible cooling fluid is involved. In order
(34)
to keep the engine stable, a small air flow rate
F(s ) =
1
2.3761s + 4.817
[
(1.583 s + 5.167 )m& c − is extracted before the combustor and used
into a supplementary combustor (with its own
− (0.0834 s + 0.4725)m
&l ] exhaust nozzle, which operates as an auxiliary
(35) propulsion system).
In order to realize a comparison between the Whatever the cooling fluid injection
performances of the fluid injection thrust method were, engine’s speed is less influenced
augmentation methods, the results of the (as figure 5 shows), small n − parameter’s
compressor fluid injection method in [10] were increasing being observed. Moreover, the
taken and inserted into the diagrams in figures injection into the combustor involves less
5, 7 and 7 (dash-dot lines). speed modifications than the injection into the
compressor, but one has observed, in this case,
5. CONCLUSIONS a small response time growing (about 0.5 s),
which means that the engine has become
Cooling fluid injection into the jet engine’s somewhat slower than the basic engine. The
combustor determines gas-dynamic modify- injection into the compressor makes the engine
cations and performances improvement. a little, but insignificant, faster, from the
response time point of view.

265
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

From the temperature’s parameter behavior REFERENCES

point of view (see figure 6), whatever the
injection method were, one can observe the 1. Berbente, C., Constantinescu, N. V. Gases
same trend as for the basic engine. However, a Dynamics, vol. I, II. Politehnica University
significant growing of T3∗ − parameter’s value
in Bucharest Inprint (1985).
2. Hill, P. G., Peterson, C. Mechanics and
is observed when the injection is used, as a Thermodinamics of Propulsion. Addison -
consequence of the supplementary fuel Wesley Publications, New York (1993).
injection, in order to compensate the air 3. Ispas, St. The Turbo-Jet Engine. Technica
exceeding flow rate, so the temperature’s Publishing House (1985).
parameter tends to restore the basic engine’s 4. Mattingly, J. D. Elements of gas turbine
behavior. propulsion. McGraw-Hill, New York
From the thrust-parameter point of view, (1996).
whatever the injection method is, thrust 5. Pimsner, V. Air-breathing Jet Engines.
presents moderate increase (because of the Processes and Characteristics, Bucharest,
neutral injected fluids, which doesn’t assure Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing (1983).
supplementary heat input and the thrust 6. Stoenciu, D. Aircraft Engine Automation.
augmentation is realized by the air flow and Aircraft Engines as Controlled Objects.
gases speed increase). As figure 7 shows, Bucharest, Military Technical Academy
thrust augmentation is more rapid when the Inprint (1977).
compressor injection is used, but the growing 7. Stoicescu, M., Rotaru, C. Turbo-Jet
percentage is comparable for both of the used Engines. Characteristics and Control
methods. Methods. Bucharest, Military Technical
Engine’s time constant is about 15% bigger Academy Inprint (1999).
than for the basic engine; whatever the method 8. Tudosie, A. N. Aerospace Propulsion
were, stabilization time values are kept around Systems Automation. University of Craiova
(2.5÷3.5) sec, which is acceptable from the Inprint (2005).
practical point of view. 9. Tudosie, A. Aircraft Gas-Turbine Engine’s
One has performed the study for an engine Control Based on the Fuel Injection
VK-1A-type, for sea level conditions. This Control. In Max Mulder Aeronautics and
study could be extended for other flight astronautics. Intech Open Acces Publisher
conditions (low altitude and take-off air speed, (2011).
as well as for high altitudes and cruise air 10. Tudosie, A. Mathematical Model For A Jet
speed), given that the combustor fluid Engine With Cooling Fluid Injection Into
injection thrust augmentation method is useful Its Compressor. Proceedings of Interna-
for airplane’s (aircraft) both for taking-off and tional Conference of Scientific Paper
for medium-high altitude thrust restore. “Scientific Research and Education in
AirForce” AFASES 2014.

266
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES AS REINFORCEMENT

FOR ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Mădălina ZĂNOAGĂ, Fulga TANASĂ

”Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Iaşi, România

Paper dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the

“Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of Romanian Academy, Iaşi, România.

Abstract: Fiber reinforced composites were primary developed for aerospace and defense applications.
High performance materials were designed and obtained exploiting the fibers high strength-to-weight
ratio. The well known complex textile structures used as reinforcements for advanced composites are 2D
and 3D woven fabrics and nonwoven fiber mats, but the knitted fabrics (weft knitted structures, as well as
warp knitted) are of high interest in last decades due to their properties and development potential. There
are three main types of 3D knitted structures: multiaxial fabrics (multilayer), knitted fabrics with spatial
geometry (spatial fashioned) and sandwich/spacer fabrics. Their characteristics and applications are
summarized herein.

Keywords: fiber reinforced composites, 3D knitted structures, aerospace applications

1. INTRODUCTION competitive materials due to certain

advantages, in addition to their strength (given
The history of textiles can be traced back by the fiber/yarn structure) and unity and
to the prehistoric times. Current applications ability to transmit strains (ensured by the
of textiles have crossed many barriers and polymeric matrix):
reached limits beyond expectations. Fields like ¾ controlled anisotropy (due to textile
sports and leisure, healthcare and wellness, reinforcement) - their structure can be
energy generation and storage, electronics and designed so that fibers are oriented in
IT, automotive and aerospace, just to give a preferential directions, depending on the
few examples, are using hi-tech textile maximum strain;
reinforced composite materials. Fiber ¾ textile reinforcements allow to obtain
reinforced composites were primary developed composites with a better weight-to-strength
for aerospace and defense applications. In ratio in comparison with steel and other classic
these industries, high performance materials used for such applications;
considerations overbalance cost efficiency ¾ textiles maintain their integrity and behavior
criteria. High performance materials were, under extreme conditions: they are not suscep-
therefore, designed and obtained exploiting the tible to corrosion in outdoor applications,
fibers high strength-to-weight ratio. Textile display dimensional stability under significant
reinforced composites proved to be

267
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

temperature gradient, are not sensitive to elec- as follows: discrete, continuous, with plane
tromagnetic fields; and spatial geometry, as presented in Scheme
¾ these composites have an improved fatigue 1. The textile component may be represented
resistance. by short fibers, filaments or yarns, fabrics or
Advanced composites based on technical complex structures, continuous or not, with
textiles can be found in many industrial (un)controlled orientation.
applications as storage and transport structures
(tanks, pipes, hoses, etc.) [1]. The automotive
industry uses them for car frames and other
automobile parts (manifold, wheels), whilst in
aeronautics composites developed from the 1st
level to 2nd level applications (it refers to
structural elements) [2] and the future aircraft
trend is to build them using exclusively
composites. One application of great interest
nowadays is the energy production
management, especially when it comes to
wind energy (wind mills) [3]. Sport equipment
industry is employing high amounts of textile
reinforced composites in the production of
sporting goods and protective equipment Scheme 1. Classification of textile reinforcements
(helmets, etc.). An interesting application is in according to their architecture
civil buildings, as walls reinforcement, aiming
to obtain strengthened structures with reduced In terms of technology, all specific
thickness and, subsequently, low production processes from textile industries may be used
costs [4]. to produce complex structures, but, due to
their chacracteristics and the material
geometry that results, they lead to
2. COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES different behavior and recommend materials
for various applications. The main production
2.1 Types of complex textile structures. processes employed in textile reinforcements
An introduction in complex textile are weaving, braiding, knitting and non-
structures used as reinforcement in advanced wovens production. Other processes, such as
composites has to take into account two basic filament winding and poltrusion, which
criteria: (1) textiles geometry (structure) and process filaments, are also applied. The
(2) the processing [5]. selection of a specific technological process
Considering the significant dimension of takes into account its architectural capabilities,
the textile material and its specific geometry the material characteristics and behavior
[6], it is possible to define such structures as: (dimensional stability, mechanic strength,
unidimensional (non-axial – roving yarns), drapability and formability, etc.), as well as its
bidimensional (monoaxial – chopped strand suitability for the composite processing and
mats; non-axial – sheets; biaxial – plain application.
weave; triaxial – triaxial weave; multiaxial) 2.2 Fibers used for complex textile
and tridimensional (liniar element – 3D solid structures. Textile reinforcements are using
braiding, multiple weave, triaxial and high performance fibers such as glass,
multiaxial 3D weave; plane element – carbon/graphite, aromatic polyamides
laminates, beams, honeycombs). In this (aramides – Kevlar), polyesters (HM/HT
classification, the preset fibers directions used PES), ceramic fibers, boron and silicon carbide
in the material structure was also allowed for. fibers, etc. They have superior mechanical
Depending on their architecture [7], textile characteristics, as presented in Table 1, so that
reinforcements can be assorted into 4 groups, can meet the specific demands of advanced

268
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
composite applications. Their high bending knitting glass fibers. The fabric density and the
rigidity and other properties that affect the amount of damaged fibers strongly affect the
knitting process must be taken into performance of the final composite. So, a high
consideration when designing a knitted fiber fraction volume is mandatory for
structure as reinforcement for composite advanced composite materials.
materials [2]. 2.3 Knitted fabrics. The most used
composite reinforcements are 2D and 3D
Table 1. Main characteristics of fibers used in
woven fabrics and nonwoven fiber materials,
textile reinforcements
but the knitted fabrics (weft knitted structures,
Fiber Relative Young`s Tensile
as well as warp knitted) are of high interest in
density modulus strength
last decades due to their properties and
(g/cm3) (GPa) (GPa)
development potential. The main advantages
Carbon 2.0 400 2.0-2.5 of knitted fabrics for composite reinforcement
Boron 2.6 400 3.4 are:
E-glass 2.5 70 1.5-2.0 ¾ they allow knitted fabrics with complex
S-glass 2.6 84 4.6 tridimensional shapes;
Kevlar 29 1.44 60 2.7 ¾ it is possible to improve the fabric handling
Kevlar 49 1.45 60 2.7 and plastic injection during composite
processing;
Glass fibers (yarns, rovings) are the most
¾ acceptable processability of high
common high performance fibers used to
performance fibers (glass, aramid, PES HT or
reinforce composite materials. They are
HM);
characterized by hardness, resistance to
¾ short intervals of production;
chemical agents, stability and inertness, low
¾ controlled anisotropy (yarn in-laid under
weight and processability [4]. There are more
preferential angles).
types of glass fibers depending on their
Compared to other textiles (woven,
chemical composition: E-glass, with good
braiding, non-crimp materials), knitted fabrics
strength and high electrical resistivity, most
display lower values for in-plane strength and
common in composite materials; S-glass, with
stiffness. Another issue limiting their use is the
high tensile strength, used mainly in military
low volume fraction, due to their specific
applications; and C-glass, characterized by
geometry of knitted stitches, characterized by
chemical stability and corrosion resistance.
areas without yarns.
The glass fibers possess high strength, low
Mechanical properties are controlled by
elongation, high bending rigidity and
fabric structure and characteristics, yarn
brittleness. It was shown that glass fibers can
properties and process parameters. Using float
resist when bent around the needle hook and,
stitches and in-laid straight yarns placed under
therefore, can be processed through knitting
certain angles it is possible to improve
[8,9]. Due to their brittleness and low
material characteristics by controlling its
resistance to friction, the glass yarns are easily
structure. Stitch density also affects the tensile
damaged, thus affecting the knitting process
behavior and fabric stiffness. Yarns influence
and, subsequently, the real strength of the
the material behavior, their properties being
reinforcement.  Therefore, it is required to
transferred to the final structure. The bending
identify optimal processing parameters prior to

269
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

strength and rigidity of the knitted fabrics

essentially depend on the process specific
parameters, considering that high performance
fibers are rigid and, therefore, they must be
processed carefully. The use of in-laid straight
yarns eliminates the problem of fiber damage Figure 3. Example of a carbon-Kevlar
and also increases the volume fraction [4]. weft-knitted structure
Warp knitted fabrics (Figure 1) are
resistant to runs and relatively easy to sew. This feature may be of great use in order to
Among their advantages, there are higher produce composite reinforcements for
productivity rates than weaving, the variety of different aircraft parts, such as cabin
fabric constructions, large working widths and equipment. Still, these techniques have some
low stress rate on the yarn (that enable it for disadvantages: (1) there are almost no finite
rigid fibers such as glass, aramide and carbon), element models to predict the behavior of the
etc. knitted materials; (2) the elasticity of the
preform does not allow the manufacturing of
high-performance parts. Weft knits are
produced with circular and flat machines and
most types of yarns can be used, it is even
possible to mix different yarns in various areas
using the intarsia technique (for instance, it is
possible to knit a Kevlar zone inside a carbon
Figure 1. A warp knitted structure part to bring cutting resistance) [11].

Stitch-bonding is a special form of warp 3. TRIDIMENSIONAL KNITTED

knitting and is commonly used for the STRUCTURES
production of composite materials and
technical textiles (Figure 2). It is an efficient Knitted fabrics can easily achieve 3D
process and one of the most modern ways to architectures due to their high extensibility and
create textiles reinforced composite materials formability that allow complex shapes. This is
for industrial use. The advantages of the stitch- the reason why the knitted fabrics are regarded
bonding process include high transverse as a viable option for preforms for advanced
stability and resistance to tearing, low stretch composite materials [4].
that enables an enhanced transfer of yarn The main advantages of the 3D knitted
properties, as well as high productivity rate structures are, as follows:
and the scope it offers for functional design of ¾ fabrics high formability due especially to
textiles, such as fiber-reinforced plastics [10]. their drapability;
¾ shapes high complexity and wide variety;
¾ the use of the already existing technology,
without major modifications;
¾ good impact resistance.
Specific properties of these textile
structures are given by their complexity.
Figure 2. Illustration of a stitch-bonded fabric Knitted 3D performs are currently under study
and the development of these fabrics, yet at
Weft knitting is commonly used for laboratory stage, still needs a significant input
garments, such as socks or T-shirts, because from the R&D community in terms of
the resulting materials may fit shapes. This improving their characteristics, developing up-
structure (Figure 3) makes the material elastic graded production protocols (for example,
whatever the fiber. impregnation with resin yields in an uneven
behavior of the composite due to fibers

270
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
migration in stitches), as well as prediction strength is higher than that of wovens
models. (probably due to the shifting of yarn layers
There are three main types of 3D knitted under force and bunch together to resist
structures: multiaxial fabrics (multilayer), tearing). Multiaxial fabrics are used mainly as
knitted fabrics with spatial geometry (spatial composites reinforcement (HM or HT polymer
fashioned) and sandwich/spacer fabrics. filaments, such as polyester, nylon and PEEK,
3.1 Multiaxial fabrics (multilayer). The and glass, aramid or carbon fibers/yarns)
multiaxial fabrics are characterized by [12,13].
multiple layers of yarns arranged under certain 3.2 Spatial fashioned knitted fabrics. The
angles that are finally assembled into knitted spatial fashioning of the knitted fabrics is
fabrics (Figure 4). These fabrics are produced based on the need to produce fabrics with
on special warp knitting machines using glass complex shapes that are similar to the final
or carbon fibers for layers. product shape. Even if a certain degree of
The different layers in the multiaxial warp spatial geometry can be obtained by using
knitted fabrics are independent and the yarns modules of structures with different patterns or
are fed under preset angles corresponding to by dynamic stitch length, this technique is the
the directions requiring higher strength during only one that allows textile component parts of
use, criterion imposed by the application. great variety in shape and diverse degrees of
complexity [4]. Spatial fashioned knitting (also
known as “flechage”) is based on two different
types of knitting courses, on all working
needles and on a variable number of needles,
determining zones with different geometry.
Areas with the highest amount of stitches will
have, in the end, a spatial geometry (Figure 5A
and B) [14].
Figure 4. Typical multiaxial knitted structure
(carbon and polyester yarns)

The layers are connected within the knitted

fabric, by the means of pillars or tricot
stitches. By using warp knitting techniques in
conjunction with fiber placement concepts, Figure 5. Spatial fashioned knitted fabrics:
multilayer structures containing straight and A – sphere; B – disc; C - jersey fabric with warp
relatively uncrimped fibers stacked in the and weft yarns inserted in the structure
required orientations can be produced. The One issue connected to the use of preforms
warp knitting technology is best suited for this made of fashioned fabrics refers to their
kind of structures with in-laid yarns. These relatively low strength which can be improved
fabrics have excellent dimensional stability by inserting both warp and weft yarns within
and outstanding in-plane shear resistance in all the structure (Figure 5C). Apart from
directions, show higher elastic modulus increasing the fabric strength, this technique
compared to woven fabrics, and their tear also improves the volume fraction of the

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology

material, with beneficial effects on the models, it it possible nowadays to obtain

properties of the final composites. advanced composites with outstanding
3.3 Sandwich/spacer fabrics. A sandwich properties using complex textile structures as
or a spacer structure is a 3D assembly made of reinforcement.
two separate fabrics, interconnected through Knitted fabrics are well known for their
simple yarns or knitted layers. The fabric applications in the field of technical textiles,
thickness is determined by length of the including composite materials with polymer
connecting yarns/layers [4]. matrices. Both weft and warp knitting
When produced on warp machines, these technologies can be used to produce such
fabrics are known as spacers and thickness reinforcements. Warp knitted fabrics are best
depends on the distance between two suited for structures with in-laid straight yarns
consecutive layers (spacer distance). An (multiaxial fabrics), whilst weft knitted ones
interesting application of such spacer fabrics allow structures with tridimensional
are the textile reinforced concrete panels is architecture, used as preforms for advanced
used in buildings. composite materials. The complex 3D textile
In the case of weft knitting, the fabrics are systems are being used mostly in defense and
known as sandwich structures. The connection aerospace applications (for example, glider
can be generated through yarns fed on both wings), where they can effectively replace
beds or by knitted layers. In the first case, conventional materials.
there are limitations in terms of shape A better understanding of the mechanism
complexity and fabric thickness. The second of fibers reinforcement in composite materials
approach implies to separately knit the two enables the design and production of new high
beds and, at a certain point, to stop and knit the performance textile-based composites for a
connection layer only on selected needles [4]. wide range of applications. Technology
Examples are given in Figure 6. optimization will yield in reduced production
costs, while geometrical modeling and
predictive calculations of the physical and
structural properties of textile complex
structures will result in preforms with tailored
properties.

REFERENCES

1. Mallick, P. Composites Engineering

Handbook. New York: Marcel Dekker,
Inc. (1997).
2. Miller, D. M. Glass Fibers. In ASM
International Handbook Committee,
Engineered Material Handbook, Vol. I –
Composites (1989).
3. Mouritz, A.P., Bannister, M.K., Falzon,
P.J., Leong, K.H. Review of applications
for advanced three-dimensional fibre
Figure 6. Spacer fabric made of glass fibers (a) and textile composites. Composites Part A:
a sandwich structure (b) Applied Science and Manufacturing. 30
(2000).
3. CONCLUSION 4. Ciobanu, L. Development of 3D Knitted
Fabrics for Advanced Composite
By combining textile processing Materials. In Dr. Brahim Attaf, Advances
techniques with advanced materials in Composite Materials - Ecodesign and
characterization methods and prediction Analysis, InTechOpen. Available:

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http://www.intechopen.com/books/advance Preforms for Composites. Textile Research
s-in-composite-materials-ecodesign- Journal. 71 (2001).
andanalysis/development-of-3d-knitted- 10. Gokarneshan, N., Varadarajan, B.,
fabrics-for-advanced-composite-materials Sentilkumar, C.B., Balamurugan, K.,
(January 2014). Rachel, A. Engineering knits for versatile
5. Hu, J. Introduction to three-dimensional technical applications: Some insights on
fibrous assemblies. In J. Hu, 3-D fibrous recent researches. Journal of the Textile
assemblies Properties, applications and Institute. 102 (2011).
modelling of three-dimensional textile 11. Van De Casteele, L. Weft knitting for
structures, Cambridge: Woodhead composite aircraft parts. JEC Magazine. 24
Publishing (2008). (2006).
6. Fukuta, K., Onooka, R., Aoki, E., 12. Ogale V., Alagirusamy, R. Textile
Nagatsuka, Y. In S. Kawabata, 15th Textile preforms for advanced composites. IJFTR
Research Symposium. Osaka: The Textile 29(2004). Available: http://www.niscair.
Machinery Society of Japan (1984). res.in/sciencecommunication/researchjourn
7. Scardino, F. An introduction to textile als/rejour/ijftr (March 2014).
structures and their behaviour. In T.W. 13. Chun, H.J., Kim, H.W., Byun, J.H. Elastic
Chou, F.K. Ko, Textile Structural behaviors of stitched multiaxial warp knit
Composites, Composite Materials Series, fabric composites. Key Engineering
vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Materials. 306-308 (2006). Available:
Publishers B.V. (1989). www.scientific.net (March 2014).
8. Lau, K.W., Dias, T. Knittability of High – 14. Cebulla, H., Diestel, O., Offerman, P.
Modulus Yarns. In M.L. Scott, Modelling and Production of Fully
th
Proceedings of the 11 International Fashioned Biaxial Weft Knitted Fabrics. In
Conference on Composite Materials (6 M.D. Araujo, Proceedings of the 1st Autex
volumes) JTI. Cambridge: Woodhead Conference: Tecnitex 2001: designing
Publishing (1994). textiles for technical applications (vol. I).
9. Savci, S., Curiskis, J.I., Pailthorpe, M.T. Braga: Williams (2001).
Knittability of Glass Fiber Weft – Knitted
 

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STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMATICS AND HAZARDS

WITH HELP OF INFORMATICS APPLICATIONS (SEPHIA)

Bogdan CIORUŢA*, Mirela COMAN**, Andrei-Alin CIORUŢA*

*Faculty of Science, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
**Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca

Abstract: During recent decades the stirring up of the processes of globalization, practically in all
spheres of present day civilization, has aggravated and brought numerous problems resulting from
nature-society interactions. To overcome these problems, it is necessary to develop and adopt new
concepts and techniques to study and evaluate the changes occurring on the earth ecosystem. For this,
application of information technology via Environmental Information Systems is the best option. Much
more, understanding this complexity through interactive applications will develop new strategies and
ideas to manage and protect ecosystem. This paper deals with new and interactive approach to process,
analysis and synthesis of environmental systems using various models and IT applications, so we could
underline that environmental science and technology are therefore a vital component of productive
knowledge and thus a high priority for the mankind sustainable fraternity with nature. Since years,
environmental scientists and computer experts are working on different and innovative computer-based
modeling techniques to study the environmental problematic and hazards system and to provide the
maximum accuracy in decision making or in elaborating sustainable strategies of community
development. This kind of innovative techniques, some of them exemplified in the present paper
(GeoGebra, AutoCAD, G.S. Surfer, ArcView GIS etc), can become the answer to question in those cases
where the early warning, maximum accuracy in prediction and emergency is taken in account.

Keywords: Environmental Informatics, IT applications, innovative

1. INTRODUCTION fields related to technology and environment

protection. Informatics resources are becoming
The modern society (information society) nowadays more and more important for
in accordance with the actual changes and environmental management, planning and
preocupations in the environment domain has decision-making. An exhaustive analysis of
provided various types of informatics the environmental hazards in terms of
resources (tools, methodologies, procedures) physical, chemical, biological, geological,
to manage and support the ideas and actions hydro-meteorological processes and their
related to the environmental issues. interactions is becoming critical, and not so
Population grows over time as well as the extraordinary maded without the support
modern technology implication in everyday offered by the environmental information
life. Informatics become essential for all the systems (EISs) and environmental informatics.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

2. ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATICS The advent of the informatics systems had

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES affected the access of the public to large and
diverse environmental databases.
Nowadays, significant efforts are required Collecting, storing and retrieving
to analyze relevant data and environment environmental data performed thanks to
information, simulate related processes, database techniques, make the processing of
evaluate resulting impacts or scenarios and environmental data to the field of modeling
generate viable decision alternatives. very interesting: data are used to generate
The informatics resources developed in the information, and information to generate
last 3-4 decades have enabled and help us to knowledge. Figure 2 present in this sense the
investigate the complex interactions between specific steps for obtaining adequate
the natural systems and engineered ecosystem, environmental knowledge starting from
and also to search for sustainable strategies for environmental data.
a harmonious development.
In figure 1 are mentioned the general steps
necessary to define, analyse and solve the
problems related to obtaining environmental
information with help of EISs.

 
Fig. 2. Specific steps for obtaining adequate
  environmental knowledge using EISs

Fig. 1. Specific steps for developing EISs and As we mentioned above, the techniques
obtaining environmental information developed in the environmental informatics
field are implemented and find their
There can be mentioned a few important
incarnation in an array of different software
scientific contributions in the domain of
tools, platforms and environments (data
informatics applied to environmental sciences
storage software, data processing software,
(knowed as Environmental Informatics) as:
end-user applications etc).
ƒ traditional mathematical simulation
The main tools that facilitate the
models - tools for the forecasting of
environmental data storage are databases,
environmental phenomena;
which contains scientific the results of
ƒ optimization techniques - used in the
observing (monitoring) natural phenomena.
field of environmental pollution control
Environmental data that are stored in
and management;
environmental database are different from
ƒ environmental evaluation applications;
other data because they have a specific
ƒ modeling systems for different
attribute: spatio-temporallity.
environment study regimes.
Figure 3 illustrate a specific way for
All the resources presented above are used
getting information and knowledge (data
for defining environmental problems,
output - maps and reports) using EISs from
archiving and processing environmental data
data that are spatio-temporally referenced
with obtaining environmental information and
(data input).
adequate enviromatics knowledge.

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phase (growth) were improvement measures
and strategies are necessary.
The traditional environmental systems -
models, technologies, methodologies and
applications - have been challenged by the
difficulties in handling dynamic and uncertain
features of real-world environmental systems.
Conditions for environmental management
will keep changing with time, demanding
periodically updated decision support.
  Advance in information technology area
has been in extraordinarily rapid pace. There
Fig. 3. A specific way for getting information and will be continuous attempt to apply new
knowledge using common environmental info-
techniques and tools to environmental
interactive applications or EISs
management, also to use the environmental
This particularity give a different meaning informatics resources associated with artificial
and let us to define Environmental Informatics intelligence techniques to promote the long-
and Environmental Information Systems by term viability of the environmental informatics
the expression "info-diversity in ecological and connected applications in everyday's
diversity". environmental-society problems.
Figure 4 illustrate according to the last 3-4
decades the perception related to development
timeline phases of the info-diversity resources
considered to be an integrated part of the
Environmental Informatics.

Fig. 4. Environmental Informatics - delimited by

the technology-time scale
As we observe Environmental Infornatics
delimited by the technology (software Fig. 5. The perspective of getting multidisciplinary
development) and time scale is still in the 2nd information using as EISs the GIS products

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Figure 5 introduce a new methodology knowledge of both sides about their field and
perspective of getting multidisciplinary efficient communication concerning the
information (as multi-thematic maps) using for specific needs of a certain problem and the
example the GIS products as an EIS. properties of the methods. Without these
The magnitude universe of informational ingredients, the results of cooperation projects
activities, many forms of expression, diversity may not be satisfactory.
of instruments and information environment
technologies have produced major changes in REFERENCES
the way people communicate, learn, do
business, solve various problems and to relate 1. Avouris, N. M., Page, B. (1995)
to others and the environment. With the recent Environmental Informatics: Methodology
vision we have formatted and gained from and Applications of Environmental
studying the multi-disciplinary area of Information Processing, Kluwer Academic,
Environmental Informatics and Environmental Dordrecht, Boston
Information Systems, we consider that in near 2. Checkland, P. and Holwell, S. (1998)
future in all the countries are imperious Information, Systems and Information
necessary informatics systems for System -Making Sense of the Field, John
environmental research and protection. Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester
  3. Cioruţa, B., Coman, M. (2011) A forey in
modern scientific research of the
3. CONCLUSIONS environment. From SIM to Environmental
Informatics, Ecoterra no. 29/2011
Information and communications 4. Coman, M., Cioruţa, B. (2011) The
technologies have produced unprecedented evolution, definition and role of EIS in the
changes in society in all its aspects. development of environmental protection
Nowadays, Artificial Intelligence via strategies, Ecoterra no. 27/2011
interactive computational applications plays a 5. Gunter, O. (1998) Environmental
specific and well defined role in all areas or Information Systems, Springer, Berlin
activity domains: production, service, 6. Page, B. (1996): Environmental Informatics
management, monitoring, research, public - Towards a new Discipline in Applied
involvement in decision making, and in almost Computer Science for Environmental
all countries. Protection and Research, Pennsylvania
Environmental systems are based on the State University, Malvern, London
above considerations binding instruments in 7. Page, B., Hilty, L. M. (1995). Trends in
environmental science, can be defined as a Environmental Information Processing. In
collection of packet data and information, Brunnstein, K., and Raubold (Eds.).
described by a series of specific indicators Applications and Impacts. IFIP
relevant for studying, monitoring and Transactions A-52, Amsterdam
exhaustive exploration of the field and 8. Porter, J. H. and Callahan, J. T. (1994)
environmental issues. Circumventing a Dilemma: Historical
As a conclusion, it can be said that modern Approaches to Data Sharing in Ecological
data analysis methods are useful tools in Research, In Environmental Information
environmental informatics and environmental Management and Analysis: Ecosystem to
statistics. Good methods are understandable global Scale (Eds. Michener, W. K., Brunt,
for the environmental scientists and at the J. W. and Stafford, S. G.), Taylor &
same time reliable, robust and helpful for Francis, London
discovering important relationships in the data. 9. Tomlinson, R. F. (1970) Environment
In cooperation between environmental Information Systems, International
scientists and information scientists, what Geographical Union, Ottawa, Canada.
makes the relationship flourish is the
 

278
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THE IDEA OF IMPLEMENTING A MATHEMATICS PLATFORM FOR

ANDROID DEVICES WITH HELP OF APP INVENTOR

Bogdan CIORUŢA*, Mirela COMAN**

*Faculty of Science, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
**Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca

Abstract: App Inventor for the Android platform is a powerful visual and drag-and-drop tool that lets
anyone build and design games and other mobile apps with 2D graphics and animation, create
multimedia quizzes and guides, design complex apps that control robots, apps that inform and educate or
learn computer sciences - with no programming experience required. App Inventor is freely available for
anyone to use, runs online and is accessible from any browser, so the users can design the app interface
using a web-based graphical user interface builder only by piecing together blocks like in a puzzle.
In this paperwork we try to give some basic ideas of how everyone using App Inventor could build a
specific mathematic application similar to Microsoft Mathematics v. 4.0 - a very powerful software that
provides a set of mathematical tools that help students get school work done quickly and easily.

Keywords: Environmental Informatics, IT applications, innovative

1. INTRODUCTION

People have been doing personal

computing since the 1980s, but today’s mobile
applications are making computing personal as
never before [3]. Today, we carry computers
with us constantly, as smart-phones and pads
and the new devices that are regularly
emerging.
More significantly, today’s personal
computing is increasingly about us: where we
live, where we work, who our friends are,
what we buy, what we like, whom we talk
with, and what we talk about. This personal
computing is linked to global data services and
information sources in a way that
fundamentally transforms our experience and
our perception of our world.
Fig. 1. Android devices - using perspectives

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

Our consumer culture gives us all sorts of magical-sounding names such as waterfall
opportunities for entertainment, pleasure and model, spiral model, and agile development.
sometimes even learning. The high-tech These all refer to the same thing: logical steps
objects (cell phones, tablet computers, TVs, that developers and programmers use to move
etc) that we use today to consume an idea from a dream to a fully functional
entertainment and information are black boxes program [2,6].
to most of us [3]. In other words, most people
can’t create the apps that run on these gadgets.
What if we could change that? What if we
could take creative control of our everyday
gadgets, like cell phones?

2. APP INVENTOR FOR ANDROID - Fig. 3. The development process of every apps -
BACKGROUND AND MAIN ISSUES clarifying the Design Idea

When App Inventor software was created When it comes to the developer tool App
at Google, the team who did this work was Inventor and even the mobile operating system
motivated by the vision that mobile computing Android, it is difficult to talk about history,
could be personal computing technology that given that this history is still rather young.
anyone can actually personalize, by creating Since Android was first released in
applications for personal use, with no October 2008, the Linux-based operating
programming experience required [1]. system for different mobile devices that was
initiated by the Open Handset Alliance (OHA)
and marketed by Google has developed from a
niche product to a market leader [4,5].
App Inventor for the Android platform is a
blocks language for mobile phones and a
powerful visual and drag-and-drop tool that
lets anyone build and design games and other
mobile apps with 2D graphics and animation,
create custom multimedia quizzes, design
complex apps that control robots or
communicate with the web, build apps that
inform and educate or learn computer sciences
- with no programming experince required
[9,10].

Fig. 2. App Inventor for the Android platform

Even if App Inventor is still a beta system
under development - Google team is working
to make it more powerful and easier to use -
there is already a growing community of App
Inventor users of all ages who are exploring
and experiencing what it’s like to make
applications for themselves [10,12].
Design processes help take your awesome
ideas and make them reality. There is nothing
mysterious about a design process, although
frequently developers give them fearsome and Fig. 4. The Design view for App Inventor

280
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The Design window should appear in your
browser once you enter the name of your app
and click OK. The Design window is where
you begin creating how app will look, the user
interface (UI)[12].

Fig. 5. App Inventor - the Palette of components

Fig. 6. Microsoft Mathematics - specific apps
Accessing the Blocks Editor is realized
with Open the Blocks Editor button near the Our results working with App Inventor
top right corner of the Design window [11,13]. were determined in accordance with our skills,
Accessing the Emulator is realized with the our determination and our interest in graphics,
New emulator button at the top of the Blocks animation and educational software.
Editor window. This will open an emulation of
an Android device. Back in the Blocks Editor,
with the Connect to Device... button we can
establish the connection with the app and also
be able to see the project in the emulator.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

With an application like Microsoft

Mathematics for android students can learn to
solve equations step-by-step while gaining a
better understanding of fundamental concepts
in algebra, calculus, geometry, text  
recognition, trigonometry, physics, and much Fig. 7. Results - different types of apps integrated
more [8]. into educational mathematics platform

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

We present a few results that could be

develop by any students even if they have no 4. CONCLUSIONS
programming experience like most of us
everyday entertainment and information Information and communications tools and
consumers. As you can see is possible to methodologies have produced unprecedented
represent, in an interesting way (design, changes in our society in all its aspects, but
animation), different types of mathematics especially in mobile devices environment.
fundamental concepts (like in the first According to this trend, in the present
emulator image), formulas, equation and workpaper, we try to help everyone who use
triangle solver apps, and much more: App Inventor for Android and are interested in
• App Inventor Works - Standard version - mathematics to develop specific educational
5 different apps: Calculator, Formulas, applications.
Equation Solver, Geometry Solver and
Unit Converter.
• App Inventor Works - Advanced - 5 REFERENCES
different apps: Glossary, Financial
Calculus, Statistics, Grapher (2D) and 1. Burnette E., Hello Android: introducing
Surfer (3D geometry creator). Google mobile development platform, The
Pragmatic Bookshelf, USA, 2010
2. Kirk A., Data Visualization: a successful
design process, Packt Publishing Ltd., UK,
2012
3. Kloss, Jorg H., Android Apps with App
Inventor: the fast and easy way to build
android apps, Pearson Education Inc.,
USA, 2012
4. Marinacci J., Building Mobile Applications
with Java, O'Reilly Media Inc., Canada,
2012
5. Mednieks Z., Dornin L., Nakamura M.,
Programming Android, O'Reilly Media
Inc., Canada, 2011
6. Segaran T., Beautiful Data - the stories
behind elegant data solutions, O'Reilly
Media Inc., Canada, 2009
7. Steele J., Iliinsky N., Beautiful
Visualization - looking at data through the
eyes of experts, O'Reilly Media Inc.,
Canada, 2010
8. Svirin A., 1300 Math Formulas, The
Pragmatic Bookshelf, USA, 2004
9. Tyler J., App Inventor for Android: build
your own apps - no experience required!,
 
Fig. 8. Geometry Solver and Unit Converter John Wiley Ltd., USA, 2011
10. Wolber D., Abelson H., Spertus E.,
All the apps are based on various palette of Looney L., App Inventor - create your own
components (basic, media, animation, social, Android apps, O'Reilly Media, Inc.,
sensor, screen arrangement etc) and blocks Canada, 2011
(definition, text, list, math, logic, control, 11. http://appinventor.mit.edu
color) which facilitate the project design and 12. www.appinventor.org
functionality. 13. www.it-ebooks.info

282
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

ECONOMICS CONSIDERATION ON WOODEN BIOMASS

CONSUMPTION

Tatiana GRÎU *, Aurel LUNGULEASA **

*Wood Engineering Faculty, Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania, ** Wood Engineering Faculty,
Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Energy is the important element that ensures the economic and social development level in the
world. According to the research made in this field a lot of researches are orientated to the development
of the alternative source of energy. The importance to ensure the necessary energy will be observed from
the moment when will start to exhaust the fossil combustible. This paper describes the efficiency use of
the fossil combustible and renewable source of energy (SRE) on Romanian energetically market. The
accessibility of the renewable energy source in the world directed the economical and social increase in
the developing state. Energy is a source that generates the progress of the state. The main objectives of
the paper are the accessibility of the energetically source in Romania and the fuel consumption for
heating. Important obtained results in the research describes the biomass (pellets, briquettes and wood)
as an accessibility solid combustible for producing energy in the world, being widely spread and the
cheapest on the energetically market. 

Keywords: biomass, combustible produce, energy, fuels, heat

1. INTRODUCTION availability will decrease [6, 12]. The

importance to research the energetically
In present all researches in Romania and market in the SRE production has a significant
Europe try to exploit the alternative field in and actual role for the population. Countries
energy production and bringing a lot of new like Germany, Finland and Sweden ensure
scientifically date about the renewable source 30% for their energy consumption from the
of energy, especially about the production of SRE production and especially from biomass.
energy from the biomass. Energy represents an In the 2006, the biomass contribution to the
important point for all the developing production of the energy in EU was about 86.6
countries because energy offers comfort on Mtoe (Millions tone equivalent oil) from
social and economical plan. firewood, briquettes and pellets [19]. The
In this moment, main energetically source prognoses show that the biomass will cover
are the fossil fuels like oil, coal, natural gas, 60% from the total energy consumption
nuclear energy and a low percent from the compare with others SRE, with a production of
SRE (Source of Renewable Energy) 190-200 PJ/an (1J=1015 PJ) [3].
contributes in European Union (EU) with In present, firewood is the principal energy
about 10% to the energy production in 2010. source for producing energy for about 2
According to statistics, the field of the energy billons of people in rural areas and provides
production from fossil combustible will touch more than 14 % from the all energy
the peak point in 2020, after which the chart of consumption in the world, comparable with

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

coal (12%), gas (15%) and electricity (14%) necessity of this research occurs from the
[1, 2, 6]. A major problem with which a lot of aspects of the highest costs on the fossil
researches are confronting is that the combustible which increased five times since
consumers use all kinds of thermal furnaces 2000 and in the future it expects to still
with lower yield for producing energy heat increase and the availability of them will
[15]. decrease.
In the last years according to researches,
there were recorded significant increases in 2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
imports of the fossil combustible (natural gas)
in EU, which were used to produce heat 2.1. Materials. Investigating the
energy. In the energetically field, there were energetically market were founded a lot of
made a lot of research about the efficiency of materials which can be used in thermal furnace
the thermal furnaces [5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 18]. The as ecologically combustible. These materials
thermal furnace in present has a yield of 92% are firewood, briquettes and pellets from
for natural gas use and 85-90% for biomass different kinds of species. The pellets/
fuel use. briquettes are obtained from the forest waste
The amount of released heat from the and are considerate energetically products
biomass is influenced by a series of factors as which are used to produce heat in residential
moisture content from the material that and industrial buildings [20].
absorbs energy in the burning process, the
Table 1.
volatile substance, the chemical composition
Chemical characteristics of the solid fuels
(C, H, O and N) etc.
Species Energetically characteristic, %
In Serbia, there are found about 40.9 % of
C H O N A
the consumers that use renewable combustible
Firewood
as firewood, briquettes and pellets to produce
heat [7]. In Romania the major parts of the Willow 51.7 6.1 41.1 0.9 0.48
Beech 49.9 8.2 37.1 0.7 0.5
consumer use firewood for heating in the rural
Spruce 49.1 9.2 38.9 0.6 0.32
areas, but these thermal furnaces have a lower
Poplar 49.1 9.2 38.9 0.6 0.32
yield about 10-15% or natural gas with a
Ash 50.7 8.0 37.5 0.6 0.51
higher yield of 90%. The biomass in Romania Briquettes
is the most used combustible in the rural areas. Beech 50.2 8.1 37.1 0.7 0.41
An important aspect in the use of wooden Willow 51.8 6.1 41.1 0.9 0.72
biomass to produce heat is that that biomass is Spruce 49.9 8.2 38.1 0.6 0.5
an ecologically material with lower CO2 Straw 45.6 5.8 42.4 0.5 5.7
emission in the burning process. The Pellets
exploitation of the SRE in the entire world can Beech 50.2 8.1 37.1 0.6 0.5
ensure the necessary energy for life and to Willow 51.7 6.1 41.1 0.9 0.48
contribute to the environment protection. Fossils combustible
The paper presents a theoretical and Pit coal 65.9 4.6 23.0 0.7 1.2
experimental research based on a study made Natural
75 25 - - -
to determine the most accessible fuel for gas
producing the heat. The energetically market
In this paper where analysed five
in Romania knows a lot of combustible
energetically species. The raw materials were
materials. In the process of the determination
taken from Willow (Salix alba L.), Spruce
which is the best combustible for heating
(Picea abies Karrsten.), Beech (Fagus
process were taken in consideration the
sylvatica L.), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) and
ecologically aspects and the economical ones.
Poplar (Populus tremula L.), (Table 1) species.
The main objectives of the paper consist in
The results were compared with the fossils
highlighting the most effective and
combustible as gas and pit coal. These species
ecologically solid combustible to produce
are considerate as energetically species
thermal energy (heat) for the housing and the
because they have higher calorific power,
cost for this energy. The motivation of the
quickly grow and are widely spread in Europe.

284
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The raw materials were analysed in laboratory ΣA – Sum of the additions of the affected
to investigate the calorific power of the thermal flux released through transmission, in
species. %.
The chemical composition (Table 1) of the
materials is considerate as another important (2)
energetically characteristic that are described
where:
in others scientifically papers [17, 21]. These
B - Consumption of combustible, in kg/h;
elements are presented in different quantity in
Q - Necessary of heating, in W;
all kind of combustible materials.
Ci – Lower calorific power, in kJ/kg.
2.2. Method. Experimental method used
In case, the consumer wants to replace the
consists of the determination of the calorific
existing heating system it is necessary to
power of wood species and briquettes/pellets
determinate what elements need to be replaced
with the calorimeter with explosive burning
(pipe, valves, thermal furnace, accessories,
OXY-1C [8]. The amount of the moisture
etc). These elements need to be described in a
content was determinate through the drying
draft plan. The main aspect in this part is to
method with the laboratory oven at the
determinate the economical ones like the
temperature of 103oC. 
investment costs, maintenance costs and how
Economical aspects were made on the
much costs the thermal furnace for different
Romanian energetically market taking in
kinds of combustible.
consideration the cost of the combustible
The chosen combustible materials were
displayed by the suppliers.
selected from the energetically market in
2.3. Case study. The economically parts
Romania. These species present energetically
were made for a house with a surface of 100
character with higher calorific power and there
m2 and the ceiling height is 2.65 m. It is a
are most used materials to produce briquettes
house for a family with four members. The
and pellets [11, 14, 18].
obtained results from experimental research
there were studied in theoretical way. In
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
account were taken the necessary of heat (1)
for the houses surface, the quantity of
The heat amount released by biomass
combustible consumption (2) for this surface
described by Kausley et al [15] in their
[13] and was determinate the kWh cost for
research is calculated like sum of heat released
every type of combustible.
by the elements that compound the burning
process: like time of burning, the heat of flame
(1) released and temperature of ignition. The
where: obtained experimental results yield the Lower
Q – Necessary of heating, in W; Calorific Power (LCP) that was used in
QT – Released heat flux through transmission, accounting process. In practice wood materials
in W; present the higher calorific power that cannot
Qi – Thermal load for heating the interior air, be used effectively. This amount of heat in the
in W; burning process is evaporated with formed
volatile substance through the chimney.

285
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

The moisture content used for The experimental results are described in
determination was 20% for wood and 10% for table 2. The Beech specie (11.63 kJ/cm3) like
pellets and briquettes. The moisture degree in firewood presents a bigger energy density than
the material is an important element from the Willow specie (11.56 kJ/cm3). An
which depends the amount of heat released in appreciable energy density was obtained for
a burning process. These are the limit of the the Spruce (11.78 kJ/cm3) and Ash (12.91
moisture contents for the sold combustible kJ/cm3) species. The highest energy density
materials by the suppliers. The calorific power from all the SRE combustible materials has the
resulted in the experimental research (Figure 1 Spruce briquettes (13.47 kJ/cm3)The burning
and 2) are determinate for moisture content of rate means the degree of maintenance of the
20% for wood samples and 10% for briquettes heat released from the woody species in the
and pellets samples. An analysis of the burning process. Taking in consideration this
received results shows that the briquettes and aspect the biggest burning rate presents the
pellets have a higher calorific power in Beech (0.392 kJ/min) and Willow (0.351
compare with the wood sample. The pellets kJ/min) species. Compare firewood with the
have calorific power about 18,299 kJ/kg briquettes and pellets sample, the biggest
(4.685 kWh/kg) and briquettes about 16,868 burning rate present the Beech (0.428 kJ/min)
kJ/kg (4.227 kWh/kg) at the moisture content and Spruce (0.435 kJ/min) briquettes. This is
of 10%. The compare fossil combustibles have way a lot of products have 70% percent Beech
a LCP of 35,500 kJ/m3 (9.861 kWh/m3) for gas sawdust and 30% Spruce sawdust. From the
and 29,000 kJ/kg (8.055 kWh/kg) for pit coal. pellets materials the biggest burning rate
presents Willow (0.419 kJ/min) pellets. This
aspect is important when consumers want to
heat a house and to maintain it, and to have a
lower combustible consumption.
Table 2.
Energetically characteristics of the solid fuel

Energy density,
Density, g/cm3

Burning time,

Burning rate,
Mass, g
Species

kJ/min

kJ/cm3
min

Figure 1.
Lower calorific power of wood species, kJ/kg Firewood
Willow 0.639 0.75 28 0.351 11.56
Beech 0.683 0.81 25 0.392 11.63
Spruce 0.546 0.77 28 0.308 11.78
Poplar 0.539 0.69 29 0.285 10.55
Ash 0.618 0.85 31 0.303 12.91
Briquettes
Beech 0.634 0.54 25 0.428 9.11
Willow 0.645 0.65 29 0.374 10.94
Spruce 0.681 0.78 27 0.435 13.47
Straw 0.632 0.72 27 0.362 11.14
Pellets
Beech 0.560 0.45 26 0.398 8.32
Willow 0.580 0.56 28 0.419 10.41
Figure 2.
Fossil combustible
Lower calorific power of the briquettes and pellets,
kJ/kg Pit coal 1.0 1.30 42 0.692 37.83
Natural 1.0 0.717 38 0.921 25.09
gas

286
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In present the energetically market of the Table 4.
SRE will encourage the consumers through the Cost of the solid combustible in Romania
governmental programs to orient to the

Combustible
alternative source of energy because these are

Firewood

Briquette
ecologically and cheap fuels that can be used

Pellet
by everyone. From the 2007 in European

Coal

Gas
Union is accessible a lot of grant programs for
producing energy from the alternative source Unit price,
0.04 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3
of energy, and till 2020 is trying to reduce the €/kg; €/m3
noxious emissions comparative with the 1990
Price €/kWh 0.009 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.03
and to increase the effectiveness of the
alternative energy [17]. Energy
consumption, 10800
Table 3. kWh/year
The account of the necessary of the heat and Annual cost
consumption of the combustible for energy, 97.2 432 108 108 324
Consumption of: kg/h €/year
necessary, kW
Surface, mp

Cost thermal
1000

2700

4700

1800

955
Briquettes
Firewood

furnace, €
Pellets

Coal
Heat

Gas

1000

2700

4700

1800

955
Total costs, €
100 18.2 1.2 1.1 0.98 0.5 0.3
Maintenance
110 110 110 110 40
The necessary heat for 100 m from the 2 costs, €/year
accounted procedure results 18.2 kW in the Current
45 45 45 45 25
repairs, €/year
winter season for about 100 days (Table 3).
Considering this heat necessary is The costs of the combustible materials
determinate the consumption of the displayed by the Romanian suppliers (Table 4)
combustible in thermal furnace for different were used to determinate the cost for a kg or
kind of fuels. The producing necessary energy m3 of combustible. In this case the energy
from firewood consumes about 700 kg by the consumption for a year will be 10,800 kWh.
wooden thermal installation with a yield of According to this the cheapest fuel for heating
80%. The briquettes and pellets installation the house is firewood (97.2 euro/year) (Table
will consume in cold season about 550-650 kg 4). The expensive fuels are the briquettes and
with a yield of 85-90%. From the lasts research pellets and natural gas for heating the house.
[4] and taking in account the investment cost, These are because of two aspects. One is
the pellets are the expensive fuels for because the thermal installation is expensive
producing heat than firewood. and another one is because the costs of the
material. Analysing the maintenance costs and
the investment costs the firewood furnace with
higher yields are not so cheap. Costs of
amortization will achieve evident in a longer
period of time from 7 to 10 years.

287
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

The energy represented by heat touch 6. Demibras A.. Biorefineries-for biomass

about 50% from the final energy consumption upgrading facilities. London: Publishing
in a lot of developing countries [20]. Biomass Springer. (2010).
will became a priority in energy producing 7. Glavonjic, D.B.. Consumption of Wood
from the moment when the fossil combustible Fuels in Households in Serbia – Present
will decrease. state and possible contribution to the
climate change mitigation. Thermal
3. CONCLUSIONS Science. 15 (3) (2011).
8. Griu, T., Lunguleasa, A.. Salix a renewable
The necessity to ensure the quantity of heat source of energy. The 14th Intenetional
in the cold season is an important factor and Conference of AFASES. May, Brasov
from the results it is evident that biomass (2012).
products are the cheapest combustible. 9. Guerra-Santin, O., Itard, L.. The effect of
Important aspect results in this paper that energy performance regulations on energy
firewood is a cheap form to produce energy consumption. Energy Efficiency. 5 (2012).
and save about thrice compares with the gas 10. Guerra-Santin, O.. Occupant behaviour in
form. Combustion with solid biomass is the energy efficient dwellings: evidence of a
most important sector for bio energy rebound effect. J Hous and the Built
production, being the efficiency in the heat Environ. (2012).
production process. 11. Gunther, B., Gebauer, K., Barkowski, R.,
Rosenthal, M., Bues, C.-T.. Calorific value
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of selected wood species and wood
products. European Journal of Wood and
This paper is supported by the Sectoral Wood Products. 70 (5) ( 2012).
Operational Programme Human Resources 12. IEA. International Energy Agency –
Development (SOP HRD), ID134378 financed Bioenergy Project Development and
from the European Social Fund and by the Biomass Supply. IEA ORG. [online].
Romanian Government. Available:http://www.iea.org/weo/2007.as
p (January, 2012).
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Georgescu, M., Popescu, M., Cocora, O.,
1. Ashton, S., Cassidy, P.. Sustainable forestry Hera, D., Gabreanu, R., Iordache, F.,
for bioenergy and bio-based products. Brandabur, C., Stanescu, D.P., Antonescu,
Energy Basics. (2007). N., Caluianu, V., Draganescu, T.,
2. Barbu, M.C.. Actual developments of the Ivanescu, G., Craciun, M., Dabela, G.,
forestry and wood industry. International Frunzulica, R., Toropoc, M.S., Beldiman,
Conference Preceding “Wood Science and M., Costachel, A., Cimpoia, A.. Heating
Engineering in the Third Millennium”. Handbook. Bucharest: Artecno Publising
Nov, Brasov (2011). House (2002).
3. Braga, I., Frosin, D., Ghincioiu, N.. 14. Karp, A., Hanley, S.J., Trybush, S.O.,
Technologies of biomass energy wood. Macalpine, W., Pei, M., Shield, I.. Genetic
The National Conference of Wood Science Improvement of willow for bioenergy and
and Engineering in the Third Millennium. bio fuels. Journal of Interative Plant
Brasov (2003). Biology. 53(2) (2011).
4. Chau, J., Sowlati, T., Sokhansanj, S., Preto, 15. Kausley, B.S., Pandit, A.B.. Modelling of
F., Melin, S., Bi, X.. Economic sensitivity solid fuels stoves. Fuel. 89 (2010).
of wood biomass utilization for greenhouse 16. Kim, E., Barle, S.. The energy
heating application. Applied Energy. 86 consumption of Paris and its supply areas
(2009). from the eighteenth century to the present.
5. Ciganas, N., Raila, A.. Analysis of heating Reg Environ Change. 12 (2012).
value variations in stored wood. 17. Li, J., Yang, W., Blasiak, W., Ponzio, A..
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
CO2 and NOx reduction in coal-fired EU27. London: Publishing Springer.
boilers. Fuel. 102 (2012). (2011).
18. Lunguleasa, A., Panayotov, P.. Ecological 20. Serrano, C., Portero, H., Monedero, E..
briquette obtained from wooden biomass. Pine chips combustion in a 50 kW
Journal Recent. 9 (1) (2008). domestic biomass boiler. Fuel. 111 (2013).
19. Panoutsou, C.. Solid Biofuels for Energy ‐  21. Stolarski, J.M., Szczukowski, S.,
Supply of solid biofuels: Potential Tworkowski, J., Krzyzaniak, M.. Cost of
Feedstock, Cost and sustainability issues in heat energy generation from willow
biomass. Renewable Energy. 59 (2013).
 

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290
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

HYGROSCOPICITY OF CHIPBOARD VERSUS SOLID WOOD

Aurel LUNGULEASA
Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The paper presents some aspects referring to water absorbtion and thickness swelling for solid
wood and chipboard (with and without melamine film for protection). There is made a comparison
between the two wooden materials in terms of hygroscopicity. A similar methodology was used in order
to obtain all results in the same conditions. Also, it was taken into account that wood has a different
swelling in tangential and radial direction and in the case of film covered chipboard the large swelling
was near the cuts and very small to the center of the specimen. Results have showed that swelling of
covered chipboard was lower than on solid wood.

Keywords: higroscopicity, chipboard, composite, solid wood, swelling

1. INTRODUCTION immersion, in g; mf – final mass of wooden

sample after immersion in water, in g.
Hygroscopicity of solid wood and other More important from the point of view of
wooden products as chipboard is an important hygroscopicity is thickness swelling, for solid
property because in the range of saturation wood and wooden panels, even is a
moisture content the dimensional changes consequence of the first phenomenon, but only
(swelling and shrinkage) are produced. in the range of bound water from wood (up to
Beyond of certain limit of moisture content FSP). This hygroscopical property has name
(fiber saturation point, FSP) and certain time the thickness swelling and is determined on
the woody semi-product will be destroyed. the base of initial and final wooden
When water mass that is absorbed in woody dimensions, as follow (Eq. 2):
products will be reported to its initial mass the t −t
α t = f i ⋅100 [%] , (2)
phenomenon can be name the water absorption ti
and is specific for wooden panels as Where there are:
chipboard, fiberboard, plywood, laminated βt- thickness swelling, in %;
wood and so on. The same term is for solid tf is final thickness if woody sample, in mm;
wood [1, 2, 3]. Consequently, the water ti – initial thickness of woody sample, in mm.
absorption, specific for both solid wood and The wooden boards as chipboards,
boards, is calculated with the next relationship fiberboards, laminated products and plywood
(Eq. 1): present different properties of hygroscopicity
mi − m f related to solid wood, usually higher because
Aw = ⋅100 [%] (1)
mi of destroying of wooden integrity in particles
Where there are: Aw –water absortion, in %; or sheets. Behavior related to water of wooden
mi - initial mass of wooden sample before materials could hardly be changed because of

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

adhesive quantity and type. Therefore when 86 - 88 cm2, the delection from both type of
there are used phenol-formaldehyde adhesive samples being only 2,3 % [4], respectively in
the hygroscopic properties will be improved, resonable limits.
because these adhesives are themselves to Wooden samples were introduced grouped
water resistant and a part of these will (5 pieces) into water down to about 2 cm
penetrate superficial area of wooden products. under superior level of liquid, for a time of 2
In this way it can say that wooden boards with hours and a constant temperature 18 0C [5, 6].
phenol-formaldehyde adhesive will be use in Before immersion of wooden samples it
medium with great air humidity as plywood should make the next determinations:
for constructions. Even mechanical strengths • For wooden panel (chipboard with and
are higher but also the cost prices in this case without coated films), there are determined
are higher.
the initial mass with 0.1 g accuracy and
For chipboard the both properties of
initial thickness of all samples with 0.01
hygroscopicity depend also if their surfaces are
covered or not with protection films. Therefore mm acuracy;
for comparison it must took samples with
protection film and others without protection
films. The samples for solid wood used for
comparison will have different values of
higroscopicity on radial and tangential
directions, reason for what it should determine
the both properties on radial and tangential
directions and after that, it made the average of
these values.
Also, because the wooden specie
influences very much the hygroscopical
properties of boards in the work-paper it
should use only beech specie both for solid
wood and for wooden panels (chipboard with Fig 1. Form and dimensions of woody samples: a-
and without film coating). for solid wood; b-for chipboards; R-radial; Tg-
tangential; t-thickness of panel boards
The main objective of this paper is to find
out how water or high humidity affects the • For all solid wood samples there are
swelling and water absorbtion properties of determined the initial mass, with the same
solid wood (in the tangential and radial accuracy 0.1 g;
direction) and non-covered or melamine–
• For all solid wood samples the dimensions
covered chipboard (in thickness), in order to
on radial and tangential directions are
use them corespondingly.
determined with an accuracy of 0.01 mm;
2. METHODIC AND MATERIALS • For water it must carry out and keeping the
temperature to regime one (temperature 18
0
Before of actually experiments all wooden C, PH neutral, cleaness and without
samples were conditioned into atmosphere carbonates etc).
with constant parameters up to all samples The same determinations referring to wooden
reached a constant moisture constant about 10 samples were make after testing, namely in the
%. Form of all wooden samples were moment of sample evacuation from water.
prismatic, the samples from solid wood having Also it keep into account the water adsorbent
dimension 100×20×20 mm and the samples to sample surfaces that might to eliminate by
from chipboard having 50×50×18 mm (Fig 1). low pressing with absorbent paper. Time of
These different dimenssion are adopted for weighing and measuring must be very short
obtaining a similar outside surfaces for both because water can be rapidly evaporated. For
categories of the sample types, namely about covered panels with decorative and protection

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

films it keeps into account that the thickness of Results of hygroscopical tests was
wooden samples after immersion will be better centralized in a lot of tables separated for each
in outside zone and the lowest in the middle type of sample (solid wood and chipboard).
zone of sample, determining both values of
thicknesses. Therefore if the solid wood is use 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
two specific relationships are necessary.
Table 1 On the base of measurements that are made for
Hygroscopical results for solid wood each type of wooden products it may realize a
lot of tables, from what it can extract water
absorption and thickness swelling as an
t ft − t it medium value for entire testing, as it sees for
α tt = ⋅100 [%]
t it
(3) instance in the Table 1 for uncovered
t fr − t ir chipboard or in the Table 2 for solid wood.
α tr = ⋅100 [%]
t ir
Table 2
Hygroscopical results for composites
N Mass, g Thickness, αtr αtt Aw, α, %
mm % N Mass, g Thickness, mm Aw, αt,
mi mf ri/rf ti/tf o mi mf ti tf % %
1 32,6 33,3 19,7 20,4 1. 2. 2.4 1.95 1 32.2 62.2 17.3 22.2 93.1 28.3
20,0 20,9 5 4 2 32.3 62.0 17.2 22.4 91.9 30.2
2 32,4 32,9 19,8 20,4 1. 2. 4.6 1.95 3 32.3 62.8 17.4 22.4 94.4 28.7
20,1 20,9 5 4
4 32.4 63.0 17.4 22.2 94.4 27.5
3 32,8 32,9 19,9 20,4 1. 2. 3.3 1.65
20,1 20,9 0 3 5 34.1 64.3 17.2 21.8 88.5 26.7
4 31,6 32,3 19,8 20,4 1. 2. 2.2 1.94 ---- ---- ---- ------- 92.4 28.2
20,1 20,9 5 3
5 30,2 30,9 19,7 20,9 1. 2. 2.3 1.70
19,9 21.8 0 4
For solid wood there is a radial and tangential
Mean 2.5 1.83 swelling, reason for what for obtaining the
Where there are: αtt is swelling coefficient of thickness swelling it may do the average of
solid wood on tangential direction, in %; αtr is above values from Table 2.
swelling coefficient of solid wood on radial Because there were made a lot of tests for
direction, in %; tfr, tft – final thickness of solid each type of wooden products after finishing
wood on radial and tangential direction after of tests it takes data from many tests and put
imersion, in mm; tir, tit – initial thickness of together in the centralized Table 3, for
solid wood on radial and tangential direction obtaining the main tendency parameter as
before imersion, in mm; arithmetic average of these.
Keeping into consideration that chipboard Table 3.
has not radial and tangential direction, in order Hygroscopicity for different wooden materials
to make a good comparision between solid No. Assortments Aw, αt %
wood and chipboard there was take a medium %
value of radial and tangential values, namely: 1 Solid wood 2.5 1.8
α tr + α tt (4)
αt = 2 Melamine 9.1 (1.0+3.7)/2=2.3
2 chipboard
3 Chipboard 92.4 28.2

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

melamine-coated chipboards are superior

On the base of these value it may do two even than solid wood.
graphs for visualizing the tendency of wooden Additionally, in the paper, several
products, as it sees in Fig 2 for water measurements were made on water absorption
absorption and Fig 3 for thickness swelling. and thickness swelling of wood-plastic
composite. The results (water absorption of
0.3% and 0.2% thickness swelling) showed
that this compound is different from the other
two materials taken into consideration in the
paper. There are no terms of comparison
between these types of materials related
higroscopicity.

4. CONCLUSION

Fig 2. Water absorption for woody materials Study about hygroscopicity of wooden
It can observe from Table 3 that the best products as agglomerate wooden products
lower water absortion are for solid wood (with versus solid wood was a constant problems of
2.5%), the next being melamine-covered researches from all countries all over of world
chipboard (with 9.1%) and the lowest water for finding certain methods for improving this
absortion is for non-covered chipboard, with property, the last frontier being the obtaining
92.4 %. of wooden products without higroscopicity.
Nearby of these two materials the wooden
material from plastics and wood fiber is taken
in consideration for what hygroscopical
properties are very low, about inexistent.
From experimental studies it can observe
that the melamine-covered wooden panels
have a low higroscopicity related to un-
covered boards and even related to solid wood.
From this point of view a good covered board
Fig 3. Swelling of woody materials is better than solid wood as timber could be,
beside other currently features of these boards
The same considerations are exposed in Fig 3 as low cost, broad dimensions, uniform
related to thickness swelling for different types thickness and plainly.
of wooden materials. As general rule, the All studies made in the paper about
classification is the same as for the water higroscopy of woody materials have the aim of
absorption, namely: on the first place is solid water absortion and thickness swelling, in
wood with 1.8 %, on the second place is order to use them corespondingly.
melamine-covered chipboard with 2.3% on
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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

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(2012).

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UTILIZATION OF TECHNICAL INNOVATION ON A NEW PRODUCT

Raluca NICOLAE (MANESCU), Anisor NEDELCU

Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, Manufacturing Engineering Department.

Abstract: This paper aims to show the role of innovation capitalizing on a new technical product, which
can lead to modernization and economic development. We analyzed the essential characteristics of the
new product, given its origin and manifestation of a technical and economic context.Also this paper aims
to shed light on the degree of implementation for each phase of said sequence which will depend on the
specific product and the state of its complexity. Last was ultimately leads to awareness by companies,
customer feedback from bringing useful suggestions on this basis were identified opportunities

Keywords: technical product, production process, product development flow.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. ANALYSES
One of the essential foundations for
It capitalized on the technical product creating a successful new product over the
concept again, which is materialized as a long term is to identify technological trends
prototype. from an early stage and to exploit the
Verifying a technical product is used in opportunities that new technologies offer for
consumer testing. Determined the essential product innovations.
characteristics of the new product, prepare However, factors such as the hugely
samples produced in small quantities to dynamic nature of technological progress
consumers targeted testing to obtain feedback make it increasingly difficult for the new
from them. product to comprehensively identify
Constructive and technical refinement technology-related opportunities and to
phase, the development of product and harness them in a goal-oriented manner.
production process, is developed the new A key prerequisite for successful
product execution documentation: technical technology development therefore lies in the
specifications, drawings, formulas, patterns ability of an organization to rapidly and
and instructions. The new product is efficiently align the requirements of the market
experienced pilot or test stations, depending on with the potential offered by new technologies
the nature of the product.[1] and to integrate the results in its own products
. and processes.
Sales market are experimental tests A fundamental contribution to the
performed to determine product acceptance by development and design of technical products
customers. were teachers and Wolfgang Gerhard Pahl
Thus the new product is launched into Beitz, whose book serves worldwide as basic
production on a calendar scheduling appropriate manual for students and researchers. In their
marketing.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

systematic conception, definition of technical drawings, parts lists, instructions for

objects is decomposed into four successive manufacturing, assembly, transport and
phases:[2] operation, check all documents. The result of
- definition phase function: allows to steps: production of the product
specify the functionality you need to ensure documentation.
their subject and achieve functional modeling In the 2007 edition, the process is
needs; completed with a final phase: marketing. With
- conceptual definition phase: specify the introduction of market life cycle begins
what physical principles will be used to ensure (commercial) product.[4]
functional requirements; The application rate for each phase of
- physico-morphological definition said sequence will depend on the specific
phase one takes the natural and organic product, the state of its complexity and the
elements necessary to achieve physical degree of departure from its predecessors.
principles retained; The methods and organizational
- detailed definition phase: describes the solutions developed in the technology and
interactions between component parts of the tehnical innovation unit to improve and
product and how to produce the parts. synchronize research, innovation and
In an ideal situation, each stage may be technology development processes have been
carried out as independent as possible of the shown success in the tehnical fields: products
next stage, in order to ensure the freedom of whose technology development capabilities
action in each level. have been properly organized achieve higher
In a newer edition of their book [3], growth, increased profitability and an
Pahl and Beitz, propose a more advanced enhanced competitive edge.
procedure, under which the development and Harnessing
design of technical systems and technical innovative
products consists of 5 phases: ideas for new
- clarifying and defining theme (design) technical
Market- Environ-
is proposing the product is - clear theme,
client product ment;
elaborate list of requirements, the result of this
phase is a list of requirements (design (socio- resource
specifications); economic The idea of protection
- development principle solution: require- new product /
determining the structure functions, ments) new product
identifying working principles and working development
structures, combining the choice of concepts. / Year
The result of this step is a solution in principle
Figura 1. Criteria for growth of innovative
(a concept);
development of a new product
- building structure development:
Identification and evaluation of
Preliminary form design, material selection
significant risks should be done with
and calculation, choosing preliminary
consideration of internal factors and external
configurations, refining and improving
factors.
configuration. The result of this phase is a
The innovation must be widely adopted
configuration or conformation (layout)
in order to self-sustain. When a technology
preliminary;
goes through a major transformation phase and
- finalizing the structure construction:
yields a successful innovation then it becomes
eliminating weaknesses, errors control for the
a great learning experience, not only for the
influence of disturbances and minimal costs,
parent industry but for other industries as well.
preparing preliminary list of parts and
Big innovations are generally the outcome of
production and assembly documents. Result
intra- and interdisciplinary networking among
phase: configuration (conformation) final;
technological sectors along with combination
- preparing documents for production
of implicit and explicit knowledge.
and exploitation: they develop detailed
Stages Activities

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

2. THE TEXT OF THE PAPER

- Fundamental - The idea and theme for a Production Market /

Research new product. Clarifying and Planning / Marketing
elucidating the basis. new Research /
- Industrial technical Finding
research - Development concepts, product / innovative
(applied) studies, methods, Marketing ideas
procedures, technical and
- Experimental economic analyzes, plans,
Development / diagrams, documents on
Technology products and technologies.
- Technology - Design, implementation,
Transfer testing prototype / prototype The idea of
product /
- Recovery plant pilot.Validation / pilot
Prototype /
plant.
results Industrial
Design /
- Advice and technical
Simulation
assistance. Development
documentation for technical
and economic analysis. Figure 3. - The flow of new technical
Dissemination of development new product
information.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
- Design number zero. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Preparation Manufacturing. The result of this stage is the idea of the
Implementation, testing and product, which is subject to the assessment
certificate number zero. process in order to develop new useful
Start manufacturing. 
products.

Figure 2. Steps and key activities capitalize The suggestions and information received
innovative new technical products. from market leading on the initiative of
The company acknowledges a problem, finding a new idea. The processes used in this
feedback from customer brings it useful study are more exploratory and less customer
suggestions on this basis are idendificate driven than the typical, tehnical innovation.
opportunities. Further, creative teams
intervene to support businesses in the process Utilization of tehnical innovation on a new
of identifying the idea. product will always be a high risk undertaking,
but much can be learned about effective new
product management from a review of the

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

experiences in past new product projects and ACKNOWLEDGMENT

in other companies.
This paper is supported by the Sectoral
The impetus for all the projects in this Operational Programme Human Resources
study comes from the convergence of Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
developing technologies, various contextual or European Social Fund and by the Romanian
environmental factors and a new product Government under the contract number
champion or visionary. POSDRU/ID134378.

The economic efficiency of investments

allocated technology international transfer is REFERENCES
dependent, first, the essential features of any
investment (profit, time, risk), plus specific 1 Constantin, R., Ioan, D., F., Anton, H.,
elements of the cross-border nature of Alexandru, M., Dan, C., B., Fundamentals of
international investment. management innovation and technological
transfer, Bucharest, 2012.
It is necessary to use efficiency indicators 2 Pahl, G., Beitz, W.,
to highlight all possible correlations. Konstruktionslehre, Springer Verlag, 1977.
Construction of indicators system requires 3 Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Engineering
careful work to identify and quantify all Design A Systematic Approach 3rd Ed.,
resources allocated or consumed and the types Springer-Verlag, London Limited 2007.
of effects generated. Translation from the German Language:
Konstruktionslehre, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2003.
4 Gerhard P., Konstruktionslehre.
Grundlagen erfolgreicher
Produktentwicklung. Methoden und
Anwendung. 7 Aufl., Springer, Berlin, 2007.

300
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MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS TO SUPPORT FLEXIBLE

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENT

Raluca NICOLAE (MANESCU), Anisor NEDELCU

Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, Manufacturing Engineering Department.

Abstract: Information and management concepts has focused on how available knowledge is exploited to
improve organizational performance especially in flexible manufacturing systems or activities. There is
limited information on how concepts acquired during flexible manufacturing systems development can be
utilized the product life cycle to provide decision support. Existing management systems knowledge do
not seem to provide information on well-known manufacturing constraints and product attributes
identified during product development. Some flexible manufacturing systems do not provide the means of
identify and utilise tacit knowledge which have a major impact on some flexible manufacturing systems
development process. An organized transfer of knowledge from previous systems will no doubt enhance
the management quality, efficiency, cost and time to market of new flexible manufacturing system in
economical field. The study shows that has developed a knowledge management framework to support
flexible manufacturing systems development in economic environment.

Keywords: Management concepts, Product development, Framework, flexible manufacturing system

1. INTRODUCTION enable the conversion of explicit to implicit

knowledge a process of internalisation.[1]
To improve an effective knowledge 2. ANALYSES
management of flexible manufacturing systems the Consequently knowledge and experiences
strategy is that realize the benefit in order to are sometimes poorly documented and therefore
support decision-making process and thereby are not available for reinstate in future projects. In
remain sustainable in economic field. figure 1 shows the concept of knowledge
Management concept has increasingly regarding flexible maufacturing system derived
become sought; however, many organisations are from theory, information and experience and,
still unable to develop and improve knowledge to which is important in nature and could be
enhance economic performance. described as successfully applied knowledge.
Knowledge is fragmented, sometimes When a company are checked flexible
difficult to locate and therefore to improve or to manufacturing systems are implemented available
share. There is a need therefore to develop decision information theory and applied knowledge
support systems to improve, store, share and experience so lead to a guaranteed success.
capture data, information and knowledge. Decision
support systems is enable the transformation of
tacit to implicit knowledge to be shared and
improved for decision making. They will also

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

ensure its use in existing and future flexible

manufacturing system.
Learning
4. Utilisation; how the knowledge
about identified, captured and formalised can be
manage- Wisdom  integrated into products and decisions, and
ment
concepts  
applied in other flexible manufacturing
system.[2]
Flexible
manufacturing
system and design
Mana- information.
gement
concepts Product Infor- Product
Informa- Expe-rience
tion about in economic disposal mation manu-
flexible field   informa- product facturing
manufactur
ing system 
tion. flexible informa-
manu- tion.
facturing
system.
Theory
regarding
quality
manage-
ment  Operation
information in
flexible
manufacturing
Figure 1. Knowledge derived from theory, system.
information and experience to develop
economic field. Figure 2 . Information and
When experimental data are classified knowledge framework in product life
as premium items, they are shaped so that they cycle
become available. In figure 2 shows the concepts about
When rules or heuristics are applied to information and knowledge management
information, knowledge is then created as framework for a flexible manufacturing
actionable information for producing some system life cycle by showing all the sources
benefit value. The knowledge that is created and information about the product can be
and shared amongst organisational members derived.
can be categorized into two typical forms of Each of the phases has data and
knowledge—tacit and explicit [1]. knowledge that describe the characteristics of
Knowledge in product development that stage in the product life cycle.
environment is considered to consist of four Such information are useful to the
activities.[1] product and manufacture flexible
1. Identification; the identification of manufacturing system and also to the customer
knowledge required to develop new flexible who would need a full understanding of
manufacturing systems, including product product attributes to enable optimal design,
specifications, process, tooling and material manufacture and guaranteed production
capabilities. performance.
2. Capture; how the knowledge is Also an flexible manufacturing system
captured stored and retrieved. would be made aware of all relevant
3. Formalise and present; how information including data on product
knowledge can be formalized and presented to functionality, durability, efficiency, energy

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
requirement, while the industries will product to understand which elements of the
specification and requirements, mode of organisation’s processes affects its ability to
operation, value added, cost price, delivery acquire, create and apply knowledge.[3]
due date, maintenance requirements. The sales Knowledge helps to achieve improved
department working in collaboration with the business performance through product and
design and production department will also process, and in this sense knowledge can be
establish that they can deliver what has been classified not only from the knowledge type
promised to the institution within the due date. (tacit and explicit) but also from the
This will involve material requirement knowledge domain (product related and
planning, supplier management, production process related) [4].
scheduling and planning, outsourcing Using this definition, knowledge has
requirement, quality assurance. An order is four classifications:
confirmed only when there is an contract - Tacit-product related; know-how
established between customer and the (human brain)
enterprise. - Tacit-process related; human
All the product information or capability (human brain and culture),
discerned elements, are patterned in a certain - Explicit-product related; knowledge
way, that data is transformed into information. base (knowledge repository),
As rules or heuristics are applied to product, - Explicit-process related; workflow
knowledge is then created as actionable (workflow system).
information for producing some benefit value. Data
All the process involves the
identification, capture, formalisation and
presentation of knowledge and its utilization,
support effective decision making within a
flexible manufacturing system and product
development environment. Information
Extraordinarily, however, the
development of project to support flexible
manufacturing system, has barely intersected
with studies on commercial new product Knowledge
development, which consider the comparable
problem of achieving efficiency whilst
attaining consumer satisfaction.
Engineers engaging in new product
development bring to their work the formal
and articulated expertise of their disciplines
Formalise knowledge in
that have been socially constructed through
time by particular professional or academic order to utilize in future
communities. [3] Mohrman et al., explains that flexible manufacturing
an organisation striving to derive competitive system development.
advantage from knowledge management needs Figure 3. Formalise interactions

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3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In this paper has developed a knowledge- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
based management in flexible manufacturing This paper is supported by the Sectoral
system that adapts knowledge management Operational Programme Human Resources
concepts into product development where the Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
major objectives were to provide decision European Social Fund and by the Romanian
support to help economic field, according the Government under the contract number
utilisation of best-know knowledge, minimise POSDRU/ID134378.
costs, achieve quality assurance and shorten
time to product. Product development REFERENCES
activities must be structured in such a way that
any engineering decisions taken are based on 1 Chike, F., O., Alan, H., Knowledge
proven knowledge and experience. Any failure management to support product development
to apply knowledge and experience could in cold roll-forming environment, 2011.
result in product and process redesign, which 2 Polanyi, M., The tacit dimension.
would be seen as non-value process and waste Routledge and Kegan Paul, London , 1996.
of valuable resource. There is a need for a 3 Mohrman, SA., Finegold, D.,
knowledge-based framework to support Mohrman, AM., An empirical model of the
flexible manufacturing system development, organization knowledge system in new product
which includes a knowledge-based system development firms. J Eng Technol. Manag
developed from an organisation’s knowledge 20(1–2):7–38, 2003.
and past experience captured in a database. 4 Ahna, JH., Chang, SG., Assessing the
This process involves the identification, contribution of knowledge to business
capture, formalisation and presentation of performance: the KP3 methodology. Decis
knowledge and its utilisation to support Support Syst 36(2004):403–4162007, 2004.
effective decision making within a product
development environment.
 

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QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPLIED THROUGH QFD METHOD

Ramona PAKOCS

Romania, Transylvania University of Brasov, Engineering and Management Department,

ramona.pakocs@unitbv.ro

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is based on the analysis between the interests of the company and
customers’ requirements achieved by using QFD method.
I have started with a few notions related to the method in order to understand exactly how it applies
continuing with a brief overview of the company, and finally the proper analysis and conclusions about
this.

Keywords: quality, improvement, performance, product, control.

1. INTRODUCTION The objective is to achieve a design

quality of an excellence product / service by
This study represents a national and transforming customer’s needs into quality of
international concern about quality product characteristics, without omissions or
management for companies. For this, an unnecessary items. [1]
analysis was made using the QFD method for The QFD method is based on the
the company S.C. BETA S.R.L., where the House of Quality a set of matrices used to
following six basic steps were emphasized: link the voice of the customer and technical
identifying customer’s needs, identifying requirements of a product, process control
technical needs, the relationship between plans and manufacturing operations. [3]
customer’s needs and technical needs,
competitive assessment and sales key points, 3. CASE STUDY USING QFD METHOD
assessment of the technical needs of AT S.C. BETA S.R.L.
competing product and services, setting targets
and selecting the technical needs that are to be SC. BETA SRL., is a Romanian
modified in the process. company, having the legal form of a limited
liability company.
2. QFD METHODOLOGY The main activity of the company is
providing translation and interpretation
QFD concept is a methodology for services from and into any language, under the
systematizing the information obtained from best conditions.
the user in order to get / to define the The company works both locally and
characteristics of the product / service, market nationally, based on cooperation agreements
adaptation. with other leading companies in the same
QFD objectives provide information on industry. The need for concluding such
aspects of the product / improvement service. agreements with other companies in the same
field comes due to the fact that in Braşov there

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are no authorized translators for strange Map of processes at S.C. BETA S.R.L.
languages (Flemish, Japanese, Arabic,
Swedish, etc..).
The company’s activity is of about 3000 pages
translated per month, and references from our
customers from various areas including ANALYSIS AND
national and international companies represent IMPROVEMENT
the company’s business card.

3.1. The current situation of S.C. BETA

S.R.L.
Establish Providing
the policy resources
Currently the company does not have and SMC and
documents showing irregularities concerning objectives planning organization
deadlines. [2]
Reasons for non compliance with deadlines are
related to the following aspects:
- large volume of work;
- incorrect communication of the real
time to the customer; Figure 1. Management processes
- stress at work;
- emergencies.

The aim of the process is to avoid

delaying the works from the time agreed with Relatio Provi Servi Tracking
the client. nship ding ces customer
with servic after satisfactio
Strengths that the company owns are: custom es delive
ers ry Complain
- Provides application of the Hague ts
Apostille; handling
- The company collaborates with
national translators for translating
documents into strange languages
(Chinese, Arabic, Swedish, etc.). Figure 2. Processes of value creation
- Tutoring at reasonable prices;
- Emergencies are not a problem;
- No work is refused.
Domestic
suppliers
Weaknesses of the company:
 
- disagreements between the time set for
making the work and their delivery SUPPLY
time;
- duties from the job description do not External
always correspond to the tasks that suppliers
employees have;
- some complaints about quality.

3.2. Process mapping for S.C. BETA

S.R.L.
Analysis and improvement Figure. 3. Support processes

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Process sheet at S.C. BETA S.R.L. - Delays;
- Economic indicators.
Service name: performing services.
Relationship with customers
SERVICE INPUTS ACTIVITY OUTPUTS
- Taking - Deliveri Customer orientation is an important point
Marketing
study; orders ng for the success and for maintaining S.C. BETA
(works) works; S.R.L. on the market.
- Rebates;
from - Promoti The company focuses on customers
Translations -Offers for customer; on;
customers; orientation, identification and analysis of their
- Translatin - Participa
g works; tion to needs, transposed in products and services on
- Correctio national the progress of the interaction with customers,
n; fairs. with the aim of developing and maintaining
- Deliverin long-term and economically advantageous
g works; relationships.
-Offers to - Made by Addressing This procedure aims to highlight the
existing telephone, at customer
relationship with customers, customer’s
customers the request requiremen
and of customers; ts by the requirements definition, broadening the
potential - Choosing company. portfolio of customers, customer satisfaction,
Interpretations customers. the translator efficient document translation process, feed-
for the back from customers.
required In translation department work translators
language; who translate documents by taking into
- Documents consideration the deadline and quality of work.
are
interpreted;
In customer department, the company’s PR
- Payment is
responsible has the following responsibilities:
made by the taking orders, recording and distributing
customer. documents to translators, respecting deadline
-Through Individually/ -Certificate
of works, cash responsible, complaints
Tutoring advertisin in groups; of handling.
g. -At the office linguistic In management department duties
or address of competence correspond to the general manager who has to
the customer. role of organizing business activities through
regulations and internal order, establishing
company strategies aimed to proper
Table 1. Process sheet at S.C. BETA functioning of the company.
S.R.L. In order to make translations, translators
must be registered on the website of the
Responsible person: the secretary-PR Ministry of Justice; this gives them the right to
Performance Indicators: make translations on their own name being
- Customer’s satisfaction; responsible for each document translated.
- Number of complaints;

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

The company operates by internal Proper analysis:

regulations that are set by the manager of the
company; they all aim proper function within The analysis begins by studying the
the company. [2] process - customer relationship.
These regulations contain information on Currently the company does not have
how the documents should be saved, time, documents showing irregularities concerning
quality of works, tasks that each employee has. time-limits.
Order note is a reference document that is Reasons for not complying with deadlines
prepared for a specific number of pages (over are related to following aspects:
100 pages) and contains translation company • The big volume of work;
data and customer data, term, number of pages • Incorrect communication of the
and language it must be translated into. This real time to the customer;
document represents an additional certainty • Stress at work;
regarding the order. • Emergencies.

Workflow consists of: All these irregularities are due to company

policy "no work is refused, emergencies are
• Identification; not a problem." Responsible for all these is the
• Translation; general manager.
• Requirements definition; The aim is to avoid delaying the works as
• Drafting contracts; regards the time agreed with the customer. For
• Settlement; this it was proposed to apply the method
• Satisfaction assessment. "Deming’s Wheel" as follows:

Registrations

• Registration / update of customer 1. PLAN 2. DO

database;
• Registration of accounting documents;
• Registration of customer requirements;
3. ACT 4.CHECK
• Registration of order notes.

Deviations

The main deviation in this company is the

lack of effective communication. The message Figure. 4. Improvement - Deming's wheel
is often distorted due to the fact that messages method [4]
are not transmitted properly.
1. PLAN 2. DO
Improving product performance process
• Respect the • Interior
Process subject to improvement is the time allocated regulations
process of time achievement so as to meet the to each on
department; departments
deadlines set by the order.
• Consider a
We want to improve this process because higher period • Incentives/
we don’t want disagreements between the time of time for the penalties;
set for carrying out the works and the delivery works that are
time. It often happens to fail to comply with not "urgent";
the time set because of the large volume of • "Emergencies"
remain a
work, the emergencies that have priority and priority;
wrong estimation of the execution time. • Record orders
in the database;

308
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After applying this method significant
3. ACT 4. CHECK improvements resulted on how to perform
works and timely completion. Streamlining
• Application of • Evaluation this process entailed not only an ease of
internal order of actual process, but also a better relationship between
regulations on results; employees and the company thus leading to
Departments. satisfying customer needs.
• Comparing
9 Incentives: these results
Quality assessment by using the EFQM
with the
targets set system of S.C. BETA S.R.L.
• Bonus by the in previous
end of the planning. Orientation to employees
month;
The company puts forward the employees’
• Team-building; potential through the experience gained in the
field, studies and documents that certify their
• Flexible
schedule. training.

Issues examined:
9 Punishment:
the way human resources are
planned and improved;
• Overtime;
the way employees’ skills are
• Not giving any developed;
incentive; the way employees are involved
in setting goals and evaluating
• Compliance results;
with the time
allocated to
the way employees are involved in
each improvement actions;
department; the way they deal with safety and
health at work.
• Record orders
in the database; In order to relax and develop relationships
• "Emergencies"
between employees, the company organizes
remained a monthly team-building and different events.
priority.
Next we made QFD matrix that
highlights the correspondence between
customer requirements and business
Table 2. Improvement through the method interests:
of Deming’s Wheel - details

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

Marking way as regards the analysis for the

4 4 company S.C. BETA S.R.L.:
▲ ▲ CS
♣ - very important 1♣ = 5 p
3 ♦ - important 1♦=4p
▲ MC
♥ - less important 1♥ = 3 p
4 4 ♠ - not important 1♠=1p
▲ ▲ SC
Marking way in the analysis for the
competing company S.C. ALFA S.R.L.
C
1 ▲ = less important
3 2…
▲ EN
3…
3 4 4 ▲ = very important
▲ ▲ IMS

3 3. CONCLUSIONS
▲ IIT

Following the analysis made using QFD, a

IMPROVING
correlation has been achieved, between
Company customer requirements and business interests.
interests From QFD matrix we have found that the
CS MC SC C EN IMS IIT
Requirements most important criteria for the company S.C
♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ BETA S.R.L. are customer satisfaction and
LP ♥ ♥ ♥ maintaining it. Competitor, S.C. ALFA S.R.L.,
besides customer satisfaction focuses on
♣ ♣ ♦ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣
Q broadening the database (signing agreements).
The company wants to improve the criteria
♣ ♦ ♥ ♣ ♣ ♦ ♠
STW listed in the table in order to be able to achieve
its objectives on everything related to service
P ♦ ♥ ♥ ♦ ♠ ♠ ♠ quality, improving customer relationships and
possible national expansion.
MPC ♥ ♥ ♠ ♠ ♣ ♥ ♠
REFERENCES
PC ♦ ♥ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♣ ♠
1. Ciurea, Sorin; Nicolae, Dragulanescu,
TOTAL
26 23 17 19 20 21 14 (1995), Total Quality Management,
Economica Publishing House, Brasov,
Romania.
Table 3. QFD matrix- Correspondence 2. Company data S.C. BETA S.R.L.
between customer requirements and business 3. Deaconescu, Tudor. (1998), Fundamentals
interests of engineering quality, Transilvania eds.,
Were: Brasov, Romania.
CS - customer satisfaction; 4.Popescu, Maria. (2011), Quality
MC - maintain clients; Management, Transilvania eds., Brasov,
SC - signing contracts; Romania.
C - complaints;
EN - expanding nationally; ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IMS - increasing market share;
IIT - increase in turnover; This paper is supported by the Sectoral
LP - low prices; Operational Programme Human Resources
Q - quality; Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
STW - Short- time working; European Social Fund and by the Romanian
P - privacy; Government under the contract number
MPC - market position of the company; POSDRU, ID 134378.
PC - prestige company.

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RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK TYPE ANALYSIS SPECIFIC TO

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN INDUSTRIAL PROFILE COMPANIES
Ramona PAKOCS, Nouraş Barbu LUPULESCU

Romania, Transylvania University of Brasov, Engineering and Management Department,

ramona.pakocs@unitbv.ro
nouras@unitbv.ro

Abstract: Before being marketed, any product has been conceived, designed, manufactured, based on
schemes, drawings protected against internal and external theft of intellectual copyright or by documents
/ certificates / patents. After being marketed, the product becomes the source for copying, denigration etc.
All these actions are risk sources. Risk management helps us identify, analyze and treat the specific risks
of intellectual property. To overcome these specific risks of intellectual property it is necessary and
obligatory to make an analysis of the types of risks within industrial profile companies in order to
minimize the possible disastrous effects in research and production activities.

Keywords: creation, product risk, protection, analysis, identification, minimization.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK

ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC TYPES OF
In accordance with ISO / IEC Guide INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RISKS
73:2002, risk can be defined as the
combination of the probability of an event to 2.1. Risk management
happen and its consequences. [3]
In the industrial profile companies in all In the general context of management,
types of activities, there are events and knowledge, risk management is the systematic
consequences that could generate opportunities approach to risk within an organization,
for gain or threats leading to loss. understanding by organization the broad sense
Although in most cases are taken into of the term as defined by international
account only the negative consequences of standards in quality. Considering, however, the
risk, risk management includes both positive management as an "art" when the risk
and negative aspects of risk, and methods of management can be defined as "Art of
prevention and reduction of its effects. keeping uncertainty under control." [1]
Adverse effects of the different types of Risk management is a key component of
intellectual property risks in the industrial strategic management of any organization,
profile companies can be disastrous, but the ensuring effective management of potential
application of an efficient risk management, opportunities and adverse effects of different
aims to identifying factors that could affect the types of risks.
proper functioning of the organization. By risk management process the
organization consistently applies policies,

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

procedures and practices for the identification, 2.2. Analysis of the specific risk of
analysis and treatment of risk. [2] intellectual property
In the category of intellectual property
risks, internal / external risk factors that can From studying the sources of risk in the
act are mainly represented by: strategy of industrial profile companies,
intellectual property they be divided into the
- failure to supervise the market, (A) following important types of risk:
- cession, licensing contracts and, in
general, transfer of rights agreements, ¾ Risks of conception / creation;
and contracts with employees wrongly ¾ Specific assumed IP production
drawn or negotiated, (B) risks;
- unfair competition acts from the ¾ Marketing risks;
company towards the competing ¾ Management risks;
market or from competing market ¾ Social risks. [2]
towards the company, (C)
- undervaluation or overvaluation of In industrial engineering we can express
negotiable intangible assets that can each risk by the following formulas:
lead to large losses in either the
percentage of participation in the joint
venture contracts or the failure to sign R=PxC (1)
them (D)
- infringement (piracy) of copyright by
the company against competing market Or
either by representatives or individuals
from competing market towards the
company, (E) R=FxC (2)
- counterfeit of trademark or products /
services, (F) Where:
- counterfeit of patented inventions, (G)
- counterfeit of industrial design, etc., P – Is the probability of a negative event to
(H) as follows in Figure 1: happen.

C - Is the consequence of occurrence of

that event.

H F - Is the frequency with which the event

A can happen.
B
G RISK FACTORS  Both relations are equivalent and will be
OF IP 
expressed by value units divided by time units:
USD / year USD / month etc.
F C Risk management at the company level is
E D designed to identify potential events that may
affect the organization.
Risk management process in the company
consists in seven related components that are
integrated into the general management of the
organization and are represented in the
Figure 1. Risk Factors of IP following diagram: [1]

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Setting
state companies, but avoided for unknown
Goals  reasons. [2]

Risk
Information and
Communication

identificatio
Monitoring 
Risk
assessment 

Risk
response 

Control of
activities

Figure 2. Risk management process at the

company level

To demonstrate the need to implement a

management strategy for the prevention of risk
in intellectual property, we will analyze a case Figure 3. Hydraulic clutch subject of
study on the risks of conception / creation. patent no. 79 533 - Hydraulic control block
For reasons of confidentiality the company
was named S.C. ALFA S.A., then changing its It was analyzed step by step the protection
name to S.C. BETA S.A. evolution of the invention subject, and the
transition from paid protection under special
2.3. Case study on the analysis of law to unpaid protection as a result of the
conception / creation risk and non- general law, as it follows:
contractual abuse at S.C. ALFA S.A.
• 18.06.1956 – Decree no. 321 on
copyright
This case study approaches the
development and extent of the rights on the • 30.10.1974 – Law No. 62 on
scientific engineering work on the route inventions and innovations
"project - patented invention - technical work"
as a result of revocation of a patented
invention. PERIOD OF PAID
Analysis of the case study is made based PROTECTION
on the expertise in industrial property, namely
on the patent no. 79533 of 26.04.1982 -
Hydraulic control block (Figure 3), Holder: 21.09.1981 – Beginning of the protection
the company S.C. ALFA S.A. and provides period regarding the patent no. 79533. Filing
solutions that can be applied within large date of the patent.
companies in machinery industry, formerly

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

• 01.04.1983–The period covered by Between 01.04.1983 - 2002, the invention

the lawsuit no. 8/1995 is applied by S.C. ALFA S.A., either as
general assembly (Figure 4) or as spare parts.

• 31.03.1987- at this time there is no

one agreement on the payment way.

PERIOD OF UNPAID
PROTECTION

• 21.09.1988 - The final date the

invention object was protected by
Patent under Law no. 62/74.
• 22.09.1988 -The date the invention
object was not longer protected by Figure 4. Three of ALFA’s lathes patented
law no. 62/74 on inventions and under no. 79533 of 26.4.1982 - Hydraulic
innovations. control block.
From 31.03.1987, S.C. ALFA S.A., now,
Neither the provision imposed by law no.
S.C. BETA S.A. has not paid taxes to OSIM
64/91 on invention patent, on partly of totally
the invention being cancelled.
unpaid rewards. Revocation is due to non-
S.C. BETA S.A. did not announce
payment of fees for maintenance in force.
inventors that it was no longer interested in
Inventors were not announced. Revocation is
paying annual taxes for maintaining invention
enforced.
protection. From this time there is no
agreement on payment.
21.01.1992 - Entry into force of the
However S.C. BETA S.A. continues to
Law no. 64/1991 on patents. Repeal
apply the former invention. Financial rights of
of Law no. 62/1974 on inventions
inventors have NOT been negotiated between
and innovations.
the inventor and the unit that applied the
invention. The unit had to notify because,
24.06.1996 - Entry into force of the
according to Article 41/L64-91 “The holder
Law no. 8/March 14, 1996 on
may waive, in whole or in part, the patent,
Copyright and Related Rights
based on a written statement filed with the
(promulgated on 21/09/1996. Entry
State Office for Inventions and Trademarks. In
into force was made 90 days after
case of inventions referred to in art. 5
its publication in the Official
paragraph 1 a) and paragraph 2 and the
Gazette. No. 60 on March 26,
inventions assigned according to art. 5
1996). Repeal Decree no. 321/56 on
paragraph 1 b) the patent holder is obliged to
copyright.
notify the inventor about his waiver intention,
upon the request of the inventor; the holder is
On 09.21.1981 the company ALFA S.A.
required to transfer his patent rights."
requires OSIM urgent patenting of an
Therefore, it is an illegal usage.
invention that the authors, two engineers had
S.C. BETA S.A. stood on the provision
designed and then assigned under law No. 62
of art. 41/L64-91 "Invention or part thereof,
of 1974 on inventions and innovations. Under
whose protection was waived, can be freely
the law, it was assigned the patent, not the
exploited by third parties." But prevalence
right to use the object of the patent.
was made illegal because it cannot be taken
Until 01/04/1983, inventors are paid
from the context of the whole article 41.
according to the law in force then.
Without settling accounts with inventors,
fraudulently applying Part 4 of art. 41/L.64-91,

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S.C. BETA S.A. still applies the technical 7. As long as the scientific work has the
work, former invention. As a result, the character of an invention, it is not protected by
inventors summon to court S.C. BETA S.A., Law no. 8/1996, only by Law no. 64/91. When
this time for failure to comply with the the novelty feature disappears, the scientific
Supreme Court decision to stop producing the work will be protected under Law no. 8/1996.
invention object, and for additional damage. 8. If the holder is no longer interested in
For this second period S.C. BETA S.A. has applying the invention, he must notify both the
not concluded a license agreement or inventor to take it and OSIM. Exploitation of
assignment with the holders of the rights. an invention in case of article 5, b) / L.64-91
Defendant’s lawyers invoked the statute of without a contract is a counterfeit.
limitations, according to Decree no. 167/58,
[*** 58] recognizing that there is a right to REFERENCES
claim, but just to show that it is prescribed.
1. Bârsan- Pipu, N., Popescu I., Risk
3. CONCLUSIONS Management.Concepts.Methods. Applications.
Braşov: "Transilvania" Publishing House
The most important aspects and conclusions (2003).
analyzed are: 2. Fântână, R.S., Research on integrated
1. A first issue concerns the validity of the quality - risk management of technical -
patent and, related to this, to whom belongs economic intellectual property, PhD Thesis,
the duty to inform on the progress of the "Transilvania" University. Brasov Faculty of
invention, and thus of the operation as a result Technological Engineering (2008).
of the holder’s payment obligation to the 3. Patriche C. F., Research on integrated
inventor under the contract, the legal quality – risk management in technical and
provisions related to the monies dues, and the economic restructuring of companies, PhD
transfer of the right over the patent from Thesis, "Transilvania" University of Brasov,
holder to the inventor. Brasov (2007).
2. A second issue relates to the forfeiture of 4. Law no. 64 from October 11, 1991
holder’s rights due to non-payment of annual (*(republished) *) on patents *) ISSUER:
fees to maintain the patent in force PARLIAMENT; Published in Official Gazette
3. A third issue is that the author of the work no. 541 of August 8, 2007.
enjoys rights throughout his life.
4. A fourth issue related to this case is the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
exclusive right of exploitation of the patent
and work. This paper is supported by the Sectoral
5. The author has the right to patrimonial Operational Programme Human Resources
repair in case of using his work without right. Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
6. Sixthly, copyright is exercised over European Social Fund and by the Romanian
scientific works: plans, drawings, i.e. projects Government under the contract number
and scientific documentation. The employed POSDRU, ID 134378.
author of a work is the owner of his creation
and has the exclusive right to exploit it.

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ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment

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INVESTIGATION OF SWEEP APPLIED TO ROTATING AXIAL

CASCADES AND NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF FLOW

Irina Carmen ANDREI

"Elie Carafoli" National Institute for Aerospace Research   – INCAS, Bucharest, Romania 

Abstract: This paper presents an original approach regarding the application of sweep to rotating blade
cascades. The justification for swept blades is given by its consequence, i.e. a reduction of local velocity
(usually from supersonic/ transonic to subsonic regimes) such that the losses due to shock waves and/or
boundary layer displacement and/or followed by reattachment are minimized. As study cases were
considered a cascade blade, as well as forward and backward sweep of span-wise cross sections. The
RANS model was used to describe the flow and a comparative study was conducted by using four
turbulence models, i.e. Spalart-Allmaras, k-ε, k-ω and Reynolds Stress RST models. The CFD analysis
was done with the FLUENT solver, with the settings for 2D case, implicit equations and double precision.
The convergence was monitored such that the residuals should be minimized. The results of the numerical
simulations of the flow are expressed as the distributions of Mach number (in relative flow, since it is a
rotational frame), static pressure, static temperature and entropy, which have been presented
comparatively, for each turbulence model and sweep study case, corresponding to the design rotational
speed of 275 [m/s].

Keywords: aerodynamics, rotating axial blade cascades, sweep, numerical simulation, CFD analysis.
MSC2010: _________

1. INTRODUCTION boundary  layer  separation  and/  or  re‐

attachment.  
The  design  of  the  modern  aircraft  On  the  other  hand,  high  blade 
engines  is  targeted  to  the  achievement  of  loading  enables  a  more  compact 
new  standards  for  performance  and  construction  of  compressors  and  fan,  and 
reliability,  as  well  as  the  satisfying  of  the  therefore  weight  reduction;  nevertheless, 
environmental  friendly  demands,  i.e.  tough  the higher the blade loading, the higher the 
limits for aircraft noise and emissions level.   rotational  speed  and  the  velocities  at  tip 
Among  the  assets  of  the  propulsion  blade. The sound level of the jet engines can 
technology  that  produce  a  quieter  engine  be reduced by the new design of the larger 
are  the  advanced  aerodynamics  together  fan  blades;  as  larger  fans  turn  slower  than 
with composite fans. High speed flow at tip  the  smaller  ones,  then  the  velocity  of  air  is 
blade,  in  particular  for  large  diameter  fans,  reduced and therefore the noise is lowered. 
is  responsible  for  noise  and  blade  loss  But larger fans involve larger diameters and 
induced  by  the  occurrence  of  shock  waves,  the velocity at blade tip can be transonic up 

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

to  supersonic  unless  the  rotational  speed  stall), with the decay of the flow coefficient 

diminishes.   at  off‐design  regimes,  the  tip  blade  area 
The  engine  thrust  can  be  increased  (wherein  the  boundary  layer  has  been 
with larger  compressor  pressure ratios and  detached)  becomes  larger.  The  use  of  3D 
more stages.   stacking  has  been  the  source  of  a  large 
By  the  design  of  highly  loaded  number  of  experimental  and  numerical 
cascades,  the  number  of  the  compressor  investigations  over  recent  years,  and 
stages  is  reduced,  as  well  as  the  parts  consequently it came up the need to define 
weight.  The  fewer  the  compressor  stages,  carefully  the  conventions.  Considering  an 
then  fewer  parts  and  fewer  costs.  On  the  axis  placed  on  the  LE/  TE  lines,  Zero‐lift 
other hand, by lowering the flow velocity at  airfoil  axis  or  any  other  particular  shape 
tip  blade  from  supersonic  to  transonic  and  airfoil  movement,  can  generate  the  3D 
and/or  subsonic,  blade  loss  due  to  shock  stacking.  In  Fig.  1  are  explained  the  sweep 
waves,  boundary  layer  separation  and  /or  and dihedral movements.  
re‐attachment can be significantly reduced.   Both  the  dihedral  &  sweep  have  been 
Therefore,  the  use  of  sweep  to  the  introduced and used for the rotor 3D blade 
design  of  blades  for  the  axial  flow  design  into  the  core  compressors  for  the 
compressor  and  fan  is  advantageous  for  Rolls‐Royce  Trent  family  engines  and  Joint 
reducing  noise  level  and  blade  loss,  and  Engine  Alliance  of  the  GE  &  PW  for  the 
hence  performance  improvement  via  GP7000 series. 
optimized construction.   According to Gallimore [9-10],
Neubert and Weingold [13], Golub, Rawls and
2. BASICS OF BLADE STACKING Russell [11], theory would suggest that the
reduction in shock losses would be achieved
2.1 Justification for th e use of sweep to by either positive or negative sweep, but tests
transonic cascades of various transonic rotors demonstrate the
Blade sweep has been used in transonic advantage of positive sweep in achieving both
compressor design with the intent of reducing improved efficiency and flow range.
shock losses, analogous to the use of swept
wings in external aerodynamic applications.
Under certain circumstances it is beneficial to
align the blade leading and/or trailing edges
LE/ TE more closely with the local flow
direction. Sweep and dihedral define the
stacking line modifications (which are also
referred as 3D stacking, [5]) do change the (a)- sweep (b)- dihedral
blade surface, such that the blade edges are Fig. 1- Basic stacking line modifications, [5]
aligned more closely to the local direction of
Near the hub the positive sweep
flow. The 3D stacking is important for both 
reduces the region of low axial velocity
technology  manufacturing  reasons  (with 
towards the TE while the negative sweep
regard to the flow of mechanical operations 
causes a separation to occur. The positive
that  allows  to  obtaining  the  blade  surface) 
sweep near the hub moves the front part of the
and functional, since it influences the multi 
suction surface into a higher-pressure region,
staged  axial  flow  compressor’s  cascades  which reduces the effective incidence and peak
through flow pattern, within blade tip areas  velocity along the airfoil chord at the expense
and at off‐design regimes in a higher extent.  of increasing the blade force near the trailing
From CFD and experiment has been shown  edge. A similar trend is observed near the rotor
that the movement of the boundary layer at  tip while the opposite trend is observed at mid-
blade  tip  has  a  large  influence  upon  the  height. Positively swept end-wall sections
rotor  flow  pattern.  For  instance,  no  matter  increase the leading edge blade force and
that at the design regime the reverse flow is  reduce the trailing edge blade force near mid-
absent  (i.e.  the  design  regime  free  of  local 

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height. The negative sweep leads to the
creating of favorable conditions for boundary
layer separation. The positive dihedral reduces
the hub corner and tip clearance losses, leading
to a fuller velocity profile near the end-walls,
but at the expense of increasing the losses near
the mid-height region. The use of positive (a)- forward sweep (b)- backward sweep
dihedral has been calculated to be beneficial
for both fixed and free ends of blades. It
provides a method of introducing a rapid
reduction in blade force local to the end-walls
and alleviates high suction surface
deceleration rates in these regions at the
(c)- combination of (d)- combination of
expense of increased blade force at mid-span.
FWD & BCK sweep FWD & BCK sweep
Fig. 2- Constructions of swept blades, [1]
2.2 Sw ept blade constructions and study
cases Note that the solutions obtained by the author
after applng various sweep angles at different
Blade loss and noise level are blade span-wise cross sections, are very
significantly lowered by using the airfoil similar with actual fan blade constructions;
sweep into 3D line stacking, since the velocity e.g. fig. 2-c is likewise the fan blade of the GE
at tip blade is reduced, which means Unducted Fan UDF engine, and fig. 2-d
construction optimization for performance features the fan blades of the PW&GE
improvement. GP7200, GEnX and RR Trent 1000 engines.
With respect to the aircraft’s flight The span-wise distributions of the sweep angle
direction and the air velocity at inlet, the for each case are listed in Table 1.
sweep movements are Forward FWD Sweep
(i.e. positive sweep) and Backward BCK Table 1 Values of the sweep angle
Sweep (i.e. negative sweep), as indicated in Blade B M
BM MV V
fig. 1. With referrence to the axial flow cross Bot- Mid-
Top
compressor blade, there are 5 significant blade section tom span
spanwise sections, equally distanced located, Case #1 0 5 7 5 0
as follows: blade hub B, midspan M, blade tip Case #2 0 -5 -7 -5 0
V, and BM – at bottom half midspan, MV – at Case #3 0 5 2 -7 -18
top half midspan. Constructions of positive Case #4 0 6 3 -6 -3
and negative swept blades with respect to the
study case rotor blade and swept rotor blade 3. MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT
are compared in fig. 2.
3.1 Flow model

The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes RANS

equations system (1) has been used for
modeling the main flow.

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 U
 t  F  Q 3.2 Turbulence models

 (1)
 T In purpose of closing the equations
 t  G  S system, one has to include a turbulence model

also; for a thorough analysis, there have been
The vectors U (2) and T (3) contain the
considered four turbulence models: Spalart-
conservative variables:
Allmaras, , and RST model.
 
U   V  (2) 4. NUMERICAL RESULTS
 E 
The  turbulent  kynetic  energy  k   and  the  In this paper a 2D study has been carried out;
turbulent dissipation    define the vector T.  there has been considered the reference blade
[1], defined by NACA 65(20)10 airfoils,
 k 
T   (3) customized blade span-wisely for the specific
   conditions of a rotating cascade.
The flux vector F (4):
 V 
F   V  V  pI   t 
 (4)
 HV    t   T   V 
(a)- no sweep effect
The source vector Q (5):
 0 
Q   f  (5)
 fV  qv  (b)- forward sweep (c)- backward sweep
Fig. 3 Computational grid
The source term S (6):
S  The airfoil at mid-span has been considered
S   k (6) for the 2D study, as well as the boundary
 S  conditions and other limitations due to the
The viscous flux G (7): neighboring cascades and the given geometry
  t   of a multi-staged axial-compressor, [1].
 kV     k 
There have been computed the solutions (i.e.
  k 
G  (7) the flow parameters) of the RANS model in
  t  
 k     k  association with the turbulence models, for the
   k   mid-span airfoil, without sweep effect (fig. 3-
a) and with forward sweep (fig. 3-b) and
The  RANS  model,  unllike  the  Navier‐Stokes  backward sweep (fig. 3-c) respectively. The
model, contains within the expression of the  convergence of the solutions has been
flux F (4) the tensor of the total stresses   t   monitored for different values of the rotational
(8) and the effective viscosity  ef  (9), which  speed, i.e. 0, 100, 200 and 275 [m/s].
replaces the molecular viscosity   . 
2
 t  2  t d    t VI (8)
3
ef    t (9) (a)- Spalart-Allmaras (b)-
More details about the RANS model
and CFD techniques are provided in the papers
of Fletcher [3], Chung [4], Hirsch [5],
Berbente [6] and others [7, 8]. (c)- (d)- RST
Fig. 4 Mach number of the relative flow,

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/ Spalart-Allmaras, , and RST / Spalart-Allmaras, , and RST
turbulence models/ no sweep effects turbulence models/ no sweep effects

(a)- Spalart-Allmaras (b)- (a)- Spalart-Allmaras (b)-

(c)- (d)- RST (c)- (d)- RST

Fig. 5 Entropy distributions, Fig. 7 Temperature distributions,
/ Spalart-Allmaras, , and RST / Spalart-Allmaras, , and RST
turbulence models/ no sweep effects turbulence models/ no sweep effects
For the study case, the results obtained by
As one can notice from figs. 4-7, the numerical
using the Spalart-Allmaras SA turbulence
results and the computational accuracy are
model are in accordance with experimental
influenced in greater extent by the turbulence
data; the highest percent of recommendations
model. For the cascades of multistage
that can be found in literature [14-32] points
turbomachinery, the Spalart-Allmaras model it
out that for the flow in (axial) cascades the
is convenient to use due to its fast convergence
Spalart-Allmaras model is the best option to
velocity and it is simpler, since it is described
describe the turbulence.
by one equation. The turbulence model
is rather suited to capture wall-effects, while Table 2 – The number of iterations necessary
for the main flow the other models are more for obtaining the convergence
accurate. The more equations used to describe Turbu- Number of iterations
the turbulence model, the greater the number lence Forward Backward
of iterations to achieve a convenient No-sweep
model sweep sweep
computational accuracy. S-A 3160 2781 4072
2923 2348 4255
5115 5172 4020
RST 3308 2339 4972

(a)- Spalart-Allmaras (b)- In the following, there are highlighted

the effects of both forward and backward
sweep of the study case airfoil; a thorough
computational analysis was performed, after
considering four turbulence models.
(c)- (d)- RST
Fig. 6 Pressure distributions,

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The results depicted in figs. 8-11 refer The author develops an original
to the computations carried on with the approach with regard to the obtaining of swept
Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model. blade constructions, as derivatives of a basic
cascade blade configuration.
As study cases were considered
cascade blades, with forward and backward
sweep versus no-sweep configurations.
(a)- no sweep effect The RANS model was used to describe
the flow and a comparative study was
conducted by using four turbulence models,
i.e. Spalart-Allmaras S-A, , and
(b)- forward sweep (c)- backward sweep Reynolds Stress RST models. The CFD
Fig. 8 Effect of sweep on Mach number analysis was done with the FLUENT solver,
with the settings for 2D case, implicit
equations and double precision. The
convergence was monitored such that the
residuals should be minimized; the number of
iterations required for obtaining the
(a)- no sweep effect
convergence is listed in Table 2.
The results of the numerical
simulations of the flow are expressed as the
distributions of Mach number (in relative flow,
(b)- forward sweep (c)- backward sweep since it is a rotational frame), static pressure,
Fig. 9 Effect of sweep on static pressure static temperature and entropy, which have
been presented comparatively, for each
turbulence model and sweep study case,
corresponding to the design rotational speed of
275 [m/s]. In accordance with the experiment
(a)- no sweep effect and literature [14-32], it came out that the
Spalart-Allmaras model represents a good
option for modeling the turbulence within
blade cascades.
In figs. 8-11 it has been shown the
(b)- forward sweep (c)- backward sweep
effect of forward and backward sweep versus
Fig. 10 Effect of sweep on static temperature
no-sweep, for the flow parameters, such as the
relative Mach number, static pressure, static
temperature and entropy.
Concluding remarks:
 Forward sweep allows to reduce the local
(a)- no sweep effect velocity at blade tip and expands the area
downstream the airfoil such that the losses
are minimized (which is beneficial for
obtaining uniform flow at the next stage
cascade inlet), since the variation of the
(b)- forward sweep (c)- backward sweep entropy is the least; thus, the optimization
Fig. 11 Effect of sweep on entropy of blade cascades with minimum losses is
enabled.
5. CONCLUSIONS  S-A turbulence model is more suited for
the CFD analysis of cascades.
This paper presents a thorough  the solution is obtained faster for forward
investigation regarding the application of swept blade, while far much greater
sweep to rotating axial blade cascades.

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
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number of iterations are required for 8. (***), Applied Computational
backward swept blade. Aerodynamics, vol. 125, Progress in
 Combinations of forward and backward Astronautics and Aeronautics, editor
sweep can be used for highly loaded wide Henne P. A., John Wiley & sons, (1990).
span fan blades, fig. 2-c, 2-d, [1]. 9. Gallimore Simon J., Bolger John J.,
Cumpsty Nicholas A., Taylor Mark J.,
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1. ANDREI I. C., Researches with Regard to Axial Flow Compressor Blading – Part I:
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Means in Purpose to Performance October (2002), vol. 124, pp. 521-532.
Improvement, with Applications to the Jet 10. Gallimore Simon J., Bolger John J.,
Engines, Ph. D. Thesis, University Cumpsty Nicholas A., Taylor Mark J.,
„POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest, (2007), Wright Peter I., Place James M. M., The
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533.6(043.2) 621.51.001, 5(043.2) Axial Flow Compressor Blading – Part II:
621.45(043.2) B-UP 1). Low and High-Speed Designs and Test
2. Ferziger J. H., Perić M., Computational Verification, Jl. of Turbomachinery,
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Springer Verlag, (2002). 11. Golub A. R., Rawls J. W., Russell J. W.,
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Computational Techniques for Fluid Technology Program Noise Reduction
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General Techniques, Second Edition, 12. Gostelow J. P., Cascade Aerodynamics,
Springer Series in Computational Physics, Pergamon Press, New York, NY, (1984).
Springer Verlag, (1991), ISSN 0172-5726, 13. Neubert R. J., Hobbs D. E., Weingold H.
ISBN 3-540-53058-4. D., Application of Sweep to Improve the
4. Chung T. J., Computational Fluid Efficiency of a Transonic Fan Part I:
Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, Design, Journal of Power and Propulsion,
(2002), ISBN 0-521-59416-2. vol. 11, nr. 1, January-February, (1995),
5. Hirsch C.A.: Numerical Computation of pp. 49-54.
Internal and External Flows, Wiley and 14. Adamczyk John J., Aerodynamic Analysis
Sons, (1990). of Multistage Turbomachinery Flows in
6. Dănăilă S., Berbente C., Metode numerice Support of Aerodynamic Design, ASME
în dinamica fluidelor, Ed. Academiei Journal of Turbomachinery, April (2000),
Române, Bucureşti, (2003). vol. 122, pp. 189-217.
7. (***), Notes on Numerical Fluid 15. Anton Weber, Heinz-Adolf Schreiber,
Mechanics, volume 52, Flow Simulation Reinhold Fuchs, Wolfgang Steinert, 3-D
with High-Performance Computers II, Transonic Flow in a Compressor Cascade
Edited by Ernst Heinrich Hirschel, Vieweg With Shock-Induced Corner Stall, Jl. of
(1996).

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Turbomachinery, July (2002), vol. 124, pp. Jl.of Turbomachine., July (2000), vol. 122,
358-366. pp. 406-415.
16. Árpád Veress, Imre Santa, A 2D 24. L. He, T. Chen, R. G. Wells, Y. S. Li, W.
mathematical model on transonic axial Ning, Analysis of Rotor-Rotor and Stator-
compressor rotor flow, Periodica Stator Interferences in Multi-Stage
Polytechnica, series of Transportation Turbomachines, Jl. of Turbomachinery,
Engineering, vol. 30, nr. 1-2, pp. 53-67, October (2002), vol. 124, pp. 564-571.
(2002), BUTE, Budapest. 25. L. Sbardella, M. Imregun, Linearized
17. Cherrett M. A., Bryce J.D., Ginder R.B., Unsteady Viscous Turbomachinery Flows
Unsteady Three-Dimensional Flow in a Using Hybrid Grids, Jl. of
Single Stage Transonic Fan: Part I – Turbomachinery, July (2001), vol. 123, pp.
Unsteady Rotor Exit Flow Field, Journal of 568-582.
Turbomachinery, vol. 117, Oct., pp. 506- 26. Leroy H. Smith, Jr., Axial Compressor
513, (1995). Aero-design Evolution at General Electric,
18. Clark William S., Hall Kenneth C., A Journal of Turbomachinery, July (2002),
Time-Linearized Navier–Stokes Analysis of vol. 124, pp. 321-330.
Stall Flutter, Jl. of Turbomachinery, July 27. Ng W. F., Epstein A. H., Unsteady Losses
(2000), vol. 122, pp. 467-476. in Transonic Compressors, Journal of
19. Ehrich F. F., Spakovszky Z. S., Martinez- Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power,
Sanchez M., Song S. J., Wisler D. C., vol. 107, pp. 345-353, (1985).
Storace A. F., Shin H.-W., Beacher B. F., 28. Ning W., Li Y. S., Wells R. G., Predicting
Unsteady Flow and Whirl-Inducing Forces Blade Row Interactions Using a Multistage
in Axial-Flow Compressors: Part II – Time-Linearized Navier-Stokes Solver,
Analysis, Journal of Turbomachinery, July Journal of Turbomachinery, January
(2001), vol. 123, pp. 446-452. (2003), vol. 125, pp. 25-32.
20. Gerolymos G. A., Neubauer J., Sharma V. 29. Ottavy Xavier, Trébinjac Isabelle,
C., Vallet I., Improved Prediction of Vouillarmet André, Analysis of the
Turbomachinery Flows Using Near Wall Interrow Flow Field within a Transonic
Reynolds Stress Model, Jl. of Axial Compressor: Part 1 – Experimental
Turbomachinery, vol. 124, Jan. (2002), pp. Investigation, Jl. of Turbomachinery,
86-99. January (2001), vol. 123, pp. 49-56.
21. Helming K., Numerical Analysis of Sweep 30. Ottavy Xavier, Trébinjac Isabelle,
Effects in Shrouded Propfan Rotors, Vouillarmet André, Analysis of the
Journal of Propulsion and Power, vol. 12, Interrow Flow Field within a Transonic
no. 1, pp. 139-145, (1996). Axial Compressor: Part 2 – Unsteady
22. Hobbs D. E., Weingold H. D., Flow Analysis, Jl. of Turbomachinery,
Development of Controlled Diffusion January (2001), vol. 123, pp. 57-63.
Airfoils for Multistage Compressor 31. Rodrick V. Chima, Meng-Sing Liou,
Applications, Jl. of Engineering for Gas Comparison of the AUSM+ and H-CUSP
Turbine and Power, vol. 106, April (1984), Schemes for Turbomachinery Applications,
pp. 271-278. TM—2003-212457, June (2003), Glenn
23. Küsters Bernhardt, Schreiber Heinz-Adolf, Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Köller Ulf, Mönig Reinhardt, Development 32. Shan Peng, Kinematic Analysis of 3-D
of Advanced Compressor Airfoils for swept Shock Surfaces in Axial Flow
Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines–Part II: Compressors, Jl. of Turbomachinery, July
Experimental and Theoretical Analysis, (2001), vol. 123, pp. 490-500.

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AN APPLICATION TO Mastroianni OPERATORS

Cristina Sanda CISMAŞIU

Abstract. A new linear positive operator is defined and studied resorting to the method of
Mastroianni 2 , 3.

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 41A36, 41A25

Key words: Mastroianni operator, Szasz – Mirakjan operator, approximation properties.

(iii).  n ,c  x  is completely monotone, so

1. Introduction
that  1   x   0,
k k 
n ,c x  0,
Motiveted by the Mastroianni s operators
k

 x    nc ln
2 , 3 which were studied by O. Agratini, c 
  n ,c  x  ,  
k 
(iv). 
1 c 
n ,c

B. Della Vechia 1, we consider the sequence
  n ,c nN , c  0 of real valued functions (v). lim x 
x 
r k 
n ,c  x   0, r  N0 .
defined on 0, +) as
Let
f  x
ncx
 c 
 n ,c  x     , c  0, x  0, n  N E2  0,   :  f  C  0,     lim 
 1 c  1  x2 x 

.  be the space endowed with the norm

 f  x  
These functions satisfy the following f   sup  , x  0  which is a Banach
 1  x
2
conditions, for each n  N  and  c  0 : 
space.
(i).  n ,c  0   1,
We define the operator

 n ,c  C   0,   , Ln ,c : E2  0,    C  0,   as
(ii).

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
 f ; x    pn,k ,c  x  f 
k (1.1)
Ln,c   with
k 0 n

k
 c 
 1 x  nc ln   n ,c  x 
k k
 1 x  n ,c  x 
k 
k
1 c 
k

pn , k ,c  x     . (1.2)
k! k!

Because
k
 c 
  
 ncx ln 
 1 c   c 

k 0
p n , k ,c ( x )   n ,c   
x
k 0 k!
  n ,c  x  exp  ncx ln

 1,
1 c 

these operators preserve constant functions. 2. Main results

Our aim is to find some approximation
properties. Lemma 1. The moments of the operators
Ln ,c  f ; x  for  er  x   x r , r  0,1, 2 , x  0  
are given as

Ln ,c  e0 ; x   1,
 n , c  0  c
Ln ,c  e1 ; x    e1  x   cx ln ,            (2.1)
n 1 c
 n ,c  0   n , c  0  c x c
Ln ,c  e2 ; x   e2  x   e1  x   x 2 c 2 ln 2  c ln .
n 2
n 2
1 c n 1 c

Proof. By a simple computation it can easily Remark. If c   the operators (1.1)

be verified the identities of the lemma. converge to classical Szasz-Mirakjan
operators
Theorem 2.1. If c  c  n   , n   then
 nx 
k

lim Ln , c n  f  f uniformly on compact subsets k
n  Sn  f ; x    e  nx
f  , x  0 .
k! n
of  0,   for any    f  E2  0,   .
k 0

Applying a classical result due to Shisha O.

Indeed, taking c  c  n   , n   and Mond B. 4 we obtain the pointwise
according to the well-known Bohmann- estimate
Korovkin theorem, relations of the lemma
guarantee that lim Ln , c n  f  f uniformly on
n

compact subsets of  0,   .

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
  Ln ,c  f ; x   f  x    1   1 Ln ,c

 e  xe  ; x     f ,   , x  0  
1 0
2

with

n  0  n  0  n  0 

 2

Ln ,c  e1  xe0  ; x  x 2 (1  2
n

n 2
n2
x
)
 
c c c c
 x 2 (1  2c ln  c 2 ln 2 )  x ln .
1 c 1 c n 1 c

These operators admitte a generalization of Durrmeyer type, because

k k
 c   c 
    nxc ln  ncx   nc ln   ncx
 1 c   c   1 c   c 
0 n,k
p  x dx  0   dx  0 x  1  c 
k
dx 
k!  1 c  k!
k
 c 
 nc ln   1 k !   c 
k ncx
 1 c  1
k 
   dx   .
k!  c  0  1 c  nc ln
c
 nc ln  1 c
 1 c 

The Durrmeyer type operator asociated with the operator (1.1)-(1.2) become:


 c  
DLn ,c  f ; x     nc ln   pn ,k ,c  x   pn ,k ,c  t  f  t  dt . 
 1  c  k 0 0

For these operators we have  

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DLn , c  e0 ; x   1,
k
 c 
    nct ln   n ,c  t 
 c   1 c 
DLn , c  e1 ; x    nc ln   pn ,k  x   t dt 
 1  c  k 0 0
k!
k
 c 
   nc ln  
 c   1 c 
  n ,k   t  n ,c  t  dt 
k 1
   nc ln p x
 1  c  k 0 k! 0
k
 c 
  nc ln 
 c  
 1 c   k  1!
   nc ln

 
1  c  k 0
pn ,k  x   k 2

k!  c 
  nc ln 
 1 c 
 c  
k 1 1 
   nc ln


1 c 
 p  x
n ,k
c 2
   k  1 p  x  
n , k ,c
k 0  c   nc ln k 0
  nc ln  1 c
 1 c 
1 1 1
 nLn ,c  e1 ; x    x .  
c c c
nc ln nc ln nc ln
1 c 1 c 1 c
k
 c 
 nct ln   n ,c  t 
 c   1 c 
DLn , c  e2 ; x    nc ln   n ,k   
p x t 2 dt 
 1  c  k 0 0
k!
k
 c 
  nc ln  
 c   1 c 
  pn ,k  x  t  n ,c  t  dt 
k 2
  nc ln
 1  c  k 0 k! 0
k
 c 
  nc ln   k  2 !   nc ln c  
 k  2  k  1
 c    c
  n,k  p  x
1
  nc ln p  x   k 3   
1  c  k 0 1 c 
n,k
 
3
k!  c  k 0  c 
  nc ln   nc ln 
 1 c   1 c 


1
2   k  1 k  2  p  x  
n , k ,c
1
2 n L  e ; x   3nL  e ; x   2 
2
n ,c 2 n ,c 1
 c  k 0  c 
 nc ln   nc ln 
 1  c  1  c
4x 2
 x2   2
.
c  c 
nc ln  
1  c  nc ln 1  c 

References

If c  c  n   , n    then  1. O. Agratini, B. Della Vechia, Mastroianni

operators revisited, Facta Universitatis (Nis),
lim DLn , c n   f   f ,    f  E2  0,    
n  Ser. Math. Inform. 19 (2004), 53-63.
uniformly on compact subsets of 0,   .

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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

2. G. Mastroianni, Su un operatore lineare e 4.O. Shisha, B. Mond, The degree of

positivo, Rend. Acc. Sc. Fis. Mat., Napoli (4) convergence of linear positive operators,
46 (1979), 161-176. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 60 (1968), 1196-
1200.
3. G. Mastroianni, Su una classe di operatori
e positivi, Rend. Acc. Sc. Fis. Mat., Napoli (4)
48 (1980), 217-235.

329
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THE EQUATION OF DISPERSION AND THE DISPLACEMENT

VECTOR IN THE SYMMETRIC CASE
Mihaela DUMITRACHE, Camelia GHELDIU

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Pitesti, Piteşti, Romania,

Abstract: In this paper we study the propagation of the symmetric Lamb waves and we find the
equation of dispersion and the equations of the displacement vector in the symmetric case.

Keywords: 35L05, 35L10, 35P30.

1. INTRODUCTION find the equation of dispersion and the

equations of the displacement vector.
In this paper we consider an elastic,
isotropic, continuous and homogeneous
medium and we study the propagation of the
Lamb waves through it. Using the results from
[1], [2] and [3], we obtain the equation of
dispersion and the equations of the
displacement vector in the symmetric case.

2. PROBLEM FORMULATION Figura 1: The symmetric Lamb waves

In the following we consider the normal 3. PROBLEM SOLUTION

guided Lamb waves. These waves appear in a
plate of thickness 2h comparable with the In the article [1] we started from the
wavelength, due to coupling between the equation of the displacement vector u for a
components longitudinal L and the transverse material point
components of the wave TV. Thus, two types
of wave Lamb can be produced, but, in this u       (1)
parer, we study just the symmetric waves
which are depicted in Figure 1, where for each where  is a scalar potential and  is a
side of the middle of the plate, the longitudinal vectorial potential. In expression (1) the two
components are equal and the transverse potentials should verify the following two
components are opposite. equations of wave
We assume homogeneous and isotropic 1  2
elastic plate bounded by two parallel planes  2  2 2  0, (2)
located at a short distance 2h, and we want to v L t

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

tan qh    4k 2 pq
 , (7)
where v L is the phase velocity of the
longitudinal waves and
tan  ph    
q2  k 2
2

and the equations of the displacement vector
1  2 are:
 2
2
 0, (3)
vT t 2
 2k 2 cos  qh  
where vT is the phase velocity of the u1  qA cos  qx2   2   cos  px  
k  q 2 cos  ph 
2
 
longitudinal waves.
The scalar and the vectorial potentials are  cos t  kx1  ,
trigonometric functions of time t, with the  2 pq cos  qh  
same frequency  . However, they can be u2  kA sin  qx2   2  sin  px  
k  q 2 cos  ph 
2
expressed as follows, with the wave number k:  
 sin t  kx1  .
  0  x2  eit  kx  ,
1
(8)
(4)  
   0 j  x2  eit  kx  , j  1, 2,3.
1
The second case is for . We k
vL vT
The equation of dispersion has the have p an imaginar number, i.e. p  ip and q
following relation: a real number, so the dispersion equation has
the form:
tan qh    4k 2 pq
 (5) tan qh    4k 2 pq
tan  ph    q2  k 22
  , (9)

tan  ph    q 2  k 2 2 

with   0 and   , where the constants and the equations of the displacement vector
2
are:
p and q are defined as follows:

2 2  2k 2 cos  qh  
p 
2
k ,2
q 
2
k ,
2
(6) u1  qA cos  qx2   2 cosh  px2  
vL2 vT2  k  q cosh  ph 
2

 cos t  kx1  ,
and the constant angle  can take the values 0
 2 pq cos  qh  
 u2  kA sin  qx2   2 sinh  px2  
and depending on the type of symmetry of
 k  q cosh  ph 
2

2
the wave.  sin t  kx1  .
Further, using the results from [3], we (10)
know that we have three regions with respect
to the phase velocity. So, we write the  
equation of dispersion (5) and the equations of The third case is for 
 k . We have
the displacement vector for each subdomain of v L vT
wave number k taking into account the type of p and q imaginare numbers, i.e. p  ip and
values that can be taken the constants p and q, q  iq , so the dispersion equation is
for the case   0 ( the symmetric case) .
 tan qh    4k 2 pq
The first case is for k  . We have p and  (11)
vL

tan  ph    q 2  k 2 2
q real numbers, so the dispersion equation is
and the equations of the displacement vector
are the following form:

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2k 2 cosh  qh  REFERENCES
u1  qA cosh  qx2    
k  q cosh  ph 
2 2
1. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C, High-
 cosh  px2   cos t  kx1  , frequency waves. The equation of the
displacement vector. The Proceedings of
the International Session of 15-th
2 pq cosh  qh 
u2  kA sinh  qx2     Scientific Papers “Scientific Research and
k 2  q 2 cosh  ph  Education in the Air Force”, AFASES
 sinh  px2   cos t  kx1  , 2013, 23-25 mai Braşov, ISSN, ISSN-L
2247- 3173, pg. 329-332.
(12) 2. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C, High
where A is a constant factor. frequency waves and the equation of
dispersion. International Scientific
3. CONCLUSIONS Conference “Mathematics & IT: Research
and Education (MITRE-2013)” Chisinau,
In this paper we use the symmetric Lamb August 18-22, 2013, at the Moldova State
waves in an elastic, isotropic, continuous and University (MSU), Faculty of
homogeneous medium and we find the Mathematics and Computer Science.
equation of dispersion and the equations of the 3. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C, The curve of
displacement vector for every subdomain of dispersion in the plane  , k  , Buletin
the wave number k in the symmetric case.
Ştiinţific-Universitatea din Piteşti, Seria
Matematică şi Informatică, Nr. 19 (2013).

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BUILDING A HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER PROTOCOL

Gabriela MOGOS*

* Facultad de Informatica y Electronica, Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba,

Ecuador

Abstract: Randomness is an essential resource for cryptography and random number generators
are, at the same time, very important for the most cryptographic systems. Using these weak random
values may lead to vulnerabilities of the systems, causing the adversary to easily break the system, as
demonstrated by breaking the implementation of Secure Socket Layer.
This paper presents a hybrid Secure Socket Layer that includes together a Quantum Random
Number Generator (QRNG), to generate the random numbers, and, an Elliptical Curve Cryptography
(ECC) algorithm, to encrypt the data.

Keywords: asymmetric cryptosystems, quantum random numbers, Secure Socket Layer.

MSC2010: 81P45, 94A15.

1. INTRODUCTION algorithm, currently used, with Elliptic Curve

Cryptography (ECC) algorithm.
Secure Socket Layer uses a combination of In first part of paper, we present Random
public key and symmetric-key encryption. Number Generator (RNG) and Quantum
Symmetric-key encryption is much faster than Random Number Generator (QRNG), and,
public-key encryption, but public-key advantages of using QRNG in generating a
encryption provides better authentication sequence of true random bits.
techniques. To motivate the need for replacing the RSA
The Secure Socket Layer handshake cryptosystem (existing in SSL 3.0) with ECC
allows the server to authenticate itself to the cryptosystem, in the second part of the paper,
client using public-key techniques, then allows we present a comparative analysis of those
the client and the server to cooperate in the cryptosystems and in the last part, we present
creation of symmetric keys used for rapid the hybrid Secure Socket Layer protocol.
encryption, decryption, and tamper detection
during the session that follows. 2. HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER
In our paper, we present a theoretical PROTOCOL
demonstration  of  how to improve the security
of Secure Socket Layer protocol by replacing 2.1 Random Number Generators vs.
Random Number Generator with Quantum Quantum Random Number Generators.
Random Number Generator and the Rivest, Random numbers seem to be of an ever
Shamir, Adleman (RSA) cryptographic increasing importance in cryptography,

335
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

various stochastic numerical simulations and random number generator, which generated a
calculations, statistical research, various strong interest.
randomized or stochastic algorithms, etc. and Seeing that, the Quantum Random Number
the need for them is spanning a wide range of Generator is ideal for applications requiring
fields from engineering to physics to very high rates of true random numbers, our
bioinformatics. aim is to replace existing the classic Random
The applications usually put constraints on Number Generator (RNG) used by Secure
properties of input random numbers Socket Layer protocols, with quantum one
(probability distribution, bias, correlation, (QRNG).
entropy, determinism, sequence repeatability,
etc.).
Random number generators based on
quantum physics are true random number
generators as quantum physical phenomena
are intrinsically random.
Our paper is based on the study done by
researchers [11] from the Joint Quantum
Institute (JQI), in partnership with European
quantum information scientists, who have
found a method of producing a certifiably
random string of numbers based on Figure 1. Connect a Quantum Random
fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. Number Generator to a computer
They report their results in the 15 April
2010 issue of Nature [12]. The Quantum Random Number Generator
What is the rationale for that quantum is used for cryptographic purposes and other
randomness is a better form of randomness applications requiring the highest levels of
than, classic randomness? security and randomness properties.
Quantum hardware random number The Quantum Random Number Generator
generators produce sequences of numbers that device connects to a computer via PCI or USB
are not predictable, and therefore provide the interface.
greatest security when used to encrypt data. Advantages of Quantum Random Number
Three principal types of quantum Generator on Secure Socket Layer:
indeterminism underlying to realize a QRNG: The Quantum Random Number Generator
(i) The indeterminacy of individual offers the best option for strong security in the
outcomes of single events as proposed by long term, especially if the technologies are
Born and Dirac; based on the use of algorithms. Photons and
(ii) Quantum complementarity (due to the entangled photons of the sort used in quantum
use of conjugate variables), as put forward by cryptography and communication have a form
Heisenberg, Pauli and Bohr; of tamper evidence and protection built into
(iii)Value indefiniteness due to Bell, Kochen the technology at the level of quantum-
& Specker, and Greenberger, Horne & mechanical processes. At the moment, it is
Zeilinger). widely believed that this technology cannot be
A simple design for a QRNG is based on a defeated.
construction with a photon source, a 50/50 Quantum Random Number Generators
beam-splitter and two identical single photon (QRNGs) have the advantage over
detectors. This construction ensures a random conventional randomness sources of being
and balanced probability of detection of the invulnerable to environmental perturbations
photon at each detector. and of allowing live status verification.
Meanwhile, commercial Quantum Random Quantum Random Number Generator
Number Generators have already appeared on (QRNG) can generate truly random numbers
the market. In 2001, ID Quantique [3] from the fundamentally probabilistic nature of
introduced the first commercial quantum quantum processes.

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Generating large numbers using QRNG, server's private key is used to protect the
lead to a "chain reaction" of improving the session keys.
security SSL protocol. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)
algorithm [5] relies on the difficulty of
solving the Elliptic Curve Discrete
Logarithm Problem (ECDLP) in much the
generating random numbers with QRNG in
ClientHello and ServerHello Components
same way that RSA depends on the
difficulty of factoring the product of two
large primes. The best known method for
1  solving ECDLP is fully exponential,
whereas the factoring problem is sub-
part of random numbers are used to obtain
Master Secret
exponential.
Starting from the data set [1], we have
realized a comparative analysis between these
2 
two algorithms:
Master Secret is used to generate Key Material

 
3 

Encryption Keys

Figure 2. Comparative analysis RSA/ECC

2.2 Elliptical Curve Cryptography
(ECC) vs. Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (RSA) Advantage of Elliptic Curve Cryptography
cryptosystem.
on Secure Socket Layer:
Every Secure Socket Layer connection
begins with a handshake, during which the two - ECC is an emerging public-key
parties communicate their capabilities to the cryptosystem that offers equivalent security
other side, perform authentication, and agree with smaller keys sizes.
on their session keys. The session keys are - Augments end to end encryption for data in
then used to encrypt the rest of the flight by helping to maintain data privacy and
conversation, possibly spanning multiple prevent data leakage of sensitive information
connections. They are deleted afterwards. The particularly when providing the next
goal of the key exchange phase is to enable the generation of security level requirements.
two parties to negotiate the keys securely, to - We can reduce the transmission cost during
prevent anyone else from learning these keys. handshake.
Several key exchange mechanisms exist, - Can be used to implement encryption on
but, at the moment, by far the most commonly small, mobile devices with limited resources in
used one is based on RSA [9], where the terms of power, CPU and memory.
- Can be used for large web servers to
handling many encrypted sessions.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

better than the classic Secure Socket Layer

2.3 Secure Socket Layer a hybrid protocol.
protocol This theoretical study is part of a larger
Speculating weaknesses of the current SSL project [13] that we will be developed by
version 3.0, we propose an improvement of it Facultad de Informatica y Electronica,
in terms of performance, security and space Riobamba, Ecuador.
requirements. This work was financed from Secretaría de
In the following we present our reasons to Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e
replace the classical random number generator Innovación (SENESCYT) of Ecuador, through
currently used by Secure Socket Layer Prometeo project.
protocol with quantum random generator, and,
RSA algorithm with ECC. REFERENCES
 
1. Kancheti S., Comparative Study of Elliptic
Curve Cryptography and RSA in
Constrained Environment, (2010).
2. Lofberg J., Yalmip: A toolbox for
modeling and optimization in MATLAB.
3. http://www.idquantique.com
  4. Navascues M., Pironio S., and Acin A..
  Bounding the set of quantum correlations,
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the protocol Physical Review Letters, 98:010401,
(2007).
I. Replace the Random Number Generator 5. NIST, Recommendation for Key
(RNG) with quantum one (QRNG) - the Management – Part 1: General (Revised).
obtained key is very safe and we can get an National Institute of Standards and
increase of the number of bits that should be a Technology. NIST Special Publication
“cryptographically secure” random number. 800-57, (2007).
Due to indeterminism (Bohr and 6. Pironio S., Navascues M., Acin A.,
Heisenberg) and exclusion principles (Pauli) Convergent relaxations of polynomial
from quantum physics, the opportunity of optimization problems with non-
attackers to "guess" the numbers is zero, which commuting variables, arXiv:0903.4368,
makes the generated numbers to be truly (2009).
random. Since the data will be encrypted using 7. Pironio S., Acin A., Brunner N., Gisin M.,
asymmetric cryptographic algorithms, key size Massar S., and Scarani V., Device-
is essential in ensuring the security and independent quantum key distribution
integrity of encrypted information. secure against collective attacks, New
II. Replace RSA cryptographic algorithm Journal of Physics, 11:045021, (2009).
with ECC algorithm - we will provide the 8. In the second edition of Numerical Recipes
same security protocol, however, the smaller in C: The Art of Scientific Computing
key sizes lead to faster processing, which is (Cambridge University Press, 1992), p.
very useful to implementing encryption on 277. Chapter 7 includes a thorough (and
small, mobile devices with limited resources in sobering) discussion of random number
terms of power, CPU and memory. generation.
9. Rivest R.L., Shamir A., & Adleman, L., A
3. CONCLUSIONS & Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures
ACKNOWLEDGMENT and Public-Key Cryptosystem, Retrieved
We can conclude that the Hybrid Secure from
Socket Layer can offer security advantages http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.
over conventional alternatives, can be used for pdf , (1978).
large web servers that will be handling many
encrypted sessions and its performances are

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10. Sturm J.F., SeDuMi, a MATLAB toolbox numbers certified by Bell's theorem,
for optimization over symmetric cones, Nature, 2010; 464 (7291): 1021 DOI:
http://sedumi.mcmaster.ca. 10.1038/nature09008.
11. http://jqi.umd.edu/sites/default/files/newsl 13. Mogos G., Radu Gh., Hybrid Secure
etters/feb_2010_newsletter.pdf. Socket Layer protocol, Review of the Air
12. Pironio S., Acín A., Massar S., Boyer A. Force Academy, Vol. XII, No. 2(26), pp.
de la Giroday, Matsukevich D. N., Maunz /2014,
P., Olmschenk S., Hayes D., Luo L., http://www.afahc.ro/revista/Nr_2_2014/91
Manning T. A. & Monroe C., Random _MOGOS_RADU.pdf.
 

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ON THE MAX PARETO

POWER SERIES DISTRIBUTION

Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU

The “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper presents a new distribution wich unitary treated through the family of the power
series distributions, resulting in a new distribution which we called a Max Pareto power series
(MaxParPS) distribution. Some properties and reliability characteristics (e.g. survival function, hazard
rate) are studied. It also shows that in some conditions a Poisson limit theorem for this type of
distribution takes place.

Keywords: distribution of the maximum, limit theorem, Pareto distribution, power series distribution.
MSC2010: 60K10, 62N05.

1. INTRODUCTION distribution. Random variable (r.v.) Z has a

distribution that is part of the power series
Together the most common reliability distributions class (PSD, [1]).
distributions (exponential, Erlang, Weibull), The general problem of determining the
there was also Pareto distribution which has distribution of the maximum and minimum of
applications not only in the economy (e.g. a random sequence will was solved by
income of the population), but also to the Louzada et al. in [3], with working tool of the
study of lifetime of the systems k of n , as well generate function composing of the number of
as in field of quality assurance [5]. the r.v. of sequence with the survival function
Pareto at the end XIXth century, formulated of the r.v. components of the sequence.
the principle of 80/20, of the unbalanced Instead, in this paper is approached, in a
distributions, which postulates that 80% of the unitary manner, the distribution of the
effects are generated by 20% of the cases. maximum of a sequence of independent Pareto
This is the reason for introducing this new distributed r.v. through the PSD class,
class of MaxParPS distribution with the aim of distribution enjoyed by the number of the r.v.
study the probability behavior of the most of the sequence.
complicated processes. The case of the minim was analyzed in [4]
The methodology and techniques of when it was discussed about the lifetime Min
working are presented and analyzed in [2], Pareto power series (MinParPS) distribution.
which allows the study of the distribution of
the maximum of a random sample of size Z of 2. THE MAXPARPS DISTRIBUTION
the statistical population that has Pareto

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We consider the r.v. X i ~ Par (  ,  ) , Consequence 2.2. P.d.f. of the r.v. U Par
 ,   0 , where  X i i 1 are independent and is characterized by the relationship:
 
identically distributed random variables
   
(i.i.d.r.v.), with the distribution function (d.f.)  A      
   x  
 u Par ( x)  , (2.2)
F X i ( x)  FPar ( x)  1    , x   and the
x x  1 A( )
probability density function (p.d.f.) for any x   . 
 
f X i ( x)  f Par ( x)  , x. Proposition 2.2. Hazard rate of the r.v.
x  1
Also, we note by U Par is given by:
U Par  maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N , where the r.v. u Par ( x)
hU Par ( x) 
N  PSD , [1,2]. 1  U Par ( x)
 
Proposition 2.1. If r.v.    
 A     
U Par  maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N , where  X i i 1   x  
 , x  .
are i.i.d.r.v., X i ~ Par (  ,  ) ,  ,   0 and    

N  PSD , with x  1  A( )  A      
   x   
a n n
P ( N  n)  , n  1,2,...,   (0,  ),   0 ,
A( )
Proposition 2.3. If  X i i 1 is a sequence
r.v.  X i i 1 and N being independent, then the
of independent Pareto distributed r.v.,
d.f. of the r.v. U Par is given by: nonnegative, absolutely continous type, with
  
 the d.f. FPar and N  PSD ,
A     
 x   a n n

U Par ( x)   , x  . (2.1) P ( N  n)  , n  1,2,..., a n n1 a
A( ) A( )
sequence of nonnegative real number,
We note that r.v. U Par following the
MaxParPS distribution of parameters  ,  and A( )   an n ,    (0, ),   0 , then:
 by U Par ~ MaxParPS (  ,  ,  ) . n1
lim U Par ( x)  FPar ( x) k , x   ,
 0 
Consquence 2.1. The survival function of
the r.v. U Par is the following: 
where k  min n  N  , a n  0 . 
 
  Proof: By applying the l’Hospital rule k -
A( )  A     
  x   time, we have:
SU Par ( x)  , x  .
A( )

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  By determining the derivative of the
 
A      latter relation in connection with x , we obtain:
  x   u Par ( x) 
lim U Par ( x)  lim 
 0   0  A( ) (2.4)
  n f Par ( x)FPar ( x) n1 P ( N  n)
k n1
     ( k )  
0  1     A        where z f Par ( x)FPar ( x) n1 is the p.d.f. of the
0  x    x  
...   r.v. maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N  . By applying the
  lim
 0 A( k ) ( ) mean of the relationship (2.4), the relationship
k (2.3) is obtained.
    
 1     k !a k
k
 x      
     1     , x  .
k!ak  x 
  3. POISSON LIMIT THEOREM FOR
MAXPARPS DISTRIBUTION

Consequence 2.3. The r

th
moments, The study of special cases of distributions
r  N, r  1    of the r.v. MaxParPS is necessary for this section
because we want to study under what
U Par ~ MaxParPS (  ,  , ) is the following:
conditions the Max-Pareto-Binomial zero
r
EU Par  truncated (MaxParB) distribution,
, (2.3) respectively, Max-Pareto-Poisson zero
a n n
 E maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N r truncated (MaxParP) distribution are
n1 A( ) approximate.
where p.d.f. of the r.v. maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N  is The d.f. of the MaxParB is defined by
given by (2.1), where
N ~ Binom * (n, p )  PSD, n  1,2,...,
f maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N  ( x)  zf Par ( x)FPar ( x)  .
n 1
p  (0,1) and A( )  (1   ) n  1 , where
p
Proof: It is known that the distribution  , namely:
function of the maximum of a sample of size 1 p
N  n which has the d.f. FPar is n


 1  p      (1  p ) n
U n ( x)  FPar ( x) n .   x  
With total probability formula, a d.f. of the U ParB ( x)   , (2.5)
maximum of a sequence of i.i.d.r.v. in a 1  (1  p ) n
random number, has the expression:
for any x   .
U Par ( x)   U n ( x)  P( N  n)
n1
. A r.v. which admits the d.f. according to
 FPar ( x)   P( N  n)
n
 the relationship (2.5), is denoted by
n1

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U ParB ~ MaxParB(  ,  , n, p ) , ,  0 , lim U ParB ( x)  U ParP ( x), x   ,
n 
n  1,2,..., and p  (0,1) . p 0 
P.d.f. of the r.v. U ParB is defined
according to the relationship (2.2), so that : where U ParB (x) , respectively U ParP (x) ,
 n 1 x are d.f. of the r.v.

  
np 1  p    U ParB ~ MaxParB(  ,  , n, p ) , respectively
  x  
u ParB ( x)   U ParP ~ MaxParP(  ,  ,  ) , defined by the

x  1 1  (1  p ) n  , (2.6)
relationship (2.5) and (2.7).
for any x   . Proof. By calculating separately two
elementary limits:
At the same time, the MaxParP
distribution is characterized by the d.f. defined
by the relationship (2.1), where n  n 

lim (1  p ) n  lim (1  p ) 1 / p 
 pn
 e 
p 0  p 0 
N ~ Poisson * ( )  PSD,   0 and

A(  )  e  1 , with     : and


 lim p   n 
  n 

    
n x   
e x e  lim  1  p     e p 0 
 e x ,
U ParP ( x)  , x  . (2.7) n  
  x  
1  e p 0 
 we have the following final limit:
and p.d.f.. according to the relationship (2.2):
lim U ParB ( x) 
 n 

   p 0 

 e  x 
u ParP ( x) 
  , x  . (2.8)  n
x  1 1  e  
 1  p      (1  p) n
  x  
D.f. of (2.7) characterizes the distribution  lim 
of the r.v. will we note thus: n

1  (1  p ) n
p 0
U ParP ~ MaxParP(  ,  ,  ) ,  ,  ,   0 .

Under the above conditions, takes place the 
  
following result: e x  e 
  U ParP ( x), x   .
1  e 
Theorem 3.1. (Poisson Limit Theorem) If
r.v. U ParB ~ MaxParB(  ,  , n, p ) , with
n   and p  0  such that n  p   ,   0 , Remark 3.1. Poisson limit theorem for the
then: distribution MaxParPS is confirmed visually
of the plot in Figure 1, where they are
presented p.d.f. of the MaxParB and MaxParP

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distributions for the following parameters:
    1 , n  20 ,   10 and p  1 / 2 . REFERENCES

1. Johnson, N.L., Kemp, A.W. Kotz, S.

(2005) .Univariate Discrete Distribution,
New Jersey.
Probability density

2. Leahu, A., Munteanu, B. Gh., Cataranciuc

 1 0.04
MaxParB 1 1 20  x S. (2013). On the lifetime as the maximum
 2 
or minimum of the sample with power series
MaxParP( 1 1 10 x) distributed size, Romai J., Vol. 9, No.2, 119
0.02
-128 .
3. Louzada, F., Bereta, M. P.E., Franco,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 M.A.P. (2012). On the Distribution of the
x Minimum or Maximium of a Random
Number of i.i.d. Lifetime Random Variables,
Fig.1. P.d.f. of the MaxParB and MaxParP Applied Mathematics, 3, 4(2012), p. 350-
distributions 353.
4. Munteanu, B. Gh. (2014). Distribuţia
duratei de viată Min-Pareto, Conferinţa
Ştiinţifică Internaţională Modelare
matematică, optimizare şi tehnologii
informaţionale, MMOTI 2014, Chişinau, p.
147-153 .
5. *** http://www.e-birouvirtual.ro/node/3813
(aprilie 2014).

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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USER AUTHENTICATION TO A WEB SITE USING FINGERPRINTS

Mihai Lica PURA

Faculty of Military Electronic and Information Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania

Abstract: Nowadays, authenticated access to web sites becomes more and more important. Usernames
and passwords are one of the easiest ways to accomplish it. But a more secure approach is to use
biometrics. This article presents a very simple modality to use fingerprints to control the access to a web
site. The client component of the proposed architecture is an ActiveX control that communicates with the
fingerprint reader and sends data back to the web server. The server component is an ISAPI Server that
processes the requests of the client regarding authentication and does or does not grant access to the web
site. The ActiveX is integrated in the web page with the help of Java Script.

Keywords: web site authentication, biometrics, fingerprint

1. INTRODUCTION Sockets Layer) ([2]). But so far, authentication

of the users is still mostly based on credentials
Since its creation, Word Wide Web of type username and password.
(WWW) has continued to grow and to impact While this type of authentication can
the everyday life of people ([1]). News, mail, assure the needed confidence, still it has some
banking, storage, and so on, are all provided as disadvantages that can drastically diminish the
web services through some web sites. But such provided security. In this article we present the
important services can be used with use of biometrics to provide authentication to
confidence only if they also provide the critical web sites like the one described above,
necessary security. The five most important with the purpose of eliminating the
security objectives are authentication, disadvantages of using passwords. The idea is
confidentiality, integrity, non-repudiation, and not new. But the solutions that can be found
availability. For the web servers and for the are only a few ([3, 4, 5]), and all of them are
communication between the client applications proprietary solutions. This means that they are
and the web servers, all these objectives (web not free, and that they have to be integrated in
server authentication by the user, the web site that will use them, which is not
confidentiality and integrity of the exchanged always easy to do. So we have proposed to
data, availability of the server) were addressed develop an open source web site authentication
and accomplished mainly by using Public Key solution based on fingerprints, and to use it to
Infrastructure (PKI) and cryptographic provide authentication add-ons to the most
operations through protocols like TLS common CMSs (Content Management
(Trusted Layer Security) or SSL (Secure Framework) that are used for publishing web

347
 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

content, like Joomla, Silverstipe and Drupal, in authenticated to the server from a different
order to simplify their use and to ease their location, or at a different moment of time. Of
spreading. course, this means that the legitimate user has
The rest of the paper is organized as to keep track of the IP she uses, and of the
follows. In the second section we present the times it has authenticated to the server. But
disadvantages of using password based most of the users are not trained to perform
authentication, the advantages of using these actions, or they neglect them because of
biometrics and the architecture of our the extra operations involved.
authentication solution. The third section gives The use of biometrics in general and of
some implementation details for the fingerprints in particular addresses both of
components of our solution. The last section these problems. First of all, the user does not
contains the conclusions and our future work have to remember anything that is to be kept
directions. secret. A username is still being used, but it is
public information. Second, only the
legitimate user will be authenticated to the
2. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE web server, because no one else can have her
AUTHENTICATION SYSTEM biometric data.
We will now continue with the
We will start by presenting the presentation of our proposed authentication
disadvantages of using username/password framework. In a typical scenario for accessing
pairs for user authentication. The first obvious a web site there are two components: the web
disadvantage is the fact that the password has server and the client application. The client
to be remembered by the user, because writing component is usually a web browser and it
it down would be insecure, so the users tend to runs on the client machine, which is the
choose easy to remember strings of characters personal computer of any user who wants to
that can be guessed by attackers or can be access the web site. The server component
subject to dictionary attacks. One solution to runs on a remote machine and answers the
this problem would be the use of password client’s requests. For an authenticated access
management applications ([6]), but few people to a web site, the client, prior to accessing the
have the necessary knowledge and training to web pages served by the server, needs to
manage and use this kind of software. Also, transmit to the server a secret only knew by
many of such applications have been proved the two of them, that uniquely identifies her.
error prone, so using them is not necessary the Typically, this secret is a username-password
best choice. pair. Based on the client’s identity established
The second disadvantage of using in this way by the web server, the server
usernames and passwords is the fact that any knows what pages the client is entitled to
person who knows the username and the request.
password of a user can authenticate to the web The password is entered by the client in a
server. For the legitimate user it is difficult to text box of the sign up page and then
realize that someone else has the password, transmitted to the server as any other
until unwanted operations are already information from a web form. But when using
performed by the malicious part, when, of fingerprints, we need one more component.
course, it is too late. Countermeasures to this That is because the fingerprint reader has to be
issue exist. They consist in enforcing a accessed by the web page to get the
password change policy by the web server, information it generates about the fingerprint
and/or the use of user activity logs. Changing that it has scanned. This component has to run
the password on a regular basis will assure that on the client machine, because the fingerprint
if a malicious part has entered in the reader is attached to it, but also needs to
possession of a password, it will not have time communicate with the server to send the
to use it. Also, by consulting the activity log credentials of the client who wants to
for his own account, the legitimate user can authenticate.
see if someone else has successfully

348
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In conclusion, the proposed authentication ActiveX will use the result to grant access to
framework has three components: the web the web site or not.
server, the web page that runs in a browser and 2.2 The web page.
the client application accessing the fingerprints To use this ActiveX component, it has to
reader. We will present all these components be placed on the login page of the target web
in the following sections. site. This is done by using the HTML tag
2.1 The Ac tiveX client component. The object.
technology that we have chosen to create the Here is an example:
client side component responsible of accessing
the fingerprints reader is ActiveX. Presenting <object
the ActiveX technology and the development id="BioAuthCtrl" name="BC"
of ActiveX components is out of the scope of classid="clsid:9F1EAE3D-C2E8-4171-BB80-
this paper. For more information on this please D62B91F5B0FE" height="300"
see ([7]). VIEWASTEXT style="width: 530px">
We have defined a single method for our </object>
ActiveX component. This method displays a
modal window. The window has an edit box After this, the object can be used in the
component for entering the username, a label JavaScript from the page through its name,
for displaying the error or the success “BC” in our example.
messages and three buttons. One of the buttons Let us presume that we have associated a
is for exiting. The other two buttons function f() with the onclick event for a sign up
correspond to the two actions necessary for a button on a login web page of a web site. To
biometric authentication. The first step is the use our ActiveX for fingerprint authentication,
enrollment of the user. For this we have settled the JavaScript code would be:
the Enroll button. This operation is only
required to be taken one time, and one time function f(){
only. That is at the registration of the user. var x=BC.enroll();
Then, every time the user wants to if(x == 1)
authenticate, he has to use the Verify button. // grant access to the site
In the enroll operation, the fingerprints …
reader gets a template of the user’s fingerprint if(x==0)
that will be store in the database of the server. // forbid access to site
Then, each time the authentication process …
takes place, the fingerprint taken by the reader }
is verified against the template stored in the
database. If they match, the user is 2.3 The server component. The server
authenticated with the entered username. If side component was build using ISAPI Server
they do not match, the verification fails. After technology (Internet Server Application
performing verification, the modal window Programming Interface). The communication
returns 0 or 1, depending on the success of the between the two components was
operation (0 if verification failed and 1 if it implemented using CGatwayInterface
was successful). The script that uses this implementation of the WinInet API provided in

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[8]. Presenting the ISAPI Server technology To simplify our implementation, the
and its programming is out of the scope of this database of the users’ fingerprints templates
paper. For further information please consult was constructed as a directory of files. At the
[9]. enrollment phase, a file is created for each
The ISAPI Server we have implemented user, using the corresponding username sent
can process the following three requests: by the client. This file contains the template of
storeTemplate, saveTemp and performVerify. the fingerprint received from the fingerprint
The prototypes of the three requests are reader.
provided below, using a hypothetical example When the saveTemp request is performed,
for the URL of the target web site: the ISAPI Server saves the first part of the
fingerprint’s template as a temporary file. If
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?saveTem storeTemplate request follows, the final
p&template=”string_template_part1”&usern template file is build from the temporary file
ame=”string_username” and the second part of the template. When
performVerify request is performed, the
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?perform username passed to the server is used to search
Verify&template=”string_template_part2”&u for the file that stores the respective template.
sername=”string_username” If the file does not exist, the verification fails.
If the file exists, it is opened and the template
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?storeTem is read from it. Then the template received
plate&template=”string_template”&usernam from the client is verified against the template
e=”string_username” stored by the web server. If they match, the
verification is successful. Otherwise, the
The storeTemplate request saves the verification fails.
template of the user’s fingerprint in the One thing that we have to have in mind is
database of the server, associating it with the that these three requests are in form of strings.
corresponding username, also sent by the This means that the templates (that are binary
client. It is used in the user enrollment phase. data) are first serialized by the client ActiveX
The other two requests, saveTemp and and only after that they are sent to the server as
performVerify, are used in the user HTTP requests. At the server side the
authentication phase. The verification process deserialization takes place, obtaining the
has been broken into two parts. This was binary data.
necessary because of the maximum data length To protect the data exchanged between the
that can be transmitted in a WinInet client and the web server, the serialized
communication, which is 1024 kilobytes. The fingerprints data are first encrypted with a
fingerprint’s data necessary for verification session key previously computed by the two
against the template exceed this maximum parts. To eliminate the possibility of reply
size. That is why the data are sent in two parts: attacks, the salted encryption is used. Of
saveTemp request sends the first 1024 course, at the server side decryption is
kilobytes of the fingerprint’s data, and performed prior to any other processing.
performVerify sends the last kilobytes of it. Because of the fact that encrypted data is
When handling a performVerify request, the binary data, it is encoded as a BASE64 string.
web server concatenates the two parts of the The use of HTTPS is also highly
data of the fingerprint and performs recommended.
verification. It then answers to the client The ActiveX component needs to have
telling it if the verification was successful or access to the local resources of the computer
not. the web browser is running on. Only this way
it will be able to communicate with the
fingerprints reader. To authenticate the
3. IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS ActiveX component to the user, it will be
digitally signed. This way the user will be able
to check if the application that tries to access

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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the fingerprints reader is really the one used in After addressing all these aspects, we will
the web server authentication process. develop fingerprint authentication add-ons for
So far we did not mention anything about the most used web content CMSs, like Joomla,
the biometric specific functions. We will skip Silverstripe and Drupal, and we will make
this information because these functions are them available on the corresponding web
highly dependent to the fingerprint reader. But, pages of these tools. This way, fingerprint
generally, these functions are part of an API authentication will be easy to add to any web
that comes together with the driver of the site created with one of them.
reader. The important thing is that it is very
easy to configure the ActiveX component to We would like to thank to engineer Florin
use the fingerprints reader desired by the user. Panta who participated to the implementation
of the presented framework by the work he has
done for his diploma paper.
4. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper we have presented a web site REFERENCES

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replacement of the ISAPI Server with an ion-Solutions/DigitalPersona-
ISAPI Filter. This way the configuration of the Online/DigitalPersona-Online/ (February
authentication process at the server level will 2014).
be easier to make.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

6. Gaw, Shirley, Edward W. Felten, Password 8. Steve Zimmerman, Designing ActiveX

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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

IDENTITY-BASED CHRYPTOGRAPHY: FROM PROPOSALS TO

EVERYDAY USE

Mihai Lica PURA, Victor Valeriu PATRICIU

Faculty of Military Electronic and Information Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania

Abstract: Since the invention of public key cryptographic algorithms, researchers have also proposed
what will later be known as identity based cryptography: the use of identities as public keys. Over the
years, different identity based encryption and signature algorithms were developed, making possible what
others only predicted some 30 years ago. This paper is a survey over what identity based cryptography is,
what advantages it has over classical PKI, what success stories of its use already exists, and on how can
one benefit from it, in different civilian and even military scenarios. The purpose of the paper is to set a
background for latter research on developing an identity base cryptographic scheme for military use.

Keywords: identity based encryption, identity based cryptography, public key cryptography

1. INTRODUCTION with and to validate this certificate in order to

make sure that it belongs to the other party.
Identity-based cryptography is a particular But what if the public key can be chosen?
case of public key cryptography that in certain This is the determinant characteristic of
conditions offers implementation and identity-based cryptography (IBC): the public
utilization advantages, without reducing the key is no longer random, but a piece of
security degree. In a conventional public key information regarding the identity of the user
security scheme, the generation of the two ([1]). For example, the whole name, the e-mail
keys (the private key and the public key) starts address or the home address can all be use as a
from an unpredictable randomly chose large public key. The chosen information should
number. This leads to two random keys comply with some rules like: the information
mathematically bounded. Given the random should be uniquely bound to a user, the
character of the public key, it cannot be given information should be bound in such a way
as is to the interested users because it would be that the users cannot later deny, and, of course,
very difficult to store and to use. That is why this information should be publicly available.
the certificates are use to bind the key to the In this paper we will present the general
user and to the issuing certification authority. problematic of identity based cryptography,
The necessity of the certificates determines, with an emphasis on its possible applications,
prior to any communication, the need to search especially in military organizations. The rest
for the qualified certificate of the person of the paper is organized as follows. The
someone would like to securely communicate second section presents the mathematical
backgrounds of identity based cryptography.

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

In the third section the current state of the art • Key generation algorithm is run by the
of IBC is described, based on the published KGC for every user that asks for its private
RFCs. The fourth section presents the costs of key. The result is the private key of this user
using such schemes, demonstrating the and it is transmitted to it.
superiority of IBC over classical PKI. The fifth • Encryption algorithm uses the identity
section discuses the security of the IBC of a node (its public key) to encrypt a message
schemes, taking into consideration the possible for this node.
attacks and countermeasures. The sixth section • Decryption step is performed at the
presents some possible applications of IBC, receiving node: using its private key the node
and also the military relevance of such decrypts the encrypted message and obtains
schemes. The last section contains some the clear message.
conclusions and future work directions. Besides these four algorithms, others
aspects should be taken into consideration.
When a user asks for a private key, the KGC
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF IDENTITY- must authenticate the user to be sure that they
BASED CRYPTOGRAPHY are not impersonating another one in order to
find out they private key. If the authentication
The users of an identity-based succeeds, the private key must be transmitted
cryptography scheme can derive their public to the user on a secure channel in order to
key starting from the value of an identity avoid eavesdropping by a malicious user ([3]).
element, which, most of the time, is an ASCII Such secure side channels can be Bluetooth of
value ([1]). After the public key is chosen, the Infrared channels.
corresponding private key must be generated. We will now present the advantages of IBC
If a user could generate they own private key schemes. The first and the most obvious
for the public key they have chosen, then they advantage of this security scheme is that the
could generate the private key for any other users can securely communicate by encrypting
user of the same security scheme, because the and/or signing messages without the prior need
public keys are public. If this would happen, of exchanging public keys through the
the security would be compromised. That is exchange of certificates ([4]). This way, there
why the private key can only be generated by a is no longer need for a certificate distribution
specially designated key generation centre infrastructure (PKI). Another advantage is that
(KGC). The KGC has also a pair of keys: a if the certificates are no longer needed, the
public and a private one. Starting from the certificate validation step is also missing
identity of a user (which is also the user’s because there is no need to check if the public
public key) and using its private key, the KGC key really belongs to the user by checking the
computes the private key of every user. signature of the certification authority ([4]).
From a mathematical point of view, This is an important advantage because the
identity-based cryptography is a particular validation of the user’s certificate would imply
form of pairing based cryptography. The IBC the validation of the whole certificate path.
cryptosystem is build based on pairing IBC schemes have also some
between elements of a group to a second disadvantages. We will briefly present them in
group. The pairing can be regarded also as a the following paragraphs.
mapping from elements from the first group to The main disadvantage of the scheme is
elements from the second group. This way, a that the KGC knows (can compute) the private
hard problem in one group is reduced to an keys of all de users ([5]). If it is compromised,
easier problem in the other. the security of communications can be
An identity-based cryptographic scheme questioned. This means that the users should
consists out of four algorithms ([2]): trust the KGC that their keys will not be made
• Setup algorithm is run only one time available to others. This disadvantage can be
by the KGC. In this step the private and public eliminated in many manners. If all the users
key pair of the KGC is created along with the are known prior to the start of the
others parameters of the scheme. communication and no other user will be

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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joining after, than the KGC is no longer The third RFC is “Identity-Based
needed. If there is no need for a private key Encryption Architecture and Supporting Data
revocation mechanism than the KGC can be Structures” (RFC5408) ([9]) and it was
destroyed and the private keys of the users will published in January 2009 and describes a
be safe. Another way of solving this problem security architecture required to implement
is to replace a centralized KGC with several identity-based encryption and defines the data
KGC in such a way that all are needed to structures that can be used to implement the
participate in order to generate private keys technology.
([5]). The forth RFC “Using the Boneh-Franklin
and Boneh-Boyen Identity-Based Encryption
Algorithms with the Cryptographic Message
3. CURRENT STATE OF THE ART IN Syntax (CMS)” (RFC5409) ([10]) was
THE FIELD published in January 2009. It describes the
conventions for using identity-based
In this moment there are over 400 scientific encryption algorithms (BF and BB1) in the
publications on IBC. IBC mathematics is Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) to
being standardized in IEEE 1363.3 (6). The encrypt content encryption keys. It also
interest of the Internet Community in this defines the object identifiers (OIDs) and the
matter and thus the belief of the specialists in convention for encoding a recipient’s identity.
identity-based cryptography can be also seen By analyzing these RFCs one can see that
from the RFCs published. The total number of although identity-based encryption was not
RFCs that handle aspects of identity-based shown that much attention, lately it became a
cryptography is four. relative debated subject. It is interesting to
The first one dates from August 1995 and observe that the last three RFCs was published
proposes “An identity-based Cryptographic by employees of Voltage Security, a
Protocol for Authenticated Key Exchange” corporation that has implemented and now
(RFC1824) ([7]). The authors of this RFC offers security solutions based on identity-
describe “the basic mechanisms and functions based encryption. These identity-based
of an identity-based system for the secure encryption solutions focus on information
authenticated exchange of cryptographic keys, encryption for e-mails, files, documents and
the generation of signatures, and the authentic databases.
distribution of public key”. Another corporation that invested into
The second RFC is named “Identity-based identity-based cryptography is Gemalto which
cryptography standard (IBCS) #1: developed the first smartcard implementation
supersingular curve implementations of the BF of identity-based encryption. The
and BB1 cryptosystems“ (RFC5091) ([8]). It implementation is based on the Boneh-
was published in December 2007 and was a Franklin algorithm. From the advantages of
proposal for an Identity-Based Cryptographic this new solution the most important aspects
Standard (IBCS#1). It describes the algorithms are that the encryption of the confidential
that implement two kinds of identity-based messages is more secure, more user-friendly
encryption: Boneh-Franklin (BF) and Boneh- and more manageable by large corporations
Boyen (BB1). and telecom operators. Of course, the

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smartcard solution was developed in called “fully secure”. Another notion was
collaboration with Voltage. The advantages introduced by Canetti. It is called selective-
that identity-based encryption brings to the identity security because it requires for the
smartcards are: more protection for the private malicious user to specify the target identity in
keys, strong authentication for the end-users, advanced, before the master public key is
and simplicity of the encryption process for published. This last scheme is considered
users and also for telecom operators. weaker by the research community ([13]).
Based on these definitions of security as
countermeasures for different kinds of attacks,
4. COSTS CONSIDERATION the researchers proposed satisfying identity-
based encryption schemes.
Ferris Research conducted an analysis of Another way to formalize notions of
IBC at the end of 2008 and observes that the security for the cryptographic schemes in
interest for identity-based cryptosystems is general and for the identity-based
growing. Ferris looked on the cost of the cryptography in particular is considering the
security solution proposed by Voltage and combinations between various security goals
concluded that the total cost of ownership of a and possible attack models ([13, 14]). There
typical identity-based cryptographic system is are four essential security goals and three
one third of a typical public key system. In the important attacks that should be taken into
same research other interesting results consideration:
emerged. We will briefly present some of them • The security goals are: “one-wayness”,
([11]). “indistinguishability”, semantic security and
The infrastructure required by an identity- non-malleability.
based encryption system is far simpler than the • The attack models are: chosen plaintext
one needed by a PKI solution. This means that attack, non-adaptive chosen cipher text attack
fewer servers are required and the installations and adaptive chosen cipher text attack.
are much easier. The operating costs of the From the relations between all these
Voltage IBC system were one-fifth of those of security objectives and attack models raise
public key systems, and the users of identity- different security scenarios that were studied
based encryption systems were more by the researchers.
productive that the users of typical If the algorithms are implemented on
cryptographic systems. cryptographic devices there are a number of
These consideration suggest that identity specific attacks like the power analysis attack
based cryptography is a good candidate for ([15]). This kind of attack consists in two
extending its use because not only that it leads phases: data acquisition phase and data
to higher profit for the providing companies, analysis phase. In the first phase the attacker
but it also determines higher productivity for collects data of the power consumption of the
the users. We believe that this win-win devices while it operates. The second phase
situation will conduct to a high spread f IBC consists in analyzing the collected data in
cryptosystems. The only difficulty so far is the order to retrieve secret information. Another
lack of regulations on this matter. attack specific when using cryptographic
devices is fault attack ([15]). In this attack the
malicious user disrupts in some way the
5. SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS normal execution of the device in order to
obtain faulty output.
Boneh and Franklin gave the first formal An aspect more closely related to the
definition of security for identity-based identity-based cryptography is the efficient
encryption ([12, 13]). In an attack defined by implementation of pairings ([16, 17]). This is
them, the malicious user can choose the target important both from the point of view of
identity in an adaptive manner, based on the security (pairing being a central part of
master public key and any other keys that they identity-based related algorithms) and
had already obtained. These schemes are applications (pairing should be efficiently

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computable on resource constrained devices). in the whole world. So it can be used as a
Attackers can adapt the used attacks to pairing public key in order to reach end-to-end user
([15]). Research showed that it is possible to security. The solution implementation would
obtain important information this way, but has naturally dress the existing infrastructure. All
also showed specific countermeasures. the communication between devices can be
Researchers have also highlight some open encrypted this way too, using as public key the
problems is this field: curve parameterization IP address of the device.
attacks, special point attacks and high-order Relatively recently researchers showed that
power attacks. They were called open identity-based cryptography can also be used
problems because they were not sufficiently for e-signature in a scheme based on error-
researched or were not researched at all. So correcting codes, thus providing means for
their real destructive potential is unknown. identification ([18]).
There is another application that takes
identity-based encryption one step further:
6. APPLICATIONS OF IBC Fuzzy Identity-based Encryption ([19]). The
idea is to replace the identity ASCII value used
6.1 General applications. From a as public keys with a set of descriptive
practical and scientific point of view, there are attributes (of a certain biometric: fingerprint,
some special applications of identity-based iris, voice, face, etc). This attributes are used
cryptography. The most common one is the as a public key in order to encrypt messages
identity-based encryption. All of the previous for the respective user. The main difference of
examples were based on it. The possible this solution is that the private key is derived
applications of identity-based encryption from that biometric too. The error-tolerance
would have to be in domains that can profit property of Fuzzy-Identity-based encryption
out of its advantages over public key systems allows for a private key (derived from a
and do not mind or can overcome the measurement of the same biometric) to decrypt
disadvantages. The most obvious systems that that message even if it was encrypted with a
can be secure with the help of identity-based slightly different measurement of the
encryption are the systems in with biometric.
communication are based on identity. In an e- Another interesting concept is attribute-
mail system the messages target a single based encryption ([20]). In this scheme the
recipient. The e-mail address is unique and its users’ keys and the cipher text are labeled with
owner should be the only one that receives the sets of descriptive attributes. So a particular
message. So, using it as a public key in an key can decrypt a particular cipher text only if
identity-based encryption scheme would be a the attributes of the key match the attributes of
natural thing to do. The message is sent the cipher text. This attributes take the form of
directly (the sender does not have to look for an access structure that specifies what type of
or validate the certificate of the recipient) the text the key can decrypt. From the attribute-
software does the encryption in a user based encryption point of view, identity-based
transparent manner. The same discussion can encryption is only a particular case.
be applied to GSM communication systems. 6.2 Military relevan ce. Identity-based
The telephone number of each user is unique cryptography is a new emerging technology

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

that promises to reduce costs and overhead advantage is that in this way the key escrow is
time and to provide security in a more natural allowed at different levels ([21]).
way (for the users). Benefits of IBC - high • Several key agreement protocols based
system usability, highly scalable architecture, on identity-based cryptography had been
low operational impact, fully stateless developed and can be successfully used to
operation- are all very important in military secure communications.
applications. Military communications can • ID-based group signature schemes can
also benefit from it, if used in proper be relatively easy converted into Group
scenarios, where its few important Signature schemes.
disadvantages can be cancelled. • Zero knowledge proof of identity:
Here is an enumeration of other possible proving your identity not with a piece of
military applications of identity based information you have (for example by sending
cryptosystems. a password to a server), but with prove of your
• Encryption applications using hybrid knowledge ([24]).
(symmetric-asymmetric) schemes but without
the complex aspects of PKI.
• E-Signature schemes without huge 7. CONCLUSIONS
problems of certificates generation,
distribution, revocation (no CRLs), validation In this paper we have made a general
([4]). introduction in identity based cryptography’s
• Possible mixing cryptography schemes problematic. We have presented the key
and biometric attributes, in so-called differences between it and classical PKI,
biocryptography ([19]). highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.
• Large applications in MANET’s, Based on these considerations, we have given
where dynamic coalition-forming a non exhaustive list with possible applications
environments are very envisaged in future of IBC.
military networking; in this case, for example, Researching over these aspects, made
two Trusted Authorities from different possible to better understand in which
coalition forces may wish to (temporarily or scenarios the user could really benefit from
permanently) generate a common set of public using an identity based cryptosystem, and not
parameters and a common master secret, and a classical PKI scheme. So based on this
to issue new private keys to all entities under survey we will continue our work by
their joint command only for this context researching over the use of IBC schemes in the
([21]). communication inside the Romanian army, as
• Identity-based cryptography can be a backup or even as an alternative to the PKI
used to enable strong security with reduced infrastructure proposed and implemented so
bandwidth consumption and latency, because far.
the security associations between nodes can be
established without the need to exchange any
other information ([22]). REFERENCES
• The advantages of identity-based
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‘07, 2007. Notes in Computer Science, vol. 3027,
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http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1363/IBC/in Vercauteren, Michael Scott, William
dex.html (2006). Marnane, Implementation Attacks and
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(1995). 2009.
8. RFC 5091, [online]. Available: 16. Darrel Hankerson, Alfred Menezes,
http://www.rfc-editor.org/pipermail/rfc- Michael Scott, Software Implementation of
dist/2007-December/001834.html (2007). Pairings, Identity-Based Cryptography,
9. RFC 5408, [online]. Available: IOS Press, pp. 188-206, 2009.
http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5408/ (2009). 17. Maurice Keller, Robert Ronan, Andrew
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21. Shushan Zhao, Application of Identity- 23. Dan Boneh, Xuhua Ding, Gene Tsudik,
Based Cryptography in Mobile Ad Hoc Identity-Based Mediated RSA, Dow Jones
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Computational Logic, 2007. 24. Jonathan Katz, Rafail Ostrovsky, Michael
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360
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AN ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTY OF THE MERGING ALGORITHM

Paul VASILIU

Faculty of Marine Engineering, “Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy, Constanta, Romania

Abstract: This paper focuses on the study of the asymptotic behavior of the medium number of
comparisons from the merging algorithm on two sorted arrays, depending on the total length of the
resulting array obtained by merging. This paper presents a program written in C++ that supports the
theoretical result that was obtained.

Keywords: arrays, data analysis, merging, sorting.

MSC2010: 26A03, 26A06.

1. INTRODUCTION Let it be the following merging function

written in C++:
Let it be the following arrays sorted in void merge(int *v,int *w,int *x,int p,int q)

ascending order V  v1, v2 , , v p and {
int i,j,k;
 
W  w1 , w2 , , wq . The result of the merging i=j=k=0;
while(i<p && j<q){
operation of two arrays sorted in ascending or
if (v[i]<w[j]){
descending order, V and W, is a new array, X,
x[k++]=v[i++];
that contains all the elements from V and W
}
sorted in ascending or descending order. The
else
algorithm of merging two arrays is well known.
x[k++]=w[j++];
The algorithm consists of iterating through the V
}
and W arrays and comparing each current
while (i<p)
element vi from V with the current element w j
x[k++]=v[i++];
from W. The minimum value between vi and while (j<q)
w j is written to the resulting array, X. In the x[k++]=w[j++];
}
merging algorithm, one of the V or W arrays is
Let it be the sorted array in an ascending
iterated first and the elements of the other one
order X   x1 , x2 ,  , xn  with n  p  q
are written to the X array.

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elements, obtained by merging the V and W element from V and then there are i
arrays. Let it be C , the medium number of comparisons required;
comparisons, defined by the total number of 2. Compute the number of possible arrays
comparison divided by the number of possible V for which xi is the greatest element from V ;
arrays V and W. The [1] and [2] papers present 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for all the possible
the limits of the medium required number of choices of xi ;
comparisons, C , depending on the lengths, p
4. Compute the value of C .
and q of the V and W arrays. In this paper we
will prove that the medium number of If x1 is the greatest element from V , than
comparison required for obtaining the X array there is an array V   x1  , with no element
sorted in ascending order can be approximated that precede x1 , which means that only one
with n  2 . It must be mentioned that this
number does not depend on the lengths of V or comparison is needed, (1  211 ).
W arrays. If x2 is the greatest element from V , than
The obtained result is validated with a there are two possible array that contain this
program written in C++ language. element: V   x2  and V   x1 , x2  , where x1
might be an element from V . For both these
2. FINDING THE C NUMBER
possible arrays, 2 comparisons are needed for
each array, ( x2 with x1 and x2 with x2 or
The operation of merging the V and W
arrays involves comparing the elements of these with x3 ), in total 4 comparisons, ( 2  221 ).
arrays and updating the X array. Also, for If x3 is the greatest element from V , then
merging, one array will be iterated first.
there are 2 possible values that can exists in V :
Obviously, the total number of
comparisons required for building the X array x1 and/or x2 . In this case there are 4 possible
is equal to n  m , where m is the number of V arrays with x3 , being the greatest element,
remained elements from the array that was not V   x3  , V   x1 , x3  with x1  x3 ,
iterated. The minimum number of comparisons
equals to the minimum value between p and q V   x2 , x3  with x2  x3 , V   x1 , x2 , x3  with
in the following case: if all the elements of the x1  x2  x3 or x2  x1  x3 . For each of the
array with the smallest number of elements, are four arrays, 3 comparisons are needed, ( x3 wit
smaller than all the elements from the array with x1 , x3 with x2 and x3 with x3 or with x4 ),
more elements that the first one. If the elements
with the greatest values from V and W will be which makes a total of 12 comparisons,
the greatest elements from X array, then the ( 3  231 ).
number of comparisons is equal to p  q  1 . In general, if xi is the greatest element from
Without reducing the generality we will V , there are i  1 possible elements that can
suppose that the V array will be iterated first. In precede it and that can be elements of V . The
the end, we will double the value of the number number of subsets with i  1 elements is equal
of comparisons by including the case when W to 2i 1 , so there are 2i1 V arrays with xi
will be iterated first.
It is clear that the greatest element from being the greatest element. The total number of
V will influence the value of C . Let it be the comparisons equals to i  2i 1 .
final array sorted in ascending order, with n Because we supposed that the V array will
elements X   x1 , x2 ,  , xn  , with be first iterated, this implies that i  n  1 .
Suppose by contradiction that i  n , W could
x1  x2    xn . In order to compute C , we be iterated first because the greatest element
have to follow the next steps: from X is now in V .
1. It is assumed that xi is the greatest From the above considerations it follows that

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the total number of comparisons required for 2n  2
C  n2 (10)
iterating first the V array, and then W is equal 2n  2
to: From the equality:
n 1
2n  2
 i  2i 1 (1) lim n 0 (11)
i 1 n  2  2
The total number of possible V arrays is equal results that for values of n big enough, C can
to: be approximate with n  2 .
n 1 The above chart of the function
 2i 1  2n1  1 (2) 2 x  2
i 1 y ( x)  x ,x0, x 1 and
By symmetry, supposing that W is iterated first, 2 2
and after that V , it follows that the number of 1
y (1)  proves that the approximation is
comparisons equals: ln 2
n 1 very good for values of n  10 .
 i  2i 1 (3) 5
i 1
4.5
and the number of possible arrays W equals to: 4
n 1
 2i 1  2n1  1 (4)
3.5
y=(2*x-2)/(2 -2)

3
i 1
x

2.5
This leads to a total number of comparisons 2
equal to: 1.5
n 1 n 1
2   i  2i 1   i  2i (5)
1

0.5
i 1 i 1
and the total number of possible arrays V and
0
0 5 10 15 20
Ox
W is equal to:

2  2n 1  1  2n  2 (6) Figure 1. The optimal value of n
From the equality:
2.1. A VERIFICATION OF THE
2 x n 1  1
1 x  x  x  n
(7) THEORETICAL RESULT
x 1
which occurs for x  1 , through derivation, and This theoretical result can be
then multiplication with x and substitution of x experimentally checked with the following C++
with 2 we have the following equality: program :
n 1
#include <stdio.h>
 i  2i   n  2   2 n  2 (8)
#include <conio.h>
i 1
The medium number of comparisons becomes: #include <malloc.h>
#include <math.h>
C
 n  2   2n  2 (9) #include <stdlib.h>
2n  2 int * aloc(int n)
By processing (9), we obtain: {

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

int *p; sort_ascending(W,q);

p=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); nc=interclas(V,W,X,p,q);
return p; printf(" C = %d\n",nc);
} getch();}
void sort_ascending(int *v,int n) The input of the program are: size p and
{
int i,j,temp;
q of the arrays 
V  v1, v2 , , v p  and
for(i=0;i<n;i++) 
W  w1, w2 ,, wq  respectively. The program
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++){
if(v[i]>v[j]){ random generate the arrays, ascending sort the
temp=v[i]; arrays, merge the arrays and generate
v[i]=v[j]; X   x1 , x2 ,  , xn  array with n  p  q
v[j]=temp; components. Are counted comparisons.
}}} An example is:
void gen(int *v,int n) Size of V = 78
{ Size of W = 67
int i; C = 143
for(i=0;i<n;i++) In the above example p  78 , q  67 ,
v[i]=rand(); n  p  q  78  67  145 . The medium number
} of comparisons is equal with:
int interclas(int *v,int *w,int *x,int p,int q) n  2  145  2  143 .
{
int i,j,k,ncomp; 3. CONCLUSIONS
ncomp=i=j=k=0;
while(i<p && j<q){ In papers [1, 2] is determined the medium
ncomp++; number of comparisons needed for merging
if (v[i]<w[j])
x[k++]=v[i++]; the arrays 
V  v1, v2 , , v p  and
else
x[k++]=w[j++];
 
W  w1, w2 ,, wq . This number depends on
} the lengths, p and q, of these two arrays. In the
while (i<p) presented paper we proved that the medium
x[k++]=v[i++]; number of comparisons can be computed
while (j<q) depending on the sum of the length of these two
x[k++]=w[j++]; arrays n  p  q . Moreover, we showed that
return ncomp; for n  10 , the medium number of
} comparisons can be approximated with n  2 .
int main()
{ REFERENCES
int p,q,*V,*W,*X,nc;
printf(" Size of V = "); 1. Dijkstra, E. W., Some beautiful arguments
scanf("%d",&p); using mathematical induction. Acta
printf(" Size of W = "); Informatica 13(1982).
scanf("%d",&q); 2. Knuth, D. E. The Art of Computer
V=aloc(p); Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and
W=aloc(q); Searching. Addison Wesley (1973).
X=aloc(p+q);
gen(V,p);
gen(W,q);
sort_ascending(V,p);

364
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

SOCIAL ROBOT IN ATTENTIONAL THERAPIES

Paulina VÉLEZ*, Antonio FERREIRO**

*Faculty of Computer and Electronics, Politecnic University of Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador,

** Faculty of Health Sciences, National University of Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador

Abstract: This paper describes how social robots can be used in philological therapies to improve the
attentional capacities of children. A social robot is a powerful tool especially if the users are children. A
social robot can be a playful tool, as a toy, but can direct some activities and gain the child interest in it.

Keywords: social  robot,  assistive  robot,  social  interface,  attention  deficit,  therapeutic,  behavioral 
interventions.
MSC2010: 97C20, 97C30, 97C40, 97C60.

1. INTRODUCTION have in order to develop the robot social

abilities that can help the child.
A social robot is able to interact with
humans and also is able to help humans to do 2. ROBOT AS A FRIEND?
some task. In this respect there are many social
robots that have been developed to help In our days the robots are common, there are
children to increase their social capacities. presents I almost every industry and also in
Using a social robot is possible to help in a almost every daily activities. Robots were
physiological way children, especially to tools to do some task that were hard for the
stimulate their attentions in school years. It is men to do it, to reduce the time in productions
possible to use a social robot as part of processes and to do some works in dangerous
psychological therapies as a complementary environment. But, in the last years robots has
tool. In order to reach the goal of this research been introduce not only as a tool to do hard
is necessary define Attention Deficit and jobs, but also as a tool to interact, collaborate
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD and assist humans been. The main idea was
consist in persistent patterns of inattention and is in this days is create a robot able to
and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity, which communicate and interact with people until
are severe and common in children in school specific task has been accomplish.
years in it age and level of development [1]. A robot that is able to interact with humans
There are different test that help to been is define as a “Social Robot”. To talk
measure the attention capacity, so it is possible about social robot is necessary to include some
to establish the necessary parameters and concepts such as: embodiment, social
characteristics that the social robot need to environment, and the capacity to reach it social
goals [2]. A robot can be social depending on

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

aspects such as: it physical body, level of 2.2 Robot as a Friend? Is it possible that a
intelligence and behavior. robot be a “friend” with a human been? As a
To interact with people, a robot needs to machine that has been given a social
have a social intelligent, and also it body need intelligent and a friendly body, is possible to
to have a body design according with the goal use it as a toy. A child has the enough
of the interaction (body conception)[3]. To imagination to play whit it toys and convert
have a robot with body is important, but most them in his friend, establishing a relationship
important is that it body have some specific with his toys. This give as the idea that for the
characteristic that can help the users to build a children is possible to establish a friendship
mental model that help them recognize the and confidence with a social robot. This is an
robot as a partner in the interaction process. advantage that can be useful in rder to use a
A social robot needs to have an robot in attentional therapies with children in
anthropomorphic body, which means to have a school age.
body with human characteristics as head with There are some factors that has to be
face, arms, or hands. This body is necessary to consider, in order to reach a good orientated
have sensors so it can feel the environment, anthropomorphize and they are the elicited
and will enable the robot interaction [4]. agent knowledge, the effectance motivation
Talk about a social robot is talk about a and the socially motivation [9].
robot that is able to interact with people in a
common environment that could be 3. ATTENTION DEFICIT AND
deterministic or non-deterministic. In social HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
robot area is possible to talk about assistive
robots and collaborative robots. An assistive Attention is an important process when
robot help people to do some task, assist children are in school age, because it can help
people in their activities, in other aspect, a them to retain and acquisition of essential
collaborative robots can participate with knowledge and to process the information.
human doing some task together. Also is important in order to develop their
If the robot is able to assist people to do personality and socialization.
some task and also is able to interact with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity
people at the same time, is possible to define Disorder (ADHD) consist on persistent pattern
two kinds of classification, Socially Interactive of inattention and/or hyperactivity and
Robot and Socially Assitive Robots [5, 17]. impulsivity, which are more severe than
These kinds of robot use the interaction and expected in children in school years [1].
also provide assistance by combine its skills. The causes are unknown, "many children
2.1 Embodiment and Antropomorphi ze. with ADHD show no evidence of structural
To create a social robot is necessary creating a damage to the central nervous system.
physical body with specific characteristics. Contrastingly, children with known
This process, give a body to the robot is called neurological disorders caused by brain injury
Embodiment [6]. The embodiment of the robot do not have attention deficit disorder and
implies to give to the robot physical hyperactivity "[1, 15]
similarities with human, this means that the Children with attentional deficit are expose
robot body will have some human’s to stressful events and has problems with their
characteristics and functionalities; this process families [15].
is called Anthropomorphize [7].
When the embodiment is given to the robot 4. ROBOTS IN ATTENTIONAL
is necessary measure the empathy level of the THERAPIES
robot with the user. Mori in his Uncanny
Valley theory has define a curve, in this curve A social robot can be used as a tool that is
is possible to see that the empathy will able to reach the child interest as a toy. This
decrease until the similarity with the human characteristic can be useful in order to use the
been is been reaching [8]. robot as a tool assist in the attentional
therapies with children in school age, which

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means between 7 and 12 years old. The To define the robot “personality” is
process of increase the volume of care and possible to create a computational model that
attention span becomes voluntary in school describes how the robot will answer to the
age [10]. environmental stimuli. This model will
“Attentional problems are persistent and establish time answer, levels of task
occur frequently associated with other early accomplish and times in collaborative task [9].
problems” and its triggers as aggressive, shy 4.3 Robot in the therapy. The social robot
and cognitive deficits that require t be attended will work together with the psychology. It is
by special education [11]. possible to do the therapy in groups and also
A social robot can be used in attentional have an individual therapy. The activities will
therapy by development of a physiological be focus in reinforce the child attitude by
model and the evaluation of the complex dialogs that encourage the child when he/she
interaction model [12]. This to things can do some task in the correct way [15].
create a robot as a powerful tool in to be use in
the therapy. 5. CONCLUSIONS
The goal if the social robot is to accelerate
the result of the child therapy, been used as a A social robot with an orientated skills
complementary tool, and to work with the and behaviors can be useful in attentional
psychology. To reach the goal, a social therapies with children in school age. The
assistive robot will be used, combining at the child imagination allows establishing a
same time the characteristics of a social friendship between the robot, and the child and
interface, define by Breatzel [16]. this help in the therapy because the confidence
4.1 The Robot. The social robot needs to is gained and makes easier the interactions and
have some specific characteristic to reach the the reach of the task.
interaction whit the child. This is called peer- The robot will assist the psychology work,
to-peer interaction skills, and the characteristic and will guide the task of the child with
are: [13, 15]. friendly dialogs, facial and body gestures.
- Express and/or perceive emotions. This research is the beginning of the
- Communicate with high level dialogue. project that has the collaboration of a primary
- Learn/recognize models of the agents. school, where the attentional capacities of the
- Establish / maintain social relationships. children will be test and them an attentional
- Use natural cues (gaze, gestures). therapies will be accomplish in order to
- Exhibit distinctive personality and measure the level of improve in each child.
character.
- May learn / develop social competencies. REFERENCES

A social robot, also needs to have verbal 1. Sadoc, B., Sadoc, V., Kaplan and
and nonverbal behaviors, this means that the Sadock´s Synopsis of Psychiatry.
robot should be able to express it “emotions” Behavioral Science/Clinical Psychiatry.
with it body language, facial gestures, dialogs Phyladelphia (2003).
and sounds [14]. 2. Duffy, B., Rooney, C., O´Hare, G.,
O´Donoghue, R. What is a Social Robot?

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 ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C

Source. [online]. Available: III: predictores tempranos de problemas

http://www.csi.ucd.ie/prism/publications/p conductuales y cognitivos. Revista
ub1999/AICS99Duf.pdf (March, 2014). Chilena de Neuropsiquiatría. Issue
3. Dautenhahn, K., Getting to Know each (2003).
other Artificial social intelligence for 12. Scassellati, B. Imitation and Mechanism
autonomous robots. Robotics and of Joint Attention: A Developmental
Autonomous systems. Issue (1995). Structure for Building Social Skills on a
4. Ishiguro, H., Kanda, T., Hirano,T., Eaton, Humanoid Robot. Source. [online].
D., Interactive Robots as Social Partners Available:
an Peer Tutos for Children: A field Tria. http://groups.csail.mit.edu/lbr/humanoid-
Human-Computer Interaction. Issue robotics-group/cog/cog-
(2004). publications/springer-final-scaz.pdf
5. Feil-Seifer, D., Matari´c, M., Defining (March, 2014).
Socially Assistive Robotics. Procedings of 13. Fong, T., Nourbakhsh, I., Dautenhan, K.
the IEEE, 9th International Conference on A Survey of socially interactive robots.
Rehabilitation Robotics. Issue (2005). Robotics and Autonomous Systems 42.
6. Bartneck, Ch., Forlizzi, J. A Design- Issue (2003).
Centred Framework for Social Human- 14. Yan, R., Peng Tee, K., Chua, Y, Huang,
Robot Interaction. Proceedings of the Ro- Z., Li, H. An Attention-Directed Robot for
Man2004. Issue (2004). Social Telepresence. The 1st International
7. Duffy, B. Anthropomorphism and the Conference on Human-Agent Interaction.
social robot. Robotics and Autonomous Issue (2013).
Systems 42. Issue (2003). 15. Velez, P. Ferreiro, A. Social Robotic in
8. Mori, M. The Uncanny Valley. Energy. Therapies to Improve Children's
Issue (1970). Attentional Capacities. Review of the Air
9. Epley, N., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J. On Force Accademy, Vol. XII, No.
Seeing Human: A Three-Factor Theory of 2(26)/2014, pp. 101-108,
Anthropomorphism. Psychological http://www.afahc.ro/revista/Nr_2_2014/10
Review. Issue (2007). 1_VÉLEZ_FERREIRO.pdf.
10. Luria, A. Atención y memoria. Barcelona: 16. Breazeal, C., Toward sociable robots.
Kairos (1984). Robotics and Autonomous Systems. Issue
11. De la Barra, F., Toledo, V., Rodríguez, J. (2003).
Estudio de salud mental en dos cohortes
de niños escolares de Santiago Occidente.

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ANALYSIS OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES USED FOR

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT. APPLICABILITY AND
IMPLICATIONS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

Arina CIUREA*, Anișor NEDELCU**

Transilvania University of Brasov, Universității Street 1, Brașov 500068, România,

arina.ciurea@gmail.com, a.nedelcu@unitbv.ro

Keywords: management, quality, total quality management, brainstorming, benchmarking.

The concept of quality in education that it represents the basis of a national quality
management.
Applying the concept of total quality The quality of education is mostly
management in the educational system is conditioned by the quality of the human
completely normal because, exactly as in other resources, namely by the professional quality
social and economic domains, this sector tries of the teachers. The minimum requirements to
to identify the most efficient methods in order ensure the quality of teachers exist. The role of
to successfully get along with the continuous motivating and encouraging the maintenance
changes. Moreover, people who work in the of this professional quality, as well as its
educational system use the concept of total intelligent and efficient usage, is reflected in
quality management to predict the possible the institutional framework.
problems that can occur in the future and to There are many personal qualities which a
develop solutions for them. When we try to professor should have. His professional role
answer the concept of quality we have to supposes to accomplish several interconnected
answer two fundamental questions. The first roles: he is an expert in the teaching-learning
one is: Which is the product? The second one act, a motivating agent, a leader in relation
is: Who are the clients? Both questions can be with the group of pupils-students, a counsellor,
applied in the case of education. a role model, a reflexive professional, a
Giving a definition for education is not manager. [7]
easy at all. There are many possible assertions
or answers regarding this subject but none of 1. Total quality management. Theory
them can be considered as the definition of and principles.
education. In many cases people tend to think
that the students or pupils reflect the “quality” Starting with these premises, it can be said
of the educational institution where they study. that TQM is not something imposed. This
This statement is wrong. The quality in concept does only determine the things to be
education, treated as “added value”, has to correctly done from the very beginning. It can
happen at any level and it has to be underlined be also used to check if during their

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 MANAGEMENT

implementation the process was undergone To search for this added value is not an
correctly or in a wrong direction. Education easy thing. It demands a close attention, a
and professional development should be a detailed market research and analysis. This can
priority of the policies of programs in each be done using instruments developed on a
country. These should be strongly connected basis of principles.
with the policies of qualitative formation and Brainstorming represents an ideal TQM
with the completion of employment. [2] instrument. It is an intuitive and efficient
Objective Continuous Improvement method, which has as goal the common
Customer Process Total generation of ideas, within a group. The
Principles
Focus Improvement Involvement number of ideas has to be as numerous as
Leadership possible in order to find the best solution to a
Education and
Supportive structure
problem. This solution can be a combination
Elements Training of two or more generated ideas. This technique
Rewards and
Communications
recognition is easy to use, it appeals to the creativity of the
team and it gives the members the possibility
Fig. 1 The TQM system and its to create a multitude of ideas in an original and
components
quick way.
In order to identify and creatively solve the
Benchmarking is a systematic process
problems that appear in education there must
which includes the fact that an organization
be used some techniques and quality
has certain information about another
instruments. TQM allows the common use of a
organization and uses them in order to identify
large variety of instruments and techniques,
solutions for its own development. In
which support the implementation of its basic
education benchmarking can be used as a
concepts. The idea behind these instruments
method of professional improvement of the
and techniques can also be used in the service
teaching-staff. Teachers, as well as the
industry but also in education. Nowadays, on
administrative staff, can simply visit other
the educational market, it is often asked the
institutions to see how they run the institution
question: Which are the factors that influence
and to discover the best practices, which match
the fact that an institution is different from
with their target, and then try to develop them.
another? The curriculum is basically the same.
The Ishikawa diagram is a technique that
It is about the added value that gives
has also been named „cause and effect” or
authenticity features to an institution.
„fish bone”. This technique gives the team the
possibility to make graphic representations of
Quality all factors that affect the problem or the
management desired effect. The representation can be very
(QM) well done using a brainstorming session. The
Total quality goal is to make a list of all factors that affect
management the quality of a process and then to represent
(TQM)
the relationship between them.
Quality
assurance
Ò
Quality
control
Ò
Inspection
Ò

Fig. 2 The hierarchy of quality Fig. 3 Ishikawa diagram

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

Force field analysis is a useful tool to and Heverly [1] detailed some possible
study the situations that require changes. It is roadblocks of implementing TQM while
based on the idea that exist 2 forces that teaching:
influence the change, one is causing the • capability of educational institution to treat
change the other one is against it. the student as client / beneficiary;
The process diagram is providing • different approaches of educational
information about the environment where the institution covering the same disciplinary
process take place and about the control and teaching expertise;
measures. • different TQM approaches within
The logic scheme helps to identify the educational institutions and recognition
process steps and record the progress, decision systems;
taken and required activities. The logic scheme • costs of forming as specialist into TQM
is part of continuous improvement process and applicability
they are a simple method to treat an issue with Acknowledge the importance of TQM
criticism. concept into improving the quality within
Pareto analysis known as 80/20 rules it educational institute, thru this study I wanted
is important. If 80% of the problems can be to identify which are the key characteristics to
identified they can be solved through a quality achieve the objectives. We assumed that the
improved process. In principle, the Pareto implementation of certain aspects of the TQM
graph pays attention to most urgent issues that techniques into educational process will
a team or an organization can have. generate not only resource savings but and
The career evolution map also called greater satisfaction and achievement of the
the graphic representation of career of a student learning. This study has the following
student provides information about milestones objectives:
and potential roadblocks within high school or 1. Understand / gets familiar with
universities years. Every turning point can be a particularities of school organizational culture
potential issue generated by the different and education especially those linked with
perceptions and can conclude to errors, total quality management.
misunderstandings even failures. 2. Study the implementation techniques
of TQM principles into educational institutions
2. Applying TQM into teaching and during teaching and learning processes
learning process 3. Analyze the institutional profile based
on teacher’s perception regarding quality
Totals Quality Management – TQM indicators that influence the quality of
concept was introduced in 1940 by Dr. education.
Edwards Deming. The customized elements of 4. Identify the negative factors
Total Quality Management are: „continuous influencing quality factors and identify the
improvement” and “applying to all strategies/solutions that ensure process quality
organization”, and all processes involved in schools
strengthen the feedback loop. Applying TQM Research methods, techniques and
principle of continuous improvement of instruments:
teaching quality requires a good 1) Needs analysis (affinities diagram,
understanding. Schauerman and Peachy [3] matrix diagram, tree diagram) ;

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 MANAGEMENT

2) Educational policy documents study political criteria – in a very big

(this investigation method including: extent
a) Reference studies in education C. too aggressive competition for high
b) Documents and policies related to scores between students –
high school stage in Romania, various reports equally
c) Specific legislation analysis e.g. D. school directors and inspectors not
• Intermediary report of task force: so interested in co-operation and
Improvement in teacher and having the common goals related
trainers training. Implementation of ensuring the quality in schools –
learning curriculum. Educational in a small extent
and professional training [8], E. evaluation not carried out
• Report of education state of art [9]. considering the performance
3) Interview standards known by students–
4) Comparative study (schools, high in a small extent
schools, etc.); F. not a direct connection between
5) Statistic methods success in school and success in –
Needs analysis is a relevant instrument in a big extent
in educational management, related level of
educational process and as well related school
institution and educational system.
In the frame of needs, it was applied the model
of setting the objectives following the needs in
education study. This model refers to the fact
that general goals are initiated at macro-social
level and these ones are applied then in each
educational step or profile, school institution, Fig. 4 Factors influencing quality of
area of expertise, adjusted based on needs and educational process
possibilities, taking into account range of
needs and related group interests. It was Based on analysis, it comes that the
concluded that educational need and as well instrument most often used for qualitative
global options related volume and resources determination is inspection and evaluation
distribution way at micro-social level are not sheet related level of the group, which reflects
equally distributed and within the same the quality of teaching process. Internal audit
respect, in educational units, due to the fact is the most often used instrument for quality
needs are not the same no matter where or evaluation at institutional level.
when assessed.
Starting from theory and using 3. Conclusions
practical research methods, different
organizational structures were analyzed This study summarizes the theoretical
(school control forums, schools, high schools, base of TQM concept and tools.
etc.) to reveal the role of social players Implementation of quality models inspired by
involved in educational process, as well as the TQM, that have an obvious transformational
quality in quality education management. The tendency, as result of a process of reflection
conclusion is that the main factors influencing and personal and institutional learning will be
quality of educational process are: very difficult and will generate distrust and
A. too many changes within too short uncertainty.
timeframe – in a very big Diversity extreme and contradictory
extent nature of the concept of quality represents the
B. schools directors are not elected last but not the least important characteristic of
based on pedagogical and quality culture identified.
management skills, but considering

372
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The contradictory nature of the concept May 29-June 1, 1994, New Orleans, LA. (ED
it is highlighted by some different point of 373 847)
view of teachers on one side and students and
their parents on the other side. We can observe 2. EDWARD, S (Third edition published in
already to students and their parents a more 2002), Total Quality Management in
tangible trend : they demand that in school the Education
students to get a more practical education, with 3. Schauerman, S., and Peachy, B. "Strategies
better applicability into the latter professional for Implementation: The El Camino College
and social life while teachers insist on skills Total Quality Management Story."
and general competencies development Community College Journal of Research and
(learning, guidance in society, etc.). Practice, 1994, 18(4) 345-358.
In the traditional learning system, many
students do not succeed to learn and more 4. IOSIFESCU, Ş. (2004), Relaţia intre cultura
importantly they fail to access on to the organizaţională şi proiectele de cooperare
highest level offered by the system. As an europeană. Bucureşti: Agenţia Naţională
alternative thru TQM the student is planning, pentru Programe Comunitare în Domeniul
learning, checking, revising than testing. Educaţiei şi Formării Profesionale
5. Managementul şi cultura calităţii la nivelul
1) Plan Î 2) Learn (Do) Î 3) Check
unităţii şcolare (2005). Bucureşti: Institutul de
Î 4) Revision Î 5) Test
Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei www.ise.ro
Ensuring the optimum resources and 6. MIROIU, A. și alții. (1998), Invăţămantul
needs ratio represent one of the most important romanesc azi. Studiu de diagnoză. Iaşi:
problem of education quality within current Polirom
educational system. How to build an internal
guidance system to make sure that the 7. NICOLA, I. (2003). Tratat de pedagogie
educational institute is accomplish its şcolară. Bucureşti: Aramis.
functions in an efficient way? 8. Raport intermediar al grupului de lucru :
Îmbunătăţirea formării profesorilor şi a
REFERENCES formatorilor. (2010). Implementarea
programului de lucru . Educaţie & formare
1. Heverly, Mary Ann. "Applying Total profesională 2010. Bucureşti: MECTS
Quality to the Teaching/Learning Process."
Paper presented at the 34th Annual Forum of 9. Raportul Starea învăţământului . (2007).
the Association for Institutional Research, MECTS

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VEHICLE DAMAGE – PROFIT DECREASE FACTOR FOR THE

ROMANIAN INSURANCE MARKET

Gherasim Solovestru DOMIDE*, Alexandru DOMIDE**,

* Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania, ** Rocredit Broker, Baia Mare, Romania

Abstract: Present paper aims to highlight the evolution of damage into the Romanian insurance
market between 2007 and 2013. Damage is the unfavorable final result insurer which is part of an
insurance contract.
By analyzing claims rate for the Romanian insurance market in the period to which we refer
have found that the percentage of car damages were between 81 and 89% of the total general insurance
compensations paid. In comparison to the amount of insurance underwritten premiums, we found that for
some insurance classes the damage value is greater than the value of subscriptions. The vehicle damages
decreased the insurance market profits that where brought by other classes.

Keywords: insurers, insurance payments, gross written premiums, claims paid

1. INTRODUCTION damages are insignificant values. Real

damages are compensation for actual injuries.
The Insurance contract may have as a Damages are divided into two types: general
finality to pay higher or lower damages and special damages. General damages
depending on insured amount and on the size intended to compensate the defendant loss to
of the damage. On the insurance market the extent that this can be done with the funds,
damages are compensation or indemnity paid and special damages are damages for which
for loss suffered as a result of an injury or the plaintiff has to prove that he had suffered
breach of an contract or of a legal duties in a particular case. [1]
committed by another person. The damage Regarding our work we will be
produced by same cause must be compensated referring in particular to goods and properties
only once. The size of the damage vary damages and also to car damages.
between different classes. The nominal

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 MANAGEMENT

Motor Hull insurance, CMR and CARGO

2. INSURANCE CLAIMS EVOLUTION INTO are voluntary insurance. The insured amounts are
THE ROMANIAN INSURANCE MARKET established based on vehicle value and the value of
FOR GENERAL INSURANCE transported goods is well specified in the transport
documents. The occurrence of damage is much
Goods and properties insurance products easier. The vehicles reparation is made on repair
are made for more than one risk. The most estimates, the compensation and allowances are
complete insurance policies type are the “All risk” paid based for these. No repairs are made without
type. These insurances are required especially for the advice and consent of the insurer. For CMR
bank guarantees and credit insurance policies. In and CARGO insurance the depreciation of
case of bank loans it is required a better risk transported goods is easy and correctly evaluated.
coverage as possible. The best selling auto Compared to MTPL insurance, cases that reach
insurance policies from the insurance market are court are very few.
the following: Motor Hull type, MTPL, CMR and In Table 1.1 is shown the evolution of
Cargo. Of these MTPL insurance is mandatory for amounts of MTPL policies from 2007 to 2013.
all vehicles registered in the country, it is also The Table 2 summarizes the insurance
compulsory for vehicles and motorcycles premiums written by insurers in the period 2007-
registered at local authorities. insured sums for 2013 for general insurance, general insurance
MTPL insurance are predetermined by the rules of claims paid and claims paid for auto.
the Financial Supervision Authority. Since 2007
the year of accession to the European Union, these Figure 1
Evolution of compensation limits for property
amounts have been increasing, until 2012.
damage, bodily injury and death for MTPL
Starting January 1st, 2008 the policies in Romania during 2007-2013
compensation limit for damage was 150,000 euros
and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury and
death was 750,000 euros. Starting January 1st, 2009
the compensation limit for damage was 300,000
euros and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury
and death was 1.5 million euro. Starting January 1st
, 2010 the compensation limit for damage was
500,000 euros and the limit of indemnity for bodily
injury and death was 2.5 million euro. Starting
January 1st, 2011 the compensation limit for
damage was 750,000 euros and the limit of
indemnity for bodily injury and death was 3.5 The Evolution of property damage, bodily
million euro. Starting January 1st, 2009 the injury and death compensation limits, for MTPL
compensation limit for damage was 1 million euro insurance policies in Romania during 2007-2013.
and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury and It is noticed that damage to motor insurance has a
death was 5 million euro. very high value compared to the total damage from
Same compensation limits mentioned general insurance. During the entire analyzed
above, are valid the for 2014. We mentioned these period the auto insurance damage where having
upper limits as they have a great importance for the values greater than 80% of the total insurance
damage payments, especially for personal injuries damage market in Romania.
and death. In most cases are required from the
insurers, compensations payment at the maximum
amount. Romanian insurers propose several
variants of loses compensation offers, most of the
times they are not accepted by the customer and Figure 2 Total motor claims evolution
then the compensation shall be determined in during 2007 to 2013
court.

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
regulated by the insurer's own staff. Insurance
companies with low turnover successfully use
outsourcing for claims liquidation.
For insurance policies whose insured
assets are vehicle the damages had very high
values throughout the analyzed period. It has
affected the profitability of the insurance market.
First measure that requires for auto insurance
profitability is increasing the tariffs. Currently in
Romania there are 11 insurance companies that are
licensed to practice MTPL insurance.
Insurance brokers sell MTPL policies
through specialized rates comparators sites. From
3. LIFE INSURANCES
the analysis of several insurance offers for the
As it was observed from the Romanian
same types of vehicles we found to exist very
insurance market’s evolution in the analyzed
different rates. In some cases the MTPL insurance
period, life insurance is not a strong point for the
rates are double for the same compensation limit.
Romanian financial market. Throughout 2007-
This does not happen and Motor Hull type
2013 this element did not exceed 10% of the total
insurance policies. This fact shows that some
market.
insurance companies are using unsustainable tariff
Regarding the life insurance claims rate it
rates. They do this to increase sales and market
is known to be low. This fact allows to the life
share at the expense of the entire insurance market
insurance companies to capitalize more and more
profitability
in time. The ransom of life insurance policies
before the term is penalized with substantial REFERENCES
reduction from the insurance allowance.
Most life insurance payments and (1) Bennett, C., Insurance Dictionary, translation
redemption redraw, where made before the term, by Daniela Moroianu, Trei Publishing house,
during 2007 – 2013 had a minimum ranged Bucharest, 2002, ISBN 973-8291-26-7
between 11.76% in 2008 and a maximum value of (2) Insurance Supervisory Commission Annual
16.63%, in , 2012. Their evolution, in figures is Report, 2007-2012, ISSN 1841-7256
presented in Table 3. (3) INSURANCE PROFILE Magazine, 2007 -
2014 collection ISSN 1841-740X
4. CONCLUSIONS (4) www.1asig .ro
(5) www.asfromania.ro
In other EU countries insurers are using
(6) www.csa-isc.ro
outsourcing services for claims regulation like
(7) www.daune-auto.ro
independent evaluators.In Romania the insurer has
(8) www.unsar.ro
the monopole and entirely decision for damages
(9) www.unsicar.ro
made on MTPL insurance policies. On voluntary
insurance policies over 90% of car damage are

377
 MANAGEMENT

Table 1
Evolution of compensation limits for property damage, bodily injury and death for MTPL policies in
Romania during 2007-2013
Indicator / Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Compensation 100.000 150.000 300.000 500.000 750.000 1.000.000 1.000.000
limits for
material
damage (Euro)
Compensation 350.000 750.000 1.500.000 2.500.000 3.000.000 5.000.000 5.000.000
limits for
injury and
death (Euro)
Source: Authors data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012.

Table 2
Evolution of general insurance underwritten premiums and insurance compensations for car insurance for
the Romanian insurance market in the period between 2007 and 2013

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Non Life 5.726.752 7.068.174 7.241.584 6.639.733 6.083.943 6.454.395 6.637.648

Insurance
premiums
(thousand
lei )

Total 3.090.977 4.143.706 5.178.480 4.797.561 4.194.673 4.453.718 4.198.252

claims

Total motor 2.527.046 3.713.643 4.487.086 4.136.792 3.643.275 3.809.847 3.687.000

claims

Motor Hull 1.688.726 2.455.510 2.893.841 2.506.558 1.986.086 1.947.134 1.762.000

Claims

MTPL 838.319 1.258.133 1.593.245 1.630.275 1.657.186 1.862.712 1.925.000

Claims

Source: Authors data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we
used information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.

378
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Table 3
Evolution of life insurance premiums and insurance claims for life insurance on the insurance market in
Romania in the period 2007 – 2013

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Life Insurance 1.449.037 1.868.113 1.628.162 1.665.669 1.738.367 1.802.519 1.653.555

premiums
(thousand lei )

Total Claims 187.698 219.856 248.023 271.923 288.397 299.855 242.932

and
redemptions

(thousand lei )

Source: Authors' processes of information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we used
information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.

Table 4
Evolution of insurers and brokers who regulates auto damage in Romania in 2007-2013

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Insurance companies that underwrite 35 32 31 30 31 30 31

car insurance

Insurance brokers that do claims 16 15 21 16 19 16 23

regulations

Source: Authors' data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we
used information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.

379
MANAGEMENT

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AUTOREGRESSIVE MODELS USED IN THE STUDY OF

LABOR MARKET

Constantin Duguleană*, Steliana Busuioceanu**

*Faculty of Economic Science and Business Administration, University Transilvania, Brasov, Romania
** Faculty of Economic Science and Business Administration, University Transilvania, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The macroeconomic management implies the knowledge of correlations between the
macroeconomic indicators and their influence factors. An objective of macroeconomic management is the
efficient use of labour force. The paper analyses significant aspects of increasing efficiency of labour
force use by emphasising some timing correlations between different macroeconomic indicators, relevant
for the labour market. The analysed indicators are participation rate, unemployment rate and activity
rate. The econometric analysis supposes elaboration of an autoregressive model, estimation of
parameters, studying of Granger causality, stationarity testing, analysis impulse/response, determination
of lag length and other operations. The analysed period is 1990-2013.

Keywords: labour market, participation rate, autoregressive model, econometric model

1. INTRODUCTION Private consumption depends primarily on

disposable income. In general, an increase in
On short term the economic activity disposable income determines the movement
depends on the demand. At microeconomic to the right of aggregate demand curve, and as
level, to maximise the profit, the economic a result, causes a stimulation of overall
agents are concerned to satisfy better possible economic activity.
the demand, as a premise of their financial In this context, income from jobs, salaries
stability. Also, an important concern is the and income of people operating on their own
promotion of products to increase demand and play a fundamental role, being the largest part
attract new customers.  of the disposable income. The size of this type
At the macroeconomic level, aggregate of income depends on how the labour market
demand increases real GDP and the economy works. Labour market status is an important
moves toward expansion. Aggregate demand indicator of the state of the economy.
growth is considering its most important An increase in unemployment and a
component: private consumption of goods and decrease in labour income is a sign of
services. worsening state of the economy, as the
The mood of the population, monetary reduction of unemployment and labour income
policy, fiscal policy and the state of the global growth is a sign of its recovery.
economy are among the factors that can Careful monitoring of the state of the
influence private consumption. labour market, necessary and possible, may

381
 MANAGEMENT

provide the driving factors in a short time, the available (published by INS), the parameters
information needed for decision making of of different models were estimated and also
economic policy. there were calculated all statistics to validate
In the medium and long term, attention them. The software used is Eviews 7.1.
must focus equally also on the terms of the
offer. Job creation through investment, 4. STUDY OF LABOUR FORCE
modernization of manufacturing technologies, PARTICIPATION RATE
development of distribution networks,
production management improvement The used model is:
activities are capable to ensure a better rp 1 1 rp poc(-1) where:
possible employment of labour resources. rp is the participation rate, calculated as
ratio between the labour force (civil
2. THEORETICAL BASES active population) and the population
of and over 15 years; rp is also an
Theoretical foundation of this work is the explanatory variable, as lagged variable
neoclassical model of the labor market. with one time unit.
Theoretical aspects of the neoclassical model poc is the civil occupied population. In the
of the labor market are analyzed by Abel, AB, model poc is lagged with two time
Bernanke, BS (2001) "Macroeconomics" units.
Blanchard O. (2006), "Macroeconomics" The participation rate dependency on the
Mankiw NG (1994), "Macroeconomis" and occupied population is illustrated in Figure 1.
others. It can be seen that the ratio of these two
The way to form the occupation, how quantities has a high stability. Also, there is a
wages are determined, the conditions giving tendency for stabilization of both the
the existence of a permanent unemployment, participation rate, as well as the occupied
how the state finances unemployment benefits, population.
factors affecting supply and demand for labour Two independent variables were included
are neoclasic model features of the labour in the model, the first being rp with one lag
market. time, the latter being poc with two lag periods.
The classical labor market theory is the This reflects the high inertia of the labor
foundation of many other econometric market. The model contains no free term.
analyses of the labor market: Dobrescu E.
mil.pers.
(2006), Macromodels of the Romanian Market
11.0
Economy, Albu, LL (2004), Dynamics of the
natural rate of unemployment in the transition .68
10.5

period, Stockhammer, E. (2002), Explaining .64

10.0

European Unemployment: Testing the NAIRU 9.5

Theory and a Keynesian Approach, and others. .60

9.0

.56
8.5
3. RESEARCH METHOD
.52 8.0

The research method used is the .48

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
econometric analysis. Autoregressive Populatia ocupata Rata de participare
econometric model allows the analysis of
correlations between macroeconomic Figure 1. Evolution of rp and poc in 1990-2012
measurements, with a certain lag.
For example, theoretically, the The estimation results are:
unemployment rate is countercyclical variable rpt = 0.36021· rpt-1 + 3.72E-08 · poct-2
and delayed (Abel 2001). This means that (0.0349) (0.0007)
there is a lag between changes in [2.2561] [3.9476]
unemployment and overall business (·) = probability threshold
development. Using macroeconomic data [·] = t-Statistic

382
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Both variables are significant. It is to other variables through the dynamic
important to check if the variables are Granger structure of the model.
causes, one for the other. The results of
Granger test are presented in Table 1. It can be Inverse Roots of AR Characteristic Polynomial

seen that poc is a Granger cause of rp for each 1.5

of the three lags. But there is kept poct-2 for

1.0
which the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis is the greatest value. 0.5
According to Dobrescu E.[6] on long-term,
the stabilization of the civil active population 0.0
determines the participation rate to stabilize
itself at a level equal to: -0.5

(pop(-2)* 3.72E-08) / (1 – 0.36021). -1.0

VAR Granger Causality/Block Exogeneity Wald Tests -1.5

Date: 05/14/14 Time: 19:09 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Sample: 1989 2013

Included observations: 23 Figure 2. The roots of the characteristic equation
Lags: 1
Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob. In Figure 3 is presented the chart of
poc does not Granger Cause rp 11.8139 0.0026 response function of the variable rp to a shock
rp does not Granger Cause poc 2.85491 0.1066 suffered by poc. It can be noticed that in the
Lags: 2 first three periods from the moment of the
Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob.
shock on poc, rp answers with a deep
poc does not Granger Cause rp 9.95626 0.0014
rp does not Granger Cause poc
decreasing.
1.19033 0.3282
Lags: 3 Response of RP to Cholesky
Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob. One S.D. Innovations
poc does not Granger Cause rp 4.10550 0.0277 .012

rp does not Granger Cause poc 0.70436 0.5651

.010

Table 1. Granger causality between rp and poc .008

The graph of the roots of characteristic .006

equation, shown in Figure 2 highlights the

.004
stationary character of the explanatory
variables. It notices that all roots of the .002

characteristic equation are less than the 1,

.000
which means that the autoregressive model is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

stationary. RP POC(-1)

Functions impulse/response highlight how

a shock propagates to one of the explanatory Figure 3. Response function of rp
variables. A shock not only directly affects the As the shock effect is diminishing on poc,
variable on which works, but it is transmitted rp continues to decrease, but the decrease is
much slower. After the first three periods,

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 MANAGEMENT

there is a remarkable stability between the two (CPI). The chart of evolution of yearly real net
series, the decrease was strongly correlated average wage is presented in Figure 5.
with decreased one another.
4,400
Forecasting the evolution of participation
rate is presented graphically in Figure 4 and it 4,000

highlights the interval [0.46, 0.52] in which it 3,600

will be in the coming years. 3,200

.68 2,800

.64 2,400

2,000
.60

1,600
.56 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

.52 Figure 5. Evolution of real net average wage

.48
The results of estimation of model
.44
parameters are:
92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12

RPF ± 2 S.E. rst = 0.82031· rst-1 + 0.00055 · sut

(0.10640) (0.0003)
Figure 4. Probable future values of rp [7.7100] [1.8646]
(·) = probability threshold
It is noticed the evolution tendency [·] = t-Statistic
towards stability.
In this formulation, the variable rst-1 is
5. STUDY OF UNEMPLOYMENT RATE significant at a significance threshold greater
than 10.6%. The analysis of Granger causality
The unemployment rate, rs, is the second based on the data from Table 2, emphasises
analysed variable. According the Bureau of the fact that only for the lag of order 1 it exists
Labor Statistics (BLS), the unemployment rate a Granger causality between rs and su.
is calculating as a ratio between the number of
unemployed, sbim and the civil active VAR Granger Causality/Block Exog. Wald Tests
population (labour force), pac. Date: 05/15/14 Time: 09:29
Sample: 1989 2013
Included observations: 23
rs = sbim / pac * 100, where: Lags: 1
Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob.
rs is unemployment rate;
su does not Granger Cause rs 0.94309 0.3431
sbim is the number of unemployed BLS; rs does not Granger Cause su 10.6887 0.0038
pac is the labour force. Lags: 2
According [3] unemployment rate is Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob.
significantly correlated with the labour cost, su does not Granger Cause rs 0.87285 0.4257
respectively with the unitary wage, su. The rs does not Granger Cause su 1.11762 0.3499
model used for studying the unemployment Lags: 3
rate is: Null Hypothesis: F-Statistic Prob.
rs 1 1 rs su(1), where: su does not Granger Cause rs 0.44140 0.7270
rs does not Granger Cause su 1.23290 0.3347
rs is unemployment rate; rs appears
between the explanatory variables, Table 2. Granger causality between su and rs
lagged with one lag;
su is the unitary wage. From this reason, influences of su over rs
To estimate the model, there were used the were not considered with lags, in the model. In
data from INS, of yearly nominal net average fact, the unemployment rate is powerfully
wage, corrected with Consumers Prices Index correlated with current su. The explanatory

384
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variable rst-1 was included in the model ro occupied population. Influence of occupied
reflect te high degree of inertia of labour population on labor participation rate occurs
market. mainly with a lag of two years.
Response function of rs at a shock on su, Current participation rate is itself
presented in Figure 6, shows that rs decreases influenced by the rate of participation in the
when su increases, that is corresponding to the previous year. An increase in the participation
theoretical fundamentals. rate by 1% increases the participation rate of
It can be noticed that the shock of about 0.36% next year.
increasing su, even it slowly diminishes, It can be seen inertial character of the labor
influences rs a long period (at least 5 succesive market suggested by theoretical works that
periods). Is is accepted that an increasing of su underlie the study of the labor market.
will change the expectations, these becoming On the other hand, the unemployment rate
more optimistic. is strongly correlated with real unitary wage.
In the conducted research, using real net
Response of RS to Cholesky
One S.D. Innovations average salary, calculated on the basis of INS
1.6 data, deflated with CPI. Average net real wage
1.4 from 1989 decreased persistently during 1990-
1.2
2000.
The level in 1989 was exceeded only in
1.0
2004, increasing thereafter. Real net average
0.8
wage is not only the main factor that
0.6
determines the size of private consumption,
0.4 but the main factor influencing the
0.2 unemployment rate.
0.0 Note that the current real net average wage
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
is one that has a significant influence on the
RS SU(1) unemployment rate. The constant growth of
Figure 6. Response function of rs
real net average wage is likely to change
expectations, resulting in a sequential increase
The unitary wages are correlated with the in consumption and a gradual reduction in the
labor productivity. unemployment rate.

6. CONCLUSIONS

In correlation with the research objective,

autoregressive models used to study the
evolution of labor market indicators, highlight
the correlations between these and other
macroeconomic variables.
Thus, the participation rate, which is Years rp poc popover15
intrinsically linked to demographic evolution 1989 0.62 10,946,000 17,552,215
of population, is strongly correlated with 1990 0.61 10,839,500 17,702,916

385
 MANAGEMENT

1991 0.63 10,786,000 17,796,308 REFERENCES

1992 0.65 10,458,000 17,628,133
1993 0.63 10,062,000 17,748,687
1994 0.63 10,011,600 17,870,437
1. Abel, A., Bernanke, S., Macroeconomics,
1995 0.58 9,493,000 17,981,825 Addison Wesley (2001)
1996 0.56 9,379,000 18,082,636 2. Albu L., Dinamica ratei naturale a
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2006 0.49 8,469,300 18,250,418
5. Busuioceanu S., Correcting Accounting
2007 0.50 8,725,900 18,246,731 Errors and Acknowledging them in the
2008 0.50 8,747,000 18,249,385 Earnings to the Period, Annals of
2009 0.50 8,410,700 18,234,744 Constantin Brancusi, University of Targu
2010 0.49 8,371,300 18,210,068 Jiu, Economy Series, Issue 5 (2013)
2011 0.49 8,365,500 18,174,982
2012 0.50 8,569,600 18,144,412
6. Caire G., L’economie du travail. Des
2013 0.50 9,057,625 18,115,350 reperes pour comprendre et agir, Ed. Liris
Source: INS (1994)
7. Dobrescu E., Macromodels of the
Years rs sbim su
1989 NA NA 3,063
Romanian Market Economy, Ed.
1990 1.1 123,000 3,217 Economica (2006)
1991 3.0 337,400 2,627 8. Lardalo L., Applied Econometrics, Harper
1992 8.2 929,000 2,285 Collins College Publishers, (1992)
1993 8.5 952,000 1,902 9. Maddala G.S., Kim I., Units Roots,
1994 8.6 971,000 1,911
1995 9.2 968,000 2,150
Cointegration and Structural Change,
1996 7.5 748,057 2,354 Cambridge University Press, (2000)
1997 6.7 664,686 1,818 10. Mankiw N.G., Macroeconomis, Worth
1998 7.0 688,400 1,884 Publishing, (1994)
1999 7.8 745,526 1,888 11. Stockhammer E., Explaining European
2000 8.0 775,465 1,821
2001 7.6 711,299 1,911
Unemployment: Testing the NAIRU
2002 9.3 845,273 1,957 Theory and a Keynesian Approach,
2003 7.7 691,755 2,168 International Review of Applied
2004 9.1 799,526 2,397 Economics, vol. 18 (2002)
2005 7.9 704,462 2,740 12. www.insse.ro
2006 8.2 728,837 2,985
2007 7.0 640,942 3,426
2008 6.3 575,547 3,991
2009 7.5 680,683 3,929
2010 8.1 725,150 3,786
2011 8.3 730,217 3,715
2012 7.7 701,210 3,752
2013 7.3 730,131 3,885
Source: INS

 
 

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CHANGES IN TOP 10 EUROPEAN BRAND CORPORATIONS

DURING THE ECONOMIC CRISIS

Liliana DUGULEANĂ, Constantin DUGULEANĂ

*Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, Transilvania University, Brașov, Romania

Abstract: The paper presents some analyses of Eurobrand reports about top 10 brand corporations,
during the period 2007-2013, to capture the effect of economic crisis from 2008. The analyses refer at the
following aspects: tendencies in top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013, development
potential of top 10 European best brand corporations, the evolution of total value of top 10 European
brand corporations and the structural changes on industries of top 10 European brand corporations
during 2007-2013. The structural changes of top 10 European brand corporations could characterize the
changes of European economy and at national level for some developed countries. Some conclusions
were formulated based on the analyses of top 10 European brand corporations’ values.

Keywords: brand value, valuation method, brand rankings, brand corporation value

1. INTRODUCTION the behavioural or technological aspects. The

standards allow comparable valuations by
Few companies are well known at harmonising different aspects.
international level on the market of brand The ON Rule ONR 16800 was the first
management and consultancy services. normative document on brand valuation
Interbrand, Millward Brown, Brand Finance, world-wide and it was presented in 2006, by
Global Finance, the European Brand Institute Austrian Standards Office. Based on this
and many others produce annual rankings of document in 2010, the International
top 10, top 50 or top 100 Best Global Single Organization for Standardization (ISO) created
Brands or Corporation Brands, at World and the standard BSI ISO 10668 Brand Valuation:
European level, country and regional level or Requirements for monetary brand valuation
within certain industries and some social and the International Valuation Standards
activities. Council created an international valuation
The European Brand Institute in Vienna standard for the intangible assets. [1, 2, 3]
analyses intangible assets as patent and brand In January 2011, experts of the European
values. Its body of European independent Brand Institute presented two standards on
experts are annually publishing the brand brand valuation and on patent valuation.
valuation studies “Eurobrand“ for 3,000 brand Dr. Karl Grün, director at Austrian
corporations in 24 countries and within 16 Standards Institute, considers “In today’s
industries of Europe, America and Asia. modern economy, intangible assets are of
The valuation models usually focus on the increasing significance. …. it is important to
reports of financial transactions and either on

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determine the value of brands and patents in a and on the 10th place, a company in
reliable, transparent and traceable way.“[4] telecommunications field from Hong Kong
The companies of brand management have (China). Four from the nine American
their own methods of valuation. Even the same companies are from IT & Technology industry
company of top rankings uses different and the other five are from Consumer Goods
valuation methods for different brands, industry. Apple is the most valuable global
depending on the most reliable sources of data. brand in 2013, followed by the brand portfolio
The analysis of top 10 European brand of the Coca Cola Company, Google on the 3rd
corporations was based on the results offered place, Microsoft on the 4th and IBM on the 5th
by the Eurobrand reports of European Brand place. The Eurobrand Global Top 100 Brand
Institute. The principle of data homogeneity is Corporations 2012 ranked ten American
respected by using the reports of a single top Companies, on the first ten places. Google was
ranking company, as Eurobrand. So, placed the 5th but in 2013, the 3rd. The
considering that the procedures of collecting structure on industries was just the same as in
data and brand valuation methods could be the 2013, even on the same ranked places.
same in order to analyse the tops 10 during 2.2 Eurobrand – top 10 European brand
2007-2013. corporations during 2007-2013. The brand
The way the crisis acted across the top 10, rankings “Eurobrand - Top 10 Brand
50 or 100 brand corporations, could indicate Corporations Europe” extracted from
the structural changes in the European “Eurobrand - Global Top 100 Brand
economy or at national level for some Corporations offered by European Brand
developed countries, due to the intangible Institute were considered for the period 2007-
powerful forces which make the brands to be 2013 to emphasise the main changes of their
bought. positions. The Top 10 European most valuable
brand values during 2007-2013 are presented
2. BRANDS PREVAILING IN TOP 10 in Table 1.
DURING 2007-2013 It can be noticed that in 2007, Nokia from
Finland was the only company from IT &
2.1 Eurobrand – top global brand Technology industry, number 1 in Top 10
corporations. Dr. Gerhard Hrebicek, the European Brand Corporations.
president of the European Brand Institute, Three years, from 2007 - 2009, Nokia was
considers that “Europe‘s future is based on on the 1st place and in 2010 it placed on 2nd;
valuable brands“.[5] In this context, the then it disappeared from top 10, in 2011 being
economic crisis challenging the economies of on 14th place from European top 50, and out of
EU country members influences the most tops starting with 2012. Nokia is an example
valuable European brand corporation. of a powerful brand which failed because of
The report Eurobrand Global Top 100 lacking the strategy of innovation to keep the
Brand Corporations 2013, has established on pace with the development as the other
the first ten places, nine companies from USA companies from IT & Technology industry.
(mil. Euro)

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2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 
Brand  Value  Brand  Value  Brand  2009  Brand  Value  Brand  Value  Brand  Value  Brand  Value 
Nokia          32322  Nokia          38283  Nokia          35220 LVMH          27638 LVMH          31699 LVMH           34306  LVMH           39344
LVMH           29831  LVMH          34907  LVMH          32365 Nokia          25331 Vodafone     28505 Vodafone       28578  Nestle         34364
Unilever       25136  Vodafone     24128  ABInBev       26927 Vodafone     25318 ABInBev       25481 ABInBev        28021  Vodafone      28926
Telefonica    23858  Telefonica    22550  Vodafone     23789 ABInBev       23604 Nestle        25418 Nestle         27473  ABInBev        28102
Vodafone     22550  Unilever      21638  Unilever      22829 Unilever      22212 Unilever      24344 Unilever       26022  Unilever       27715
Mercedes‐ 20483  Mercedes‐ 21359  Telefonica    22128 Telefonica    21880 Telefonica   23384 Telefonica     21993  Volkswagen    23121
Benz  Benz 
T  18269  BMW  20061 
Mercedes‐ 19392 Nestle         19563 DAIMLER     19552 SAB Miller     18870  SAB Miller    20562
Deutsche     Group      Benz 
BMW  17298  RBS Group    19135  T  19093 T  18001 T  18102 Volkswagen    18483  BMW  19212
Group      Deutsche    Deutsche    Deutsche    Group     
France  17068  France  19123  BMW  18765 SAB Miller    17572 BASF           17884 BASF           18374  BASF           18895
Teleco  Teleco  Group     
ABInBev        16873  Deutsche  18172  SAB Miller    18349 Mercedes‐ 16940 SAB Miller    17764 BMW  18238  Telefonica    18083
Bank  Benz  Group     

Table 1. European Top 10 Brand Corporation Values during 2007-2013

As a representative of its industry, this one rank in top 2007 and 2008, then on the 6th
also has gone out from of top 10, starting with place for four years, until 2012, and on the 10th
2011 until nowadays. place in top 2013.
The IT & Technology market is dominated Vodafone from U.K. also in
by the American most valuable brands: Apple, telecommunications industry oscillated
Google, Microsoft and IBM. between the 5th place in 2007, 3rd in top 2008,
LVMH Group (including Luis Vuitton, 2010 and 2013, 4th in 2009 and 2nd in top 2011
Moet, Hennessy, etc.) from France in the and 2012.
luxury industry was on the 2nd position three Mercedes-Benz from Germany in
years at the beginning of the analysed period, automotive industry was on 6th place in top
from 2007 until 2009, and then for the last four 2007 and 2008, on 7th in top 2009, on 10th in
years, from 2010 until 2013, occupies the 1st top 2010, then with Daimler Company on 7th
place in the top 10 European brand in top 2011, but the next two year 2012 and
corporations. LVMH Group was on the 12 2013 it did not appear in top 10. In Global top
place in Eurobrand Global Top 100 Brand 100, Daimler was ranked in 2013, on 43rd
Corporations in 2013, rising from the 14th place after 48th place in top 2012.
position in 2012. The luxury goods industry in The automotive industry is also represented
2013 is represented in Global Top 100, also by by BMW Group from Germany in top 10 in
French company Dior, placed on the 73rd 2007 on 8th place, and even if it moved to 7th
position in ascending from the 91st place, in place in 2008, then to 9th in 2009, it did not
2012. appear in top 10 of top 2010 and 2011, but the
Unilever Corporation in consumer goods strategic management placed it up again from
industry from United Kingdom was placed the 10th place in 2012, on 8th place in 2013.
3rd in top 2007 and for six years, from 2008 Volkswagen Company in automotive
until 2013, it keeps the 5th place. industry from Germany entered on 8th position
Telefonica Corporation from Spain in in top 10 in 2012, and rises on 6th place in top
telecommunications field was placed on 4th 2013. Germany was also present in top 10

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industries, with T Deutsche from ABInBev Group from Belgium in
telecommunications field, on 7th position in consumer goods industry which occupied the
2007, it was not in 2008, but then on 8th place 10th place in 2007, was absent in top 10 of
for three successive years, from 2009 until 2008, but entered directly on 3rd place in 2009,
2011, since when it has not anymore been 2011 and 2012 and 4th place in 2010 and 2013.
ranked in top 10. After the economic crisis began to shadow,
But Germany was also present in finances in top 10 from 2010, the consumer goods
& banking field with Deutsche Bank on 10th industry was developed by the companies
position in 2008. It was the only year when the Nestle from Switzerland and SAB Miller from
finances & banking field was well represented, U.K. positioned on 7th place, respectively on
also by RBS Group from Scotland, on 8th 9th. In 2011 and 2012 Nestle occupied the 4th
position. The year of starting the economic position in top 10, but in 2013 it had the 2nd
crisis in Europe, had two representatives from place. 
finances & banking field in top 10. The Starting with 2011, BASF Company in
analysed period did not show other chemical industry, from Germany, occupied
representative in top 10 for this field. the 9th place for three years, from 2011 until
France Telecom Group was present on the 2013.
9th place in top 10 in 2007 and 2008 then it 2.3 Tendencies in top 10 European
stopped its appearance in Eurobrand rankings brand corporations, during 2007-2013. The
of top 10 brand corporations. The competition chart of boxplots for the top 10 from each year
of Vodafone from UK and Telefonica from is presented in Figure 1.
Spain, in telecommunications industry was
strong.

Figure 1. Boxplots for the top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013 
Looking at the chart there can be corporations’ values, the levels of the lower
appreciated: the variation of brand

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values, median values, the upper values and brand values of top 10 in 2013, there can be
the existence of outliers, for each year. obtained the chart from Figure 2.
The variation of brand values was the The emphasised brand corporations from
lowest in 2008, as the boxplot is the smallest, the first and from the fourth frame of the chart
but there are two extreme values for LVMH had positive annual growth rates during the
and Nokia. It is the only year with outliers. analyzed period. All the brands placed in the
The lowest variation of brand values was in third frame had negative annual average
2010. The highest variation was recorded in dynamic rates and all of them are placed below
2013. Starting with 2010 the variation of top the average value of all the brand
10 brand values became greater and greater; corporations’ values. They do not have
the spreading of values increased. The chances to enter again the top 10.
decreasing of spread from 2009 to 2010 shows Telefonica from Spain had a negative
that the crisis ended in 2010, being the first average dynamic rate, even if it was ranked in
year of re-launching the brand values on top 10 from 2013. Also BMW Group and
ascending tendency. A lag of two years since BASF, both from Germany are placed under
the crisis started in 2008, can be noticed on the average value of all considered brands, but
this chart. The persistence of crisis was until having positive dynamic rates, they have
2010. The median value was mostly the same chances to keep their places in top 10.
for 2007 and 2008, and it began to increase in BASF has even a greater annual dynamic
2011, being the greatest in 2013. The lowest rate compared with that of SAB Miller, and so
value of the 10th place was in 2007 and the it has potential to raise more its value. Nestle
next in 2010. from Switzerland has the greatest potential of
2.4 Development potential of the development with the highest value of annual
European best brand corporations during growth rate of 16.5%.
2007-2013. Considering all the brand Nokia and RBS Group have the most
corporations ranked in top 10 by Eurobrand unfavourable positions in the third frame, with
during the period 2007-2013 there can be seen negative annual growth rates; close to -26%
their positions when the economic crisis for Nokia and - 7% for RBS Group.
started and during the 2008-2012 global
recession.
Calculating the annual average dynamic
rates of the brand corporations’ values, during
the period 2007-2013 and depending on the

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Figure 2. The development potential of the European best brand corporations, during 2007-2013

LVMH distinguishes as the best brand Telefonica is outside this group, with negative
value close to 40,000 mil. Euro followed by dynamic rate.
Nestle with the greatest potential of 2.5. Evolution of the total value of top 10
development. The corporations having positive European brand corporations. The total
annual dynamic rates comprised in the interval value of top 10 brand corporations’ values has
0 - 10%, are forming a group of seven brands. the evolution presented in Figure 3.

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2.6. The structural changes on
industries of top 10 European brand
corporations. Analysing the structure of
economic activities for the top 10 brand
corporations, there can be noticed some
interesting changes, emphasised in Figure 4.
For each year of the analysed period there
can be seen the structure of brand
corporations’ value in certain economic field.
The value of brand corporations in
telecommunications decreased from 37% in
2007 until 18% in 2013.
Automotive industry was around 16-17%
in 2007-2009; during 2010-2011, it decreased
Figure 3. Evolution of top 10 brand value until half, being 8%, but in 2012-2013, it
during 2007-2013 revived again at 16%.
The IT&Technology with 14% in 2007,
It can be noticed the decline in 2010 of increased in 2008 at 16%, but decreased until
total value as sum of top 10 brand 12% in 2010, since when the field was no
corporations’ values with a two-year lag in its more represented.
evolution, affected by the economic crisis The banking and finances was present only
started in 2008. when the crisis started, in 2008, with 16%.
Only in 2013, this total value was greater The luxury industry was present the entire
than the total value from 2008. period with almost a constant proportion,
Starting with 2010, the value of top 10 between 13% and 15% from total value of top
brand corporations increased with an annual 10 brand corporations.
average dynamic rate of 5.8%.

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Figure 4. Structural changes in the value of top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013

Chemical industry began to appear in top For the last two years 2012 and 2013, the
10 starting with 2011 with a constant structures of the value of top 10 brand
proportion of 7-8%. corporations were mostly the same.
The deep change was in consumer goods 2.7. The structure of total value top 10
industry which increased from 19% in 2007, at on European origin countries of brand
43% in 2013. The economic crisis influenced corporations. The structure of total value on
this industry, which in 2008 had 9%. origin countries of top 10 brand corporations is
shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. European countries of top 10 brand corporations, during 2007-2013

 

In all top 10 rankings during 2007-2013, Switzerland which entered top 10 in 2009
there were six European countries. In 2009 had an increasing tendency from 9% until 13%
was the single year when there were seven in 2013.
countries represented. U.K. and Germany have the most powerful
U.K. had the largest proportion of about brand corporations in Europe. U.K. dominates
30%, in the top 10 of the last four years of the the consumer goods industry. Germany has the
analysed period. reins of the automotive and chemical industry
Germany maintained its second position in Europe, ensuring a more sustainable
for five years, with weights of 23-24%. character to its national economy.
For five years from 2009-2013, France
kept 14-15% from the total value of the top 10 3. CONCLUSIONS
brand corporations in Europe.
In entire analysed period, Spain kept its In the last decade, Europe failed in IT &
middle position in top 10, oscillating between Technology industry face of USA companies.
7%-10%. Nokia lost the fight in this industry.
For five years Belgium is present in top 10 In Europe, the luxury industry from France
with 11-12%. is dominating the brand rankings before and

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after the economic crisis. The conclusion is The innovative character of brand
that the crisis was an opportunity for the management ensures the resistance in top
expansion of this industry, creating an rankings of the best brand corporations.
economic advantage for France. Information and communications
The economic crisis in Europe did not technologies offer important advantages for
influence the telecommunications industry: the companies which allocate marketing
Telefonica from Spain and Vodafone from budgets in building customers relationship,
U.K. kept their middle places in the top using the new tools of social-media and
rankings. Internet. Strategies in real time are elaborated
The influence of economic crisis over the based on administration Big Data, to offer new
automotive industry has been delayed with a products and services to the customers, ready
lag of two years. After the crisis was gone, in prepared to buy their brands.
2010, the automotive industry developed in
force and the powerful German economy is REFERENCES
present in all tops of analysed period through
its automotive construction companies. 1. http://www.ivsc.org/products
Germany has the most powerful economy 2. http://www.ivsc.org/content/ivsc-publish-
being well represented during the analyzed revised-guidance-valuation-intangible-
period, for top industries as: automotive, assets
telecommunications and banking. 3. http://shop.bsigroup.com/upload/Standards
The distribution on European countries of %20&%20Publications/IPM_Brand_Valua
top 10 brand corporations’ origin is not tion_article.pdf
concentrated in few countries. Top 10 in 2013 4. http://www.europeanbrandinstitute.com/
ranks the brand corporations from: France, 5. http://www.eurobrand.cc/
Switzerland, U.K., Belgium, Germany and 6. Best Global Brands,
Spain. http://www.gfmag.com/tools/global-
database/economic-data/11936-best-
global-brands.html#axzz2ynUICnvO

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ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A

ORGANIZATION USING MULTIPLE REGRESSION

PhD Flavia FECHETE*, Prof.univ.dr. Anisor NEDELCU**

*,**Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management, Transilvania University

of Brasov, Brasov, Romania.

Abstract: Economic performance is one of the major goals of any company. This involes important
decisions to optimize the allocation of cash resources, ie labor, raw materials, energy, capital equipment,
etc.. The objectives of the organization can be measured as effectiveness (the extent to which objectives
have been met) or as efficiency (the extent to which objectives have been achieved in the available
resources).
In this regard, it is particularly important to identify factors that influence getting the desired income and
the degree of their influence on the economic performance of the organization. This paper aims is to
realize an analysis of these factors and their degree of correlation on economic performance using
multiple regression.

Keywords: economic performance, efficiency, regression analysis, variables, correlation.

1. INTRODUCTION The economic literature of our country

defines organization performance: "an
Strategic performance, operational, enterprise is performant if it is both productive
team or at individual level is a major objective and effective", productivity representing the
of any company. To appreciate the extent to ratio between the results and the means
which organizational goals are achieved and employed to obtain the results and
business strategies are effective, it is effectiveness representing the ratio between
imperative to define an integrated system of the results and the results expected. [3]
indicators that can tell us at any time if our The cost and profits are, in fact, the
business is going in the right direction or not. elementary performance for firms and
Moreover, any management decision industries from which derive other indicators.
should be based on a good knowledge of the In this respect, in the present paper we
current state of the business, which is not intend to identify and analyze sales revenue
possible without a system of performance which is one of the main indicators that reflect
indicators to inform management about the economic performance of the organization.
results obtained in all key activities and For this purpose, we will use regression
processes of the company. analysis to identify factors that contribute to
influence economic performance of the

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organization, and the degree of correlation The general expression of a regression

with it. model can be written as:
To illustrate the method used will make y = f ( , ,,…, ,) + ε, in which:
a case study applied to a company, ie, a sugar y – dependent variable (output),
factory that produces crystal sugar. randomized;
The activity of the Sugar Factory is the , ..., , - independent variables
processing of sugar beet, in the last quarter of (factorial), non-randomized;
the residue having a current repair activity. ε– random variable error or residue.
The final product obtained is white crystal Random variable ε summarizes the influences
sugar, which is distributed to different of variables not included in the model that
beneficiaries. influences the variable y.
The following section of the paper will Multiple regression method is
highlight the exact research methods used in considered an explanatory one for explaining
the analysis performed. the change of a complex phenomenon
analyzed based on the variation of the
2. RESEARCH METHOD variables considered independent or
exogenous [2].
Using statistical analysis – as a Multiple regression analysis is useful in
statistical part , as a scientific discipline it aims building econometric models. A socio-
to discover what is permanent in stochastic economic phenomenon is influenced by the
processes variation and to measure the combined action of several factors.
influence that determines the change in time Considering several explanatory variables for
and space, in the qualitative point of view. [4] this phenomenon will lead to the identification
For this purpose there are used the of a model that reproduces the actual behavior
following types of anlaysis : regression in a measure closer to reality.
analysis, correlation analysis, ANOVA and The purpose of the econometric
time series analysis. analysis is to estimate and predict the average
In a research based on correlation and value of the variable y based on known or
regression analysis there must be solved the fixed values of the explanatory variables.
following problems: identifying the existence Multiple regression analysis allows to estimate
of the link consisting of logical analysis of the the parameters of the econometric model,
possibility of existence of a link between the analyze correlations between variables, testing
variables considered, determining the intensity the significance of the explanatory variables.
of the link , problem solved with parametric or For multiple regression, the most
nonparametric indicators of intensity common problem that occurs is related to the
correlation using correlation analysis, establish result of the strong ties of interdependence
the meaning and form of connection for using between the independent variables. They may
specific methods of regression analysis : basic lead to improper regression coefficients, so
methods and analytical methods.[1] the estimating becomes impossible or they
The concept of regression expresses a can seriously distort it. Therefore, when the
statistic connection, ie average regression on independent variables of a regression model
the behavior of variables. Regression analysis are not closely related, the results may have
is used for: the accuracy needed.
- estimation of a variable holding values of The degree of correlation intensity
another / other variables; between phenomena will be obtained by
-assessment of the measure that the setting specific gravity of dispersion based on
dependent variable can be explained by the recorded factor by total dispersion. [5]
independent variable or a set of independent This indicator is called the coefficient
variables; of multiple determination ( ) and measures
-identification of a subset of several
independent variables to be taken into account the proportion of variation in y that is
to estimate the dependent variable. explained by the variables , ,,…, .

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A small coefficient of determination
( ) or very small regression parameters can
indicate either a very small causal link, but Thus, it was established as a dependent
may also result from wrong or improper variable the financial indicator total revenue,
mathematical representation of the and as independent variables: number of
relationships between variables. employees, advertising expenses and product
Even if we are using reliable data, a big price.
does not necessarily means that there is a To explain the variation of the
strong causal relationship. It follows that, on dependent variable - total revenue - by its
the basis of regression, it is not possible to covariance with independent variables:
determine causation. number of employees, advertising and
promotion expenses, and price / product (lei),
3. MYLTIVARIATE ANALYSIS USING we use a multiple regression statistical model
MULTIPLE REGRESSION - CASE defined by:
STUDY y = + + +....+ + ε,
where :
In this section of the paper we use as y= the explained variable;
explanatory multivariate method multiple x1 = the explanatory variable 1;
regression analysis to analyze correlations x2 = the explanatory variable 2;
between variables and establishing the validity ...
of the multiple regression model. xk = explanatory variable k.
In this regard, we consider the = model parameters.
following financial ratios derived from the ε = specification error, unknown(the difference
organization studied during years 2007-2013: between the true and the specified model);
incomes, number of employees, advertising n = number of observations.
expenses and product price, as described in In Figures 2, 3 and 4 there are
Table 1. presented the correlations between the
dependent variable, determined as sales
Table 1.Company's financial indicators revenue influenced by other variables
Source: mfinante.ro, bvb.ro. considered factors.

Incomes Nr. Adv. Product

(milioane Emplo expenses price
lei) yees (mii lei) (lei)
2007 66,8 247 23,8 18,3
2008 92,27 233 28,3 20,5
2009 69,8 272 27,6 16,5
2010 73,35 256 26,7 17,6
2011 75,74 234 30 18,4
2012 83,31 212 29 20,02
2013 85,6 201 30,1 21,2

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 MANAGEMENT

Figure 2. Inverse relation between the Figure 4. Direct link between

amount of sales and number of employees the sales and price/product

Table regression is shown in Table 5.

Figure 3. Direct link between the sales and This was performed using the computer
program Microsoft Excel using the commands
advertising expenses Data Analysis / Regression.
The identified model is:
-272,23 + 2,17 + 0, 46 + 9, 47 ,
adjusted values are presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Evolution of sales revenues

achieved by the company in the period 2007-
2013 and their adjustment.

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
indicated by Student calculated ratios, that are
Table 5. Table of regression model with three higher than the theoretical value of the Student
explanatory variables table, the values P-value that is less than 5%.
Besides global significance test, there
are analyzed the significance tests of
individual coefficients for each explanatory
variable in the model.
Summary
OUTPUT Student ratio for each regression
coefficient is compared with the theoretical
Regression Student value for α = 5% and three degrees of
Statistics freedom which is 3,18, calculated in Excel
Multiple 0,98 using TINV function. Student theoretical
R ration of 3,18 is less than each value calculated
R Square 0,97 (4.17; 4,21; 6,44), and this shows that each of
Adjusted 0,94 the variables: number of employees,
R Square advertising expense and product price helps in
Standard 2,23
Error
explaining the variation of variable y, ie sales
Observ. 7 revenue.
We also identify the confidence
intervals for the coefficients and we observe
ANOVA
that tehy do not change sign in the lower end
df SS MS F Sig to the upper, so do not contain the value 0.
F
Confidence intervals are:
Regressi 3 493,9 164, 33,0 0,00
on 5 65 6 8 IC [-460,16; -84,3],
Residual 3 14,93 4,97 IC [0,51;3,83],
Total 6 508,8 IC [0,11;0,81],
IC [4,79; 14,1].
Coe Std t P- Low Upp Fisher theoretical value for 3 and 3
ff Error Stat valu 95 95
degrees of freedom for a significance level α =
e % %
Intercept - 59,05 - 0,01 - - 5% is 9,27, calculated in Excel using FINV
272, 4,61 460, 84,3 function.
23 16 Overall regression is significant
X 2,17 0,52 4,17 0,02 0,51 3,83 because F * (33,6) > Fteoretic (9,27), in order
Variable we can say that the regression model is well
1
X 0,46 0,11 4,21 0,02 0,11 0,81
built. The calculated F * corresponds to a
Variable significance level of 0,008%, much lower than
2 5%, as shown Significance F in Table 5.
X 9,47 1,47 6,44 0,00 4,79 14,1 Also, the coefficient of determination
Variable 7 show a very good linear model that explains
3
the phenomenon of the change in the four
It can be seen that the coefficients of the analyzed variables according to the
model are significantly different from 0 as explanatory variables in an amount of 98,4%.

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 MANAGEMENT

The remaining 1,6% is about the influence of performance. In this respect, we conducted a
unregistered or not considered factors. case study on a company that produces crystal
sugar, taking into account income from sales
4. CONCLUSIONS & as a component of the entity's economic
ACKNOWLEDGMENT performance. The model built was a well-
chosen one, representative and shows that each
Performance analysis of a company has of the explanatory variables : number of
a decisive role in setting the strategy followed employees, advertisements expenses and
especially during the financial crisis. product price, contributes to explaining the
Performance should be assessed and measured variation in y, ie sales revenue.
both with respect to results ( outputs of the Investing in advertising and promoting
tasks ) and the behaviors ( work process the company, the adoption of marketing
entries ).The increasingly frequent use of strategies in the coming year would increase
statistical correlation method is justified by the revenue, the identified model shows that there
increasing need of reflection in a appropriate is a direct correlation between these factors.
numerical form the interdependence of the „ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This
phenomena analyzed in terms of the nature, paper is supported by the Sectoral
direction and the intensity of the links which is Operational Programme Human Resources
manifested in a certain period of time or in Development (SOP HRD), ID134378
dynamic. financed from the European Social Fund
Statistical analysis consisted of an and by the Romanian Government.
investigation of the behavior of known
variables and the development of an equation REFERENCES
or model to explain the relationship between
the environment of variables. In this situation, [1]Anton,C., Analiza vanzarilor pe produs-
the income on the product is the result of componenta a analizei intreprinderii din
conjugation many influencing variables, but cadrul auditului de marketing, Revista
not all the determined ratios have the same Aspeckt, Editura Universitatii Transilvania din
importance, the action of some of them Braşov, Nr.1, 2008.
compensating each other.The main objective [2]Duguleană, L. „Statistică în cercetare”,
of regression analysis is to explain and Universitatea Transilvania din Braşov, Şcoala
forecast variance of the dependent variable Doctorală, Braşov, 2013.
based on its covariance with the independent [3]Gruian,C.,M., Ce intelegem prin
variables . Showing the revenues and benefits performanta companiei?, Analele Universităţii
for marketing efforts is a prerequisite for the “Constantin Brâncuşi” din Târgu Jiu, Seria
analysis of efficiency of enterprise system on Economie, Nr. 4/2010.
the market.Thus, this paper has tried to define [4]Jaba, E., Grama, A., Analiza statistică cu
the notion of performance, to emphasize the SPSS sub Windows, Editura Polirom, Iaşi,
importance of economic performance of the 2004, p.48.
enterprise and to achieve a multifactorial [5]Petcu, N., Statistică – Teorie şi aplicaţii în
regression analysis of factors contributing to SPSS, Editura Infomarket, Braşov, 2003.
 

402
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
 

FEW ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION IN THE EU

Alexandru Florin MĂGUREANU*

*Faculty of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Environmental law has a specific character, due to his interdisciplinary curriculum, as it
contains elements of law but also elements that are specific to other sciences, as economics, ethics, civil
law, criminal law etc. As a result of the fact the environmental issues are global in nature, environmental
law must have, at its turn, an international character. It is therefore necessary for the environmental
regulations to become uniform and compulsory (with respect towards diversity and principles such as the
principle of subsidiarity) at a European and even global level. The first steps towards a unified
environmental law are being made under the strong influence of some general principles.

Keywords: environmental law, European Union, principle, sustainable development

1. INTRODUCTION purposes, its natural and artificial components

[2] and also the relations regarding the
According to Constantin Noica [1], only protection, the preservation and sustainable
the European culture, at least from our development of the environment.
perspective, after it has experienced such The general principle of environmental law
different influences (Byzantine, Romano- is an idea with a high degree of generality,
catholic, Italian, French, Anglo-Saxon), has which is common for the environmental law
opened towards all the known cultures. As a protection system in its entirety, has the
result, we can assert that there are, in spite of character of general and fundamental rule of
the important differences (especially between law, and it is an expression of the essence of
Eastern and Western Europe), common the environmental juridical rules. Some of the
cultural elements for all the member states, principles are expressly stipulated by the law,
common values that are protected. while others can be deduced by means of
Environmental protection is, with certainty, interpretations.
such a value. According to the Stockholm Declaration
Environmental law may be defined as the [3] the protection and improvement of the
complex ensemble of juridical rules, which human environment is a major issue which
regulate the relations established between affects the well-being of peoples and economic
individuals, regarding their attitude towards development throughout the world; it is the
the environment, as a vital element and urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world
support for sustaining life, in the process of and the duty of all Governments.
using, in economic, social and cultural

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 MANAGEMENT

2.National legislations, common 3. The polluter pays

principles and sustainable development. “Pollution “ comes from the Latin
National legislations recognize the principles, “polluero-ere” and means to soil, defile,
as they are formulated in international treaties, contaminate, make unclear or contaminate.
principles that afterwards become part of The principle we analyze was first formulated
national law (in a rough estimate, there are in the OECD Recommendation nr. C (72) 128
about one thousand international treaties that from 1972. According to the principle, the
contain environmental references. Some polluter needs to pay for the measures taken by
international documents expressly refer to the public authorities in order to cleanse the
environmental principles: The Stockholm environment. Without forcing the polluter to
Declaration contains 26 principles (that must pay for his act, the society as a whole would
inspire and guide the efforts of humankind in have to pay in order to remove the effects of
order to preserve and improve the quality of pollution. According to the principle, the
the environment); The Rio Declaration [4] persons that are generating pollution are forced
contains 27 principles and the Dublin to use filters, to adopt the latest environmental
Statement [5] refers to 4 guiding principles. friendly technologies. Such measures can
Art. 6 of the Amsterdam Treaty refer to sometimes imply great costs for the polluter,
sustainable development, concept that was however without this obligation, the “cost” for
defined by the Resolution nr. 42/187 of the the environment would be a lot larger. The
U.N. General Assembly as that type of main objective of the international and
economic development that ensures the European legislation regarding pollution
present needs without affecting the possibility prevention is to harmonize national
of the future generations to satisfy their own legislations. The principle was recognized in
needs. The Resolution refers to measures that the Single European Act (signed in 1986), title
are meant to provide sustainable development, VII, art. 130 R, para. (2), which stipulates that
such as: preserving peace, reviving growth and environmental measures are based on the
changing its quality, remedying the problems principle of preventing pollution at its source,
of poverty and satisfying human needs, remedy and on the principle according to
addressing the problems of population growth which the polluter pays. The Rio Declaration
and of conserving and enhancing the resource reiterates the principle, at art. 16, according to
base, reorienting technology and managing which, the national authorities must make
risk, and merging environment and economics efforts in order to promote the
in decision-making internationalization of the costs for
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the environmental protection and for the
European Union [6] stipulates that a „high utilization of economic instruments, taking
level of environmental protection and the into consideration the approach according to
improvement of the quality of the environment which the polluter must cover, in principle, the
must be integrated into the policies of the cost of pollution, with regard towards the
Union and ensured in accordance with the public interest and without affecting
principle of sustainable development”. The commerce and international investment. The
principle is based on art. 3, para. (3) of the principle was also recognized by The Paris
Treaty on the European Union and articles 11 Convention from 1992, according to which the
and 191 of the Treaty on the functioning of the polluter must cover the expenses for
European Union, and also on the provisions of preventing, reducing and fighting against
national constitutions [7]. pollution.
In Romanian legislation there is a
distinction between the means of 2.The principle of preventing of
implementing general principles and strategic environmental risks and the occurrence of
elements. Art. 35 of the Romanian damage (precautionary principle) According
Constitution recognizes the right to a healthy to the principle, there is an obligation to
environment. intervene before the harm is done, before any
  damages are done to the environment. It is

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
well known that the best way to fight pollution we cannot even understand at the present time,
is to prevent it, meaning to evaluate all the as it is impossible to evaluate the effects (in
possible risks and actions. Although their totality) of even a single pollution act.
implementing newest technologies, filters etc.
(without involving excessive costs) can be 4. The principle of conserving the
very expensive, the costs that polluters would biodiversity and the ecosystems specific to
have to pay after pollution has occurred is the natural biogeographic frame The natural
generally much larger. Sometimes the effects resources of the Earth, including air, water,
on environment are irreversible. According to soil, flora and fauna (and especially the
the Stockholm Declaration (art. 7), less specimens that are representative for the
developed countries should be helped in their natural ecosystems) must be protected for the
fight against pollution, as the negative effects benefit of the feature generations, by carefully
on environment are global. Art. 17 stipulates planning and managing (Stockholm
that national institution must plan, manage and Declaration, principle 2). Conserving
control the main resources of the states, in biodiversity necessarily implies a careful
order to improve the quality of the monitoring, able to detect in due time any
environment. Also the latest technical and harm. Biodiversity is the diversity of the plants
scientific developments must be applied on a and animals from the nature. Sometimes the
large scale in order to avoid and control diversity of the habitats and the genetic
environmental risks and to find solutions for diversity are also considered types of
environmental issues (principle 18). The biodiversity. The ecosystem is a complex
measures undertake in order to prevent, formed by living organisms, the environment,
control and limit natural disasters and diseases and all the interactions from a given space.
will be directed towards these scourges, while Amongst the abiotic constituents of an
avoiding harming effects over the environment ecosystem we can identify minerals, climate,
[9]. According to the Rio Declaration soil, water, solar light and any other element
(preamble, para. 8): “To achieve sustainable that is not considered as “living”.
development and a higher quality of life for all The European Council has adopted an
people, States should reduce and eliminate European strategy for conservation, in effect
unsustainable patterns of production and since 1990. In environmental policies, active
consumption and promote appropriate and precautionary measures are preferred,
demographic policies”. rather than coercive and reactive ones.
The principle was also invoked by the The notion of “conservation” is becoming
International Court of Justice [10], which more and more linked with the one of
stated that in environmental protection “sustainable development”. The measures of
vigilance and precaution are imposed, environmental protection are only effective if
especially considering the fact that the they are implemented over a long or at least
damages done to the environment are medium period of time. Regarding the biotic
irreversible. factors (living), the principle implies the
The principle is also of great importance preservation of the flora and fauna for future
due to the fact that pollution implies effects generations. According to the Romanian
that are dangerous for the environment in ways Constitution [art. 135, para. (2), letter e)], the

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state assumes the obligation to ensure the environment is a part of the right to family and
environmental protection, the conservation and private life [11]. Environmental protection, as
the improvement of the environmental quality. a principle was also recognized at a
A strong stimulant in order to protect the constitutional level, by most member states.
ecosystems and biodiversity is to give tax According to the principle of subsidiarity, the
exemptions and compensations for the EU will directly intervene when it is
economical entities that are performing considered that measures undertaken at a
activities of ecological conservation and communitarian level are more effective. The
improvement. Another important aspect is to principle of prevention was recognized by the
institute natural reservations, in order to ensure European Court of Justice in cases such as:
the survival of rare species and organisms, Waddenzee, Castro Verde etc.
endangered to become extinct. In Romania the While environmental protection is a
first law regarding environmental conservation continuous a vital challenge for humankind
was the Law nr. 213 from 1930, elaborated alike, there are important steps that the EU has
with the help of the world famous scholar, made in order to ensure a clean environment
speologist and biologist Emil Racoviţă. Based for future generations, although there are even
on this law the edelweiss and the thermal lily greater and more important steps left to be
were declared monuments of nature. In made from now on.
Romania there are some of the most important
natural reservations in Europe, such as the REFERENCES
Retezat mountains or the Danube Delta.
According to the Rio declaration, the states 1. C. Noica, Modelul Cultural European,
have the sovereign right to exploit their own Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993, p.9
resources, but they also have the following 2. D. Marinescu, Tratat de dreptul mediului,
obligations: All Beck, Bucharest, 2003, p. 43
-to integrate conservation and the rational 3. The United Nations Conference on the
utilization of biological resources in the Human Environment, having met at
national decisions; Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,
-to adopt legal regarding the use of paragraph 2
biological resources; 4. The Rio Declaration on environment and de
-to protect and encourage the utilization of development, 1992
material resources according with their 5. The Dublin Statement on water and
tradition and to allow the rational use of sustainable development, 1992
resources; 6. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
- to sustain local population in the European Union has entered into force in
development of remedying actions in the 2009
affected areas where diversity was reduced; 7. According to the Official explanations
- to encourage cooperation between relating to the Charter of Fundamental
governmental authorities and economic agents Rights of the European Union.
in order to use the resources in a rational 8. Government Ordinance nr. 195/2005
manner. 9. World Charter for Nature, principle 12
10. C.I.J. Affaire Gabcikovo-Nagymaros
5. Conclusions
(Hongrie/Slovaquie) arret du 25 septembrie
Environmental protection must be
integrated in defining and applying the policies 1997
and the actions of the EU, especially in order 11. Powell and Rayner vs. United Kingdom 
to promote sustainable development. The
principle of environmental protection was
recognized by the EU and by the ECHR,
which stated that the right to a healthy
 

406
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ARMED CONFLICTS IN

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS

Alexandru Florin MAGUREANU *, Ioan ŞTEFU **

*Faculty of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania, ** Faculty
of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Due to its impact over social life and its effects on the environment, the war has been an
important subject of interest for jurists all over the world, as attempts were made to incriminate its
devastating impacts. As a result, the conflict phenomenon has become an object of study for international
public law, international humanitarian law and international criminal law.

Keywords: environmental law, armed conflicts, international law

1. INTRODUCTION environmentally dangerous means of war that

may cause severe and irreversible damage.
International law offers a framework in The precautionary principle also implies the
which the relationships between national states necessity of international laws which should
take place. be able to prevent such damages and also to
The international framework, meaning the protect civil population from catastrophic
international situation of a country, its effects and natural calamities during peace
relations with the neighbors, with the regional time. According to the Rio Declaration
or international communities, have a strong (principle 24) warfare is inherently destructive
influence over the law, as there is a tendency of sustainable development. States shall
to harmonize national regulations with therefore respect international law providing
international ones, with the signed treaties and protection for the environment in times of
conventions and even in unifying law, in some armed conflict and co-operate in its further
areas [1]. development, as necessary.
The first recorded use of environmental  
warfare dates back to 512 B.C., when the 2. THE TEXT OF THE PAPER
Scythians practised a scorched earth policy on 2.1 Rules on armed conflicts in national
their own territory, in order to prevent the and international laws The purpose of the
Persians from advancing [2]. The rules of war war is to weaken the resistance of the enemy,
are as old as war itself and the war is as old as so that he accepts the will of the victor. As a
life on earth [3]. result, environmental protection is disregarded
Ecological protection during armed during armed conflicts. Nevertheless, a new
conflicts refers to the limitation of new and concept was crystalized recently, the ecocide.

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Perhaps the oldest ecological law is the one Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental
we find in the Bible (Deuteronom 20.19), Modifications Techniques.
according to which: “When you besiege a city Also, according to art. 22 of the Hague
for a long time, making war against it in order Regulations, the rights of belligerents to adopt
to take it, you shall not destroy its trees by means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited.
wielding an axe against them. You may eat According to the New Romanian Criminal
from them, but you shall not cut them down. Code, art. 443, it is considered crime,
Are the trees in the field human, that they punishable with prison from 3 to 10 years,
should be besieged by you?”. War was carrying out an attack, knowing that it will
considered as a legal way of solving disputes cause severe and lasting environmental
between states. Therefore, acts of cruelty were damages, which would be clearly
not considered crimes but merely accepted disproportionate in relation to the actual
forms of punishments applied to those military advantage, during an armed conflict.
considered “guilty”. Water poisoning, burning Art. 444 of the Code states that it is considered
of crops, destruction of human settlements a crime, punishable with prison from 7 to 15
were considered common practices during years, the use of poison or poisonous
armed conflicts, rules that will lately be latter substances as weapons, asphyxiating gases or
recognized as positive law, limiting thus the similar substances, weapons that cause
ways armed conflicts are conducted, the unnecessary physical suffering, during an
seasons when wars were allowed and the armed conflict.
means the combat takes place. The ecologic The Swiss Criminal Code states that the
criteria has been recognized as an international penalty is a custodial sentence of not less than
humanitarian law principle by the first three years for any person who, in connection
additional protocol to the four Geneva with an armed conflict: “launches an attack
Conventions of 12 August 1949 regarding the although he knows or must assume that such
protection of the victims of the international an attack will cause loss of life or injury to
armed conflicts, adopted in 1977 [4]. civilians or damage to civilian objects or
According to art. 55 of the mentioned widespread, long-term and severe damage to
protocol, care shall be taken in warfare to the natural environment which would be
protect the natural environment against clearly excessive in relation to the concrete
widespread, long-term and severe damage. and direct overall military advantage
The protection includes the prohibition of anticipated” [5]. The Belgian Criminal Code
using methods or means of warfare which are contains similar regulations (art. 136, para.
intended or may be expected to cause such 22), as does the Criminal Code of Malta (art.
damage to the natural environment and thereby 54D).
to prejudice the health or survival of the The French Criminal Code does not have a
population. Paragraph (2) states that: “Attacks similar stipulation, however the balance of the
against the natural environment by way of natural surrounding and environment, and the
reprisals are prohibited”. The final goal of the essential elements of its scientific and
article seems however to be the protection of economic potential are considered as intrinsic
human beings and not the environment. part of the “fundamental interests of the
The reference to “widespread, long-term Nation” [6].
and severe damage” can also be retrieved in According to the Albanian Criminal Code,
the preamble of the 1980 Convention on environmental distribution of hazardous
Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of substances may be considered act with terrorist
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be
purpose (art. 230). Art. 394 of the Armenian
Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to
Have Indiscriminate Effects (Rome Statute Criminal Code incriminates “Ecocide”, as the
Establishing the International Criminal Court). crime of “mass destruction of flora or fauna,
Similar stipulations can be found in art. 1 poisoning the environment, the soils or water
of the 1977 Convention on the Prohibition of resources, as well as implementation of other
actions causing an ecological catastrophe”

408
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
(punishable with imprisonment from 10 to 15 technologies that generate pollution are being
years). The Canadian Criminal Code used;
incriminates the possession of nuclear -the impact of the training process over the
material, radioactive material or device. The environment is significant;
person that, with intent to cause death, serious -the insufficiency of the financial resources
bodily harm or substantial damage to property allocated environmental actions and programs;
or the environment, makes a device or -the serious and severe damages that armed
possesses, uses, transfers, exports, imports, conflicts can bring to the environment;
alters or disposes of nuclear material, Such harmful effects can consist in:
radioactive material or a device or commits an -contamination and deterioration of the soil
act against a nuclear facility or an act that and infrastructure;
causes serious interference with or serious -the burning of forestry fund and of
disruption of its operations, is guilty of an vegetation;
indictable offence and liable to imprisonment -contamination of water;
for life (art. 82.3). -producing an important quantity of waste,
According to art. 41, para. (3) of the including nuclear and chemical waste;
Russian Criminal Code, “Risk shall not be -phonic and chemical pollution of air;
regarded as justified if it was known to involve - various damage to fauna and flora.
a threat to the life of many persons, or a hazard During the course of military actions, the
of environmental or societal disaster”. military has the obligation to take all necessary
There is a tendency lately, in international measures in order to protect the environment.
criminal law, to incriminate terrorism, The entire personnel must have knowledge of
including its effects over the environment, and the way daily activities are being carried out,
also the war against terror. Military the way military activities or training affects
organizations are compelled to protect and the environment.
conserve natural resources and to act in a War can generate not only loss of human
responsible manner in all situations, to life and cultural values but also can serious
evaluate the effects that military actions have affect the environment. During the operations
over the environment. that took place in 1999, NATO forces attacked
chemical plants and other industrial sites in
2.2 Military actions as a risk factor for Yugoslavia, and also significant damage was
the environment The military cannot be done to reservations such as the national parks
excluded from the category of risks factor for in Serbia and the Skadar Lake in Montenegro.
the environment due to the following Also, as a result of the attacks, important
considerations: quantities of toxic materials were spilled in the
-transformations that take place in the Danube River. The exact impact to the
military sector, where equipment and environment is in fact impossible to be

409
 MANAGEMENT

evaluated correctly. NATO bombings against It is clear, at this moment, that the
Taliban fighters have destroyed most of the international juridical frame that aims to
Afghanistan forests, and in 2003 oil wells were protect the environment in case of military
set on fire by Iraqi forces [7]. The conflict conflicts, is either to vague or insufficient for
from Lebanon caused, in 2006 the spilling of an effective protection. The signing of a new
10.000-15.000 tons of fuel into the convention on environmental protection during
Mediterranean. armed conflict would be, in our opinion, a
In the doctrine [8] was suggested that in necessary steps (but not sufficient) in the
order to remedy the inadequate standards in prevention of environmental degradation
the international law of environmental warfare, through military actions. Such a Convention
a separation would be required, between active should clearly define notions such as:
environmental warfare, which requires the environment, active environmental damages
“use” of the environment as a weapon of and passive (or collateral) environmental
waging armed conflict, and passive harm; types of weapons allowed in order to
environmental warfare, which includes acts protect the environment; type of actions that
not specifically designed to “use” the are prohibited expressly. Even more important,
environment for a particular military purpose, such a Convention should clearly stipulate
but that have a degrading effect on the means of monitoring military activity even
environment. Passive environmental warfare during peace time, by international organisms
violates international law only when it and severe and clear penalties for any
produces effects that are widespread, long- violations (no matter who the perpetrator is,
term and severe. whether it is a state, an organization or an
individual).
3. Conclusions
The classic role of the international law, REFERENCES
that of stopping or preventing armed conflicts 1. Romul P. Vonica, Introducere generală în
between states, has developed into much more, drept, Lumina Lex, Bucharest, 2000, p. 30
as it often implies new tasks that the 2. Marco Roscini, Protection of natural
international organizations have accepted, environment in time of armed conflict,
tasks that imply an increasingly stronger International humanitarian law:an
limitation of nationhood, of state sovereignty, anthology, L. Doswald-Beck, A. R.
reaching even the point where we can Chowdhury and J. H. Bhuiyan, eds.,
seriously ask ourselves about the future of the Nagpur: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2009, p.
structure that we now call a state. On one side 155
the international organizations are imposing 3. Ion  Dragoman,  Armata  şi  mediul,  in 
more and more limitations to the national Romanian  Revue  of  Humanitarian  Law, 
legislations, even without a global Bucharest, 2003, p.208 
government. 4. Constantin Poenaru, Protecţia mediului şi
The fact that there are still no general rules noile situaţii de conflict armat, Dreptul
Internaţional Umanitar la începutul
able to incriminate military actions that
secolului XXI, Asociaţia Română de Drept
damage the environment (nor institutions that Umanitar, Bucharest, 2003, p.208
can apply sanctions), poses an ever greater 5. Art. 264g, letter. A), of the Swiss Criminal
threat for the environment in case of future Code
conflicts. Also, most of the international rules 6. French Criminal Code, art. 410-1
prevent only the use of a specific type of 7. Marco Roscini, op. cit., p. 156
weapon, therefore they cannot be considered 8. Eric T. Jensen, Vanderbilt Journal of
general regulations. Transnational Law, vol. 38, 2005, p. 146

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF MANAGER AS BASED

ASSUMPTION OF MANAGER COMPETENCES IN AIR FORCE
ACADEMY CONDITIONS

Mária PETRUFOVÁ* Eva RÉVAYOVÁ**

*Department of Management, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik in
Liptovský Mikuláš
** Department of Social Sciences and Languages, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan
Rastislav Štefánik in Liptovský Mikuláš

Abstract: The authors point to the importance of the use of emotional intelligence for preparation
of professional soldiers. They are concerned with development, conceptions and models of
emotional intelligence as well as with specific features of military education. The authors pay
considerable attention to self-evaluation of students and pedagogical staff in the field of
emotional intelligence. They evaluate opinions of the Slovak Armed Forces members who
participate in career courses and propose other possibilities of emotional intelligence
development in the environment of the Armed Forces Academy by means of courses of study and
professional and lifelong training courses.

Keywords: emotional intelligence, commander´s personality and his key competences, influence
of emotional intelligence in the Slovak Armed Forces, level of emotional intelligence within
military education at the Armed Forces Academy, innovation of professional and lifelong
education by means of emotional intelligence development for professional soldiers

1. INTRODUCTION examples of this effort is also the possibility to

educate students at AFA in form of trainings
Enhancement of education has been within selected areas of emotional intelligence
given the highest priority at all types of (hereinafter EI), which would positively
schools, regardless of the their scope, because influence the students´ training for the military
quality of education significantly affects the profession and the morale. Today the
whole society. Teachers at the Armed Forces developed world is aware that the effets of
Academy (hereinafter AFA) make every effort emotional intelligence on success of people –
to enhance their work and work better. Within individuals, groups, teams, organisations or
the study programmes they propose curricula companies is enormous.
that would enhance the students´ competencies Since the department of defence has
necessary for the performance of their future specific aims within our society, these
work and their success in their jobs. One of the specifications should occur in the theoretical

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 MANAGEMENT

training of AFA students, which affects the feelings. In situations causing powerful
development of EI of the members of AF of emitons this person remains passive, does not
SR. Manager competencies and the human feel anything because he / she caanot identify
factor have some gaps, what might reduce the and understand the feelings. Other people´s
efficiency of working processes at AFA, too. feelings remain unknown, too. The absence of
Thus, in this article we analyze different feelings worsens private as well as
opinions of teachers on EI of students and we professional relationships. The reason is (if we
have conducted a survey of EI level based on exclude any brain disordes) the incomplete
the self-evaluation of AFA students and cognitive development during childhood,
employees and we also analyze articles and however, this can occur also in adulthood due
remarks of AF of SR members on the issue of to traumatic experience.
applying EI in practice within career courses.
In our efforts we also try to support education 2.1 Development, concepts
within this field and create a kind of manual of and models of emotional intelligence
EI that would serve as teaching aid for EI
teachers and lecturers within AF of SR. Current research of intelligence is getting
Gradually, we want to inform the public rid of the inadequate differentiation between
universities and public administration about thinking and feeling. Thanks to many
some of our results. psychologists such as Robert Sternberg,
Howard Gardner and Peter Salovey there is a
2. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE widespread term concept of intelligence being
used instead. Modern research suggests that
In recent years there have been more and knowing oneself and being sensitive to others
more literature on emotional intelligence, have a particular aim. H. Gardner calls them
which not only science, but also the public is intrapersonal interpersonal and intelligences.
interested in. Why is the general public At the beginning of the 90s P. Salovey and his
interested in it? Because people already know colleague J. Mayer made up a more felicitous
that they need to find a way how to handle term “emotional intelligence”.
their emotions, because in the 21st centry the Their merits lie in specifying what
illiterate are not just the ones who cannot write intelligence comprises. They identified 5
nor read, but also those who cannot learn, different sub-skills – poznať vlastné city,
unlearn and learn again. This might be the handling one´s own feelings, using given
reason why the public is interested in options, sympathizing with other people,
emotional intelligence. Emotions make our building social relations. However, it was
lives more colourful, they determine the level thanks to Harvard psychologist Daniel
of our mental and physical activities. Our goleman that emotional intelligence received
relationship to other people, to events and worldwide attention (Märtinová, Boecková,
tasks depend on them. They also affect the 1998, p. 8 – 11). In Scopus database from
evaluation of our own behavior and activities. 2001 to 2008 there are 552 articles with the
Today we know that negative emotions such term emotional intelligence in the title. Hartl
as anger, sadness, fear, outrageous resistance and Hartlová (2000, 2004) define emotional
are worse than positive emotions such as joy, intelligence (EI) as the ability to live joyfully
happiness, surprise, and love. The fact is that and the level of coping with everyday
emotional learning is a social skill, that starts problems. Emotional intelligence according to
from experience and examples. Early Schulze (2007) represents a psychometric
identification and understanding our own frame of intuitively attractive idea that people
emotions is the basic competence for adequate differ in their emotional knowledge and that
handling of our feelings in certain situations. these differences are reflected in their real
This skill is also the basic assumption of all lives, (Schulze and col., 2007, p.128). Pletzer
other building blocks of emotional (2009) states that Daniel Goleman defines
intelligence. An emotional illiterate is emotional intelligence as the ability to
someone who has no access to his/her motivate oneself and not give up when facing

412
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
frustration, as the ability to handle desires and excellent ability to present the readers even
postpone satisfaction, the ability to handle the a very difficult scientific theory. He processed
mood, prevent anxiety and tension, the ability a comprehensible model of emotional
to affect one´s own quality of thinking, the intelligence which caused that the term
ability to sympathize with other people and not „emozional intelligence“ spread rapidly and
losing hope even in difficult situations. became very popular in the USA as well as in
Europe. Model by D. Goleman (1998)
Concepts of emotional intelligence differentiates within the structure of qualities
According to the research (Molčanová, of EI two fields (Goleman, 1995, p. 16):
Baumgartner, 2008) there are two different A. Abilities r elated to oneself i.e. „12
strams within the theory of EI that can be qualities“ for being successful at work:
divided according to whether they are focused 1. Self-awareness field (handle one´s own
on maximum or typical performance. „The mental processes, possibilities,
typical“ approach focuses on the way people preferences, intuitioni)
usually behave in everyday situations while 2. Self-regulation field (repressing
the other „maximum“ approach focuses on impulsive behavior and coping with
what people are able to do (Bracket, Geher, anxiety and insecurity)
2006). Based on that, Petrides and Furnham 3. Motivation for bigger pictures field
(in Pérez et al., 2007) differentiate (emotional tendencies leading to or
between:: trait emotional intelligence and facilitating the ascent)
emotional intelligence as a skill. These two B. Competences w ithin human rela tions, i.
concepts are different. Trait emotional e. „13“ skills for getting a job
intelligence focues on self-characterization 1. Empathy field (empathizing – realizing
questionnaires, while emotional intelligence as the feelings and interests of other
a skill focused on tests of maximum people)
performance. Nearly all existing concepts and 2. Affecting others and team work field
tools of emotional intelligence cover at least (flexibility in interaction with people,
four fields related to emotions, which are the ability to reach the desired reactions
results of factor combination of two from people)
dimensions self vs. the other one and 3. Influencing people
recognition /consciousness verzus 4. Team work
regulation/control,“ (Molčanová, Baumgartner,
2008, p. 163).
Models of emotional intelligence 3. Špecific particularities of EI in
At present there are several conceptual practice within the AF of SR
approaches to the models of emotional Today we know that managers working
eithin the AF of SR, i.e. commanders,
intelligence in professional literature. These
significantly differ in knowledge, skills and
models can be divided into two groups: skill
experience and also in many other factors that
models – focuse on performance methods of
build up their personality. Thus, it is necessary
measuring emotional skills and mixed models
to pay attention to forming the character and
– when measuring EI they rely on self-
especially their emotional maturity.
characterizing models. Daniel Goleman has an

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For the AF of SR it is typical that be prepared well enough regarding his

organization structure of individual units emotional level. He will be prone to illnesses
(organizations) puts people in specific and his convalescence will last longer.
relations, the goal of which is performing Enhancing the emotional consiousness is an
certain tasks. In spite of that the most investment in oneself. We must consider also
employees within the AF of SR as well as in the fact, that the professional soldier lives his
organization of any type and mission think that private and his professional lives. He lives
their work requires just their heads and not with his wife and brings up children, who
hearts. Many employees worry that might not be attracted to the military
empathizing with their colleagues could easily profession of their father and the family might
get them into a conflict with their organization find it difficult to cope with his typical military
goals or mission. Emotional intelligence stringency. Thus, he cannot perform the
influences the ability to vent negative events in military regime (follow the order) at home,
form of constructive criticism, the ability to because his family would fall apart. To be
create a creative working atmosphere, the successful in his military life he needs a solid
ability to communicate effectively. According family background – happy family life, to
to scientific research high level of emotional which he can get through enhancing his EI.
intelligence supports the phenomenon of Military education is full regarding the content
leadership, a fact that should be considered for the development all kinds of intelligence,
within the AF of SR. It is obvious that the thus we can ask: Why shall we enhance the
individual working performance of people, be emotional intelligence? We have to think in
it mental or manual work, is mostly influenced a broader context of the profession. There are
by emotional intelligence. Indeed, people who several high-risk professions, where people
do not dispose of such levels of emotional might be threatened and even their lives might
intelligence cannot be condemned. People can be in danger. However, from all of these types
perform a lot of work also without using of profession, only soldiers (eventually also
emotional intelligence, however, their chances poliemen) find themselves in situation in
are limited. An advantage of emotional which they have to take the lives of even
intelligence is that we can work with it healthy people, which is very difficult (e.g.
throughout our whole life, we can enhance it. during war or other conflicts). This is why
Flexibility of emotional intelligence is they have to handle their emotions (regret,
definitely one of the advantages when fear, despair, resistance etc.). The history and
compared to cognitive intelligence, the the rpesent offers many examples of situations
development options of which are sometimes when soldiers could not handle their emotions,
limited. Various organizations such as L´Oréal consequently they were prosecuted or
and U.S. Air Force have saved millions of convicted. Thus, the developed armies in the
dollars by introducing programmes focused on world pay attention to the training of morale
enhancing emotional intelligence, (Bradberry, (or moral intelligence). The development of
Greavesová, 2007, p. 63). emotional intelligence should serve as its
The AF of SR have limited financial support. In this context within the military
resources, thus enhancing emotional education it is necessary to train each EI skill
intelligence might be a way of ensuring dually – in fictional situations, in war and
effectivity. peace, within theoretic lessons, at work, at
Last but not least, it is necessary to home, in privacy, in public etc. Controlling
mention the effect of emotions on human one´s own emotions (both positive and
health. People should know their feelings negative) is not easy, people need to train it
because this is the only way people can their whole life. The good news is that we can
prevent further problems that might come. learn how to do it.
Suppressed emotions lead fast to stress, Within AFA we have been dealing with the
tension or anxiety. enhancement of EI due to the decline of EQ of
Professional soldiers exposed to students regarding their behavior. There have
psychical and physical stress for long will not been more remarks regarding many

414
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
shortcomings and negative aspects in fulfilling
their tasks, low activity in classrooms and Ø points
% of the
unwillingness to work for their own sake. assigned of
max
Types of areas the max.
Furthermore, there have been some cases of number of
number of
inappropriate behavior or even aggressive points
6 points
behavior. And finally, we have noticed an Self-awareness 3,91 65,2
increase in negative experiences of teachers Self-regulation 4,25 70,8
regarding EI. Motivation 4,07 67,8
Empathy 3,58 59,7
Self-assessment of students regarding EI Relations and
4,19 69,9
Thus, the goal of students´ self- team work
assessment was to determine the level of their Hypothesis of
4,03 67,1
emotional intelligence, which affects their total students´ EQ
intelligence level. The results of their self-
assessment can suggest several shortcomings According to the sel-assessment the level
in the quality of their training for the military of EI is mathematically expressed by
profession. The participating students were arithmetic average as EQ 67,1 % . This
2nd year students of study gropus 22 and 23 suggests that students themselves feel an
military organization management (MOM) due approximate 33 % deficit of EI, which might
to their branch of study, in which they need be a signal for the teachers to adapt the
manager competences. Their task was to education process. The best skill was the area
perform self-assessment of 25 skills from of self-regulation (70,8 %) and relations and
emotional intelligence field and mark it on an team work area (69,9 %), which is quite
answer sheet. They were supposed to assign 1 impressive given their age and immaturity. An
- 6 points to each skill, 6 points meaning the interesting finding is the fact that students are
best evaluation. There were 28 answer sheets relatively self-critical, which results from their
used for this survey, 22 respondents answers for the area of empathy, which they
participated (78,57 %). assigned the least points (59,7 %) of all areas.
It is related to the typical traits of young
Results of the students´ self-assessment people, for example being shallow, not
The results of the self-assessment can empathizing with others, perception barriers
serve for the needs of educating students. The and various prejudices. Empathy area should
results according to individual fields can be be given proper attention within the education
seen in Chart 1. We can see the total result of process. Since every area consists of several
assigning points to the EI skills from 5 fields. skills, let us have a look at them. Chart 2 show
which concrete skills are considered by
Chart. 1: Hypothesis of students´ EQ
students the best or the weakest.
according to the self-assessment (source: our
According to this self-assessment we could
own research)
hardly process the students´ characteristic as a
whole. They think of themselves they are
flexible and at the same time that they are not
willing to adapt to changes or innovations. If

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they had a sense of the policy of organizations, Chart 3: Number of self-assessments of

they would know that each company or employees (source: our own research)
entrepreneur care about their customers Departments Respondents
(purchasers of their products or services). Department of
6
These are the disadvantages of generalizing. Management
Thus it would be very useful to have this kind Department of Electronics 9
of information from every individual for the Department of
5
need of his / her individual development Mechanical Engineering
within EI. Department of
7
Informatics
Department of Social
Chart 2: Level of EI skills according to the Sciences and Languages
4
self-assessment of students (source: our own Security and Defence
research) 10
Department
Department of Science
Skills Skills 7
Areas the and Foreign Relations
evaluated evaluated as Education Department 5
skills belong to
as best worst Spolu: 53
Self- Self-
Self-awareness confidence assessment Self-assessment of their own 25 skills
Ø 4,32 Ø 3,68 within EI was evaluated by respondents on an
Adaptability Innovation Ø answer sheet. Each skill could be assigned 1 –
Self-regulation 6 points, 6 points being the best evaluation.
Ø 4,73 3,82
Employees´ self-as sessment res ults.
Optimism Ø Loyalty Ø For the purpose of interpretation we focused
Motivation on the results according to individual
4,23 3,77
departments, as well as results of employees as
Sence for a whole. We counted the results as the
Focus on
policy of arithmetic average of values that had been
Empathy customer Ø
organization assigned to the individual skills by the
3,48
Ø 3,85 exmployees. Employees´ EQ represents the
mathematically expressed level of EI.
Schopnosť
spolupráce Willingness Question 1: In which EI area did
Relations and
a vzájomnej to change Ø employees evaluate their skills the most?
team work
podpory Ø 3,41 Chart 4 suggests that although the results in
4,77 individual areas are quite similar, the best
skills are in the area of self-regulation.
Chart 4: Hypothesis of employees´ EQ
In general we can see that there is no big
according to self-assessment (source: our own
difference in the averages. Students admitted
research)
some shortcomings even in the best evaluated
Ø of
skills. The obtained information shows the % of
Types of areas assigned
necessity to develop EI especially in the area points
points
of self-awareness, motivation and empathy. Self-awareness 4,36 72,7
Curricula at AFA should, however, include Self‐regulation 4,71 78,4
emotional intelligence as a whole. Oblasť motivácie 4,48 74,7
Empathy 4,24 70,7
Self-assessment of employees regarding EI
Relations and team 
Self-assessment within the area of EI has work
4,44 74,1
been voluntarily performed by employees of Hypothesis of
individual departments of AFA, see Chart 3. 4,45 74,2
employees´ EQ

416
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Employees from 6 departments placed Department Conscienti Stimulate others Ø 4,57
self-regulation in the first place , but most of ousness Ø Cooperation
Informatics 4,71 and support Ø 4,57
points have been assigned by the Department
Department
of Science and Foreign Relations, in both of Social Reliability Focus on customer Ø
cases Ø 5 points (83,3 %). Respondents from Sciences and Ø 4,57 4,5
the Security and defence department assigned Languages
most points to self-awareness Ø 4,93 points Security and Conscienti
Cooperation
(82,2 %) and at the Department of Defence ousness Ø
and support Ø 5,5
Department 5,5
Management the area of motivation dominates Department
with Ø 4,29 points (71,5 %). Understand others Ø
of Science Loyalty Ø
5,29 Cooperation
and Foreign 5,71
and support Ø 5,29
Question 2: Which two areas do the Relations
individual departments handle the best? Two Conscienti
Education Cooperation
ousness Ø
best handled areas of EI are those with the Department
5,6
and support Ø 5,6
most points. According to the previous chart Reliability
self-regulation and motivation are the best Ø 5,0
Cooperation
evaluated areas. Differences between Total Conscienti
and support Ø 4,94
individual departments are in the number of ousness Ø
5,15
points they assigned. It is obvious, that self-
regulation is considered the best handled area
of EI, which is essential for teachers educating Question 4: Which EI skills have the
students. We have expected higher number of least points?
points assigned to evaluation of motivation.
Chart 6: EI skills with least points assigned
Question 3: Which specific EI skills do u zamestnancov (source: our own research)
Categories of Know Interpersonal
employees consider their best ones? employees yourself relationships
Selfconfidence
Chart 5: Best EI skills of employees Department of Ø 3,17 Leadership skills
(source:our own research) Management Selfcontrol Ø Ø 3,33
Categories 3,33
Know Interpersonal Initiative Ø
of
yourself relationships Department of 4,33 Focus on
employees
Reliability Electronics Ambitions Ø customer Ø 3,56
Department Ø 4,83 4,33
Cooperation Department of Selfcontrol,
of Conscienti Enhancing
and support Ø 4,83 Mechanical adaptability,
Management ousness Ø diversity Ø 3,60
4,83 Engineering loyalty Ø 4,0
Department Department of Sebaovládanie Focus on
Loyalty Ø Enhancing ties and Informatics Ø 3,86 customer Ø 3,71
of
5,33 relations Ø 5,0 Department of Enhancing
Electronics Sebadôvera a
Department Social diversity and
optimizmus Ø
of Innovation Influencing others Ø Sciences and willingnes to
3,25
Mechanical Ø 5,2 5,6 Languages change Ø 2,75
Engineering Security and Selfcontrol Ø Understanding
Defence 3,90 others Ø 4,40

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 MANAGEMENT

Department Rozvoj diverzity a research project, only based on self-

Ø 4,30 assessment. Because most people tend to
Department of Influencing
Self- consider themselves much better at everything
Science and others Ø 3,71
knowledge Ø that they really are. They tend to think „I can
Foreign Leadership skills
3,71 do it“. In spite of that, self-assessment has
Relations Ø 3,71
Education
Self-
Enhancing
brought along s useful experience. The depth,
knowledge Ø amount of knowledge from EI areas could
Department diversity Ø 3,80
4,0 surprise many students and employees that
Self-control Ø
4,09
Enhancing have not been dealing with EI so far.
diversity Ø 3,94 Question 7: What is the difference
Total: Self-
Sense for policy
knowledge Ø between employees´ and students´ self-
of org. Ø 4,06
4,25 assessment? Chart 10 determines the
parameter representing the hypothetical EQ.
Question 5: What is the order of We can see that employees evaluate their skills
departments according to the number of with 74,2 %, which is only by 7 % better than
assigned points? Security and Defence students do. Is this difference due to
Department Ø 4,81 (80,1 %) Education experience, family and surrounding influence?
Department Ø 4,65 (77,5 %). Department of Shouldn´t this difference be bigger for
Science and Foreign Relations Ø 4,58 (76,4 a successful education process? What do
%) Department of Electronics Ø 4,53 (75,5 %) individual areas differences mean? These are
Department of Mechanical Engineering Ø 4,46 questions for a psychologist, but all of us have
(74,4 %) Department of Informatics Ø 4,19 our own answers and opinions about them.
(69,9 %) Department of Management Ø 4,14
(69 %) Department of Social Studies and Chart 7: Comparison of EI level of employees
Languages 3,82 (63,7 %). and students (source: our own research)
Number of Employees Students
Question 6: What results can we draw the points Ø % Ø %
from the EI self-assessment of employees? In (max. 6 points
the above stated analysis each employee can for each skill)
find a general overview of the self-assessment Self-awareness 4,36 72,7 3,91 65,2
of EI of all employees, as well as his / her
Self-regulation 4,71 78,4 4,25 70,8
closest colleagues. For the success at work
each person has to cope with the area of Motivation 4,48 74,7 4,07 67,8
„self-awareness“, which means: have the Empathy 4,24 70,7 3,58 59,7
ability of „self-knowledge“, understanding Relations and 4,44 74,1 4,19 69,9
one´s own abilities and limits, have the ability team work
to „self-assess“ what we are good at and what Hypothesis of 4,48 74,2 4,03 67,1
we need to improve, have enough self- EQ
confidence.
The area of self-awareness (together Regardless of the level of EQ,
with the area of motivation) has gained the a significant difference between the
least points in this research. Each training employees´ and students´ skills is only in the
within EI should start with training the area of area of empathy. In other areas the students
self-awareness. The most important is also the seem to parrot their teachers and employees
most difficult. Handling self-awareness with a very similar result. The level of
requires the person to be honest with himself / employees´ and teachers´ EQ affects the EQ
herself and judgmental enough. This is the level of students, too. They mirror us.
only way EI training should be focused on
acquiring those skills that are most needed for 2.3. Career courses participants´
groups or individuals when trying to be contributions to EI
successful. We cannot determine the real EQ Career courses participants had the
value without relevant skills testing in opportunity to research their 25 EI skills, too.

418
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ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
They were asked to select 2 skills and in their evaluation, because “truth is in the eye of the
free time write a short, anonymous paragraph beholder”. Courses participants as a w hole
on how they use them in practice, what commented on 22 skills (out of 25). Nobody
experience they have from work or personal commented on skills such as – reliability,
life and what their attitude to them is. We innovation, willingness to accept changes. For
wanted to understand their attitude, so that our the sake of a total evaluation it was necessary
students can expect from their future superiors. to notice positive and negative remarks in each
Chart 8: Courses respondents overview paragraph.
(source: our own research)
Type of Number of Return of the Possibilities of enhancing EQ within AFA
course respondents set task If AFA is interested in enhancing
ACSC = effectiveness in all areas of remit by means of
Advanced enhancint EI and human resources, there are
Command 60 3 5,00 % several options that might lead to the desired
and Staff
aim – requirements to meet EI criteria when
Course
joining the army or a certain phase, throught
JCSC =
Junior the military career and at the end of certain
Command 29 22 75,86 % phases.
and Staff - At the beginning of certain phases we can
Course require specific EI criteria when hiring new
WOC = employeed, as well as students at the
Warrant admission exams regardless of the study
29 18 62,06 %
Officers degree.
Course - We can continuously process requirements
Total: 118 43 36,44 % for EI skills, propose the system of
rewarding AFA employees and students.
At first sight, someone might remark, that “the Consequently we can regularly test (e.g.
fish stinks from the head down”. If there is a psychodiagnostic testing) these criteria.
mistake somewhere, just rarely is only one - At the end of certain phases we can monitor
side responsible for it, especially if we do not the criteria as well. For example, by means
have the opinion of the other side. We have of evaluating the Students´ Scientific
chosen the easiest criterion to evaluate the papers, Diploma papers, state exams,
paragpraphs: A – they understanding of the habilitations, inaugurations etc.
skill and attitudes is felicitous B – they capture Require meeting the criteria within EI is
the given skill, they dispose of correct and a difficult task. It is not difficult just due to the
incorrect attitudes, C –they inaccurately time needed, but also due to the means used
capture the ability, their attitude is either lack for setting the criteria and especially due to the
stimuli or there are no attitudes at all. If this ways of monitoring the desired skills –
was a common evaluation (grades 1, 2, 3), preparation of EQ tests, motivation interviews,
then the ACSC participants would score Ø model situations for admission interviews,
1,14, JCSC Ø 1,5 and WOC Ø 2,4. All 43 preparation of courses and EI trainings etc. For
paragraphs would score Ø 1,9. We need to suchlike EI enhancement project it is
note, that in this case this was a subjective

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necessary to progress gradually, step by step. Strategic management, Project management,

The first step should be to organize short-term Changes and innovation management, Crisis
EI courses and trainings. After participating in management (national and international).
them the next step would be suitable – Besides updating the study programmes
including EI issue in the study programmes. for our own students, the Department of
Management can update the issue of EI also
Organizing EI courses within short-term specialized courses with the
Suitable courses for enhancing EI would title „Key manager competences“, that they
be organized namely for students and provide. The content of the courses comprises
separately for AFA employees. If the legal modules focused on management,
conditions allow it, AFA could organize EI communication skills, human resources
courses within the department of defence (or management, team work, ethics and manager
outside of it for payment). For organizing diplomacy. Almost all modules are suitable for
suchlike courses we could use the EI updates.
recommendations by Goleman: „Hlavné
smernice pre školenia v EI“(Basic guidelines CONCLUSIONS
for EI trainings). They might inspire AFA for Similarly to the Department of
our own internal guidelines or for amendments Management, also other departments have the
to our guidelines. opportunity to innovate their study
programmes by including the EI issue in their
Including EI in study programmes programmes and subjects, especially the
Regarding higher education institution, Department of Social Studies and Languages
the most common way to include a new topic and Security and Defence Department. When
in the curriculum so that students can obtain discussing and deciding about the suitability of
new competences is a change or innovation of EI for study programmes a closer look at this
basic pedagogical documents. It is not just issue might help. We can use the Goleman´s
restructuralization of the graduate´s profile, manual of models that divide EI in 25 skills.
but just an update of the study programe, that We have used this model for our research.
must be accepted by the guarantor. Before the This model is not the only one dealing with
update of study programmes it would be this topic. Other departments can choose from
convenient to confirm the success of the models by other authors. Within the AF of SR
proposal, for example at the Lifelong it is possible to use a processed text for the
Education Centre at AFA, which provides support of enhancement of EI. Our aim was to
lifelong and career education for the AF of SR confirm the possibilities to educate at AFA
members. They should include the given topic within EI. If teachers agree with including EI
in their individual subjects. The choice should in the module or study programmes, they
be made by individual departments or courses would probably face problems related to the
guarantors. The offer of courses should lack of texts and books for this purpose.
contain more topics to choose from. If there is Compiling texts is very time-consuming and
a positive response from participants, then we difficult, that is why the EI Manual for AFA
can update the study programmes and include teachers might be helpful. The manual can also
EI in several areas, because all departments serve as study text for students instead of the
teach subjects with suitable subjects, where EI missing books. It can also be a useful
could be easily included and the students handbook for employees and managers at AFA
would benefit. If we consider EI an individual when dealing with everyday problems. It is
subject, most suitable subjects would be for suitable also for teachers of other types of
example: Management, Leadership, Manager universities and schools, because it can be
communication, Human resources used in any education process.
management, Organization behaviour, Ethics
and military behaviour, Mass media
communication and militay diplomacy and
crisis communication, Public relations,

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
REFERENCES [5] MOLČANOVÁ, Z. – BAUMGARTNER,
F. (2008). Emočná inteligencia - teória,
[1] PETRUFOVÁ, M. – HARTMANNOVÁ, metodológia, možnosti výskumu. In
E. Emocionálna inteligencia a vojenské Ruisel, I. (Ed.) 2008. Myslenie – osobnosť
vzdelávanie. Liptovský Mikuláš: AOS. – múdrosť. Bratislava: ÚEP SAV. 163-
160 p. ISBN 978-80-8040-454-3 164 p. ISBN 978-80-8897-10-25-1.
[2] MÄRTINOVÁ, D. – BOECKÁ, K. Available: http://www.psychologia.
(1998). Emocionálna inteligencia: city na sav.sk/upload/ruisel.
vzostupe. Bratislava: Slovenský [6] HARTL, P. – HARTLOVÁ, H. (2004).
spisovateľ. 18-19 p. ISBN 80-220-0842-7 Psychologický slovník. Praha: Portál s. r.
[3] GOLEMAN, D. (1995). Emoční o. 234 p. ISBN 80-7178-303-X
inteligence. Proč může být emoční [7] SCHULZE, R. a kol. (2007). Emoční
inteligence důležitejší než IQ. Praha: inteligence. Praha: Portál. 128 p. ISBN
Columbus. 16 p. ISBN 80-85928-48-5. 978-80-7367-229-4
[4] KANITZ, A. (2008). Jak rozvíjet svou [8] BRADBERRY, T. – GREAVESOVÁ, J.
emoční inteligenci. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada (2007). Emoční inteligence v praxi.
Publishing. 32 p. ISBN 978-80-247- Praha: Columbus. 62 p. ISBN 978-80-
2582-6 7249-220-6.

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
THE INTERALLIED CONFEDERATION OF RESERVE OFFICERS-
CIOR, AND PERSPECTIVE OF RELATION WITH EX-SOVIET UNION
(E-SU) STATES IN THE CONTEXT OF CRIMEA CRISIS.
ROLES OF THE PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS AND MILITIA
OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY
TURBULENCE THEATRE

LCDR. (AF-Res.) Ioan PITICAR

Air Force Academy “Henri Coanda”, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers commonly referred to by its French
acronym CIOR, represents the interests of over 1.3 million reservists across 36 participating nations
within and beyond NATO, making it the world’s largest military reserve officer organization. Founded
in 1948 by the reserve officer associations of Belgium, France and the Netherlands, CIOR is now a
NATO-affiliated, non-political and non-profit umbrella organization of member nations’ national
reserve officer associations.
This presentation will deal possible future relations between NATO/CIOR on the one hand, and
Ukraine, Moldova, or the South Caucasus States on the other hand, in conditions when Russia tending
to recreate the „Soviet” old territory, in the context of events and of the recent evolution from Crimea.
The reservist’s role from paramilitary or militia organizations based on Ethnic Minorities, was used
very efficient in Crimea by Russian forces, in order to reach their objectives in operations in an
efficient and quickly manner.

This abstract intend to present the implication of paramilitary or militia organizations, based on
Ethnic Minorities, in conflicts between states, like an asymmetrical option that could lead to civil war
and to the terrorist acts, out of any control of the states.

Keywords: CIOR, Crimea, paramilitary, militia, civil war, reservists.

1. Roles of CIOR
2. Before of february's Crimea events
The CIOR has two main roles: to provide
advice on Reserve issues and support to the According to a pact from 2010 between
NATO Alliance, and to foster the professional Ukraine and Russia, Russia had a lease for
development of reserve officers. their naval facilities in Crimea until 2042, and
maintained the right to use some small areas of
Crimea, up to 25.000 troops, 24 artillery

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systems, 132 armored vehicles, and 22 military Russian individuals claiming "Russia's clear
planes on the Crimean peninsula. violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and
3. The pact – „The Kharkiv Agreement” territorial integrity". These threats were
subsequently carried out and Russia retaliated.
Russia’s use of their warm water port in The Crimean Peninsula is seen by Russia as
Sevastapol was due to end in 2017 with its strategic link to the Mediterranean Sea,
Ukraine saying their would be no extension (as Black Sea, and the Balkans with Azov Sea
per their constitution prohibiting foreign area, as well as a land of historic cultural and
military use of their lands) and Russia would religious significance. The Russian
have to leave. government maintains that its preparedness to
But now, after Crimea episode, Russia have enter the Ukraine militarily in Crimea is to
Ukraine as an enemy over "a barrel" of gas protect ethnic Russians in the region.
theft. Russia does not recognize the newly
In 2010 Russia and Ukraine "negotiated" an installed interim government in Ukraine,
treaty called "The Russian Ukrainian Naval instead considering now-ousted-
Base for Gas treaty" which is also known by PresidentViktor Yanukovych Ukraine's
the name of "The Kharkiv Pact". legitimate leader.
The bottom line of the deal is this, Russia Yanukovych formally asked Russia to
gives Ukraine a "special price" on gas - a intervene in Ukraine militarily to maintain
supposed 30% discount - (which in turn will peace and order. Russia claims that its armed
help them purchase gas to return into the forces were not involved in the stand-off prior
system for the gas they supposedly took, or if to the referendum and reunification of Crimea
they chose they can use the discount to pay to Russia, and also asserts that use of force for
Russia back faster for the gas they didn’t pay the purposes of humanitarian intervention in
for and in return Ukraine leases the Naval base Ukraine has not yet occurred.
in Sevasatapol until at least 2042 (Russia Vladimir Tyunin, used to be the director of
wrote a clause into the treaty giving them the a humanitarian institute in the Ukrainian city
option of extending to 2047). of Sevastopol. He now commands 100 trained
Russia gets its money (or gas) back AND gets men at the heart of the standoff between
to keep its port in Sevastapol under the Russia and the West.
auspices of "saving" Ukraine. “I have a group of people that can do any kind
The treaty had a rough ride through the of task” Tyunin, 57, said at the end of
Ukrainian parliament with fights and February, in the port on the Crimean
demonstrations breaking out, it was finally peninsula.
ratified under dubious circumstances (several “These are special forces. They can assault
assenting votes were registered by people buildings, they can block buildings. We are
known not to even be in the building when the ready to protect ourselves.”
votes took place). In Russia the treaty As diplomats around the world seek to
was passed through their parliament in one defuse the crisis, Crimea is preparing for a
vote with 96% assenting. March 16 referendum on splitting from
Apparently we could say: „this is fair”. Ukraine and joining Russia. Pro-Moscow
Russia get's paid for gas, Ukraine gets cheap supporters like Tyunin’s unit, which he says
gas and Russia doesn't have to build a new participated in the siege of the Ukraine Navy’s
base for their ships. All Win, right? headquarters, are on the front line of a conflict
But here's the Russian triky! that so far has been fought more with words
On February 24, 2014, additional soldiers than weapons.
arrived, on the Crimean Peninsula, but the The militias gave President Vladimir Putin
total number remained well below 25,000. the upper hand in the autonomous republic of
Western Governments accused the Russian about 2 million people, home to his Black Sea
military of seizing control of the Crimea Fleet. Their numbers rose to about 15,000 on
region, and threatened sanctions against March 7, when a local hunting club joined

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
with 4,500 members, guns and ammunition, Yarema said in Kiev today. Meanwhile, the
according to Alexander Bochkarev, a retired militias in Crimea keep Ukrainian forces
colonel from the Ukrainian Interior Ministry confined to their bases, patrol streets and
and now the commander of the militia in the control the road network with checkpoints.
Crimean capital, Simferopol. The units are armed with bludgeons, iron
crowbars and hunting rifles, with more
4. Rival Groups substantial weapons also at their disposal,
Bochkarev said by telephone.
For now, militia officials say the main task “We have several arsenals in reserve that are
of the paramilitaries is to keep order in Crimea guarded by our Crimean guys,” said
after the protests in Kiev left more than 100 Bochkarev, who has 2,800 people under his
people dead last month. There has been no command. Many of them may join the regular
bloodshed since the standoff began on the Crimea army that is being formed now, he
peninsula, where ethnic Russians make up 59 said.
percent of the population, while Ukrainians Crimean authorities started recruiting last
account for 24 percent and ethnic Tatars for 12 week and 186 soldiers have already taken an
percent, according to the 2001 census. oath, the Interfax news service reported, citing
“The danger is that the people of Crimea premier Aksenov. There will be a 1,500-strong
who are pro-Kiev may now form their own army with guns guarding polling stations at the
militia,” said Ben Barry, senior fellow for land March 16 referendum, he said.
warfare at the London-based Iternational Bochkarev, whose regiment has fast-response
Institute for Strategic Studies. troops, a logistics unit and a security service to
“This may also be the case with Tatars.” do background checks on would-be members,
Militia organizers including Bochkarev say the said he recommends the best people to the
groups mirror those formed in Lviv in western recruiters. New soldiers get a contract and a
Ukraine and Kiev, where they kept the peace Kalashnikov assault rifle.
in the immediate aftermath of the revolt that
toppled Kremlin-backed President Viktor 6. No Aggression
Yanukovych.
The militias were organized at the call of Ukrainian Army Colonel Yuli Mamchur,
Crimean Prime Minister Sergei Aksenov, acting commander of a besieged airbase near
installed after the regional parliament had been Sevastopol, said he is in touch with militia and
seized by armed Russia supporters. The groups didn’t see any aggression from them.
supplement the official Russian troops in the “We are calling each other when we see
region, estimated by the Ukraine government something strange near the base,” Mamchur
at more than 19,000. said by phone. “Drunken crowds, for example,
or some non-sanctioned rallies. There was
5. Troop Buildup absolutely no threat to anyone here till
Russians came here to protect us.”
Russian troops continue to be deployed and Putin said it’s not his troops who are
to “increase their presence” along Ukraine’s surrounding Ukrainian army installations.
eastern border, First Deputy Premier Vitaliy

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Yet Bochkarev, the Simferopol 7. Tatar Response

commander, said Russian involvement is key.
“The fact that our Russian brothers are here The militia’s structure is already similar to
gives us 100 percent confidence,” Bochkarev a regular army, according to Leonid Lebedev,
said. a spokesman. Funding comes from donations,
Between Sevastopol and Simferopol, cars he said. Younger members are often barred
stop at a militia checkpoint. Men in because of their pro-Ukrainian position,
camouflage gear open trunks and scrutinize Andrei Kratko, an activist from Yalta, a city in
documents. the south of Crimea where around 100
People are taking part to protect Crimea vigilantes patrol streets, said by phone.
from Ukrainian radicals, said Grigory, a traffic The build-up of Crimea militias was
controller who declined to give his last name. boosted after February 26 clashes between
“I won’t leave this position until I know we pro-Russia activists and Crimea Tatars near
are all safe,” he said. the regional parliament in Simferopol,
Russia succeded to take over Crimea, but Lebedev said.
several factors make it harder to believe that The Tatars see the role played by the
Russia will be able to establish control and to militias differently and have called for a
effectively annex Crimea as it did with South United Nations peacekeeping mission.
Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria. For one, “They come, try to provoke a conflict and then
the Ukrainian side so far has not made any armed gentlemen appear,” Refat Chubarov,
moves that Russia can credibly present as a who leads the Tatar minority’s executive, told
provocation that necessitates armed response reporters last week.
by the Russian side to “protect” its military or The Tatars — a Muslim group that was
its citizens, as was the case in Georgia in 2008. deported en masse from Crimea by Stalin in
The new Ukrainian governemnt leaders 1944 and that for decades has waged a
have called for calm, the far right Right Sector peaceful struggle for the right to return —
said it will not be sending its men to Crimea, have been coming back in droves since 1989.
and in a conciliatory gesture to Russian- According to the latest Ukrainian census from
speakers, acting president Turchynov recently 2001, 243.433 Crimean Tatars account for
vetoed the law the Ukrainian parliament 12.1 percent of the Crimean population of
adopted several weeks earlier repealing the 2.033.700.
2012 law elevating the status of the Russian They represent a highly mobilized and
language. unified constituency that has consistently been
With the Security Council in session to pro-Ukrainian and opposed to pro-Russian
discuss events in Crimea and Western leaders separatism on the peninsula. Going back to the
urging restraint and warning Russia that 1991 independence referendum, the narrow
violations of Ukrainian sovereignty and vote in favor of Ukrainian state independence
territorial integrity are unacceptable, there is in Crimea may have been thanks to the vote of
hope that a diplomatic solution to the crisis the Crimean Tatars.
could be found quickly. Since then, the Crimean Tatars and their
But even if diplomacy fails and the Russian representative organ, the Mejlis, have
military annexed Crimean territory with the cooperated with the pro-Ukrainian political
intention of controlling it permanently, it will parties. Leaders of the Mejlis such as Mustafa
be much harder for Russia to establish control Dzhemilev and Refat Chubarov have been
of Crimea than it was in South Ossetia, members of the Ukrainian parliament elected
Abkhazia and Transnistria. on the party list of Ukrainian nationalist
The main reason for this is the Crimean parties such as Rukh in the 1990s and later
Tatars. from Our Ukraine party.
On February 26, the day before the
Crimean parliament was taken over by the
armed men, Crimean Tatars held a large rally

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
near the parliament that was larger than a noting that the Crimean Tatars will not
simultaneous pro-Russian rally. There has entertain such offers now, either, and that they
been no comparable local mobilized group do not trust Russia and want Crimea to remain
opposed to Russian takeover in any other of within Ukraine.
the breakaway regions. The Chairman of the Mejlis already issued
Although the group has been a staunch ally a statement refusing to recognize the new local
of the Ukrainian government against pro- government in Crimea that was voted for by
Russian separatism on the peninsula, the the local parliament after the invasion, with
Ukrainian central authorities, while benefiting armed men in the building and reportedly
from this support, have also been suspicious of without a quorum.
the Crimean Tatars, who consider Crimea their Recently, news media reported
historical homeland and have advocated Dzhemilev’s statement that the Crimean Tatars
measures such as changing the status of are organizing self-defense units and that if
Crimean autonomy to make it the national- diplomacy fails, the units would come under
territorial autonomy of the Crimean Tatars as Ukrainian command and would fight the
opposed to simply territorial (and de facto “aggressor” if necessary.
ethnic Russian autonomy given that ethnic
Russians constitute more than 50 percent of 8. NATO Contents of cooperation
the population in Crimea).
The law on the status of the Crimean Tatars In general cooperation has remained
as indigenous peoples of Ukraine that the relatively limited. The pattern and the context
Tatar leaders have been pushing for many of cooperation have evolved over the years.
years remains unadopted. Initially it was more about establishing
Whatever the Tatar grievances against the political ties with countries that were
Ukrainian state may be, when faced with the completely new on the world map and in the
choice of being under either Russian or process of building up defense and security
Ukrainian control, the Crimean Tatar sectors of their own from scratch. It appeared
leadership has consistently and unequivocally all the more necessary to establish political
chosen Ukraine. and security dialogue with these states that the
Since the Soviet period, attempts to split the situation in the whole area was very
Crimean Tatar movement and persuade some unpredictable and many security challenges
of the Tatars to support a pro-Soviet, and later needed to be tackled there.
pro-Russian, agenda has not borne fruit. In an By that time, there was also strong hope to
interview with this author in the 1990s, use the Partnership for Peace as an instrument
Mustafa Dzhemilev said that in 1991 Boris for encouraging the expansion of liberal,
Yeltsin’s government made an offer to the democratic values. Later on, a phase of
Crimean Tatars to back Russian control of consolidation came – the partnership policy
Crimea in return for giving the peninsula the has grown more specific, focused on meeting
status of Crimean Tatar national autonomy. the needs of a more global NATO,
Dzhemilev refused the offer then, and, recently increasingly oriented towards fighting threats
he said that he has received a similar offer outside the Euro-Atlantic area are but
from a highly placed Russian official now, undermining its security.

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For their part, the partner states have is now paying less attention but under the
consolidated their foreign and security policies Bush administration, the US government
and know better what they want and do not advised some of these countries (not only
want to do in their cooperation with NATO. Georgia and Ukraine) to declare an interest in
Another problem is that NATO has a joining NATOi (despite the opposition of
credibility problem. It has made clear it does some NATO members). This has contributed
not want a role in solving the frozen conflicts to make Russia even more anxious about
in the region, which is undermining its NATO’s open doors policy. Georgia has paid a
authority in the eyes of the countries, for high price for it in 2008: with what the EU
which these conflicts are at the core of their called a disproportionate military reaction and
security interests. The absence of a strong its subsequent decision to recognize South
reaction on NATO’s part during the Georgia Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states,
war has only strengthened this vision. Partners Russia clearly demonstrated that there are
see that NATO is in Afghanistan, far from its limits in acceptance to NATO’s enlargement
traditional zone of responsibility, and has not in the ex-Soviet space.
been able or willing to play a part in post- NATO feels that, with countries that are ex-
Soviet unresolved conflicts. For them, it is SP members, such as Armenia and
clear that it means that NATO does not want Kazakhstan, membership complicates their
to take responsibility for the security of the cooperation with NATO and constrains their
region. political integration with the Alliance.
Besides, one reason why NATO does not
9. Constraints and limitations want to establish formal cooperation with ex-
SC, which, in addition, it sees as non-
We have to admitted once, that cooperation democratic and ineffective, but also is that it
between NATO and former Soviet Union sees it as a tool for Russia to assert its sphere
countries has remained quite limited. A first of influence in the post-Soviet space.
limitation is tied to the fact that NATO/ex-SU Another problem is that NATO has a
countries relations have been overshadowed credibility problem. It has made clear it does
by the “Russia factor”. Russia itself has quite a not want a role in solving the frozen conflicts
comprehensive cooperation agenda with in the region, which is undermining its
NATO. It is often forgotten that Russia was authority in the eyes of the countries, for
involved in NATO’s peacekeeping operations which these conflicts are at the core of their
in Bosnia and in Kosovo; it has also security interests. The absence of a strong
participated to the transit of NATO freight reaction on NATO’s part during the Georgia
through Russian territory for the ISAF mission war has only strengthened this vision.
and to the training of Afghan security forces; Partners see that NATO is in Afghanistan,
counter-terrorism cooperation, anti-piracy, air far from its traditional zone of responsibility,
trafficking security, Afghanistan, search and and has not been able or willing to play a part
rescue at sea are all parts of the Russia-NATO in post-Soviet unresolved conflicts. For them,
cooperation agenda under the auspices of the it is clear that it means that NATO does not
NATO-Russian Council Cooperation with want to take responsibility for the security of
Russia is seen as useful by a number of NATO the region.
members. But this relationship is highly Another important limitation is the “values
politicized and one of the major contention gap” between NATO members and most of
bones has been, precisely, NATO’s role in the these countries. Of course, pragmatism and the
ex-SU countries. need to work with partners to tackle urgent
This area indeed has become a field of security challenges have often made this stake
competition between Russia and NATO (and secondary. For example, focused as it has been
the EU, as the current Ukrainian crisis has on the logistical and other needs related to its
revealed). The Georgia war came as a very Afghanistan operation, NATO has reduced the
painful symptom of such competition. The US insistence on its normative agenda in recent

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
years. Azerbaijan is not the most democratic
state on the world stage but a number of REFERENCES
NATO members see this country’s energy
resources as potentially helpful in Europe’s 1. http://www.cior.net/News/2014/CIOR-
effort to become less dependent on Russian NATO-Geopolitical-Seminar-
energy. It seems it has made the Alliance more 2014.aspx Security through Crisis
patient with this player. Management” from NATO Strategic
However, the authoritarian character of Concept
most of these states is an invisible barrier to 2. www.bloomberg.net
more serious cooperation – if only because 3. http://time.com/42683/crimeas-tatars-
their leaders will always be cautious in condemn-annexation-seek-autonomy/
developing ties with an organization which 4. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opini
they tend to see as a tool of Western regime on/2014/03/why-do-russians-support-
change policy (this is typically the case for interv-2014328174257483544.html
Azerbaijan). NATO, in addition, will always 5. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opini
be distrustful because of the opportunistic on/2014/03/crimea-crisis-tatarstan-
nature of such regimes, which can make them factor-2014314143349496558.html
unreliable in their foreign policy priorities (and 6. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opini
their cooperation – unstable). on/2014/03/crimea-tatars-homeland-at-
To conclude, the most pressing question is stake-2014355402511335.html
certainly about the possible evolution of ex –
SU countries preferencies, for a set of values
(NATO), or for another (Russian values).
Obviously, a pertinent de question remain:
Still be in the future, in the most of ex-SU
space, o „Russian business”, blackmail based
on the natural resources?

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
ANALYSIS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING A COMPLEX
MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM FOR PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS BY
MANAGEMENT

*ec. drd. SFETCU Marian

* Faculty of Economics Sciences and Business Administration of „Babeș - Bolyai” University

of Cluj Napoca. E-mail: marian_sfetcu@yahoo.com. Tel: 0720 760 220

Abstract: This action displays a scientific research on statistical analysis based on Spearman’s
correlation coefficient, in order to show the management possibility of implementing a complex
motivational system for public internal auditors. The analysis was based on the results of the
questionnaires sent by e-mail to public pre-university and university education audit structures, and on
the establishing the mathematical analysis model of the results and their review. The analysis results are
summarized in the conclusions drawn from empirical research.

Keywords: correlation coefficient, complex motivational system, public internal audit, statistical
analysis, logical analysis, regression, descriptive analysis.

JEL: M 42

I. INTRODUCION resources. This approach was born from the

need to adapt the public internal audit to the
The importance of the research stays in
new demands of economic, social and
the ensuring of the possibility of
technical development, which are also subject
implementing a complex motivational system
to public entities. Analyzing the possibility of
(Nicolescu O., Verboncu I., 2008, pp. 291 –
ensuring the management of the public entity
292) [6] for public internal auditors by the
of a complex motivational system for the
public entity management from the research
auditors, leads to the determination of the
field.  This analysis is part of the scientific
motivational necessities of the auditors, the
approach of the activity and public internal
identification of the factors underlying the
audit structure management, in order to
possibility of implementing a complex
maximize the audit contribution to the
motivational system and providing knowledge
assuring of the public entity performance, by
to the public internal audit performance
assuring the management of efficient and
research field.  
effective risk inventory and the efficient,
effective and economic use of public entity

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 MANAGEMENT

The resea rch field of this scientific represents our working hypothesis: Is there
endeavor, is featured by the public entities of any possibility for the management to ensure
public pre-university and university a complex motivational system for the public
education, components of the national internal auditors within the educational
education system, which organized, according system?
to The Low (Low 672-2002, art. 11-12) [8],
public internal audit structures. Our approach II. ANALYSIS OF THE
includes the public internal audit structures MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITY OF
within the school boards and the public ENSURING A COMPLEX
universities, without the public internal audit MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM FOR THE
structures within the Ministry of National PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS
Education and within the special education
(military education). In this approach where 2.1. General informa tion on
involved 31 audit structures, out of a total of conducting empirical research
42 school boards, 36 public university audit
The analysis of the management
structures, out of 49 universities and 4 audit
possibility to ensure a complex motivational
structures from within the public local
system for the public internal auditors started
administration structures and some
by questioning the 72 audit structures within
decentralized public entities. To ensure
the research area, out of 92 structures, with 8
confidentiality the schools participating in the
closed questions contained in Table 1. The
research were numbers.
items used in the empiric research have 4
Research method. The research was possible answers, as shown below: 1 = Never,
based on setting goals and working 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always, shown
assumptions (Chelcea S., 2007, pp. 108-122) in Table 2. Research results. The
[3], establishing the research method based on questionnaires were send towards the units
the statistic analysis methods and techniques, within the research field, through e-mail, to
establishing conclusions and communication / each structure, between 15 – 31.05.2013, and
disseminating these concerning the execution the answers were collected between 15.06 –
or invalidation of the established hypothesis. 15.07.2013 and 01.10.2013 – 15.11.2013.

The way of analyzing the results based on The analysis of the answers was based in a
applied statistic methods and techniques statistic adaptation which allows a simple and
(Green E., 1922) [4], was based on analyzing synthetic description (Bailes C. 1998) [1],
the research results through regression link using the Statistical Package for the Social
between the variables method (Chareille P., Sciences program (SPSS).
Pinault Y., 1996) [2].
The statistic analysis was performed by
The objective of the research is the selecting the items (the asked questions)
possibility of the management to ensure a concerning the methodological factor and the
complex motivational system for the internal management factor and governance, which
auditors within the research field. define the general characteristic of the
Implementing a complex motivational system analyzed variable (Y). In order to avoid errors
to the public entities is difficult, due to the in the SPSS program performance we
reduction of the financial resources, blocking ciphered the items, as shown in Table 1. Items
the free posts, promotion based on degrees used in the empiric research.
and levels of the stuff within the budgetary
For the statistic analysis of the empiric
entities, is uphill due to the regulatory
research we used Spearman’s correlation
framework and the correlation of the needs,
factor, because from all the studied
aspirations, personal interests of auditors
correlations, at least one variable is ordinal.
(training, promotion, awards, etc..), with the
As a result, the use of the correlation factor
entity objectives is a sensitive issue. From this
can be unfit, especially for estimating the
point of view arises the question which also
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possibility of rejecting the void hypothesis (p- cj , j  1,5 threshold values estimated by model
value). Like so, the causality relation between
c1   , c j  c j 1 , c5   conditions that
the implied variables were analyzed by using
the Methodical Logit Model (MLO) (Hosmer ensure that the sum of the probabilities for
D.W., Lemeshow S., Sturdivant R.X. 2013, p. each respondent equals 1.
528) [5]. The choice of methodology is not
random, it is assessed by the variables’ nature,
2.2. Statistic analysis of the
which are not quantitative, asserted by
empirical research results
concrete measuring, but their values can be
ranked. In case of obtaining a positive value The analysis was based on representative
and statistic eloquent for the coefficient of the factors:
factor variable Xj, it can be said that a a) Based on the methodological factor, we
accession of the values if this variable leads to research the influence of the audit
accession of the possibility of obtaining high activities which tries to defers the legal
values for Y variable. In case of obtaining a regulation within the field Item 2), the
eloquent negative factor, the interpretation is capacity of the audit to accomplish in
contrary; if the factor acquired is statistically time the intern audit tasks and goals
insignificant, we can’t reveal a casual relation established by the management (item 4)
between Xj and Y, no matter the factor sign. and deferring the professional etic
Code in the current audit activity (item
In general form, MLO can be written as:
6), on the management attention to
ensuring a complex motivational
Prob ( yi  j | x , b , c )  F ( c j 1  xi b )  F ( c j  xi b ) system (item 1), where Y = 1, Y = f (2,
4, 6) Table 1. Items used in the
empirical research);
exp(cj 1  xib) exp(cj  xib)
Prob( yi  j | x, b, c)  - b) Based on the management and
1 exp(cj 1  xib) 1 exp(cj  xib) governance factor, we research the
negative influence of the lack of
where, resources on the audit activities (item
i  1, N indexes respondents to the 3), accomplishing the goals established
questionnaire by the auditors alongside with the
yi = value of the endogenous variable (item management, through audit reports
(item 5), accomplishing the external
that we consider as a result) audit missions for evaluating the public
yi  1 if the respondent answered internal audit (item 7) and for the
"never" yi  2 if the respondent answered management to advocate the
“sometimes” professional preparation of the auditors
yi  3 if the respondent answered “often” (item 8), on the management’s concern
yi  4 if the respondent answered “always”
for ensuring a complex motivational
system (item 1), where Y = 1, Y = f ( 3,
xi = vector of explanatory variables (items that 5, 7, 8) (Table 1. Items used in the
we consider as factors) empirical research);
b = vector coefficients By applying the regression method we
acquired factors, either positive or negative.
 
 
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(according to the regression tables). These While analyzing the link between the
factors can be taken as given, if only p-value variables, by using Spearman’s factor, issues
is under 0,1 or 0,05. Otherwise, we can z < 0,3 = weak link 0,3 < z < 0,7 = medium
consider these coefficients as zero. Hence, link z > 0,7 = strong link. We can also
two cases: consider that there is a link between the
a) p-value > 0,1 there is no link between X variables, if p-value < 0.01 sau 0.00.
and Y;
b) p-value < 0,1 if the factor is positive,
then X arises, which implies Y to
arise(decrease if the factor is negative).

Table nr. 1. Items used in the empirical research.

Nr. crt. Variable code Explanation

Item 1 COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONA The management task is to ensure a complex
L_SYSTEM motivational system, decent for the auditors
Item 2 RESPECTING_LEGAL_REG Does your audit activity concern respecting the
UALTION legal regulation within the field?
Item 3 IMPACT_ RESOURCE Was your internal audit activity affected by the
lack of resources needed for its’ well function?
Item 4 TASKS_AUDIT_DEADLINE Were the goals and tasks, established by the
management for you, accomplished in time?
Item 5 GOALS_ENTITY_RELATIO Do the relations compiled by you respond well to
N the goals established with the management?
Item 6 ETHICAL_CODE In your current work, have complied with the Code
of Ethics for auditors?
Item 7 AUDIT_EXTERNAL_EVALU In the past five years, were there external audit
ATION missions of your entity?
Item 8 ASSURANCE_PROFESSION Does the management support the work of
AL_PREPARING professional training of auditors?
Source: Author Protected
Table nr. 2. Research results
Nominal and
percentage Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8
values
Answer 1 13 4 23 9 8 3 17 9
Answer 2 22 7 19 5 2 9 11 20
Answer 3 20 7 18 25 14 7 24 16
Answer 4 17 54 12 33 48 53 20 27
Answer 1 (%) 18,1 5,6 31,9 12,5 11,1 4,2 23,6 12,5
Answer 2 (%) 30,6 9,7 26,4 6,9 2,8 12,5 15,3 27,8
Answer 3 (%) 27,8 9,7 25 34,7 19,4 9,7 33,3 22,2
  Answer 4 (%) 23,6 75 16,7 45,8 66,7 73,6 27,8 37,5
Source: Authors’ calculation

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2.2.1 Analysis based on the From this descriptive analysis we can conclude
methodological factor, tries to explain the that the values acquired from the scientific
influence of the factors that define the approach are above average (M = 36), the
methodological factor (items 3, 5, 7, 8 from auditors always try to respect the current legal
Table 1. Items used in the empiric research), on regulations (xi = 54) and always respect the
the management concern for ensuring a etical proffesional Code (xi = 53), except the
complex motivational system (item 1) by audit tasks and goals established by the
establishing the regression function, as Y = 1, management, which are always completed (xi =
where, Y = f (2,4,6) (see Table 1). 33)and “often” (xi = 25) in time, which, taken
Out of 72 respondents, 54 auditors are individually, are beneath average M = 36. From
concerned about respecting the field this approach we can say that the auditors
regulations, which is 75%, 33 auditors respecting the tasks and goals established by the
answered that the audit goals and tasks management, with values beneath average,
established by the management are “always” contribues to respecting the ensurement of the
completed in time, which represents 45,8% and audit independence, by avoinding the tasks and
25 auditors answered “often” to this item, goals established by the management for the
which is 34,7 %, and 53 auditors answered that auditors, which will make the audit subject in a
the audit activity always respects the etic future stage.
professional Code, which represents 73,6%.

Table nr. 3. Regression calculation

Endogenous variable (Y): COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONAL_SYSTEM

Factor variable Coef. Std.Er. z p-value

RESPECTING_LEGAL_REGLEMANTATIONS ***1.171 0.426 2.75 0.006

TASKS_AUDIT_DEADLINE ***1.223 0.357 3.43 0.001

ETHICAL_CODE **0.712 0.363 1.96 0.050

N = 72 ; pseudo R2 = 0.2723
***,  **,  *  :  considerable  statistic  at  an  apron  of  1%,  5%  si  10%.  All the factorial variables are statisticly
considerable and positive. Source: Author calculation using SPSS

From the MLO regression analysis, respecting the ethical professional Code. From a
Table 3 Regression calculation, you can see that statistical point of view, by applying the
there are links between the probability of regression analysis and Spearman’s correlation
ensuring a complex motivational system, factor, where p-value < 0,1, shows that the
respecting the current regulations, completing biggest probability for the management to
the goals established by the management and ensure a complex motivational system, is

 
 
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possible by completing the tasks and goals normalization field and the professional ethical
established by the management (p-value = code, concerning the national practice which
0,001, at a considerable apron at 1 %) and with establishes a complex motivational
a link calculated using Spearman’s factor z = system(salary, promotion, bounty, sanction), is
0,357, followed by respecting the current ensured by respecting the professional ethical
regulations (p –value = 0,006, at a considerable code, then by respecting the legal field.
apron of 1 % and z = 2,75) and by respecting The descriptive analysis shows that the
the professional ethical Code (p-value = 0,050, auditors keep their independence by avoiding
at a statistical considerable apron of 5 % and z completing the goals and tasks established by
= 1,96). the management, other than the audit activity.
Theoretically, we think that respecting The management cared more about ensuring
the ethical code, would have had values close to a complex motivational system for the auditors, by
completing the management tasks by the audit setting the auditors tasks and goals, which leads to
and respecting the legal regulations, concerning defying the auditors independence by involving
the statistic research. On a logical aspect, them in future audit activities
completing the goals and tasks established by
the management is based on respecting the 2.2.2. Analysis based in the
regulation and normalization field. If the legal management and governance factor, tries to
regulations are being respected, then the ethical explain the influence of the factors of
code is also respected, which shows that the management and governance (items 3, 5, 7, 8,
respondents gave this aspect a thought. Table 1. Items used in empirical research) on
Logically thinking, the audit completing the management concern in ensuring a complex
the tasks and goals established by the motivational system (item1). The analysis was
management, respecting the professional ethical based on establishing the regression function, as
code and the current regulations, adds to the Y = 1, where, Y = f (3, 5, 7, 8) (see Table 1).
management ensuring a complex motivational. Based on the descriptive analysis of the
In the public internal audit practice (UCAAPI, items, which affects the ensuring of a complex
2007-2012) [7], on a national level, it is motivational system for the auditors, the
considered that the management appreciates resources impact did never affect negatively the
more completing the entity tasks and goals audit activity for 23 auditors (31,9%) and
established, which adds to ensuring the sometimes for 19 auditors (26,4%), the reports
fulfilling the public entity goals, conditions always answer adequate to the goals established
which grant respecting the professional ethic with the management for 48 auditors (66,7%)
code. Also, we presume that respecting the and often for 14 auditors (19,4%). The values
professional ethical code also implies respecting are beneath average (M = 36), which shows that
the regulation and normalization field of the the management did not always support the
public internal audit. professional training of the auditors (27 auditors
being 37,5% and often for 16 auditors, being
Preliminary conclusions. In the 22,2%), and the external evaluation of the audit
education system, the static analysis showed was always considered useful for 20 auditors,
that the probability for the management to being 27,8% and for 20 auditors often, being
ensure a complex motivational system by 33,3%.
completing the tasks and goals established by
the management, respecting the regulation and

436
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Table 4. Regression calculation

Endogenous variable (Y): COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONAL_SYSTEM

Factor variable Coef. Std.Er. z p-value
IMPACT_ RESOURCES *0,374 0,231 1,62 0,105
GOALS_ENTITY_RAPORTS ***1,130 0,303 3,73 0,000
EXTERNAL_AUDIT_EVALUATION ***1,017 0,251 4,04 0,000
ENSURING_PROFFESIONAL_TRAINING ***0,889 0,269 3,31 0,001
N = 72 ; pseudo R2 = 0.2395
***, **, * : considerable statistic at an apron of 1%, 5% and 10%. Source: Author calculation by
using SPSS

The analysis of the probability for the territorial structures of the Romanian Account
management to ensure a complex motivational Court and the evaluations of the audit Services
system for the public internal audit by applying from MEN, finds problems and adds to their
the regression analysis based on Spearman’s extermination, with an impact in ensuring the
factor of management and governance (where public internal audit from the research area. We
p-value < 0,1), showed that the biggest consider that the research of the audit reports on
probability to ensure a complex motivational the audit structure goals, are based in the
system for the public internal auditors is the auditors capacities and the knowledge of the
external public audit evaluation which affects audit structure, finding the problems and
the most (p-value = 0,000, at a considerable drawing recommendations, relevant and
statistic level of 1 %) with a link (Spearman’s according to the goals established by the
factor, z = 4,04) followed by reported entity management. The professional training, adds to
goals (p-value = 0,000, at a considerable the management ensuring a complex
statistic level of 1% and z = 3,73) and by motivational system by discovering the training
ensuring the professional training, p-value = needs of the auditors, according to the activity
0,001 (at a considerable statistic level of 0,001 subject of the entity with direct implications in
and z = 3,31) the last one being the resources ensuring the goals established by the
impact (p-value = 0,105 at a considerable management through objective
statistical level of 10% and z = 1,62), and recommendations, relevant and according to the
according to the condition, p-value > 0,1, the reality. We can see that the resources impact
resources impact do not affect the management does not affect as much as the other variable the
ensuring a complex motivational system for the ensuring of a complex motivational system,
public internal auditors. which draws the conclusion that the auditors
From a logical point of view, ensuring ensure their professional training by their own
the resources, could have had a stronger means (attending to courses, increasing their
influence on ensuring a complex motivational degrees – master, doctor’s degree, publishing
system as we thought in the beginning of the materials in public magazines etc.), ensuring the
analysis. As the analysis shows, the external audit missions with existing resources.
evaluation of the audit is the most important
element that can add to ensuring a complex Preliminary conclusions. From the
motivational system, being known that the descriptive analysis, we can see that the

 
 
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management is not concerned with the The management ensuring the professional
professional training of the auditors, but it has training of the auditors and the resources
the biggest influence on ensuring a complex impact, are sensitive spots for the public
motivational system for the auditors, also the entities, while the approved budgets are more
audit evaluations every 5 years and the and more diminished, fact also shown by the
resources impact, can add to ensuring a descriptive statistic of this variable.
complex motivational system for the public
internal auditors from the research area. From this approach we can draw the
conclusion that it is a very big probability for
III. CONCLUSIONS the management to ensure a complex
motivational system for the public internal
Statistically, the empirical research we did audit, in contradiction to reality, which proves
and the results based on the Logit Methodic that the resources impact (financial through the
Model, shows the probability of the approved and given budgets, human resources
management to ensure a complex motivational through the staff politics of the Ministry of
system for the public internal auditors in the Education) can not ensure the professional
educational system, by respecting the regulation training, and satisfy the auditors expectations
field. The tasks that the management according the audit and public entity goals.
established for the auditors, completing the
public entity goals established through audit
reports, the external evaluation of the audit and
BIBLIOGRAFIE
the professional training of the auditors, are
elements with a higher probability to add to [1] Bailes C., 1998 – L'analyse statistique des
ensuring a complex motivational system for the données. L'outil statistique appliqué au
public auditors, based on the statistical links marketing et á la gestion, Chotard et Associes
between them. Editures, Paris;
The static analysis through the regression [2] Chareille P., Pinault Y., 1996 – Statistique
method, was based on the information from the descriptive, Ed. Montchrestien, Paris;
respondents from the research area, and the
results defer from the results acquired from the [3] Chelcea S., 2007 – Methodology of
logical descriptive analysis. The regression sociological research, quantitative and
analysis shows that these can affect the variable qualitative methods, Ed. Economică, București;
that the analysis is based on. Logically, it is
essential for ensuring the public internal audit [4] Green E, 1992 – Econometric analysis, ed.
performance, to keep the auditors Prentice Hall, New York;
independence, by avoiding for the management [5] Hosmer D.W., Lemeshow S., Sturdivant
to establish tasks for the public internal R.X. (2013) - Applied Logistic Regression, Ed.
auditors, which in the audit practice ( The Wiley-Blackwell, 528p.
similar low of the Minister of Education,
Research, Teenage and Sports, Minister of [6] Nicolescu O., Verboncu I. 2008 –
Administration and Interns and Minister of Fundamentele managementului organizației,
Public Finances nr 4576 / 230 / 2445 / 2011) Ed. Universitară, București;
[10], there are trade-offs done to ensure the
independence of the auditors, while the pre- [7] The Central Unity for Harmonizing the
university auditors are forced [9] to validate the Public Internal Audit, 2007 – 2012 – Report on
staff states and pays of the public pre-university the activity of the public internal audit,
staff, which is audit subject, or rearranging the București (www.mfinante/ucaapi/), (UCAAPI);
tasks if the disposed paid staff as an effect of
the staff politics (OU 77 / 2013) [9]. [8] *** Low 672 / 2002 republished low
concerning the public internal audit;

438
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[9] *** OU 77 / 2013  OUG nr. 77/2013 – Minister of Administration and Interns and
ensuring the well function of the local public Minister of Public Finances nr. 4576 / 230 /
administration, the number of free posts and 2445 / 2011 concerning the validation of the
lowering of the expenses inside the public financial fluxes for paying the salary expenses
institutions and authorities. of the staff in the public pre-university
education;
[10] *** The similar order of the Minister of
Education, Research, Teenage and Sports,

 
 
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BEYOND THE FAST-FOOD MODEL OF EDUCATION. IS THE SCHOOL

CAPABLE TO FOSTER CREATIVITY?

Ioan Şuşnea*, Grigore Vasiliu*, Simona Spiridon**

*ACIEE, University “Dunarea de Jos”, Galati, Romania, ** CJRAE, Galati, Romania

Abstract: Many critics argue that the institution of modern school, and the teachers as educational agents
are not just incapable to stimulate, but also seem to block the innate creativity of the students. The
research described in this paper is a literature review aiming to identify the key factors that influence the
creativity in the educational environment in order to formulate practical actions towards an education for
creativity. We propose a new model of creativity in the educational context, and conclude that a reformed
school remains the main social instrument for promoting creativity.

Keywords: creativity, models of creativity, education for creativity

1. INTRODUCTION projects on this topic, which received

financing before 2013.
“We have sold ourselves into a fast food In a comprehensive study, Cachia et. al
model of education, and it's impoverishing our ([6]) interviewed more than 7000 teachers
spirit and our energies as much as fast food is from 27 European countries. They concluded
depleting our physical bodies” says Sir Ken that “there is a discrepancy between how
Robinson in [19]. teachers perceive creativity and the way they
Though the development of creativity is claim to foster creativity during their
claimed to be an imperative objective of teaching”, and note that “in many countries,
modern education, there are surprisingly few education policies and objectives mention the
educational initiatives dedicated to fostering need for creative learning, but do not provide
creativity of students. Xu et al in [28] have an encompassing working definition of
made a thorough inventory of the courses creativity or instructive guidelines on how it
dedicated to fostering creativity in universities should be promoted at school.”
from North America, Europe, Japan, and The situation seems to be even worse in the
China. Surprisingly, they only found only 39 public education system in North America.
such courses, and in most cases these were Under these circumstances a decline of
isolated initiatives of individual professors creativity is possible, and even predictable.
well known for their interest in the research of Bronson et al. ([4]) note that in North
creativity. And despite the billions of Euros America, after 1990 there is a visible increase
invested by the European Union in lifelong of the intelligence quotient IQ, accompanied
learning programmes, we identified only two by a constant decrease of the creativity
quotient, measured with the Torrance Test of

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Creative Thinking (TTCT, see [27]). The the definitions of creativity and innovation
causes of this phenomenon are still unclear, proposed by Teresa Amabile:
but the effects may be severe and require “Creativity is the production of novel and
energetic actions for fostering the creativity in useful ideas in any domain”, and “Innovation
the educational context. Bronson concludes is the successful implementation of creative
that “while our creativity scores decline ideas within an organization” ([3]).
unchecked, the current national strategy for Jan Fagerberg in ([9]]) brings
creativity consists of little more than praying supplementary clarification by emphasizing
for a Greek muse to drop by our houses.” the difference between “invention” and
The solution, according to Robinson, is to “innovation”: “Invention is the first
abandon the paradigm of the school as a occurrence of an idea for a new product or
factory: “The fact is that given the challenges process. Innovation is the first
we face, education doesn't need to be reformed commercialization of the idea.”
– it needs to be transformed. The key to this Thus, the creativity is the process of
transformation is not to standardize education, developing ideas that are simultaneously
but to personalize it, to build achievement on novel, and valuable from a practical
discovering the individual talents of each perspective (the inventions), while the
child, to put students in an environment where innovation is the process of capitalization of
they want to learn and where they can the results within an organization.
naturally discover their true passions.” ([19- Many researchers (see for example [14])
20]) made a distinction between “Creativity” (with
This paper proposes a pragmatic review of capital letter) – called “the big C”, which
the vast literature dedicated to the study of designates exceptional results (e.g. the works
creativity in education aimed to identify the of Leonardo da Vinci, Shakespeare, Picasso,
key factors that influence creativity in both Einstein, etc.) and “the little c”), which defines
negative and positive directions, in order to the everyday creativity, accessible to almost
provide the stakeholders with a clear view of all people (e.g. create a new culinary recipe,
the actions required. find an original interior design solution, etc.).
Beyond this introduction, this document is Most researchers agree that “the little c”
structured as follows: can be acquired and developed through
• Section 2 briefly describes the general education, and, along this study, we will use
conceptual framework, the term “creativity” in this acception.
• Section 3 identifies the key factors The definition formulated by Amabile
influencing the creativity, as presented in addresses only one of the “4 Ps” of the
the literature, and derives several action creativity (the 4 Ps are: “person”, “process”,
directions to foster creativity through “product”, and “place” or environment see
education. [25]), namely the creative person, which is
• Section 4 is reserved for conclusions. convenient when studying the creativity from
an educational perspective.
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK. 2.2. A simple model of creativity. Amabile
also proposed a model of creativity ([3] see
2.1 Choosing a definition and a model of figure 1.).
creativity. We will not attempt to clarify here According to this model, the creativity has
the many aspects involved in the definition of three components:
creativity. As demonstrated in the • The Expertise is the individual knowledge
comprehensive analysis of this topic offered base that is the starting point of any
by Parkhurst ([18]), there is still no creative processing of the information.
unanimously accepted definition of creativity. Nothing can be built in the absence of a
An extensive analysis of all the theoretical foundation. One cannot be creative, for
aspects of creativity is available in [25]. For example in organic chemistry, without a
practical reasons, in this study we will adopt solid knowledge of the functional groups,
and, generally speaking, it is not possible

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to reach performance in any domain, motivation is preferable as element that

without having a good knowledge of the stimulates creativity.
state of the art in that field. Though very simple, the Amabile model of
creativity has the advantage that it clearly
shows several means to influence the creativity
in the educational process: the expertise can be
EXPERTISE CREATIVE improved by an efficient design of the
THINKING curriculum, the creative thinking skills can be
SKILLS
acquired by learning and practicing some
C REATIVITY specific heuristics, and the motivation of the
students can be addressed by adjusting the
educational environment from an
organizational perspective ([16]]).
TASK
MOTIVATION 3. KEY FACTORS AND ACTION
DIRECTIONS TO FOSTER
CREATIVITY THROUGH EDUCATION
Fig. 1 The components of creativity, according
to Amabile
The idea to foster the creativity of the
students through education is not new. Back in
• Creative thinking skills. This component of
1965, Bruner argued that children should be
the creativity is defined by a specific way
encouraged to “treat a task as a problem for
of processing the information from the
which one invents an answer, rather than
knowledge base, which is favorable to
finding one out there in a book or on the
using new perspective on the problems,
blackboard” ([5]). Four decades later Scott
and to following new cognitive paths. (see
([24]) unequivocally confirmed Bruner’s idea
below the definitions for “lateral thinking”
and concluded: “Thus, creativity training
and “divergent thinking”.) The creative
appears beneficial for a variety of people, not
thinking skills can be – in principle –
just elementary school students or the
improved by learning specific heuristics,
unusually gifted. Taken as a whole, these
but, in the same time are influenced by a
observations lead to a relatively unambiguous
series of personality traits such as
conclusion: Creativity training works”.
independence, the capacity to take
However, the educational environment
moderate risks, the ability to tolerate
may either stimulate or inhibit the creativity of
ambiguity, etc.
the students. Cachia ([6]), and Craft ([7])
• Motivation is the “energy source” of any
identified a number of inhibiting factors:
human endeavor. Though there are many
• The prescriptive environment of the
studies proving that incentives (a typical
school;
extrinsic motivation, see the definitions in
Ryan, [23]) may stimulate, or even - in • The curriculum oriented towards quantity
certain conditions - may inhibit creativity, rather than quality of the information;
Most researchers agree that intrinsic

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• The lack of consensus regarding the For a better understanding of the influence
definition and the model of mental of the educational environment on the
processes associated with creativity; creativity of the students, we propose an
• A certain confusion of values: teachers extension of the Amabile model, as shown in
frequently perceive some behaviors or figure 2.
personality traits specific to creative
students (e.g. stubbornness, hyperactivity, DOMAIN TEACHER
KNOWLEDGE
argumentiveness, and independence) as EDUCATIONAL
“misbehaviors”. ENVIRONMENT

• Teachers are not trained to foster creativity

of students: though most of them claim EXPERTISE CREATIVE
THINKING
they encourage students to be creative, SKILLS

C REATIVITY
they simply don’t know how to do this;
• The lack of quality educational content for
teaching creativity. Teachers and students TASK
MOTIVATION

are equally in need of such materials;

• The lack of simple and easy to use
instruments for the assessment of Fig. 2 An extended model of creativity for the
educational context
creativity;
This extended model obviously includes
• The lack of IT&C tools to support teaching
the teachers as essential educational agents,
for creativity.
and the general learning environment, as seen
Davies et al. ([8]) counted the following
from organizational, and social interactions
environmental factors that could have a
perspectives. (The ICT tools involved in the
positive influence on the creativity of the
educational process are also considered as
students:
included in the environment.) The proposed
• Flexible use of time and space; model clearly illustrates the interactions
• availability of appropriate materials; between the elements of the educational
• working outside the classroom/school; system.
• ‘playful’ or ‘games-bases’ approaches with Considering the above mentioned factors, the
a degree of learner autonomy; following action directions for fostering
• respectful relationships between teachers creativity through education become obvious:
and learners; • Eliminate the factors that inhibit creativity.
• opportunities for peer collaboration; The responsibility for this lies with the
• partnerships with outside agencies; decision makers at the European, national,
• awareness of learners’ needs, and and organizational level, and – to a certain
nonprescriptive planning.” degree – with the teachers, who should
Other researchers indicate a variety of other contribute to the creation of a less-
factors that can influence creativity in school: prescriptive educational environment. In
• Moods and emotions ([17]) this category of measures, we count: the
• Pattern recognition and “visual thinking” reform of the curriculum, defining and
([12]); promoting a respectable social status for
• Organizational and institutional influences the teachers, which includes decent
([10]); salarization, increasing the autonomy of
• Teamwork ([11]); the public schools, etc.
• Some cultural factors (Rudowicz, 2003); • Attract teachers in CPD (Continuous
• The ability to use certain heuristics, e.g. Professional Development ) courses to
TRIZ ([2]); help them understand the psychological
And, last but not least, an essential factor mechanisms involved in creativity.
that could dramatically impact the future of • Develop educational content specially
teaching for creativity is the use of ICT in aimed for the education for creativity. This
education ([1], [15], [13], [21],[26]). includes both courses for teachers, and

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specific courses for students designed to responsible for any use which may be made of
improve their creative thinking skills, and the information contained therein.
help them acquire certain specific
heuristics. REFERENCES
• Develop solutions based on IT&C to 1. Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y., & Redecker, C.
promote creative problem solving in (2008). ICT for learning, innovation and
education. creativity. Policy brief prepared by the
• Develop simple and easy to use IT&C Institute for Prospective Technological
tools for the assessment of creativity. Studies (IPTS), Joint Research Centre,
Ala-Mutka et al ([1]) extend the responsibility European Commission. Luxembourg:
from teachers to policymakers, researchers, Office for Official Publications of the
and other practitioners, who “should engage in European Communities. Available at:
developing a common vision of future learning ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/JRC48707.TN.pdf
for innovation, as a tool to guide their joint [Accessed 04 November 2013].
effort”. 2. Altshuller, G. S. (1996). And suddenly the
inventor appeared: TRIZ, the theory of
4. CONCLUSIONS inventive problem solving. Technical
The implementation of the concept of Innovation Center, Inc
“education for creativity and innovation” 3. Amabile, Teresa M. Creativity and
seems to require a clear vision and convergent innovation in organizations. Harvard
efforts of the researchers, decision makers and Business School, 1996
teachers in order to adapt the educational 4. Bronson, P., Merryman, A. (2010, July 10).
environment to the requirements of the The creativity crisis. Newsweek. Retrieved
knowledge society, and to create dedicated from Newsweek website:
content aimed to foster creativity. http://www.newsweek.com/2010/07/10/the
Though intensely criticized for blocking the creativitycrisis.html
innate creativity of the children, a reformed 5. Bruner, J. S. (1965). The growth of mind.
School, with specially trained teachers, seems American Psychologist, 20(12), 1007.
to remain the most important social instrument 6. Cachia, R., Ferrari, A., Kearney, C., Punie,
for promoting creativity of the students on a Y., Van den Berghe, W., & Wastiau, P.
large scale. (2009). Creativity in schools in Europe: A
In this context, the Information and Computer survey of teachers in Europe. European
Technology appears to be a promising Commission-Joint Research Center-
instrument to deliver the educational content, Institute for Prospective Technological
to promote creative interactions between Studies, Seville.
learners, and to measure the progress. 7. Craft, Anna. The limits to creativity in
education: Dilemmas for the educator.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT British Journal of Educational Studies,
This project has been funded with support 2003, 51.2: 113-127.
from the European Commission. This
publication reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held

445
 MANAGEMENT

8. Davies, D., Jindal-Snape, D., Collier, C., 18. Parkhurst, H. B. (1999). Confusion, lack of
Digby, R., Hay, P., & Howe, A. (2012). consensus, and the definition of creativity
Creative Learning Environments in as a construct. The Journal of Creative
Education–a systematic literature review. Behavior, 33(1), 1-21.
Thinking Skills and Creativity. 19. Robinson, Ken. The Element: How
9. Fagerberg, J. (2004). Innovation: a guide to Finding Your Passion Changes
the literature. Available online at Everything. Penguin. com, 2009.
http://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/43 20. Robinson, Ken. Out of our minds:
180 (retrieved Nov. 2013). Learning to be creative. Capstone, 2011.
10. Heinze, T., Shapira, P., Rogers, J. D., & 21. Roschelle, J. M., Pea, R. D., Hoadley, C.
Senker, J. M. (2009). Organizational and M., Gordin, D. N., & Means, B. M. (2000).
institutional influences on creativity in Changing how and what children learn in
scientific research. Research Policy, 38(4), school with computer-based technologies.
610-623. The future of children, 76-101.
11. Hoegl, M., & Parboteeah, K. P. (2007). 22.Rudowicz, E. (2003). Creativity and
Creativity in innovative projects: How culture: A two way interaction.
teamwork matters. Journal of Engineering Scandinavian journal of educational
and Technology Management, 24(1), 148- research, 47(3), 273-290.
166 23. Ryan, Richard M.; Deci, Edward L.
12. Hong, F.T. (2013) The role of pattern Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic
recognition in creative problem solving: A definitions and new directions.
case study in search of new mathematics Contemporary educational psychology,
for biology, Progress in Biophysics and 2000, 25.1: 54-67.
Molecular Biology 113 (2013) 24. Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D.
13. Jahnke, I. (2011). How to Foster Creativity (2004). The effectiveness of creativity
in Technology Enhanced Learning?. In training: A quantitative review. Creativity
Social media tools and platforms in Research Journal, 16(4), 361-388.
learning environments (pp. 95-116). 25. Sternberg, Robert J. (ed.). Handbook of
Springer Berlin Heidelberg. creativity. Cambridge University Press,
14. Kaufman, James C.; Beghetto, Ronald A. 1999.
Beyond big and little: The four C model of 26. Thompson, P., & Randall, B. (2001). Can
creativity. Review of General Psychology, E-Learning Spur Creativity, Innovation
2009, 13.1: 1. and Entrepreneurship?. Educational Media
15. Loveless A.M. (2002). Literature review in International, 38(4), 289-92
creativity, new technologies and learning. 27. Torrance, E. P. (1966). The Torrance Tests
Futurelab report #4, University of Brighton of Creative Thinking-Norms-Technical
16. Maehr, Martin L.; Midgley, Carol. Manual Research Edition - Verbal Tests,
Enhancing student motivation: A Forms A and B-Figural Tests, Forms A
schoolwide approach. Educational and B. Princeton, NJ: Personnel Press.
Psychologist, 1991, 26.3-4: 399-427. 28. Xu, F., McDonnell, G., & Nash, W. R.
17. Newton, D. P. (2012). Moods, emotions (2005). A survey of creativity courses at
and creative thinking: A framework for universities in principal countries. The
teaching. Thinking Skills and Creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 39(2), 75-
88.

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THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT – A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE

ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR RDI

Ioan Şuşnea*, Grigore Vasiliu*, Simona Spiridon**

*ACIEE, University “Dunarea de Jos”, Galati, Romania, ** CJRAE, Galati, Romania

Abstract: Considering its close interrelation with the economic performance of the organizations, the
concept of “innovation” has been extensively studied in the past decade, from a variety of perspectives
(economy, business management, entrepreneurship, knowledge management, marketing).
The result is that “innovation” appears to be so complex, and so difficult to understand and to assess,
that it ressembles the story about the blind men and the elephant. Therefore, the purpose of this
discussion paper is to shed some light on the terminology related to innovation, in order to explain some
of the fallacies of the Romanian national strategy for Research, Development and Innovation.

Keywords: creativity ,innovation, national strategy on RDI

1. INTRODUCTION schools have to create these qualities,

otherwise their people and their nations will be
By comparing the Forbes list of most left behind” ([8]).
powerful and valuable brands In this society, the key resource for
(http://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/list/), progress is no longer capital or labor – is
and the list of most innovative companies innovation. ([6]).
according to Boston Consulting Group Table 1. List of most powerful brands, versus most
(http://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/09/ innovative companies in 2013 (Sources: Forbes
27/is-apple-the-worlds-most-innovative-company- and Boston Consulting Group)
still/) (see Table 1), two things become obvious: Rank Most Innovative Most Powerful
first that there is a strong correlation between Companies Brands
the capacity of the companies to generate (and (BCG) (Forbes)
absorb) innovation, and their economic power, 1 Apple Apple
and, on the other hand, that there is a large 2 Samsung Microsoft
disparity between the USA and the rest of the 3 Google Coca-Cola
world in this direction. 4 Microsoft IBM
This conclusion is almost a literal 5 Toyota Google
6 IBM McDonalds
transcription of an idea formulated 10 years
7 Amazon General Electric
ago by Hargreaves: “we live in a knowledge 8 Ford Intel
economy, a knowledge society. Knowledge 9 BMW Samsumg
economies are stimulated and driven by 10 General Electric Louis Vuitton
creativity and ingenuity. Knowledge society

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But what exactly is “innovation”? Jan Fagerberg in [7] brings supplementary

Considering its close interrelation with the clarification by emphasizing the difference
economic performance of the organizations, between “invention” and “innovation”:
the innovation has been extensively studied in “Invention is the first occurrence of an idea for
the past decade, from a variety of perspectives a new product or process. Innovation is the
(economy, business management, first commercialization of the idea.”
entrepreneurship, knowledge management, Thus, the creativity is the process of
marketing). developing ideas that are simultaneously new,
The result is that the concept of original and valuable from a practical
“innovation” appears to be so complex, that it perspective (the inventions), while the
ressembles the story about the blind men and innovation is the process of capitalization of
the elephant. the results within an organization.
Therefore, the purpose of this discussion In what concerns a model of the innovation
paper is to shed some light on the terminology at the organization’s level, De Jong ([5]) cites
related to innovation in order to explain some Buijs ([xx]), who proposed a “transformational
of the fallacies of the Romanian national model” as shown in figure 1.
strategy for RDI (Research, Development and
Innovation). INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Beyond this introduction, the paper is
structured as follows: Fig. 1 The transformational model of
Section 2 contains a brief description the innovation (Buijs [3], apud De Jong[5])
conceptual framework related to innovation.
Section 3 presents the Romanian national In this model, “the transformation process
strategy for RDI, and finally, Section 4 is itself is not described in detail: it is considered
reserved for conclusions. as a black box so there is little focus on the
actual work processes themselves.” ([5])
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: For organizations as large as countries
INNOVATION AND ITS MAIN Bloomberg computes and publishes a so-called
FACTORS “Global Innovation Quotient”
(www.bloomberg.com ), based on economic
Barenghesh et al. ([2]) counted as many as and statistic indicators. The components and
60 different definitions of innovation. One of their weight in the GIQ are shown in figure 2.
the earliest was proposed by Thompson in
1965 ([10]), and sounds pretty straightforward: R&D intensity

“innovation is the generation, acceptance and Productivity

implementation of new ideas, processes, 5% 5% 20% High Tech

10%
products, or services”
Researcher
For comparison, the definition proposed by concentration
20% 20%
Barenghesh et al in 2009 sounds like this: 20%
Manufacturing Capability

“Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby Tertiary efficiency

organizations transform ideas into Patents

new/improved products, services or processes,
in order to advance, compete and differentiate Fig. 2 The components of the Global
themselves successfully in their marketplace.” Innovation Quotient, proposed by Bloomberg
In this paper, we prefer the definition
proposed by Amabile in 1996 ([1]), which The relevance and the weight of various
links innovation to creativity: “Creativity is factors in GIQ are questionable, mainly
the production of novel and useful ideas in any because they reflect to a very small extent the
domain”, and “Innovation is the successful role and the quality of the education in
implementation of creative ideas within an innovation, and completely ignore other
organization”. decisive factors such as the migration of the

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

specialists and the organizational permeability The dichotomy between “small i” and “big
to innovation. I” is to a certain degree similar to the concepts
Talking about the migration of specialists of “incremental innovation” versus “radical
the famous physicist Michio Kaku said that the innovation”. (see Koberg et al. [9]).
economic dominance of the USA is due to a Obviously, the big I requires large
“secret weapon”, which is the H1B visa – the investments in research infrastructure and
temporary work permit for highly skilled highly skilled human resources (e.g. the
people. Hubble telescope, or the LHC particle
The concept of organizational permeability accelerator from CERN).
to innovation can be illustrated in a negative An interesting example of small I with –
sense by the example of the reaction of the possibly – large effects is the concept of “open
society to the innovative ideas of Giordano innovation”, defined as the process of creating
Bruno in the Middle Ages, and – in the “inflows and outflows of knowledge” that
positive sense – by the example of Google, connect the organization with the outside
where the employees are allowed to spend world in order to minimize the cost of the
20% of their time working on creative projects research while keeping a high innovation level
at their personal choice. The impact of this ([4]). A typical example of using open
rule exceeded any expectation: Susan Wojciki, innovation is the organization of idea contests
vicepresident for Advertising at Google said on topics selected by the organizers. These
that “In a recent six-month period, half of contests offer (usually modest) financial
Google’s core initiatives started as projects incentives for the participants who propose
during employees’ 20 percent innovation the best solutions. This way, the organizers
time” ([11]). can benefit of a multitude of innovative ideas
The Bloomberg GIQ has the advantage that at the lowest possible cost. In the famous
it clearly defines the main factors of the “grand challenges” organized by Bill and
innovation, and gives a unique measure to Melinda Gates Foundation, or in the
compare the innovation capabilities of various competitions organized online by Innocentive
countries. Inc. (www.innocentive.com) there is a striking
Regarding innovation, it is useful to discrepancy between the importance and the
introduce a distinction between “the big I” (the difficulty of the proposed problems, and the
big innovation) associated with the amount of the rewards offered for solvers.
introduction of exceptional scientific and Despite its obvious advantages for the
technological discoveries (think of the organizers, the concept of open innovation is
discovery of the transistor, of the laser, or the largely ignored in Europe by the decision
apparition of the personal computer, or the makers and by business.
smart phone, etc.), and Little innovation (“the
little i”), which designates innovative
initiatives of smaller impact, e.g. buying a 3. THE ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR
machine to increase the work productivity, or RDI. A BRIEF ANALYSIS
acquiring the license to use a patent to improve
a technological process, etc. In December 2006, the Government of
Romania published “The National Strategy for
Research Development and Innovation for

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2007-2013”, later legislated through the only 0.49% of the GDP, a quarter of the EU
Government Decision HG-217/2007 (available average of 2%.
online in Romanian at A thorough analysis of the relevant statistic
www.research.edu.ro/uploads/legislatie/planul data for the evaluation of the competitivness of
-national/hg-475.doc), with the declared Romania with respect to innovation is
objective to “recover the delays relative to available in the European document (EUR
other European countries [in the field of 25650 EN, 2013).
Research and Innovation]”. In 2013, by the Perhaps even more serious than the
end of the period covered by the above underfunding of the research is the chronic
mentioned strategy, Romania ranked the 46th underfunding of education. Though the Law of
of 50 countries analyzed by Bloomberg the National Education nr. 1/2011 stipulates
according to the Global Innovation Quotient. the allocation of 6% of the GDP for funding
Between 2007-2013, Romania did not win not the education, between 2009-2013, the amount
even one grant funded by ERC (European of funding dropped from 4.24% to 3.6% of the
Research Council – see the synthetic GDP.
document: The result is that Romania has the lowest
http://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/content/ percentage of university graduates from the
ERC_in_a_nutshell_oct_2013.pdf) total population (21.8% see
In fact, very few of the objectives stated in http://www.6pentrueducatie.ro) and there are
the above mentioned national strategy were no Romanian universities ranked in the top
actually reached. Some of them are 500 world’s best universities (Shanghai
ridiculously unrealistic: for example, the ranking)
strategy aimed to multiply by 10 the number of (http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU201
EPO patents per million people. Note that 2.html).
Romania was the only country in EU27 where Even more harmful than the underfunding
the number of researcher actually dropped by is the lack of consistency of the laws related to
more than 5% between 2005-2011 (see education. The Law of the National Education
Innovation Union Competitivness Report for was often amended between 1995-2013,
2013: http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation- sometimes 2-3 times a year.
union/pdf/competitiveness_report_2013.pdf) This is the general framework wherein the
The main cause of the decrease of the Romanian policymakers have launched the
number of researchers in Romania is the brain new National Strategy for research,
drain. We don’t have official data regarding development and Innovation for the time
the migration of researchers, but considering interval 2014-2020, (the document is
the fact that over 22,000 physicians emigrated available online
from Romania between 2007-2013, we can http://www.research.edu.ro/ro/articol/3343/stra
estimate that this phenomenon also affects tegia-nationala-de-cercetare-si-inovare-2014-
other categories of skilled workers, including 2020).
researchers. We don’t have knowledge about This new strategy has been produced by a
any serious initiative of the Romanian large consortium under the coordination of
authorities to stem this process. UEFISCDI (The Romanian Executive Unit for
It is also worth to note that most of the Funding The University Education and the
Romanian researchers don’t even have an Research Development and Innovation), which
institutional subscription to read the high comprises most of the research entities and
impact factor journals where, according to the public universities of the country (see
Government strategies, they are supposed to www.cdi2020.ro for details on the
publish articles. consortium).
The level of public expenditure for Predictably, the new strategy assimilates
research, development and innovation should many of the objectives and priorities of the EU
have been 1% of the GDP in 2010, and programme Horizon 2020, and maintains a
expected to raise at 1.5% in 2013. In fact, by more realistic approach in what concerns the
the end of 2013 the value of this indicator was expected progress of the innovation in

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Romania. There are still some unrealistic score spectacular improvements in the near
objectives (for example OS5 – the strategic future.
objective nr. 5 – which aims at doubling the
number of the researchers until 2020. It is ACKOWLEDGEMENT
unclear where these researchers will work, and
who will provide funding for their activity. This document has been written in the context
We also noticed a clear strategic option of the project “TECRINO- Teaching Creativity
towards developing “the big I” innovation: in Engineering 538710-LLP-1-2013-1-CY-
“The increase of the Romanian contribution to LEONARDO-LMP.
the progress of the frontier knowledge” This project has been funded with support
Possibly, the paneuropean project ELI-NP from the European Commission. This
(Extreme Light Infrastructure www.eli-np.ro), publication reflects the views only of the
which will provide funding for building the author, and the Commission cannot be held
worlds biggest laser in Romania encouraged responsible for any use which may be made of
this option, but, considering the results of the the information contained therein.
strategy 2007-2013, it is not sure that Romania
is capable to sustain the big I option on a long- REFERENCES
term basis.
In what concerns “the small I” innovation, 1. Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity and
it is worth to mention the initiative called innovation in organizations (Vol. 5).
“innovation vouchers” intended to directly Boston: Harvard Business School
support innovation in SMEs. 2. Bahrami, B., Olsen, K., Bang, D.,
One major drawback of the new strategy Roepstorff, A., Rees, G., & Frith, C.
for innovation in Romania derives from the (2012). Together, slowly but surely: the
fact that there is no reference to the link role of social interaction and feedback on
between education, creativity and innovation. the build-up of benefit in collective
The strategy does not consider at all the decision-making. Journal of Experimental
brain drain, and as a consequence there are no Psychology: Human Perception and
measures to stem this phenomenon. Performance, 38(1), 3.
The open innovation is totally ignored, and 3. Buijs, J.A. (1987), Innovatie en interventie,
so is the obvious need of the researchers to Deventer
have access to the latest and most valuable 4. Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open
scientific publications. innovation: The new imperative for
creating and profiting from technology.
4. CONCLUSIONS Harvard Business Press.
5. De Jong, J. P. J. (2000). Measuring
To conclude this brief review, we innovative intensity. Zoetermeer, the
appreciate that the overall situation of the Netherlands: EIM Business and Policy
education, research and innovation in Romania Research
- at the decision makers level - is rather 6. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-capitalist Society.
daunting, and it is hard to believe that it will New York: Harper Collins.

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7. Fagerberg, J. (2004). Innovation: a guide to innovation. The Journal of High

the literature. Available online at Technology Management Research, 14(1),
http://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/43 21-45.
180 (retrieved Nov. 2013) 10. Thompson, V. A. (1965). Bureaucracy and
8. Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the innovation. Administrative science
knowledge society: Education in the age of quarterly, 1-20.
insecurity. Teachers College Press. 11. Wojcicki, S. (2011). The Eight Pillars of
9. Koberg, C. S., Detienne, D. R., & Heppard, Innovation. Think Quarterly. Retrieved
K. A. (2003). An empirical test of from:
environmental, organizational, and process http://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/quarterly/
factors affecting incremental and radical innovation/8-pillars-of-innovation.html

452
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OPEN DISTANCE EDUCATION – NEW CHALLENGES

Anca ANDRONIC*

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University Spiru Haret, Braşov, România

Abstract: Although distance education gets an increasingly special attention, emphasis should be put on
the importance of style and strategies that have the greatest impact on the quality of distance learning.
This may involve different technologies used alone or in combination. As such, there must be made a
series of decisions on choosing the most effective methods which respond best to the established goal. The
emphasis is therefore put on the role of facilitator as opposed to the role of "provider" specific for the
traditional system.

Keywords: distance education, strategies, methods, impact

1. INTRODUCTION Distance learning may involve different

technologies used alone or in combination. As
Although distance education gets an such, there must be made a number of
increasingly greater attention, we should focus decisions on the choice-effectiveness of
on the importance of style and strategies that methods which best meet the goal set. The
have the greatest impact on the quality of emphasis is therefore put on the role of
distance learning. Facilitating virtual learning facilitator as opposed to the role of "provider"
requires some new approaches in order to specific for the traditional system.
practice and manage the teaching and learning Lisa Kimball (2001) compares
precess. For the program to be effective it metaphorically the distance education with a
requires a whole new mental set about "canary in a mine that detects life-threatening
technology. problems before anyone else realize that they
Many institutions spend significant are in danger." So the real problem concerning
resources - not just time and money - to the learning experiences encountered by
introduce distance education and invest teachers are those relating to the design and
considerable in creating new technologies administration of distance learning programs.
required for distance courses and their proper The questions are: "How do we get the
management. right balance, between presentation and
Also, it takes the teacher to learn to practical activities, experiments, between
manage critical dimensions generated by the individual experiences and collaborative
new learning environment in which such as: learning? Among the tasks defined by the
change of role, metaphor, culture, awareness teacher – facilitator and those shaped by the
and collaboration. student? "

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

The new technology requires us to Large courses have been developed,

rethink this dynamic of learning because we and finally the course was being taught as
are not able to use familiar approaches. It planned.
gives us the opportunity to change the way we Associated with this linear approach is
manage teaching and learning in general. The a set of teaching strategies, strategies that
critical part of the question is, "How can we corresponded to that linearity and were
engage students via distance learning" or, characterized by: centralization, uniform
more precisely: "How can we involve more the distribution. When students appeared to be
students in meaningful learning activities bored and uninvolved in this type of program
through this technology?". Facilitating the solution was to find ways to use new
distance education does not mean to information technologies to make the teaching
implement our old lesson plans using new – learning process more fun.
media technologies. Rather it is about the Much earlier, distance learning was
opportunity to expand our learning tools nothing more than a way to generate some
available at some point, to create a new multi-media slides well-thought by an expert
dynamic learning aligned with the best ways in a show well done. In this context, distance
of adult learning. learning has been praised for its ability to
After Eunice, Kimball, Silber and reach a larger number of students at certain
Weinstein (1998) there are some critical quality standard. But an expert teaching
aspects of distance learning. The most courses to a group of passive students is
important issue concerns the mentality that has engaged in a kind of unidirectional teaching
to change in order to take full advantage of similar to the classic one, only that this lecture
new opportunities created by the technology of is delivered through television for students
distance learning. staying in their rooms at home.
Later on came a new vision of teaching
2.NEW PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES and learning, this actually being an ongoing
OF DISTANCE LEARNING process rather than a fixed hour program with
a beginning and an end, and the importance of
Lisa Kimball (2001) makes a a wide participation of students in the
description of this new approaches, presented designing of their own learning was
in brief as follow: recognized as such.
The distinction between the dynamic Distance learning technologies are
approach and the linear one in distance particularly well suited for a more dynamic
education could also describe the major approach to managing learning. Good teachers
change from the old view to the new vision of have always been open to change the lesson
education management. The first challenge for plans based on "student input". New media
a teacher is to realize how to harness the makes it easier. For example, it is easier to
power of new media technologies in order to provide additional reading materials based on
take advantage of their ability to support the the students interest rather than rely solely on a
flexibility, parallel processing and time; it is manual ordered weeks or months before the
also important to produce new designs and not actual course starts. The online environment
use new media technologies in order to can provide space to continue conversations
provide the same obsolete things. among students about what to do and what not
The old model of designing learning to do in a course.
had functioned based on a linear fashion, from Also, the same technology can
defining learning objectives to "delivering the contribute to design the projecting process of a
course". The first educators engaged in a course. For example, the teacher contacts most
comprehensive analysis of learning needs were students via e-mail during the summer to learn
often based on assessments made by others on more about their interests and expectations,
the skills and learning objectives. but there are also required information about
students' skills in order to be taken into
account when designing the course. As such,

454
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
the teacher was able to use this information to The Institute for Educational Studies at
create preliminary project teams and to Endicott College has created a master year to
develop initial tasks to reflect the specific transform education. The intensive program is
needs of the course participants. designed around teachers worldwide who form
One of the first things that the teacher a community and meet in a virtual campus
must think in distance learning aims the type using asynchronous Web-conferencing. In
of atmosphere he needs and also, he must order to help participants "feel" they are part
clearly define the learning experience he of a virtual campus, the program includes
intends to provoke. In distance learning lectures, seminars, discussions, study groups.
language and metaphor are important - as Participants come together in a variety
primary tools needed to create the ambience of classrooms, virtual seminars and
and help participants to evoke images and to discussions. But the most important aspect of
put in their mind a particular space for the program is to create a learning "from peer
learning, even if they do it at different times in to peer" if participants share their inner
different places . thoughts and feelings about their personal
In distance learning, many growth and the relationship with their role as
environments borrow the language from educators.
traditional educational institutions, to provide
students with clues about what to expect, such 3. CONCLUSIONS &
as the classroom, lecture hall and library. This ACKNOWLEDGMENT
can be a good strategy to help students
navigate through unfamiliar environments. Both teachers and students need to be
However, there is a danger in using a language aware of how distance learning occurs.
that fits the traditional learning environment Students need different types of feedback to
and not the distance learning environment, as help "tune" their participation and
it may lead to transferring old models in the expectations. There is a need for teachers to
newly created environment - for example, one provide a"research in progress" feedback
can expect to actually enter into classroom and rather than a feedback on the final product,
wait for the teacher to come and teach. because so much of this new type of learning
One way to start a virtual course is to is process-oriented.
identify the types of interactions and Even if in Romania, the image of
experiences that the teacher believes are open distance learning is still fragmented and
needed to support learning and also it is marked by distrust, we trust that a
essential for him to capture the feelings that
constructivist approach in this area may open
wants to evoke.
The teacher may want his students to new possibilities, and one of which is to
have self-disclosure intimate conversations encourage adults to continue their education
like those had late at night in a cafe or want to – an encouragement to actually learn
hire teams of students working on different throughout life.
topics like those made around a conference
table. Putting the student in a virtual classroom
can evoke any of these dynamics.

455
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

REFERENCES 3. Jigău, M. (coord.). Consilierea la distanţă.

Bucureşti: Institutul de Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei
(2004).
1. Jigău, M. Consilierea carierei. Bucureşti: 4. Kimball, Lisa. Managing Distance Learning -
Editura Sigma (2001). New Challenges for Faculty. In Reza Hazemi.
2. Jigău, M. (coord.). Tehnologiile informatice şi (ed.). The Digital University. Springer (2001).
de comunicare în consilierea carierei. 5. Ko, Susan and Rossen, Steve. Teaching online:
Bucureşti: Institutul de Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei a practical guide. London: Taylor & Francis
(2002). (2010).

456
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

DEFINITION OF VOLUNTEERING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC*

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University Spiru Haret, Braşov, România

Abstract: Volunteering is often discussed in relation to a number of terms used frequently in

social and human sciences: prosocial behavior and altruism; charity and philanthropy behavior;
social responsibility; democratic behavior and active citizenship; community development.
Further, I will present an analysis of the relationship between volunteering and these concepts.

Keywords: volunteering, prosocial behavior, community development, social responsability.

1. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR, ALTRUISM volunteering does not imply the existence of a

AND VOLUNTEERING "material reward". The difference is profound
though: the volunteer does not expect material
Septimiu Chelcea (1998, 2003) aproached consideration, but frequently searches (and is
prosocial behavior in an integralist manner, legally justified) to obtain other types of
defining it as "an intentional behavior, carried external rewards.
out without being a professional obligation and Moreover, in the vast literature on
aimed at supporting, preserving and promoting volunteer management, providing external
social values, without waiting for any moral or rewards is seen as a sine qua non component
material rewards from others" (Chelcea, 2003, of an efficient activity. In addressing Pro
86). Prosocial behavior includes a variety of Vobis National Volunteer Centre in Cluj-
ways of expression, which also include Napoca (2006, 6-7), the recognition of the
altruism as a subspecies of prosocial behavior merits of volunteers includes a formal
(Chelcea and Taran, 1990, 178-179). The same dimension (awards, certificates, medals and
view is to be found in James W. Vanden organizing events where volunteers with
Zaden (1977/1987, 299-300), which included outstanding accomplishments are formally
altruism among the manifestations of prosocial mentioned) and an informal dimension (the
behavior, defining it as "a behavior performed staff is encouraged to express their sincere
for the benefit of another person, without appreciation as often and spontaneously as
waiting external reward. " possible for the contribution made by
By comparing the definitions above volunteers).
we can conclude that: In conclusion, altruism and
a) Altruism differs only apparently volunteering differ in terms of an essential
from volunteering, by a nuance of expression: aspect: in altruism external rewards are
altruistic behavior is characterized by a lack of excluded (by its very definition), while in
expectation of "external rewards" and volunteering they may exist, except the

457
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

material ones. In the practice of working with who belong to the same social class (eg,
volunteers, nonprofit organizations should helping a neighbor who had lost his home as a
have their own system to reward volunteers, result of natural disasters), but is most
which would have to include all the ways in commonly initiated by those who have a
which this recognition occurs routinely :"The surplus of resources. In the latter case, the
recognition of the accomplishments of charity provides a redistribution of resources
volunteers is not an event, a gift or prize – it is as a form of solidarity "top-down" on the
a process, an attitude that needs to exist in social ladder.
everything that is done to attract, inspire, Philanthropy is defined in the
maintain and coordinate volunteers "(Pro Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian
Vobis National Volunteer Center, 2006, 6). Language (1998, 379) as "a charity action for
the benefit of poor people." Philanthropy is
b) Volunteering is different from prosocial "commonly made by those who have surplus
behavior, primarily due to a higher duration of for those in need", being a strong economic
the event. Psycho-sociological approaches of determined behavior: " The intensity of
the prosocial behavior most commonly refer to philanthropy varies in time depending on the
giving help in emergency situations, through periods of increase or decrease of the
behaviors that have a duration which is usually economy" (Saulean, 1999, 19) .
measured in minutes. The relationship volunteering /
Compared to the assistance in philanthropy is addressed by Bogdan Voicu
emergency situations, volunteering appears as (2005, 121-123), which states that
a systematic individual approach of goving "volunteering is a form of social recognition,of
help, with a duration that can vary from a few affirmation of the philanthropy features", a
hours a week to a sustained effort over many form that is available to all persons who have
years. Emergency interventions are motivated the knowledge, skills or time resources
by identifying the situation itself as an necessary for helping others. In other words,
emergency, while the volunteer needs volunteering gives each individual the
sustained (moral) motivation to continue work. opportunity to produce charitable behaviors
This statement is provided, usually by the and to probe the qualities required to prove for
reward systems of the volunteering philanthropy. If the volunteer gets to have at
beneficiary- organization. one time a surplus of economic resources, it is
Both prosocial behavior and likely that it will initiate philanthropy or other
volunteering, refer however, to the same type charitable behavior.
of activity: to helping others. When the need
of help is acute , the helping behavior is 3. SOCIAL RESPONSABILITY
"pure", disinterested, taking the form of
prosocial behavior. If we are dealing with a In English, the 'responsible' initiatives of
person who needs "chronic" help then we can companies were called by a variety of
talk about volunteering, social practice that terms:“corporate citizenship”, “corporate
includes - as a rule -moral rewards as well.  philantropy”, “corporate societal marketing”,
“community affairs”, “community
development”.
2. CHARITY AND PHILANTHROPY The preferred term today is "Corporate
BEHAVIOR Social Responsibility" (CSR), a term that
For Daniel Saulean (1999, 19) the charitable describes the current thinking on the
behavior is a way of mitigating the economic contribution that companies must have in the
based inequalities in a society:, "He is development of modern society. As states and
sometimes spoken of as a social phenomenon international institutions have realized that
that reflects not only the level of development adopting CSR principles serve the objectives
achieved by the society, but a large part of the of sustainable development, emerged the need
complex of values and social norms." The for international standards to define what
charitable behavior can occur between people constitutes a "desirable corporate behavior."

458
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
These standards were developed by the United Cristina Rigman (2008, 6-7) emphasizes that
Nations Organisation, the European the skills and abilities developed by volunteers
Commission or the Organisation for Economic prepare them for an active political and social
Cooperation and Development. life, equipping them with valuable information
CSR concerns are relatively recent in and resources on active participation, access to
Romania (and in Eastern Europe in general) networks of mobilizing the community
being generally associated with the activity of resources , trust, tolerance and consensus
multinational companies, despite the principle building skills with others and especially the
that "for the effects to be felt globally, their acquisition of a state of empowerment. The
actions must be supported by others made by absence of this condition makes most people
small and medium enterprises (SMEs)." In the not to engage in civic and political life
SME sector in Romania, social responsibility (Rigman, 2008, 6-7).
is met with a substantial dose of skepticism Volunteering is associated with
and is very commonly confused with empowerment ("the ability of a social actor to
philanthropic activities undertaken by self-sustain, to control their living
companies (Smith, 2008) environment" - Sandu, 2005, 215) as the skills
The ways in which a company and abilities mentioned above are easily
(regardless of its size) can act as a result of transferable to other contexts of democratic
social responsability are diverse: philanthropy participation . Volunteering appears as a tool
(en. "Corporate Philanthropy"); cause related for learning and practicing participatory
marketing (en. "Cause Related Marketing"); democracy or as an expression of democratic
social marketing (en. "Corporate Social culture (Voicu, 2005).
Marketing"); socially responsible business In this context, the relationship
practices (en. "Socially Responsible Business volunteering- active citizenship (defined as " a
Practices"); promoting a cause (en. "Cause potential of individuals to organize in a variety
Promotion") and volunteering in the of forms, to mobilize resources and to exercise
community (en. "Community Volunteering"). the power they have to protect or gain certain
The later course of action (also know rights or to produce public goods " - Dodescu
as "corporate volunteering") seems to be and Hatos , 2004 , 10) is one of major interest.
the"middle way" between social responsibility Bernard Crick (2004 ), in an article dedicated
at the company level(CSR) and the potential to this topic , noted that individuals "before
for expressing helping behavior among being citizens should be volunteers" and
employees (Andronic, 2008). It is a kind of "active citizenship must involve , at one time ,
initiative that the company encourages its volunteering , but not every volunteering
employees to participate as volunteers in involves citizenship" . There are volunteer
supporting the community, an NGO or a cause activities taking place without involving
of concern to the community in which it important components of active citizenship : a
operates. good level of knowledge about the functioning
of a democratic system; processes leading to
4. DEMOCRATIC BEHAVIOR AND improving the knowledge capacity of
ACTIVE CITIZENSCHIP individuals and advocacy- concept describing
" the activity of defending / supporting a

459
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

principle or point of view ( individual / general 3. Chelcea, Septimiu. (2003). Comportament

/ of an organization ) to a government prosocial. În Septimiu Chelcea şi Petru Iluţ
institution or a legislator " (Pro Democracy (coord.) Enciclopedie de psihosociologie (pp.
Association, Academy of Advocacy and 86-87). Bucureşti: Editura Economică.
4. Crick, Bernard. (2004). Citizenship and
Society of Professional Journalists, 2007).
Volunteering. În Philip Collins and Moussa
Haddad (editori). Giving Something Back:
4. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Business, volunteering and healthy communities
(pp. 40-43). Londra: Social Market Foundation.
Dumitru Sandu (2006, 15) defined community 5. Dodescu, Anca şi Hatos, Adrian. (coord.).
development (DEVCOM) as "voluntary (2004). Cum se învaţă cetăţenia activă în
changes by and for the community, beginning România? Rezultate de cercetare şi
from the experience of practice in post- recomandări de politici. Oradea: Editura
communist Romania": Universităţii din Oradea.
DEVCOM has a much broader scope of 6. Rigman, Cristina. (2008). Volunteers in
coverage than volunteering, including Romania: A Profile. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul
pentru Studiul Democraţiei
numerous activities of human groups which do
7. Sandu, Dumitru. (2005). Dezvoltare
not exclude the involvement and obtaining of
comunitară. Cercetare, practică, ideologie.
benefits, including materials, being "a tolerant Iaşi: Editura Polirom.
label for a family, relatively disorganized of 8. Saulean, Daniel şi Epure, Carmen. (1998).
practices or patterns of local intervention who Defining the Nonprofit Sector: Romania. În
have or tend to have as result a "greater good Lester M. Salamon şi Helmut K. Anheier
of the community '" (Sandu, 2005, 15). (editori). Working Papers of the Johns Hopkins
In this form of social development Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project, nr. 32.
volunteering is included, and it is addressed in Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Institute
this context, especially in connection with the for Policy Studies.
development of the necessary abilities 9. Saulean, Daniel. (1999). Sursele sociale ale
DEVCOM (United Nations Volunteers, 2004). vieţii asociative şi filantropiei în contextul
tranziţiei. www.fdsc.ro/documente/22.pdf
10. United Nations Volunteers. (2004). Enhancing
REFERENCES Business-Community Relations. The Role of
Volunteers in Promoting Global Corporate
1. Andronic, Răzvan-Lucian. (2002). Citizenship. Global Report. Bonn: United
Voluntariatul în sectorul social-improvizaţie Nations Volunteers.
sau management? În Eficienţă, legalitate, etică 11. Vander Zanden, James W. [1977] (1987).
în România mileniului III – Lucrările celei de Altruism and helping behavior. În James W.
a-X-a sesiuni de comunicări ştiinţifice a Vander Zanden. Social Psychology (pp. 297-
Universităţii “Spiru Haret” (pp. 401-404). 327). New York: Random House.
Braşov: Editura Lux Libris. 12. Voicu, Bogdan. (2005). Voluntariatul. În
2. Chelcea, Septimiu şi Ţăran, Constantin. (1990). Penuria pseudo-modernă a postcomunismului
Psihosociologia comportamentului prosocial. În românesc. Volumul I. Schimbarea socială şi
Septimiu Chelcea (coord.). Psihosociologia acţiunile indivizilor (pp. 121-136). Iaşi: Editura
cooperării şi întrajutorării umane (pp. 176- Expert Projects.
201). Bucureşti: Editura Militară.

460
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

VOLUNTEERING: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND PERSONAL

CHARACTERISTICS

Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC*

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University Spiru Haret, Braşov, România

Abstract: Theories on volunteering are various in origin (they come from sociology, social
assistance, psycho-sociology, political science), reflecting the diversity of forms of manifestation
of this type of prosocial behavior. Malina Voicu and Bogdan Voicu (2003, 2004) conducted a
synthesis of these theoretical explanations, which I will refer to in the first part of this section. I
will also present the five theoretical models of volunteering described by Peggy A. Thoits and
Lyndi N. Hewitt (2001) and at the end of the article I will refer to the interpretation of
volunteering in terms of the sociology of emotions.

Keywords: volunteering, motivation, social emotions.

1. INTRODUCTION states that the cultural dimension of

volunteering is more important than the
Malina Voicu and Bogdan Voicu (2003) presence of a particular type of resource. Also,
conducted a synthesis of different theoretical this includes the research on the motivations of
approaches of volunteering , considering that individuals who become volunteers.
they can be classified into two major
categories : 2. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC
- A first category of explanations focuses on CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLUNTEERS
the different types of resources or
characteristics (social capital, human capital, The social capital (particularly the bridging
income, gender affiliation and age, urban / type) is important for volunteering, because
rural environmen) and their contribution in volunteering activities involve participation,
the production of voluntary behavior . After cooperation and trust in people. The
the identification of these resources we can organizations that recruit volunteers frequently
create a " perfect profile " of the volunteer in a use the social networks of their own members
certain culture , beginning with the identified (Pearce, 1993 apud Voicu and Voicu, 2004).
sociodemographic characteristics ; John Wilson and Marc A. Musick (1997) show
- A second category of explanations is based that people with a large social network have a
on the beliefs and values of the volunteers and higher probability to contact and work as

461
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

volunteers, and participation as a volunteer prepared to raise children. They have more
contributes to a further increase of the social time to become volunteer” (Oesterle, 2004
network: "organized volunteering is in its apud Voicu and Voicu, 2004, 4). Volunteering
essence, a form of sociability, and increases in older people has many positive effects
the frequency of social contacts " (Voicu, "probably because the services brought to the
2005, 122). community become a substitute for
The human capital has been related to employment when retirement occurs" (Thoits
volunteering, especially in terms of "dominant and Hewitt 2001, 117).
status model " developed by David Horton Typically, volunteers are recruited
Smith (1994), under which volunteers are from urban areas. This can be explained on
people who have high-level features related to one hand by the abundance of social networks
human capital. that intersect here (used by organizations to
The frequency of voluntary acts is recruit volunteers and to increase its capital),
directly related to the income of potential but also because non-profit organizations,
volunteers (Smith, 1994). The persons who are those who recruit volunteers (especially public
not "concerned for tomorrow" find more easily ones) are more present in urban areas than in
the necessary time to involve as volunteers. At rural areas. The controversy exists
the society level the economic development theoretically only related to the size of cities
tends to produce high levels of volunteering, that promote volunteering and it is far from
hence a possible explanation for the increased being resolved, thanks to the intervention of
interest in volunteering in Romania in the last other factors that may promote volunteering
years. (for example, if a city is or not a university
With regard to gender affiliation, center in Romania, particularly with regard to
theoretically, there are points of view that say social-human faculties).
that women should be voluntary rather than
men, given the fact that they possess some 3. INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND
qualities required by volunteering ( higher MOTIVATIONS
scores on the various tests aiming to measure
empathy or altruism), and they are also less The involvement as a volunteer has an
involved in the labor market (Wilson, 2000). expressive function for the individual, which
Other authors state that men should rather be can so express the values that drive his
volunteers given the fact that they have more existence (eg religious ones - Wilson and
features of the "dominant status model" Musick, 1997). Regarding individual
compared to the female population. motivation leading to volunteering, the works
At a distance of ten years, two studies consulted specifically insist on the awareness
that sought to identify the ideal profile of the of opportunities for expanding the social
volunteer in Romania have conflicting results network, acquiring new skills and
in terms of gender affiliation: in 1997 it was qualifications or pursuing a form of social
more male (Saulean, 1999, 24) and in 2007 recognition . Thus, volunteering seems rather
nearly two-thirds were women (Rigman, 2008, generated by motivations that have nothing to
4). do with altruism . Susan Eckstein (2001, 230)
From a theoretical perspective, the insists that in becoming a volunteer " unequal
volunteers come from the ages where free time exchanges contribute to strengthening the
is more available, compared to the working reputation , prestige and authority " , hence the
population: teenagers and people in early conclusion reached by Malina Voicu and
retirement. Regarding adolescents and young Bogdan Voicu (2005, 5) : " Excluding the
people, for them, the probability to become purely altruistic factors, the determinants of
volunteers is lower for those who work - volunteering can be reduced to a set of
compared to those who study - or if they have resources or socio-economic indicators of
children compared with those who do not. For status" .
the other ages, the presence of children is not Starting from the two major theoretical
an impediment "Older parents tend to be better explanation of volunteering, Malina Voicu and

462
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Bogdan Voicu (2005, 5) form a portrait of the c) „The role-identity model” show that past
volunteer in Eastern Europe, which is similar performance by a person of a voluntary action
to that of the volunteer in Western Europe: "a leads to the development of a "volunteer role
well-educated person, with an extensive social identity" that motivates future involvement as
network that has a good financial situation and a volunteer of the same person;
seek to fulfill necessities of higher order. d) „The volunteer personality model” suggests
Furthermore, we expect to find higher levels of there are personality or disposition variables
volunteering among young people with a high that favor volunteering. In this context, Allen
level of religious practice and residing in and Rushton (1983, cited in Thoits and Hewitt
urban areas. " 2001, 117) conclude that "volunteer
participation is higher for individuals with
4. THEORETIC MODELS OF internal control, with high self-esteem and a
VOLUNTEERING high emotional stability. These results suggest
that people who generally have higher
Peggy A. Thoits and Lyndi N. Hewitt (2001, personal coping resources [...] and have a
117-118) describe four models of volunteers better state of mental health would be more
that „in present, guide the literature "on this likely to volunteer. "
field and propose a specific model, that of" e) „The personal well-being model” combines
personal welfare "(" the personal well -being personality characteristics (self confidence ,
model "): sense of control over their own lives , self-
a) "The volunteer motivations model" esteem and self-esteem of a high level) and a
emphasizes the role of individual motivations good (physical and mental) health, as a list of
in volunteering, the range being an extremely their own personal resources to those who
extended one "for example, to learn new skills, search / are being searched to volunteer . The
develop personality, increase self-esteem, relationship volunteering / personal welfare is
career preparation, expressing personal values a mutual one " studies suggest that people with
and commitment to community or even a higher welfare (eg , greater psychosocial
reducing intrapersonal conflicts or threats to resources and physical or mental health) will
their identity. " Volunteering serves different become volunteers more often and people who
motivations both from one person to another are involved in community service may have a
and also for the same person, which leads to greater life satisfaction , self-esteem ,
concluding that "the selection of volunteers awareness of the meaning of life , physical and
can not be systematic or patented at a general mental health " (Thoits and Hewitt, 2001, 118)
level ", due to motivational poliformism
(Thoits and Hewitt, , 2001, 117); 5. VOLUNTEERING AND THE
b) „Values and attitudes model” stresses the SOCIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
link between volunteering and individual
belief on the importance of civic participation In the last three decades the sociology of
and responsibility felt to produce charitable emotions crystalized as a new area of research
behavior. Not surprisingly at all, the values (Chelcea, 2007) and in psycho-sociology, "the
and attitudes favorable to the voluntary civic idea that emotions are social, that are rooted in
involvement influences volunteering

463
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

social relations is now widely accepted" volunteers can give help and it will be
(Chelcea and Zodieru, 2008, 369). accepted as such "sympathy mobilizes those
Septimiu Chelcea (2007, 161) states who like each other to focus on the moral
that "the theories of prosocial behavior have, if aspects, the cultural rules and thereby,
not entirely, at least partially, validity in the sympathy has the function of social
analysis of sympathy (and perhaps other integration."
emotions). Showing sympathy to someone, we  
give them support to overcome the critical REFERENCES
situation, we encourage her, which is a
genuine prosocial behavior if " the sympathy 1. Chelcea, Septimiu şi Zodieru, Alexandru.
donor " - the term is mine - does not expect a (2008). Emoţiile - o construcţie socială. În
Septimiu Chelcea (coord.). Psihosociologie.
material or moral reward ,and if the
Teorii, cercetări, aplicaţii (pp. 355-376). Iaşi:
expression of sympathy isn’t a work Editura Polirom.
obligation, but a conscious act, freely 2. Chelcea, Septimiu. (2007). Sociologia
decided." With this statement, I will try to emoţiilor: teorii culturale. In Sociologie
interpret volunteering related to the theory of Românească. Volumul V, nr. 2/2007, 149-163.
sympathy elaborated by Candace Clark (1987, 3. Eckstein, Susan. (2001). Community as Gift-
1997) cited Septimiu Chelcea (2007, 160-163). Giving: Collective Roots of Volunteerism. In
Over a longer period of time " the American Sociological Review, nr. 66, 829-851.
sympathy donor " needs motivational support 4. Rigman, Cristina. (2008). Volunteers in
for the sustained effort to help he makes and Romania: A Profile. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul
we are no longer facing a "genuine prosocial pentru Studiul Democraţiei.
5. Saulean, Daniel. (1999). Sursele sociale ale
behavior" but a volunteering act.
vieţii asociative şi filantropiei în contextul
The volunteer (that I can name – by tranziţiei. www.fdsc.ro/documente/22.pdf
paraphrasing Septimiu Chelcea - "the chronic 6. Smith, David Horton. (1994). Determinants of
sympathy donor") acts within the "emotional Voluntary Association Participation and
economy", frequently described by Candace Volunteering: A Literature Review. In
Clark as an "overinvestor" having a" credit Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quartely,
line of sympathy "(defined by Clark as the nr.23, 243-263.
amount of sympathy that the individual has) of 7. Thoits, Peggy A. şi Hewitt, Lyndi N. (2001).
superior level and being willing to reach a" Volunteer Work and Well-Being. In Journal of
limit of sympathy "as high as possible toward Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 42, Nr. 2,115-
the people they help. 131.
8. Voicu, Bogdan şi Voicu, Mălina. (2003).
"The sympathy limit " is understood
Volunteering in CEE: one of the missing links?.
here as "the sympathy that the individual In Bogdan Voicu şi Horaţiu Rusu
negotiates according to the actual situation of (editori).Globalization, Integration, and Social
the other person, but also in relation to their Development in Central and Eastern Europe
own life history (past experience of being"a (pp. 57-66). Sibiu: Editura Psihomedia.
good man ") and the height of their moral 9. Voicu, Bogdan. (2005). Voluntariatul. In
standards "- Chelcea, 2007, 161). The Penuria pseudo-modernă a postcomunismului
sympathy - "the most social of emotions" - românesc. Volumul I. Schimbarea socială şi
operates as a " protection value " that allows acţiunile indivizilor (pp. 121-136). Iaşi: Editura
the one in difficulty to mobilize his resources Expert Projects.
to act according to the cultural norms, 10. Wilson, John şi Musick, Marc A. (1997). Who
Cares? Towards an Integrated Theory of
including the proper asking for help. If "
Volunteer Work. In American Sociological
sympathy is the life preserver that sometimes Review, nr. 62., 694-713.
help those in distress" (Chelcea, 2007, 162), 11. Wilson, John. (2000). Volunteering. In Annual
the volunteers would have the crew of the Review of Sociology, nr. 26, 215-240.
lifeboat: based on the relationship sympathy
established with the person / people they help,

464
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF MORAL EDUCATION IN DETENTION

Cristiana BALAN

The Faculty of Psychology - Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract
The moral life has its values, norms and its courts, it ensures respect for values that transcend the direct
interest of the person and makes one think of the others, accepting and protecting them and promoting
their interest as a real purpose. To reach all these, we need to take an educational step of asserting the
moral good and denying the moral evil and for all these to become real, a lot of work, sacrifice, passion
and dedication are needed and the work of a psychologist can hope to be an integrated element in such a
construction. This is an ascertaining study which addresses the prison system as a whole, from the
experience within a single prison, but at the same time, it addresses the whole society which includes this
particular prison. The points of interest and also the research objectives were to identify the degree of
perception of moral values among young prisoners, attitude determination and the acceptance degree of
the prisoners regarding moral education activities during detention; forming documented opinions on the
most effective moral education activities for prisoners.

Keywords: moral education, moral culture, set of values, the factor of rehabilitation

1. A NEW CONCEPT IN THE with each activity carried out during detention,
ROMANIAN PRISON SYSTEM thus giving him the opportunity to collect as
many credits as possible. With this number of
The work is developed on a undeniable credits each inmate acquires rewards such as
current theme that brings in the center of the additional packages or visits and even the
investigation the man, and not a mere man, permission to go home for one day.
but one that, in specific social circumstances, This system aims to increase prisoners self
has come to be isolated, legally, by the society -confidence and encourages them to acquire as
and forced to give up his freedom, for long or many credits for the programs conducted and
small periods of time. [1]. the evaluation within the Parole Board before
Since this year (2011) the "credit system" the punishment deadline will also be done
has been introduced in some of the (pilot) related to the number of credits accumulated
prisons which is functioning upon the idea of by each prisoner. It is about a much easier
accumulated, acquired or canceled credits. For evaluation, ethically speaking and it may
each activity carried out by a prisoner within contribute to the assessment of the social
the programs of education, productive, recovery of prisoners.[3].
hobbies, sports, etc.., he receives a bigger or a
smaller number of credits which accumulates

465
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES prisoners who would, in our opinion , mostly

need moral education: those who remain in
We wish to mention that in this paper we complete opposition to the social system and
only present the beginning of a research outside its living rules.
provided as permitted by the subjects The sample for the research, looks as
condition, that of prisoners in a prison. follows:
Therefore, the objectives, even if they have - A group- sample of prisoners selected on a
the size of a much more daring project, relate voluntary basis (50 people), statistically
to the expectations commensurate with the structured on the basis of relevant criteria for
possibilities and the motion space of the the research: age, sentencing limits, recidivists
subjects given the circumstances. – non-recidivists, married, unmarried, with or
We propose, therefore, the following without children, level (type ) of religiousness.
objectives: - Factors of influence and education from the
• Identifying the perception of moral prison staff and partners, established on a
values among prisoners; friendly basis: priest, psychologist, director,
• Determining the attitude and the NGO representative etc.
acceptance by prisoners of moral The conclusions of the identification data
education activities during detention; of prisoners show a balanced distribution in
• Formation of documented opinions on terms of age and occupation before
the most effective moral education enprisonment.
activities for prisoners. There is a preponderance of unmarried
prisoners with sentences of up to five years,
3. WORK HYPOTHESES and the overwhelming majority declare
themselves to be of Christian - Orthodox
Based on the proposed objectives and the religion. However, the preponderance of
pattern of scientific data gathered in the first married prisoners (32%), of those with
part of this paper, we considered useful to sentences over five years (34%) or recidivists
submit to testing and evaluating the following (32%) is significant, which allows the
hypotheses: extraction of relevant conclusions.
1. Most prisoners have a valid perception of
ethical values, but have a negative assessment 5. METHODS AND RESEARCH TOOLS
of their ability to respect and promote these
values; During the research the following methods
2. Among the prisoners there is a hierarchy of were used:
preferences for cooperation with educational 1. Conducted interview, applied to the people
factors, depending on the degree of in the management and education areas of the
involvement; prison and other persons representing civil
3. Most prisoners recognize the seriousness of society with whom the prison cooperates.
the offenses for which they were condemned 2. Questionnaire-based survey applied to the
and appreciate positively the role of detention prisoners forming the sample.
in their social behavior correction. The opinion questionnaire applied to the
prisoners in the prison in which this study was
conducted, has been designed based on the
4. THE POPULATION STUDIED research objectives and hypotheses and on the
conclusions drawn from the field literature.
Sampling difficulties were evident during We are aware that it has its limitations in
the research. The requirements imposed by the terms of both design and implementation. The
representation scientific requirements in limited work possibilities have not allowed, as
conjunction with voluntary request, forced us was necessary in terms of scientific
to draw in research only those prisoners who requirements, its calibration on a pilot sample,
have shown interest to our theme, so some of for which the answer to some questions
the prisoners got away from the theme - those revealed some limitations of form or the lack

466
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
of discriminative significance, as the case of, their attachment, at least declaratively, towards
the question on the religion of participants or these values. A significant nuance is that some
the insufficient separation of particular social officers of the prison show serious reservations
situations (cohabiting, unmarried but with about this perception, saying that the prisoner
children, etc). is, by nature, incorrigible, indocile, unable to
The limits of the questionnaire are related gain access to authentic moral values. We
to representativeness. A total of 50 prisoners believe this view as an isolated one, and in
who agreed to answer the questionnaire, all order to shape it as determining we would
men, from a single prison, is undoubtedly a need to do a research on a representative
major limit. We consider, however, the results number of persons within this category.
of the survey satisfactory, especially since the A major conclusion resulting from the
prisoners participation was absolutely study is that most prisoners properly assess the
voluntary, without coercion. causes that led to the crimes they were
We consider this study to be a beginning that convicted for, detaching as causes, the
may allow a more extensive research in a entourage and the personal character, with
major project, possibly on a national scale. emphasis on the fact that both the character
3. Case studies of prisoners, based on and the entourage have met a favorable social
voluntary and confidentiality regarding their environment in which the privileged values
identity and also, their consent on the data were far from the authentic ethics: money,
published in the study. adventure, priority of physiological needs
4. The monograph of a case rather than moral, “all installed in society amid
The instruments in paragraphs 3 and 4 have a post-revolutionary freedom which
a feature allowed by the research team with transformed itself for many, into libertarianism
reserve, but considered to be useful for the and denial of any authority”.[4].
research, for the public penetrability and Therefore, the participants in our study
plasticity of the texts, but also for the recognized with sufficient clearness that even
relevance of the social and spiritual universe they know and adhere to the basic moral
of the material described. values, when they were outside the law were
unable or unwilling to undergo it.
3. CONCLUSIONS Under these circumstances, we consider
that the first hypothesis of our study confirmed
After applying the aforementioned tools, totally of two sources (case studies and
we believe that, under the limits of validity opinion questionnaire) and partly from the
determined by the very limits of the study, we third (interview), less exploited under
can formulate important conclusions regarding circumstances of genuine testability, due to the
the direction to follow concerning the moral small number of respondents.
education of prisoners. We therefore believe that most prisoners
3.1. After analyzing the results of applying all have a valid perception of ethical values, but
the tools for collecting information and have a negative assessment of their ability to
opinions on the population studied, we found respect and promote these values, before
that the detainees have an acceptable moral detention.
culture, manifesting in a significant majority,

467
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

to evaluate the extent to which prisoners

Based on this conclusion, we believe that recognize the seriousness of the acts
moral education in prison is fully possible, committed and supports the idea that they can
finding a favorable echo among the majority rediscover their role in life through education.
of prisoners, that not only manifest openly By assessing the results of the instruments
their willingness to participate, but they also applied in the research, we find a favorable
demand more activities, more differentiated, attitude from the prisoners. The feeling of guilt
better organized, less formal and closer to the is mostly shared and the opinion about the role
personality profile of each prisoner. of moral education in prison is a favorable
3.2. The assessments from the application of one, as well.
an instrument of research have revealed Therefore, the third hypothesis of our study
interesting features about the preferences of is confirmed. Most prisoners recognize the
detainees in cooperation with educational seriousness of the offenses for which they were
factors inside and outside the prison. By far, condemned and appreciate the role of moral
the most outstanding preference is for what education while in detention in straightening
detention has taken from the prisoner : his their social behavior.
family. This is more evident for married So, nothing prevents us, to give greater
inmates, but is significant for the unmarried importance to the moral education of
ones too. Next, in order, the psychologist, prisoners. We have not thought for a moment
educational staff, priest, prison mates. to propose the transforming of the prison into a
However, prisoners assessment, supported, in recreation center or a house of culture. We do
part, by the prison staff, is that the presence of not think that the prisoner should be included
these educational factors in their lives is in educational activities in most of the time
insignificant, and the responses of "rarely" or " spent behind bars. We also do not believe that
pretty rarely" are prevalent. bars should be covered up in velvet or that the
We believe, therefore, that the second guards should be changed into counselors. We
hypothesis is confirmed, so that among understand and accept that detention must be,
prisoners there is a hierarchy of preferences above all, perceived as a punishment, with all
for cooperation with educational factors, its valences, involving deprivation of freedom.
according to institutional and non-institutional The analysis of the results led to a major
factors, opening the way for an objective conclusion: that most prisoners have a valid
analysis of how to think the involvement of ethical perception of moral values, but have a
these factors in the moral education of negative assessment of their ability to respect
prisoners. and promote these values before detention.
On the other hand, it requires a rethinking
of the role of professionals and individuals Based on this conclusion, we believe that
with specific responsibilities in the moral moral education in prison is fully possible,
education of prisoners. The role of the priest finding a favorable echo among most
has to be more important. A measure which prisoners, who not only openly manifest their
we believe that could significantly change the willingness to participate, but they also ask for
nature, content and effectiveness of moral activities that are more differentiated, more
education in prisons should be changing the less formal and closer to their personality
role of the psychologist, who should have a profile. Another way of life than that which
specific role according to his specialization brought the prisoner behind bars requires a
and in the prisons with large staffs a new set of moral and civic values that he
psychological department distinct from that should have the opportunity to discover.
educational one should be effectively During detention it is necessary to give credit
constituted. to moral education as an important factor in
3.3. The main objective of our study was to rehabilitation.[1].
find means by which education would provide
moral and social rehabilitation of those
deprived of freedom. For this it was necessary

468
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Those who will approach this work will
discover that evil is not all evil, that the world REFERENCES
behind bars is a world where a lot of guilty
consciences cannot wait to be given the 1. Dobrinoiu, V., Neagu, N. Drept penal,
opportunity to raise at the level of the Partea specială, Teorie i practică
authentic human being. Provided someone to judiciară. Editura Wolters Kluwer,
discover them, bring them to light and to Romania (2008).
restore them their trust and hope. The success 2. Stinger, P. (editor). Tratat de etică.
will never be complete. “But if one lost sheep Editura Polirom, Iasi (2006).
was brought to the flock it is called that a 3. *Strategia sistemului penitenciar
minimal moral act was committed”. [2] 2009-2013. Educaţie şi asistenţă
psihosocială adaptate nevoilor
persoanelor custodiate, în
http://www.anp-just.ro
4. *Educaţie morală şi reintegrarea
socială a deţinuţilor în penitenciar, în
http://psihoforce.info
 

469
SOCIO and HUMANITIES

470
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING IN IMPROVING

BEHAVIORAL DYSFUNCTIONS IN RECIDIVIST CRIMINALS

Cristiana BALAN

The Faculty of Psychology - Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract
This paper addresses certain behavioral disorders in prison environment, and also their nature and
content of adolescent offenders and recidivists. The socio-dynamic criminal behavior is analyzed in
general and that of the recidivist offenders as well, there are also established the correlations between the
factors that contribute to the social maturation, the formation of collective consciousness in relation to
the accelerated pace of somato-psychic development, the endogenous or exogenous conditions that favor
a development that is early, disharmonic, perverted and masked, which, by their persistence, maintain the
criminal phenomenon confirmed by the psychological evaluation. Behavioral disorders have an upward
trend, and we observe within the first step the repeating of the same type of crime (the mono-criminal),
then a second stage which is the polymorphic phase (the specialization of relapse), and the last stage is
that of the general recidivism. The probability of recidivism is highlighted by eight factors: heredity,
abnormal character, educational environment, educational problems, and consciousness of self,
inappropriate use of time and entertainment, the gender and the severity of crime committed.
As strategies of recovery regarding the criminal personality predisposed to recidivism, we propose the
following measures of social intervention: family adjustment, vocational adjustment, social adjustment.
An important role in this regard plays the social rehabilitation measures, to improve ecological
conditions of the individual (in family, workplace, at school, in the community group), by specific social
actions, focusing on psychological counseling of young offenders by specialized people.

Keywords: behavioral disorders, prison environment, crime, recovery strategies

1. Behavioral dysfunctions in prison are established the correlations between

environment factors contributing to social maturation, the
formation of collective consciousness in
The theme of this study approaches the relation to the accelerated somatic
behavioral dysfunctions in the prison development, endogenous or exogenous
environment, their nature and content in conditions favoring an early disharmonious,
adolescent offenders and recidivists.  It is perverted or masked development, that
socio-dynamic analyzed the criminal behavior through their persistence maintain the criminal
in general, of the recidivists particularly, there

471
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

phenomenon confirmed by psychological prisoner, prisoner-group of inmates,

evaluation. prisoner -prison staff.
Behavioral disorders present an upward
trend, and we are able to observe as a first Specific to prison environment is the
step, the repetiton of the same kind of offenses parallel existence of formal rules that are
(the criminal mono-phase) and a second stage inforced and pursue the objectives of the
–the polymorphic phase (specialization of institution - productive, educational,
relapse), and the last one being the general preventive – with the unofficial rules
recidivism. The probability of relapse is expressing the experience generalization of
highlighted by eight factors: heredity, prisoners aimed at building bearable
abnormal character, educational environment, relationships and living conditions during the
educational difficulties and self criticism, execution punishment and acting only within
injudicious use of time and entertainment, the the group of prisoners.
kind and seriousness of the offense committed. As will be demonstrated, the impact of
The prison living conditions have a simple imprisonment on the components of
logic, as the staff provides a range of services personality is in many cases dramatically,
for prisoners - feeding, hygiene, recreation, generating different behaviors from those of
literacy, security. The impression created is the free environment. Decisive for the
one of environmental sustainability as the evolution of the prisoner is his position on
inmates bear harder or easier the punishment and the degree of biological and
imprisonment. psychological safety that he perceive in his
After a longer contact with the prison, its new living environment. Moreover, as the
human dimensions, relational structures, prisoners are more adapted to the prison, the
unofficial norms and values, rumors dynamic, more pronounced their reactivity will be.
system privileges, power relationships, Typically, the human personality structure
statuses and roles of actors involved will begin presents the following key components:
to be perceived. These all have psychological emotions, motivation, will, temperament, skills
and psychosocial consequences visible on and character. Those components which in
prisoners and staff. special situations, like serving a sentence of
imprisonment are omitted, acquires a special
2. THE RESEARCH DESIGN importance to maintaining the individual soul:
family, home, friends, familiar objects, regard
In prison, the issue of norms and values takes for others. The brutal separation of these
on particular aspects determined by prisoners elements contribute to psychological
situation: lack of freedom and other disintegration of the person that tries to
frustrations prevent proper relating to compensate the "losses" through various
significant aspects of everyday existence. defense behavior.
Dignity, health, employment, equality, human Custodial environment determines an
rights, protection and love are appreciated aggressive behavior which consists in rejecting
through the "state of being a prisoner " and the norms and values of the group from the
ranked according to the pressure of needs outside. Aggression could be defined as "a
unmet in the prison. Here, as in society, act verbal or acting offensive behavior, aiming at
three types of rules: humiliating or physical suppression of others."
• Organizational – concerning the [1].
Functioning mechanism of the institution (law Aggressive behavior can be turned against
enforcement of sentences). oneself (self-harm), towards destruction of
• Actional - indicating rules of a objects invested with official meanings
"correct" assessment of everyday situations heteroaggression. A specific form of
and events that interest prisoners aggression in prison environment is slavery -
• Relational   Concerning effective ways the use by some inmates of other inmates in
for the relashionships prisoner- activities considered demeaning. Another form
of aggression is the instrumented one, which is

472
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
manifested in the form of individual or group The sample includes 50 detainees, 30
conflict, competeing for a limited source of recidivists (18 offenders are men and 12 are
income. Extreme forms of verbal and physical women) and 20 non-recidivists (12 are men of
aggression are directed against prisoners and 8 women).
convicted for felonies repudiated in prison. [2]. Analyzing the survey data we observe that
most of the prisoners were up to three
Research objectives convictions for various offenses, without being
1. Determining detention consequences on the considered recidivists, since the convictions
behavior of recidivists were under 6 months of imprisonment or they
2. Determining the influence of personality did not met the conditions for the small
and self-image of recidivists on behavioral relapse, committing three acts of the same
disorders in conditions of detention nature.
3. Establishing the attitude of recidivists Most acts are directed against private
towards educational activities in prison property. It was noted that in 50% cases , the
Research Hypotheses first offense was committed between the ages
of 18-22, while the highest number of
General hypotheses recidivists are in the age group of 26-35. In
The evolution of recidivists behavioral recidivists the criminal profile emerges in the
disorders is influenced by internal factors and juvenile phase.
specific contextual prison environment. The highest percentage of offenders comes
Derived Hypotheses: from urban areas, individuals with no or
1. Behavioral dysfunctions in prison insufficient training. A relatively high
environment are influenced by the personality percentage are classified as unemployed.
of inmate. If the prison inmate has a Most come from dysfunctional families,
personality well-defined and confined in from parents with criminal records or with
present, he is emotionally stable, with a strong parents who are unemployed.
ego and the range of behavioral disorders is The highest number of recidivists show
lower. disharmonious developments of personality,
2. The self-image of the prisoner influences which often were overlapped on educational
the behavioral dysfunctions in prison. If a gaps in the family, school and society.
prisoner is collectively dependent, naive, The criminal sanctions do not provide the
sentimental, humble, kind, submissive, necessary conditions for stopping the
anxious, tense, frustrated, overtaken by events, phenomenon, for most of the times we
the range of behavioral disorders is higher. consider the danger solely in terms of the
social relations that are violated, without
taking into account the specific characteristics
Sample
of the individual. To this is added the fact that
To test the hypothesis and achieve the
the process of rehabilitation is not being done
objectives we used a sample of inmates from
after relevant criteria and more important, will
prison Codlea - Brasov, in the period January-
not continue after the execution of the
December 2013
sentence by a corresponding social
classification and competent supervision.

473
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

Research methods and means Tested subjects fall in the category of complex
A. Methods: relapse: they have committed three to four
a. Investigation of personality by personality offenses.
inventory requires the subject to think deep
before referring to the dominant characteristics 3. CONCLUSIONS
of his behavior, his honesty when answering
the questions The phenomenon of relapse generates and is
b. Questionnaire-based interview largely responsible for the perpetuation of
B. Means of investigation: specific disfunctionalities specific for the
In order to analyze the relationships detention environment.
between the variables of the classification and The probability of relapse is highlighted by
the level of relapse, the following samples eight factors:
were applied to the entire sample : • heredity
• anomalies of character
• interview-based survey • educational environment
• anamnesis • educational dificulties
• personality questionnaire 16 PF(R.B • counsciousness and self-criticism
Cattell) • inappropriate use of free time
Starting from the general considerations that • the kind and intensity of the offense
that in the deviant behavior socio-dynamic we • severity of offense.
must observe the action of social factors, since As strategies for recovering the personality
the period of the formation of personality, so predisposed to recidivism, we propose to
primarily in environmental conditions (family, implement a plan of action aimed at achieving
school, close entourage) [3]. and emphasizing the following social measures:
that the analysis of personality, its antisocial • familial adaptation
incidents, the psychopathological aspects
• professional adaptation
sociopatologice which motivate them, we can
• social adaptation
state that the research hypothesis and
As a final conclusion, we point out that the
objectives of the work are confirmed.
evolution of behavioral disorders of the
The research examines socio-dynamic the
recidivists is influenced by internal factors
behavior of offenders in general, of recidivists
related to individual personality and also,
particularly, establishes the correlations
contextual factors specific to the prison
between the factors contributing to social
environment.
maturation, the formation of collective
An important role in this regard lies with
consciousness in relation to the accelerated
the measures of social rehabilitation, of
somatic development, the endo or exogenous
improving the ecological conditions of the
conditions favoring early disharmonious,
individual (within family, at work, at school,
perverted, masked development, which, by
in the community), by specific social actions,
their persistence and chronicity, maintain the
focusing on psychological counseling of
phenomenon confirmed by the tests applied.
young offenders by qualified personnel.
The dissonance found between social
maturity and delayed social maturation is one
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of the main factors of criminal behavior.
Behavioral disorders have an upward
1. Brezeanu, Ortansa, Integrarea socială
trend, as follows:
postpenală a infractorilor între
• as a first phase, we observe the realitate şi perspective. Bucureşti:
repetition of the same kind of offenses
Editura Fundaţia România de Mâine
(the mono-criminal phase);
(2000).
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when the relapse specializes; universitar. Cluj-Napoca: UBB (2003).
• the last phase – the general relapse[4].

474
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
3. Butoi, T.S., Criminologie: dispuse de organele judiciare în cursul
comportamente criminale. Bucureşti: procesului penal.
Editura Solaris Print ((2009).
4. *Legea nr. 275/2006 privind
executarea pedepselor şi a măsurilor
 

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476
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC PERSPECTIVE

Angela BLOGUŢ

“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania, Individual Office of Psychology
Angela Bloguţ, Timisoara, Romania

Abstract: The opportunity of educational management modernisation is required in the perspective of the
society's development trends and of social integration, which implies the need to participate in the
globalisation, internationalisation processes specific to the contemporary world. They claim a new
management - the transitional management of human resources - which highlights the learning and
valuing of the new competences related to cooperation in open and complex heterogeneous cultural
areas, which demand for a permanent evolution and self-organisation. The edification of a modern,
prospective, flexible and open education, appropriate for a democratic society and for the requirements
of the market economy, for the individual self-achievement options is possible by implementing the
proposed management paradigm, appreciated as a strategy of change, employed on systemic, structural,
methodological, technical level, which converges towards the edification of a new "innovating school" as
a "moment of change in the evolution of education", reacts in psychological plan to the requirements
specific to the innovating creativity, based on an observance of the principles of efficiency on social
scale, the participation of education actors in the spirit of democracy values, rational organisation and
planning, motivation for permanent innovation.

Keywords: education, paradigm, democratic, principles

Subject actuality. Society development, The new educational policy prefigured in the
particularly in an era of changes, has a direct finalities of education implies an education
dependency on the evolution of education, management sought to ensure organisational
which is one of the main tools whereby the development by promoting an education
society stimulates, directs and controls the strategy of boosting the human resource
development processes. The option for a performance, focused on the formation and
democratic and open society claims the focus development of human personality, capable of
of efforts on "the educative dimension of the taking independent decisions in order to
social development, which, according to the achieve its own destiny and choose for the
economic, political and cultural dimensions, democratic society. The valuing of the
should build a healthy society, improving life resources management has, its creative
quality by a higher education. Given this application, represent challenges of the
context, "educability and adaptability" contemporary time, they are able to ensure the
constitute two essential conditions for the development of the educational system,
current and future changes, and the particularly of the school, in a society based
"education-development" assembly represents on knowledge and computerisation.
the strategy of the social progress. The new orientations and realities involve a
new vision over the man itself as a supreme

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value and, therefore, the need to perceive and cultivating self-awareness, self-
education as a social phenomenon not only other, better and determination, self-
from the general-human perspective - training more effective expression, self-
the man for life, perspective that currently habits; confirmation, self-
predominates in the psycho-pedagogical ƒ uncertain, a achievement, self-
research, but also from the modern product of what adjustment;
management perspective - of valuing the is happening or ƒ orientation in life
individual and his self-management, has happened; and the capacity to
externalisation and behavioural manifestation ƒ victim of the make decisions;
capacities, as a defining value of his efficiency situation, of the ƒ wisdom, certainty;
and efficacy, field that both theoretically and circumstances; ƒ (self)discipline;
practically remains unexplored scientifically ƒ it is the reflection ƒ life is considered a
and socially. Within this context, educational of other people's functional product
management as science and art to prepare opinions and of own decisions;
human resources to form personalities indications; ƒ it determines the
according to some finalities requested and ƒ is lacking own course of things;
accepted by the individual, have the mission to reflection; ƒ builds his life on
modify personality in an autonomous and ƒ is lacking an principles;
reformative sense for a correct, efficient authentic ƒ orientation to
achievement of his activity, to socialise people understanding of individual and
to fulfil roles and specific functions in other the real joy and public self-
types of organisations and society given that happiness; achievement.
this becomes a society based on knowledge ƒ is lacking vision,
and computerisation. In this train of ideas, the unclear
social and cultural pattern, when the orientation in
individual considers himself passive in life.
relation with his organisation, is overcome,
although his magistrocentrism or
socialcentrism is still persistent, paradigm that The humanisation of leadership implies
maintains the formation of the doer. consideration on the individual particulars of
The change of paradigm on particular level – each participant to the educational process,
passing from the formation of the doer to the creation of some conditions to promote
formation of the decider – constitutes a new individual development and capacities. All of
research direction and it involves, on overall these can be achieved only by removing the
level, a participative human-centred "administrative leadership" and implementing
democratic management, which should be the "managerial leadership", having the
promoted by specific principles. following features: respect and confidence in
people, accepting personality, cooperation,
individualisation, individual change,
professional development, optimism, self-trust
and trust in the others.
THE DOER THE DECIDER The dynamics of the contemporary life,
determined by impressive changes in all the
ƒ passive, ƒ proactive, self- areas of activity, requires a continuous
depending on the knowledge; adapting of the educational system to the new
others; ƒ the identification/ orientations and realities. The path chosen by
ƒ is lacking the feeling of its own the society towards democracy and opening
power of will in value; may only ensure success if education will
taking decisions, ƒ self-esteem, form personalities capable of valuing new
in overcoming personal strength; ideas, values, beliefs, will promote new
inveterate habits ƒ high self-reflection, individual behaviors, specific to a democratic

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
society. Being oriented from man to man, programmes for social competences, which
education is also a universal act of should allow the graduates to cope with the
communication, and the positive orientation of requirements of the active life in a society
education employs it axiological, meaning that based on market connections: initiative,
the education makes its way by values and for cooperation, team work, mutual training,
values, the human being itself representing the communication, logical thinking, problem
supreme value of education. solving, decision making, obtaining and using
Given that the contemporary societies have information, planning own actions, evaluation.
largely become societies of knowledge and In the same time, it is required for the man to
computerisation, the production of material as honour his own personality, to try and rise
also of non-material goods is ensured by a over the society, to determine his own path.
larger and larger number of individuals, who On the other hand, today, as never, the
produce and value knowledge. Hence, assertion of Paul Lengrad becomes of
knowledge and learning becomes the primary notoriety: "Education cannot simply be added
weapon of efficiency, performance and to human life as something imposed from the
competitiveness. School is a specific type of outside. There is not more important thing
social system being, on one hand, a generator than culture. In philosophical terms, we can
of knowledge, producer of human knowledge, say that education does not belong to the
and on the other, being a disseminator of category defined by the word to have, but to
knowledge results meant for training the one characterised by the word to be.
successive generation for a rich personal life Human existence in a status of "becoming"
and self-achievement, as also to value human in each stage and in various situations is the
resources, as propulsive resources of the real existence of education". As such, the
economic and social, scientific, technological formation and development of personality,
and cultural development. which is representing the human subject,
School has the social meaning to form the considered as a bio-psycho-social unity, to
future, but first it is called to educate the which the epistemic, pragmatic and
generation, who should live and build under axiological functions are specific, in its
conditions of social equity and competition. evolution "to be" and "to become", requires a
Nevertheless, it should become democratic shift from individualisation to the psychology
and flexible to changes. From this perspective, of constructive individualisation (C. G. Yung).
education should form intellectual, moral and By individualisation, the man builds his
physical in the individual, to aid him to live in individuality and his Self, which expresses the
the society. Thus, the need is felt for an unity of the personality.
authentic education, which respects and In a time of change, a need is felt for moral
advantages human freedom by encouraging authentic renewal. In this train of idea, the
the good, the free discipline, the self- assertion of A. Einstein holds a particular
leadership of the group of students, by notoriety: "The greatest human effort is the
creating an environment that boost fight for morality in our actions. Our internal
spontaneity. The meaning of education and the balance and even our own existence depend
fundamental criterion of human life on that. But morality from our actions may
assessment is the achievement of personality give beauty and dignity to life. To transform
by free creation. Updated, this orientation this in a living force and to be fully aware of it
becomes materialised by school training is, perhaps, the most important task of

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education". Education for the moral-spiritual double unitary meaning: to educate the
values assumes "a value construction of the individual to be capable of living in, and to be
personality of each individual, build on the capable of building the democratic society.
generally human values (truth, good, beauty, Democracy represents a concept of
sacred) and traditional (solidarity, harmony, politological nature, which delimitates a
sincerity etc.) and open, in the same time, for "philosophy, a way of living, a religion and a
the European ethos" (the values of the governing form". In this train of ideas,
individual freedoms of expression, creation, considering the need for democratisation and
initiative) . modernisation of the education, valuing the
The man should be educated as a social and education in the meaning of the social and
cultural being, which nevertheless human progress, we should imperatively
accomplishes and updates itself as an humanise the educational process, adapt it to
individual being. Only as such education may the individual needs, interests and
transform the person in personality, if we particularities of the person, create a learning
consider that personality is a fully- community based on trust, collaboration,
accomplished person. Under the current support, which would ensure the success,
conditions, it is important to learn development of the student. In this purpose, a
permanently, to form indispensable particular importance stands in the use of all
intellectual capacities, to replace the formula the methods of formal and non-formal
"long life learning" with "learning throughout education.
the life", which requires the formation of From the definition of education as an activity
certain capacities of management for self. In in itself, a system of actions of formation-
this train of ideas, considering that Romania development of the human personality, of
accedes more and more to a market economy conscious orientation oriented towards certain
and to a society based on knowledge, the finalities, it results the existence of an explicit
educational system should be adapted to the approach of the conception, organisation,
fluid context where people are living coordination, evaluation, continuous
according to the requirements of integration in optimisation of the elements of the educational
the European community. This requires a system - which is even the study field of
productive conscious learning, for each man to educational management. The need for
become an active citizen of society, prepared management is shown by the existences of
to occupy a job, which guarantees own efficacy, by the increase in efficiency in
independence, self-respect, life quality, which achieving the finalities of education, and not
claims responsibility on his side to contour his only by the assurance of resources and by
own life. As such, the educational system in direction. Within the meaning of the
the multi-cultural mosaic from the European aforementioned, the American scientist J.K.
community should be edified with high Galbraith underlines that "education should
efficacy, starting with the fundamental thesis fulfil two vital functions. The first, to allow
of natural integration of the individual in the people to self-lead themselves intelligently,
universal culture, promoted by the famous and the second, to make possible for them to
German linguist and philosopher V. von try and obtain full satisfaction from the lived
Humboldt in the formula: Individual - Nation - life". In an era of changes, the need for
Humanity, consolidating and achieving this personal "self-leading" is obvious and
strategic challenge by the national school, advisable, which implies and efficient valuing
conceived as a "social institute of the national of education and educational management,
culture, by which disciples the people which majority aims at "valuing the individual
perpetuate themselves and their material and and its capacities". Therefore, both education
spiritual existence. and the educational management direct the
In the conditions of the contemporary life, a efforts towards the formation and
particular importance for us is the education development of the personality, capable of
for democracy. Education for democracy has a building its own destiny, giving to life a

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
meaning. As such, the couple "education- strong organisational culture and a favourable
development" targets the final purpose of climate for the collective and individual
individual and collective life quality activity, to establish the human balance, to
enrichment. Subject to the educational assert the freedom in education by
management is therefore required the harmonising the organisation tasks and the
formation of competences, necessary for the human relations. As a guarantor of the
young to connect the personal existence to the individual and organisational success, the
dynamism of the current and future social life, school leader should involve in a continuous
in its own interest and of the society. These search to identify and develop possibilities of
competences are functional knowledge, improvement of the educational unit by means
capacities and application skills, positive and of his competences, by his way of thinking
constructive behavioural attitudes made by and acting, oriented towards man, towards the
systematic exercises in the teaching activities. valuing and development of the individual
The intellectualisation of the student's capacities, by involving/ attracting the
personality, the featuring of a new system of educational actors in the life of the school
values, which ensures the social a human organisation and in the social life. The new
progress, should aid him to rapidly adapt to educational finalities and objectives, as also
new, changing situations. Given this context, the new orientations and realities from society
the long-term objective of the school should imply passing from an empirical, traditional
be to train the students for an effective social leadership to a scientific, efficient leadership
integration in the conditions of a "turbulent" and all its features.
environment, which involves the graduation of An edification of the leadership system
a preponderant, pragmatic education, oriented appropriate for the exigencies of the
towards creativity and formation of an democratic society and for the new
independent, critical thinking, towards the educational objectives should be achieved
development of the spirit of initiative, taking into account the education and
entrepreneurship, team work. management as a science, the trends of
The environmental change itself where the modern management, the main schools,
educational unit operates, the large theories, principles and methods of leadership,
transformations from the school - the new the achievement tools and the advanced
educational objectives, the new programmes leadership practices, which contribute to the
and manuals, teaching technologies, the wider increase of social efficiency of school and
implication of the community - determines a education overall.
new position of the school principal in the In its historical evolution, the last stage of
system. This requires another content and development of the general management -
another character of the educational implicitly educational - is characterised by the
management in order to form a creating, attention granted primarily to human relations
captivating, attractive and efficient school and therefore the largest investments are made
system, to put the accent on the formation of not just in material resources, as one of the
the man who is willing and is able to take life streamlining sources, but especially in human
in his own hands, to become an active citizen resources, primarily in the systems, projects
to cope with the challenges of the changing and programmes of original training (school
environment. Currently, a school manager training of the students, persons trained in re-
should be able more than ever to create a qualification, reconversion etc.) and

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continuous training (post-school, post- Reorientation in the formation of such

university, for specialists, in our case for the personalities is recommended to be achieved
educational personnel with teaching, leading, starting with the child's education in the
guiding and control functions). family, where, as asserted by Stephen R.
The restructuration of the educational system, Covey, "the spouses play three roles:
which should cope with the humanisation and producer, manager, leader". In the role of a
socialisation requirements, provided in the "producer", they should be capable, patient,
curricular objectives of the new millennium’s should involve children to "have the
start, requires a higher accent in waiving the motivation to perform their tasks according to
informative-reproductive education in favour the expectations". In the role of managers, the
of a formative-applicative-productive parents tend "to focus on ability and not on
education; in this vision: (a) on institutional efficiency, on making things right, instead of
level - the achievement of the challenge of the making the right things", which requires "a
current school on training for active post- high level of independence and self-trust",
school life (professional, civil and family); (b) while "in the role of a leader you can produce
on the level of the sub-system of initial changes... helping the others to feel free to
training - streamlining the curriculum express their concerns and involve in the
management by achieving the curricular creation of new, acceptable solutions". In this
objectives of general training by means of the activity of education of children in the family
application tools for such curriculum. for them to become "champions", as also the
The initiation, promotion and leadership in the employed and led people, Covery claims ten
activity of managerial training on all education principles that are to be observed:
levels, formal and informal, of a new reinforcement of the self-esteem of the
orientation of stringent actuality, materialised children; encouraging personal greatness;
in actions specific to the age and training level encouraging the occupations they love;
regarding the education of the liability/ creating a pleasant culture; timely preparation
responsibility spirit (pre-school education, of important family events; presenting
primary education, gymnasium), the formation examples of excellence; knowing their own
of the capacity to decide for oneself potential; accepting their friends; to have
(gymnasium and high school), from where it beliefs, to trust the others; to grant support,
results the training on all ages of the resources and sincere reactions from the
independence of thinking and acting, which parents.
stimulates initiative, in the end it will give The creation of specific conditions to
shape to a complex, realistic and general democratise the parents-children relations
programme of formation of the decider in a (stimulating the children’s' initiatives,
society of knowledge, computerisation, stimulating self-education, knowing and
freedom and democracy specific to the rule of complying with human and children rights,
law, globalisation of the living, cooperation, promoting a healthy life style targeted on the
solidarity, collective and individual security moral-spiritual values etc.) assumes the
standards. promotion of some principles of humanisation
The given thematic represents a novelty in the and democratisation of the family relations:
current school managerial theory and practice, axiological unity and continuity between
in the meaning that until new it did not moral and civic education; knowing and
presented a particular concern and teaching promoting consequently the human and
research was not sufficiently approached, children rights; promoting the gender equality;
although, based on all appearances, it was active and responsible participation the life of
intuited, assumed, therefore implicit, but family and society.
"undiscovered", and a certain obvious concern Managerial education, as a system with
was at the personal appreciation, as an isolated influence on the formation of the becoming
initiative and individual possibility. personality, capable of taking independent
decisions, to choose a democratic state

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
construction, is provided in the school and professional potential in a creative
curriculum, materialised in general manner).
educational objectives, in trans-disciplinary The condition to educate the liability spirit
general objectives, in objectives on training and the capacity to decide for oneself is
steps and levels, in objectives on curricular ensured by the quality of the lesson, conceived
areas, curricular objectives on disciplines, in and achieved as a formative applicative action/
reference objectives. activity, therefore designed as an operational
Among the factors that limit freedom in teaching task by means of some appropriate
education, the teachers mention a slow verbs of action , as common indicators of
democratisation of the education leadership, teaching-learning-evaluating on the 4 levels
conservatism, old mentality, authoritarianism, of skill formation (school acquirements as
insertion, fear of responsibility, the economic functional knowledge, but not as a purpose in
and financial situation, fear of freedom, itself, but as a mean to form capacities and
teachers' fixations. These and other factors behaviors, in this case to decide for oneself by
correlate in large lines with the results systematic exercises of application in class of
obtained within the study on the difficulties of the knowledge assimilated in all the
the school management materialised in disciplines). The formation of the attitude of
objective and psychological causes responsibility and of the behaviour to decide
(individuals and psycho-social). independently, i.e. the competence to decide
A general retrospective in the targeted issue for oneself, should be based on the general
allows making certain determinations decision-making algorithm: in the respective
regarding the formation of qualities specific to problem/ theme, it is mandatory to have the
the decider personality, oriented on its necessary knowledge/ information, and the
constitution in two aspects, in the instructive- solution should be the result of choosing an
educative process, in all the school disciplines, alternative from several possible alternatives
particularly in the social and human ones: (a) on success criteria (on each alternative it is
educating the liability spirit; (b) forming the evaluated the number of chances and
capacity to decide for oneself, finalised in mischances, choosing the alternative with the
social plan under the form of constructive highest chance of success and/ or a
behaviors. combination on the idea, „out of two, I choose
The education of the liability spirit and the the third”). In fact, the formation of the
formation of the capacity to decide represent a capacity to decide for oneself targets the
main objective of the entire educational personal and public success, meaning the
process: teaching - learning, evaluation, a formation of the competence to succeed.
process masterfully organised on four The synthesis of the experiments started
taxonomic levels of difficulty/ complexity: 1 - indicate formative, school, extra-school
reproduction (to know to reproduce that you actions, as also their effects, depending on the
have learned); 2 - correlation, transfer, training level, in the pre-school and primary
application (to know to make relations in what education: arranging sensorial contact with
you have learned); 3 - solution (mainly life objects and phenomena of the real world
problems: to know, the exercise/ skill to surrounding us by training the five senses:
solve); 4 - design, confection, building, boosting curiosity, interest, emotions, conduct,
production (the skill to fully value the human affection, civilised behaviour by independent
work, rules of conduct, order, cohabitation;

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independent expression of own opinions, of integrating capacities of the contemporary

the states of mind. personality, defined within the context of the
Developing the competence to decide forms problems and individual values of the national
by an active participation in solving practical and worldwide community". The achievement
problems, as a training exercise for active life, of this purpose is "guided by an educational
and the results, even partial, will be perceived self-management centred on skills, such as:
as a fruit of positive decisions, as an ƒ self-control, skills, capacities, interests
undertaking of the responsibility for risk/ etc. – features and values that define
failure/ success (on professional, social line), personality, allow the student to
considered as a manifestation of patriotism specify his desires and purposes;
with chances of success, by forming a positive ƒ concrete, real possibilities to reach the
and active attitude for the learned discipline established objectives;
and its application in life, the skill to learn to ƒ the capacities (knowledge,
teach as a condition of our own self- competences, skills) required to
development. The capacity to decide is design and monitor the activity
therefore formed in an education based on oriented towards the purpose".
curricular activities, on forming the capacity
to decide for oneself, particularly on self- The curriculum provides the following
knowledge and valuing own potential, both framework objectives:
human (qualities of personality, positive ƒ Forming the concept of self-
attitudes and constructive behaviors) and knowledge.
professional (professional and social skills and ƒ Forming the needs/ necessities for
competences), e.g. the formation of permanent and continuous self-
competences that ensure meeting the achievement/ self-update.
requirements of the market economy: ƒ Forming the self-management skills
initiative, cooperation, team work, mutual for our own physical, intellectual and
training, assessment, communication, logical spiritual formation.
thinking, problem solving, decision making, ƒ Developing the behavioural culture.
obtaining and using information, planning The recommended contents focus on
own actions, to know to learn so you can educative activities of training the personality
know to do, to be and to become, cohabitation. for an active life (to master oneself life, ways
In this context, a full valuing of the school to self-adjust life, own style - expression of
curriculum, reconsidering the school individuality, the project of individual
disciplines, increasing the share of some development, the individual project for
optional objects and courses in valuing the professional orientation, for career etc.), the
individual and his self-leading capacities, such form masters having methodological
as: moral-spiritual education, civic education, suggestions and evaluation suggestions,
we and the law, the bases of state and law, proposed by the curriculum authors,
man and society, education for family life, converging with the school curriculum
communication culture, life skills that objectives, and of a real use for form masters,
reinforce the curriculum potential, the of whom contribution is undisputable in the
development of the individual and its process of personality (self)forming with
capacities, skills of externalizing and democratic options.
behavioural manifestation of the personality. Hence, the achievement of the school
In the same train of ideas, it is important to curriculum provisions converges with the
make the curriculum in the educational class, paradigm of the seven skills of the most
which contains recommendations for efficient people, formulated by St. Covey, of
designing and developing educative activities which observance comes to ensure success in
in the educational class and in gymnasium and the active life: social, family, management.
high school classes, having as purpose "the The personal and public success in the active
formation and development on students of the life is based on certain criteria and it depends

484
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
on the level of individual; evolution, from a capacity valuing process and for the
dependent status to independent and, in the individual's capacity to form the competent
end, to be inter-dependent. man, independent and interdependent, with
Dependency is a limit-condition, less evolved, democratic options - major objective,
of the personality, where responsibility for the achievable in a social-historical, economic and
personal success/ failure falls on somebody cultural context, and which requires a relevant
else. and coherent methodology to promote a
Independence is a more evolved condition of managerial reform.
personality, which ensures personal success, On level of school unit, the managerial change
where the individual is responsible for his own also provides for the following stages:
success, gets actively involved, trusts his own Stage I – defining the concept of change and
forces and achieves his available potential. establishing the features of the changing
Interdependence is the most evolved situation, identifying the change support and
condition of personality, which ensures public creating a vision that would support the
success, where cooperation, joint work (group/ changing effort, communication and sharing
team) stimulates talents and competences to the vision of the educational players,
jointly create great things. This assumes: empowering them in the changing context.
understanding, courtesy, honesty, compliance Stage II – the architectural design of change,
with the engagements, trust, personal integrity. designing/ planning change, elaborating the
The evolution from the dependence to managerial project of development of the
independence and interdependence is based on school unit, determining the purpose, the
the paradigm of the seven skills of the most objectives of the school organisation,
efficient people or on the unique human talent, changing beliefs, the culture and the
associated with each skill: proactivity is the organisational structure and climate, the
feature of self-knowledge; to start having in managerial paradigms and model of the
mind the final purpose, is the feature of educational unit, individual and professional
imagination and conscience; to grant priority training in the spirit of this change, featuring a
to priorities is the feature of the power of will; new working modality and the control system
to think win/ win is the feature of a mentality based on implicative engagement, as also on
of abundance; to seek first to understand the an appropriate monitoring and assessment
others and then to be understood is the feature system.
of courage in balance with respect; to act Stage III – implementing the change,
synergistically is the feature of creativity; saw ensuring the conditions for the change,
sharpening is the sole feature of the motivation, communication, involvement,
continuous improvement or renewal of self in participation of the educational players,
order to overcome entropy. reconsidering the managerial activity based on
The transition from the paradigm targeted on the new conceptual model of leadership,
the formation of the doer/ dependent, to the waiving the assumptions of the traditional
curricular paradigm, which stimulates the management, appreciating the effects of the
formation-development of the decider, capable change, investigating and assessing the post-
of valuing its (self)management capacities, to change condition.
self-achieve, targets features, such as: The implementation of the new educational
The changes from education, the basic management paradigm requires an
curriculum, offers a wide perspective for the optimisation of the interdependence between

485
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

the functions of the management from the creativ al resurselor umane - Bucureşti:
educational system and the appropriate Editura ALL Educaţional, 1998.
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implementation of the conceptual model of Învăţarea în şcoală. Introducere în
modern and endemic management implies psihologia pedagogică - Bucureşti:
anticipative analysis of the pro and against Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1981.
change forces. Hence, using the conception of 3. Bennis W., Nanus, B., Liderii. Strategii
Kurt Lewin on the balance of forces in the pentru preluarea conducerii - Bucureşti:
process of change and the methodology Bussines Tech International Press, 2000.
adapted and developed by C. Rusu, we could 4. Cerchez N., Mateescu E., Elemente
determine the ratio of pro and con forces in de management şcolar - Iaşi: Editura
the grounds of the results of the diagnosis Spiru Haret, 1995.
made by us on system and school unit level 5. Covey S.R., Eficienţa în 7
regarding leadership, evaluating the trepte. Un abecedar al înţelepciunii -
importance of the factors that determine the Bucureşti: Editura Alfa, 2000.
forces identified on a scale from 1 - low to 5 - 6. Cucoş C., Timp şi temporalitate în
strong. Thus, the increasingly educaţie: Elemente pentru un
accepted trends regarding the edification of a management al timpului şcolar - Iaşi:
democratic and open society exert a pressure/ Polirom, 2002.
influence on the need to implement an 7. Dave R.N., Fundamentele educaţiei
appropriate management, fact sustained permanente - Bucureşti: Editura
particularly by the teachers, who only under Didactică şi Pedagogică 1991.
such conditions may transpose into practice 8. Hall G.E., Hord Shirley M.,
the new educational objectives and finalities Implementing Change. Patterns.
and to fully self-achieve. In the context, there Principles and Potholes - Massachusetts
are also other pro change forces for the USA: Allyn and Bacon A Pearson
management system, to increase the level of Education Company, 2001.
competitiveness, the need to connect to 9. Hoyle John, English Fenwick, Stefy
European and international educational Betty, Skills for Successful School
standards, as also the organisational culture, Leaders - Virginia: American
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thinking patterns (including professional), 1985.
symbols etc., appropriate for the development 10. Joita E, Management educaţional.
level of the human, democratic society. There Profesorul-manager: Roluri şi
are also significant the forces oriented against metodologii
change, among which a higher share falls on 11. - Iaşi: Editura Polirom, 2000.
the one referring to the maintenance of the 12. Mihuleac E., Bazele managementului -
central organisational structure, to the Bucureşti: Editura Tempus, 1994.
authority hierarchy, as also to the lack of the 13. Peretti De Andre., Educaţia în schimbare
necessary skills and experience of the teachers - Iaşi: Editura Spiru Haret, 1996.
with management positions for such activity in 14. Suciu Maria-Cristina, Investiţia în
a new context. Or, exactly this work condition educaţie - Bucureşti: Editura Economică,
reinforces conservatism, routine, the fear of 2000.
new responsibilities, maintaining a 15. Zlate M., Tratat de psihologie
traditionalist-empirical management. organizaţional managerială Vol. I - Iaşi:
Editura Polirom, 2004.
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1. Androniceanu A., Managementul educaţie - Bucureşti: Editura Economică,
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ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
17. Zlate M., Tratat de psihologie Editura Polirom, 2004.
organizaţional managerială Vol. I - Iaşi:

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FORMING THE EMPATHIC CAPACITY OF THE TEACHERS

Angela BLOGUŢ

“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania, Individual Office of Psychology
Angela Bloguţ, Timisoara, Romania

 
 
Abstract: The educational exercise constitutes a complex situation, where previous knowledge is
always subject to facts, being mandatorily contextualised in accordance with the realities from the
educational process. One of these precursors is the psychological knowledge - more precisely
psychological "lecturing", understanding and signification of the education situation, with all the
components and interactions making it. We hence propose the method of empathy in the educational
process, which can naturally develop the personality and the self of the students.

Keywords: Empathy, capacity, teaching professional training, communication, reshuffle, model.

teaching activity. The role and place of

Subject actuality. The teaching activity empathy in the teaching activity is not recent.
implies permanent communication relations There are wide researches in the field of the
between the agents of education - teachers, professor's capacity, which he should possess
students, parents, school managers. An to perform in his activity. Among the
important place in this activity is held by the important capacities ensuring the
relation professor - student, which represents instrumental-operational side of the teaching
an important aspect of the educational activity we also find empathy. The presence of
environment of the student. This relation is a empathy is required in the structure of the
largely different from the other social teaching activity, particularly in optimising the
relations, it is determinant in establishing the relation teacher-student.
educational objectives of the contemporary The teaching psychology constitutes the main
school, as also to establish a healthy source of information and scientific grounding
psychological and moral climate in the school, of education, being most dependants and
and it requires a good empathy from the having an essential meaning for the educator
teacher, that should be continuously and for the resource teacher. The fundamental
developed, empathy being indispensable to an problems of the educational psychology
effective communication. include psychological issues of the young
In the view of a number of researchers, generation's education and the psychological
empathy is an indispensable capacity for issues of the educative process.
people activities, of which specialty involves The educational process is an act of
interpersonal relations. One of the main forms informational communication (transmission)
of the human activity requiring empathy is the of ideas, messages, opinions, behaviours

489
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

(actions), within which the relations professor- the client's experience, which can aid it to
student represent communicational create a new meaning.
interactions of cognitive, affective, volitional, Inter-human communication represents one of
behavioural (action) nature etc. The teaching- the supreme values of the man. In the modern
learning process, as a specific form of world, marked by informational explosions
communication, can be therefore examined by and by the impetuous development of the
the models offered by the theory of information and communication means, of
communication. globalisation of all the field of public life,
The Latin verb communico,-are had a more inter-human communication becomes more
profound meaning, not only referring to and more important.
evidencing contact, the connection, but it also All the conceptual documents of the education
meant to have something in common, to share, reform advances as constitutive principle of
to put together, to mix, to unite. Romanian education the recognition of the personality of
language has taken over this meaning of the educated one as a supreme value of
sharing, unifying, meaning retained by the education, its uniqueness, this fact claiming
archaic cuminecare. In the vision of C. Noica, continuous harmonisation of the inter-personal
the understanding is completed by what it is relations between education and educated, as
not expressed in the text. "We advance by a inherent conditions of the consolidation of the
boost of communication, but we do not truly humanist character of education in the modern
progress if we fail to obtain a boost of world.
cumunicare." Communication contains the The process of forming the empathic capacity
man, and the man shows or hides himself in of the teachers is grounded on the
and through communication, because in all development and valuing of the empathy
communication acts we have, aside the features, related to a the evaluation criteria
common meanings, perfectly understood, also applied to professor-student relation, adapted
typical aspects, partially understood, as also to the educational context, which are also
singular aspects pertaining to the personal formed as empathic capacities.
ineffable and they cannot be fully decoded. These are: opening to communication;
In the general sense, human communication adapting to the communication way of the
is an interpersonal relation where people give interlocutor; self-analysis; active listening;
meaning and value to the received message. non-verbal language; emotional
Communication is defined as a transmission responsiveness; putting in other man's place;
of content from the emitter to receiver by putting in the role of the characters from
means of a channel; it is a possible or real literary works, movies; factional situation.
relation between two or more individuals, Because both from the theoretical and
between whom an exchange of substances, experiential framework one can decide the
energy or meanings can take place. Empathy need to elaborate a model-instrument that
firstly refers to making a profound and would intensify the empathy-forming process,
sustained physical contact with the other, oriented towards improving the professor-
within which contact a person is very careful student relation, the researchers have
with the experience of the other a sole elaborated a Model for forming the empathic
individual. In an empathic manner to be, the capacity of the teachers (Model).
experience of the other is appreciated as it is The Model implementation period can vary
an idiosyncratic manifestation of the other in from a half a year to a year of education.
its uniqueness. Secondly, empathic Within the continuous professional training
exploration includes empathic, profound and activities from the training centres, this period
continuous investigations or immersions, in can be equal with the period of their presence
the experience of the other. And thirdly, in the training centre. Although it is a short
empathic exploration assumes resonant period, it is sufficient for the teachers to
observance of the implicit limits or aspects of become aware of the need for form empathy,
to accumulate certain knowledge and to train

490
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
the empathic capacities, all of them educational modelling as a teaching method,
constituting a launching track for subsequent the action of indirect investigation of reality
self-training of the empathic capacity of the by elaborating and using models
teachers, which would lead to the reshuffle of predominates.
the communication relations with the students. Modelling assumes facilitating the discovery
By reshuffle we understand change, by the trainees (teachers) of the properties,
modification, improvement. We used the term information and relations between things
reshuffle with the meaning of improvement. (objects, phenomena, processes from the
The selection of the term reshuffle, is stained nature and society, which such models
theoretically and praxiologically, both reproduce).
research sources revealing the fact that certain The elaborated model met the following
aspects of the professor-student relations, requirements:
particularly - equitable treatment for the 1. The need to become aware of the
students with learning performances and with purpose, training objectives,
desirable behaviour and for the students with principles, conditions, forms and
undesirable performances and behaviour, are methods of the training process
"deteriorated" or reduced and require a by moderators and by the
reshuffle, i.e. a change to good, an members of the training groups
improvement. (self-training).
The scientific meanings of the term model are: 2. The need for a motivation to form
graphical or tridimensional representation of empathy with the teachers
an idea, of a process or of a system (form, 3. Joining theory with practice
structure, scheme, illustration); an assembly of 4. Achieving the training activity by
elements or variables composing a symbolic integrating the evaluation in the
or social system (system, plan, configuration); empathy-forming process
temporary truth (assumption, hypothesis, In building the Model specific theoretical
opinion); logical representation of a theory benchmarks have also been applied. The
(formula, theoretical model). model presents a theoretical system, made of
The teaching model "tends to reproduce" the the components:
essential elements of the original, natural or • the training purpose and
social phenomena and processes, studied objectives, the principles, the
according to the specific and concrete contents, the forms, the methods,
objectives of the teaching activity in question. the conditions and stages of
The model achieves a double teaching training the empathic capacity,
function: of initial information, which triggers which also represent the essential
the logical and epistemological mechanisms items of the empathy-formation
specific to the analogue reasoning; of final process for the teachers, as
validation of the formed knowledge and skills, reshuffle of the professor-student
at the level of some different reference relation.
systems that employ the specific resources for
formative, permanent, continuous evaluation. The purpose for applying the model: forming
To model means "to execute something based the empathic capacity of the teachers as a
on a given model", i.e. modelling means "the reshuffle of the professor-student relation,
action to model and the result thereof". In particularly, the performance of an equitable

491
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

treatment for the students from professors, the delimited training objectives, of
constitution of some cordial relations between some principles specific top the
professors and students. training activity, as also by the
The training objectives are elaborated based rigorous staging of the training
on the empathy features, related to the process.
evaluation criteria for the communication • The principle of integrating
relation professor - student: theory with practice determines
• initiation in the theme of teacher's that the empathy-forming process
empathy; implies integration of the
• forming the capacity to be open theoretical activity with the
for communication; practical one.
• forming the capacity for affective Specific principles for the empathy-
response to the others' emotions; forming process
• forming the capacity of self- • The principle of integrating the
analysis; evaluation in the empathy-
• forming the capacity to observe forming process of the teachers
and use own and interlocutor's provides the performance of an
non-verbal language; initial, formative and final
• forming the capacity to put in the evaluation during training.
place of characters from Effective empathy integration
literature, movies; process will foster the diagnosing,
• forming the capacity to put in the monitoring, adjustment and
other's role; correction of the training, as also
• forming the capacity of active of the empathy-formation action
listening; itself, because the performance of
tasks such as imaginary
• forming the capacity to adapt to
the communication way of the transposing in the other's
situation, for example, also
interlocutor;
represents an act of empathy,
• forming the capacity to act, after
therefore it is not an exercise of
passing through the
empathy.
aforementioned situations.
• The principle of forming and
Principles. Their definition/ determination is valuing the empathic capacity
necessary for an efficient performance of the from the perspective of the
process of training the empathic capacity of professor-student relations
establishes that the empathy-
the teachers in order to improve the professor-
forming process necessarily
student relation. Two types of principles were
implies the formation and valuing
applied:
of the empathic capacities of the
General educational principles
teachers, oriented towards the
adapted to the approached issue
improvement of the
• The principle of organising and
communication relation between
of continuity of the empathy-
professor and student. The
formation profess for the teachers
principle was constituted on the
stipulates that the efficiency of
theoretical thesis about the
the empathy-forming process is
formation of empathy in teachers
determined by the way it is
as a path of improvement of the
organised and directed, by the
professor-student relation.
organisation of the training
actions, by the presence of a • The principle of interdependence
purpose and of a system of well- of forming the empathic

492
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
capacities assigns to an Applied evaluation methods: testing,
interdependent character to the enquiring, conversation, observing the
empathic capacities, the professor-student relations, the study of the
formation of an empathic capacity analytical programmes.
implicitly leading to the Applied training methods: exhibition,
formation of other empathic explication, prelection, debate, brainstorming,
capacities. The principle is essay, exercise, case study, work sheets.
deduced from the analysis of the Training conditions. There were established
empathy features, which for an efficient formation of the empathic
demonstrated that an empathic capacity, the following conditions: initiation in
feature necessarily implies the problem, becoming aware of the need for
elements of other features. form the empathic capacity and the empathy
features related to the evaluation criteria of the
By contents of training the empathic capacity communication relation professor-student;
we understand the theoretical matters on the complying with the principles at the basis of
concept of empathy, the nature and its the model, appropriate application of the
functions, the psychological mechanism of methodologies.
formation, the factors influencing empathy in The stages of empathy-forming
communication, the features of empathy 1. The initial evaluation of the empathy of
related to the evaluation criteria of the the teachers and of certain aspects of
communication relation professor-student, the the professor-student relation. The
particularities of manifesting empathy of the evaluation is made by means of tests
teachers in their relations with the students. and enquiries
The forms of the empathy-forming activity are: 2. Becoming familiar with the purpose of
collective, in group, individual, in pairs. The the training objectives, with the
collective and group activities can be principles, forms, methods and
performed within the continuous professional conditions for forming empathy. This
training courses, within the methodological is an initiation and explication stage.
meetings, seminars, prelections, trainings. The 3. Using the results of the evaluation in
individual activity can be performed in order to form empathy. Establishing,
parallel with the group one, as also separately, by teachers, the own level of empathy
and it involves: theoretical documentation in and its features. Drafting the
the matter of empathy problematic; study on individual scheme of the levels of
the structure, mechanism and features of the formation of the empathy features.
empathy; application of the knowledge in Evidencing the low-developed
interpersonal communication; drafting the features in relation with the others.
work sheets. The activity in pairs is efficient Taking the decision to grant special
in making some diverse exercises. attention to the low-developed
The methods for forming empathy have been features, but without disregarding the
conventionally classified in evaluation other features of empathy.
methods, applied in the determination and 4. Detailed knowledge upon the basic
control experiments, and training methods, notions on empathy and motivating
applied in the training experiment. the need for form the empathy
capacity. In this stage, the basic

493
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

notions and empathy features are independently the empathy self-

introduced; arguments and examples training activity, based on the model
are made in favour of the need for given, operating the usual
form empathy as a capacity improvements and modifications,
contributing to the improvement of the which will lead to an improvement of
relation professor-student; the the empathic capacity and,
theoretical sources are individually respectively, of the teaching activity
studied in the given issue, which and of the professor - student
continues in all stages; the self- communication relations.
training direction for teachers'
empathy is evidenced by studying the The synthesis of the examined theoretical
literature and applying the knowledge benchmarks allows us to elaborate an
acquired in the relations with the operational definition of the teacher's empathy
others. as a capacity contributing to the improvement
5. Performing the practical activity, of the professor-student relation; definition
using the theoretical material, deduced from the features of empathy of the
combined with the formative self- teachers related to the evaluation criteria for
assessment of the teachers. The the professor-student communication relation.
practical activities take place using the Hence, empathy is the teacher's capacity:
theoretical material concerning the • to self-analyse in communicating with
concept, nature, functions, students, to examine his way of
mechanism, features of empathy, communicating with the students, the
related to the evaluation criteria of the successes and failures in
professor-student communication communication;
relation, the particularities of empathy • to be open to communication with the
of the teachers manifested in their students, therefore encouraging to come
relations with the students. The close to him; to treat them equitable,
application of the assimilated excluding the prejudgments and
knowledge -e .g. the cases of achieving a positive attitude towards
interaction of the teacher and students them;
in terms of place and role of the • to adapt to the communication way of
teacher's empathy; case studies, the student, considering his features, his
situations - problems, exercises etc. individual and age particularities etc.;
Work sheets are drafted to prepare, • to actively listen the students,
achieve and analyse the manifesting interest for their speech and
communication situations, which opinions;
include the use of the empathy • to appropriately use the situation of the
features, and which ensure formative non-verbal language - to be more
self-assessment of the teacher's accessible to the students, more intimate
empathic capacity and the self-training with them, to stimulate them in study
direction of the empathy. and training-development, to evidence
6. The final evaluation. In this stage, the his positive attitude towards them;
evaluating itself takes place, the • to carefully observe the non-verbal
progress of empathy and of the indices of the students - to better
professor-student relations is understand their concerns, their needs,
determined; decisions are made for their desires etc.;
improvement/ detailing of the process;
• to "permanently put in the position of the
discussions, proposals, summaries are
student"- to determine the situation from
made. In the last training stage, the
the student's perspective and to
professors are required, according to
understand him better;
the sheets, exercises, tasks, to continue

494
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
• to be capable of sharing the emotions of In a complex world, the emotional
the students; balance, the ability to relate, cooperation, self-
• to act according to the previous indices. assertion skills are becoming increasingly
important because uncontrolled, negative
The indicated capacities represent features emotions are generating blockages,
specific to teacher's empathy, as also uncomforting, while a positive management of
evaluation criteria for the professor-student the emotional life with empathy leads to
communication relation, which produce increasing the flow of communication, social
concomitantly and as necessary capacities for motivation, revealing strong emotional
the teachers. connection between culture and individual
The profession of a teacher, as any performance to adapt to changes. The
other profession, is the result of training by investigations upon the dimensions of the
studies, accumulating a certain professional emotional culture have illustrated social skills,
culture, at the level of some specific teaching interpersonal competences, psychological
competences. Therefore, the initial and maturity and emotional consciousness. An
continuous formation should contribute to the increased attention is given to emotional
accomplishment of the professional culture, competences, approached as meta-
general and philosophical, but also of competences, which determine and explain the
specialty and resource teaching. Only through way of acting of the people in various
acquiring as more competences, the cultural situations, the way they use their own
formation of a teacher will be more valuable. capacities to understand the ones around them
As entity of the professional culture, we also and for an emotional self-control.
subscribe the emotional culture, as a The special literature analyses
psychological and pedagogical component of emotional culture under all aspects,
the teaching professionalism, as an element converging towards a close connection
with enabling role upon the functionality of between the emotional potential and the
the entire personality of the teacher. emotional orientation of an individual and the
Professional culture has a wide field of level of development of the emotional culture
manifestation and it redefines the dimensions of a personality. This is a construct of
of professionalism at the level of the intellectual acquirements reflected in
psychological and pedagogical competences, knowledge about emotions, which conditions
which determine continuous efficiency and the social happiness of the individual,
development of the teachers, professional and contributing to an optimum social and
social remodelling. From analysing the emotional adapting. Emotional culture is the
concept of efficiency, we acquire the role of basic condition for a person to operate
the teaching actions, performed by the teacher effectively and efficiently in social terms.
for fulfilment, creation, production, efficacy, With emotional maturity and creativity, a
power and positivism. The key note acquired personality can be aware of, decode and
by defining efficiency in the educational field develop the emotional information and to
is expressed, in the term of particular success elaborate strategies of adaptation to new
or success, which has become the supreme situations.
model to appreciate the quality of a person,
"social systems whereby the society makes its Bibliography
values”.

495
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

1. Allport G. Structura şi dezvoltarea 14. Ionescu M., Radu I. Didactica

personalităţii - Bucureşti: Editura modernă - Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 1995.
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1981. 15. Keenan K. Cum să comunici -
2. Aspy D.N. Helping Teachers Discover Bucureşti: Rentrop şi Stanton, 1997.
Empathy // Humanist Educator - Dec 16. Marcus S., David T., Predescu A.
1975. - nr. 14. Empatia şi relaţia profesor - elev -
3. Bullmer K. The art of empathy - New Bucureşti: Editura Acad. R. S. R.,
York: Human Sciences Press, 1975. 1987.
4. Chelcea S., Chelcea A. Din universul 17. Marcus S. Catină A. Cunoaşterea
autocunoaşterii - Bucureşti: Editura empatică - însuşire aptitudinală a
Militară, 1990. profesorilor // Rev. de pedagogic -
5. Ciaramicoli A., Ketcham K. The 1977 .
Power of Empathy: A Practical Guide 18. Mehrabian A. A measure of
to Creating Intimacy, Self- emotional empathy // Journal of
Understanding, and Lasting Love în Personality - 1972 .
Your Life - New York: Dutton Group, 19. Mitrofan N. Aptitudinea pedagogică -
2000. Bucureşti: Ed. Academiei Rep.
6. Cucoş C. Pedagogie - Iaşi: Polirom, Socialiste Române, 1988 .
1998. 20. Mureşan V. Competenţa pedagogică
7. Delors J. (coord.). Comoara lăuntrică în activitatea didactică şi extradidactică
- Iaşi: Polirom, 2000. - Timişoara: Editura Mirton, 1997.
8. Drăgan I. Empatia - o valoroasă 21. Petroman P. Educarea comunicării -
calitate umană // Coloana infinitului - obiectiv fundamental al educaţiei //
Timişoara, 2000 - anul III, vol. III. Coloana infinitului - 2000 - anul III,
9. Dumitru G. Comunicare şi învăţare - vol. I, (nr. 21-22), Timişoara .
Bucureşti: Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică. 22. Săucan D.Ş. Specificitatea
10. Gherghinescu R. Anotimpurile comunicării didactice în contextul
empatiei: studii de psihologie socială comunicării interumane // Competenţa
cognitivă - Bucureşti: Atos, 2001 . didactică - Bucureşti: Editura ALL
11. Ghivirigă L. Relaţia profesor-elev în Pedagogic, 1999 .
perspectiva lecţiei moderne - 23. Stoica M. Psihopedagogia
Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi personalităţii - Bucureşti: Editura
Pedagogică, 1975 . Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1997.
12. Gîrleanu D. Comunicare şi educaţie - 24. Truţă E. Relaţia profesor-elev în
Iaşi: Edit. Spiru Haret, 1996 . procesul educaţiei morale / teză de
13. Haynes L., Avary A. Training doctorat, Universitatea „Babeş-
adolescence în self disclosure and Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, 1983 .
empathy skills // Journal of Counseling
Psychology - 1979 .
 

496
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

MOBBING: PSYCHOLOGICAL TERROR IN THE WORKPLACE

Viorel CONSTANTINESCU

Association of Applied Psychology in the field of Private Security

Abstract: Mobbing is a less known phenomenon in Romania, but its effects are real and worrisome. It is a
form of psychological abuse in the workplace, carried out by either colleagues or superiors through
repeated aggressive acts. This kind of psychological pressure frequently leads to affecting the well-being
of the victim either by loss of self-esteem, feelings of victimization, depression, psychosomatic disorders,
insomnia, self-destructive behavior (alcoholism), a drop in work efficiency, acute stress and post-
traumatic stress. In organizations where mobbing takes place, there is an obvious decrease in
productivity. In order to prevent this type of behavior, there needs to be an accurate understanding of the
act of mobbing in all contexts. (organizational, professional, individual)

Keywords: psychological harassment, emotional abuse, intimidation, mobbing, psychological pressure

1. INTRODUCTION become a long-term victim of a series of

abuses, wrongdoings and humiliation meant to
Heinz Leymann was the first psychologist to force him to leave his current job. This
put forward the idea of mobbing in specialized psychological pressure should not only make
literature. He borrowed the term « mobbing » him lose his position, but in most cases will
from animal psychology expert Konrad also affect his health.
Lorenz, who had observed and studied “Mobbing” is a type of systematic
behaviors of isolation/exclusion among psychological harassment in the workplace
animals, more explicitly the attacks of a group that happens every time an employee is being
of smaller animals against a bigger one. harassed and stigmatized by his colleagues or
The mobbing phenomenon has been studied as superiors through gossip, intimidation,
early as the 1990s in several European humiliation, discrediting and isolation,
countries such as the Scandinavian countries, endangering his emotional well being as well
Great Britain, France, Italy and Spain. It as his professional competence.
basically refers to actions of intense According to studies conducted by Kenneth
psychological abuse carried out against an Westhues (2007), mobbing takes place
employee with the purpose of making him predominantly in organizations where job
resign his job, in the circumstances where positions are considered more secure. It is
firing/relocating him would lead to legal more frequently present in the non-profit
troubles for the employer. The employee can

497
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

sector, education, military and medical • Inequality. This does not refer to the
industry than in the private sector. organizational hierarchy. It means that
the victim cannot properly defend
2. CONFLICT & MOBBING himself/herself because of an inferior
position.
The term “mobbing” does not refer to: • Stages are successive.
- workplace banter; • Intent of persecution. The victim is
- isolated instances of unethical conduct; discriminated, treated differently from
- isolated conflicts in the workplace. others with the intent of making
The EGE 2000 method leaves no room for him/her resign.
legal argument. It consists of 7 parameters that
need to be taken into account for a conflict to
be considered mobbing. All 7 conditions are 3. EVOLUTION OF MOBBING
mandatory when determining a case of this
kind. If one of them is not fulfilled then a The act of mobbing does not happen instantly.
conflict cannot be classified as mobbing. The gradual evolution of mobbing was devised
These parameters are: by Leymann who identified 4 stages, of
• Conflict has to happen in the preparation, of slow or precipitated evolution,
workplace. The conflict that does not maturization and persistent action.
take place in the workplace is not The first stage exists in every organization and
considered mobbing, but straining. does not necessarily imply the occurrence of
• Duration. Conflict has to last for at the other steps of evolution. It manifests itself
least 6 months. Only then it can be through divergences, differences in opinion or
considered a case of persistence in competitiveness, which is a normal
behavior. DSM IV classifies any phenomenon and sometimes even beneficial
disease lasting less than 6 months as for the progress of an organization.
acute, while anything past 6 months is The second stage has elements that might
considered chronic. This means that trigger the occurrence of mobbing. The
mobbing is a chronic conflict. psychological balance of the person is
• Frequency. Conflict has to happen a somehow threatened, self-confidence is
few times every month. jeopardized, stress and anxiety become a
• Existence of certain types of action. problem.
A conflict may be considered mobbing The third stage is when management should
if it fulfills at least 2 of the 5 categories get involved. Unfortunately, most of the time
of negative actions: this either does not happen at all, or it happens
o Actions against free when it is already too late and the victim has
speech (person cannot express already been removed. In this case, conflicts
his/her point of view , he/she is may have legal repercussions.
shunned ); The final stage leads to the stigmatization,
o Systematic isolation ( social isolation and the removal from the
person is isolated from his/her workplace, which could make finding a new
colleagues) job more difficult.
o Change of tasks ( person is
assigned to task above or
below his/her professional 4. CAUSES OF MOBBING
capacity)
o Attack on reputation (gossip, Mobbing is preceded by a situation of conflict.
talk behind one’s back, The probability of such a situation is increased
incorrect evaluations) by the following factors:
o Violence or threats of violence.

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• deficiencies in human resources • organizational culture which tolerates
management; moral harassment;
• workplace instability; • psychosocial factors that influence
• personality traits of the victim; work psychology: the type of work
• group dynamic in the organization; tasks, socio-organizational
• poor relationships between work environment and work organization;
colleagues; • organizational stress.
• high levels of stress caused by the
professional activity;
• frequent organizational changes;
situations where the manager chooses
The factors that determine mobbing are: to leverage his authority when settling
disputes, instead of identifying the
• Initiation of tasks. In larger faults in the system.
companies, managers have tried to
design tasks as simple as possible and
automatize them in such a way that less 5. EFFECTS OF MOBBING
qualified staff is needed to complete
them. Mobbing may appear as a result Effects may manifest in personal, professional
of lack of activity or boredom. and social situations, and they are recognizable
Basically, the perpetrator chooses a by:
victim to pass the time. • anxiety and panic attacks;
• Task management. Improper task • behavioral disorders: anorexia,
management can be a trigger because alcoholism, bulimia, toxicomania;
work situations inevitably generate • loss of motivation for professional
conflicts. If the system is not organized activity;
properly, the dispute may lead to • early medical retirement;
mobbing. Improper task management • underperformance in the workplace;
implies: overload of work activities for • incapability of adapting to social and
an individual, both in quantity and in emotional situations.
difficulty, absence of clearly defined
rules and norms, work interferences.
• Management of employees. If done
through abuse of power, it may lead to
Prevention is one of the most efficient
6. WAYS OF COMBATING MOBBING ways of combating mobbing. Other ways
might include training the managers through
Mobbing can be underdiagnosed educational programs or if the act of mobbing
because of a tendency among specialists to has already begun, reconciling the parties with
diagnose victims with work-related stress, a the help of a specialist in mediation. The last
result of emphasizing the state of disease. form of intervention happens when the act of

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

mobbing is already in full effect and it deals

with the legal rehabilitation of the victim. REFERENCES

7. CONCLUSION 1. Gheondea, Alexandra et al. (2010),

Fenomene specifice de discriminare la
Victims of mobbing are generally described as locul de muncă, Revista “Calitatea
dedicated to their work and eager to succeed. vie ii, XXI, nr.1-2, p.113-136;
Despite preconceptions, the victim is most of
the time job oriented with a rising career. 2. Adams, Andrea (1992), Bullying at
When the first signs of mobbing appear, the work, How to comfort and overcome it,
victim does not fully comprehend the situation Virago Press, London;
and has difficulties reacting to it. They usually 3. Bogathy, Zoltan (2002), Conflicte în
need psychological and legal counseling to organiza ii, Ed. Eurostampa,
deal with the attacks.
The affected go through physical and Timi oara;
psychological torment, their work capacity is 4. Harald, Ege (1996), Mobbing, Ed.
diminished, self-esteem decreases drastically, Pitagora, Bologna;
their socioemotional balance is altered 5. Harald, Ege (1997), Mobbing in Italia,
(anxiety, depression, phobias, panic attacks), as
well as their psychophysiological balance Ed. Pitagora, Bologna;
(headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal disorders, 6. Harald, Ege (1998), I numeri del
sleep disorders) and their behavioral stability Mobbing, Ed. Pitagora, Bologna;
(change in eating behavior, self-harm and 7. Harald, Ege and Lancioni, Maurizio
hetero-aggressive outbursts, passivity). (1998), Stress e Mobbing, Ed. Pitagora,
The specialized literature mentions an
existential crisis that victims of mobbing have Bologna;
to deal with, in the sense that losing their job 8. Leymann, Hanz (1990), Mobbing and
might threaten their identity and sense of self- Psychological Terror at Workplace, in
worth. Violence and Victims, nr.5;
Mobbing is inefficient for an organization. It
affects the professional performance of the 9. Leymann, Hanz (1996), Mobbing
victim; it may affect work relationships, lead to persecution au travail, Ed. Seuil, Paris;
improper communication, decrease in 10. Mielu, Zlate and Romeo Zeno Cre u
productivity, all this culminating in a loss of (2002), Mobbing-ul sau psihoteroarea
efficacy for the organization. la locul de muncă, Revista de
In order to prevent this type of behavior, there psihologie organiza ională, vol.2,
needs to be an accurate understanding of the nr.1, 11-25.
act of mobbing in all contexts.
(organizational, professional, individual)
 

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RELEVANT PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR SUCCESS

Georgiana CORCACI
Department of Psychology, University ”Petre Andrei” of Iasi, Romania

Abstract: This paper aims to address the question of how success is viewed today as a result of
individual behavior, in terms of internal motives and external factors leading to the adoption of certain
attitudes for successful people to reach. Success is closely linked to the effort, leaders say, this is the
attitude that each person should adopt in order to fully realize what he wants and to reach this state,
being covered by every person access to education (Ilut, P. 2004, p. 31). To this end, we conducted three
surveys that we've applied to a sample of 180 subjects, so that we can draw some conclusions regarding
the importance of motivation and attitude to succeed.

Keywords: psychological factors, attitudes, behavior, success.

1. INTRODUCTION of reporting individual or group to certain

sides of social life and self-esteem" (Chelcea,
A successful business fulfills a clear objective, S. 1994, p 36).
accurate recognition of success established by
other community members. Success is 2. FOR RESEARCH
personal and customized to each of us and is Research to address the issue of success in
characteristic of every community in part terms of the psychological interdependence
(Bland, G. 2000, p 23). Success in between attitude and motivation and how they
performance, is the optimum of the target that are reflected upon and also aim to highlight
we want to go and that we find, given that we how the adoption of certain attitudes influence
gain appreciation for the achievement of the behavior of individuals in an effort to achieve
aim (Harrington, D. 2002, p. 54, Jenson, R. those objectives proposed which lead to what
2004, p. 48). Success can be viewed as a state they believe is a success. The purpose of this
that is reflected both internally and externally. research is also to identify the motivation
This requires knowledge of personal qualities behind the individual success that makes
and confidence in them, in direct proportion to people want to be successful, and equally the
the work and passion to achieve it. Success causes underlying the creation of this vision.
can be met by any person, if desired, sought
and pursued consistently, if opportunities are 3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
offered what are valued regardless of the
obstacles. Attitude is a "relatively stable way The overall objective:

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- Analyze how each individual perceives 7. DATA ANAL YSIS AND

success, based on the interdependence of INTERPRETATION
attitude and motivation.
Objectives: In the first questionnaire, introductory
- Identify how success is perceived by question clarifies sex, weight subjects
individuals. participating in this research: a percentage of
- Highlighting the role of attitude in 55% of respondents are male subjects and a
achieving success. 45%. Are female. When asked, the type of
- Perception of the importance of organizational structure based on rules and
achievement motivation that lead to procedures, 83.33% of subjects chose this type
success. of organization, which formally certify their
spirit high and the other 16.67% were against
this structure.
4. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES - 77.78% of subjects believe they can maintain
a pleasant discussion with anyone who
Research hypotheses are: requests it, the other 22.22% disagree with
1. Be positive, supported by a strong this, which leads us to say that it takes an
motivation to compete to achieve individual open attitude, a sociable and communicative.
success. The same percentage was recorded when
2. Of individual personality factors are subjects were asked a question about whether
important in an attitude conducive to they like to communicate with colleagues to
achieving a high standard. eliminate potential errors in data
3. Actional alternatives influence attitudes and transmission. Subjects were asked whether
aspirations of individuals to achieve success they usually work to complete an activity,
professionally. whether under pressure of time, 61.11% said
yes, which indicates that they are people
5. THE SAMPLE INVESTIGATED focused mainly solving tasks, and the other
38.89% considered that there is no need for
In the present research, the study sample is this to happen, either for convenience or the
represented by a number of 180 students, aged desire to do things calmly, not in a hurry.
between 18 and 25 years in all study years, - Ask if they are willing to implement any idea
from three different faculties. Subjects covered that seems to be feasible and effective,
were selected based on research results to subjects answer in 75%, meaning that it is
education, so the first 10 students were chosen open to new things, take risks, while 25%
with the best results in each year of study and were against, saying they need more detail
last 10 of the same year, the worst results. and more time to decide.
- 27.78% of those who were surveyed believe
6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY that our destiny is written all, and 72.22%
take the opposite behavior, realizing that
To study the assumptions we built three success means, effort, work, responsibilities
questionnaires, which we implemented sample and risk taking. Of the responders, 94.44%
set: think it is an extremely important that their
- First attitude questionnaire aims, subjects reputation is spotless, and 5.56% does not
regarding their career. give it much importance.
- The second questionnaire focused on - When facing problems, 94.44% of the
identifying motivates people to be subjects participating in research find
successful. solutions to address them immediately. There
- Last questionnaire clarifies in sight are also people who panic at such times and
meanings term success. resolutions comes more slowly, as shown and
statistical results, 5.56%. When asked if they
lose their temper when they are taken to the

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point where an uncompleted, 41.67% of them they responded at a rate of 80.56% that is
answered affirmatively, saying intolerance to very important to them as potential service to
frustration, with authority, while 58.33% meet that criterion, 16.67% of them think that
remain vertical, and aware of the is quite important this issue, and for 2.78% of
shortcomings and mistakes. subjects not a crucial criterion.
- 16.67% of subjects considered that the - 97.22% of subjects undergoing research have
results in excess of their just had better luck, opted for the idea that for a successful career
which shows their lack of ownership results, you need a job where there are a range of
inability to self, and a distorted image of personal opportunities, 2.78% of them chose
reality. However, 83.33% of them, which is a the same option, but "largely". According to
very large percentage are aware that results the survey, 83.33% of subjects say "heavily"
are driven by sustained and self-management the most important is to have a well paid job,
preseverenţei. regardless of the field, 11.11% see this
- 83.33% of the subjects interviewed agree that "equally" important, and in a relatively small
quiet work in the office with acceptable percentage of 5.56% are those who disagree
remuneration is cheaper than one that with this statement.
involves many responsibilities and great - Personal satisfaction is important in
trouble, and this shows the desire for stability providing a work item to which respondents
and a peaceful life ce16 while 67% say the consider: 27.78% "heavily", 13.89% are
opposite, going on the grounds that a peaceful "largely", 27.78% agreed with the statement
and stable organizational climate is not the released, and 25% of respondents approved
most important criterion. "the little "this idea, not because there would
- When asked if they work best together, only be a significant job satisfaction, only that
25% voted in the affirmative, and a wage setting contributes to satisfaction. In the
significant percentage of 75% were opposed, same breath, 5.56% reject all those shown.
reflecting a dose of individualism and at the So, salary is the most important criterion, an
same time, self-confidence. Subjects were idea reinforced by the item in the 94.44%
asked about how planning their activities, criterion states that the remuneration is very
specifically, if their notes on an agenda that motivating.
have to do in the near future. We find that - 77.78% of respondents put career first
only 16.67% of them plan their activities, prestige, 16.67% agree "largely" on this
others 83.33% turning to other methods. point, the other 5.56 % being equally agree
- 52.78% of respondents are actively involved that the real importance of prestige. Subjects
in extra-professional activities, even if it takes considered, according to survey results, that
time, and 47.22% of them said he did not independence within an organization is highly
engage in such activities. Of the subjects coveted, as shown in the percentages of
interviewed, 61.11% say that many people 88.89%, respectively, "heavily" and 11.11%,
turn to them for how they solve different respectively, "largely". Subjects were asked if
problematic situations and 38.89% claim that their view, a job provides opportunities to
many people do this. When subjects were promote rated. It seems that most of them,
asked to determine the importance of a 88.89%, believe that "heavily" a good job
permanent and secure employment for them,
3 
 
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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

offers growth opportunities, respectively, actions, noting their desire to continually

11.11%, "largely". enrich. Also, 5.56% are of the same opinion,
- 91.67% of respondents believe that see "largely" the importance of quality
everything is built gradually, which shows service delivery after graduation. Contrary to
that most of them realize that efforts will be the majority, 11.11% of respondents
necessary for personal fulfillment. Unlike considered this issue as less important,
most, 8.33% of approved subjects "small personal reasons, I see other alternatives for a
extent" the idea, suggesting subjects are successful career.
unable to acknowledge and appreciate the - Also, when asked if the future is important to
efforts that are required to become a have a competent head, most of them, at a
successful person. rate of 77.78%, have been strongly agreed
- When asked whether they agree that with this statement and another 2.78%
anything important is achieved gradually, reinforce this idea. We notice again the
91.67% of subjects chose pro this statement, subject's desire to work in a healthy climate,
and 8.33% have opted for "small extent", quality human resources. It is normal to have
which may raise turn, prevents the and other opinions, as to 11.11% of them, this is
dreamers are still immature and tend to irrelevant, probably very great confidence in
expect a major change for the better, with their forces, and 8.33% others, concerning the
minimum effort. They were also asked to question of the importance of having a
comment on the extent to which education competent chief less important. It seems that
contributes to a situation is advantageous. In the latter has other principles, is based on
these conditions, 77.78% believe that school other values, arising only from their vision.
is the most helpful factor in obtaining a - When asked if a desire to promote good
coveted post. Contrary to popular opinion, salary deferred, 33.33% of them responded
13.89% said it helps "small extent" and "very "very little", and 8.33% noted that "little"
little" reinforces the conviction of the former, may defer salary motivating desire to
with a percentage of 2.78%, which may lead promote. In this respect, we appreciate that
to the idea of some frustrations, failures, subjects showed a craving to do positive
failures on schools and professional. things in their career, to go through all the
- Another reason is the coveted position within stages necessary in order to learn to apply
the organization that will enable potential. what they studied. They demonstrate dignity
Thus, 83.33% of respondents said they want a and courage to face the reality. However, the
high position in the company "heavily", majority tend to lean towards the other side of
another 11.11%, "largely", which shows the the balance. Thus, at a rate of 47.22% on one
desire of the respondents of self, to become side and 8.33%, on the other hand, felt some
successful. Of course, there was a percentage fear of losing considered favorable position
of 5.56%, which are equal if they are in a within the organization and at the same time,
high office or a function that involves fewer fear of risk of losing a good salary promotion
tasks and rights. Such behavior is probably in uncertain conditions.
caused by natural fear to take over many - When asked about the need to work around
responsibilities that would involve such a the house, all subjects responded that this
position. topic is less relevant, which demonstrates
- In terms of respondents wish to be part of the again that subjects shows high mobility. As
body representation to executives, responses shown in the results of the scoring grid,
were similar, subjects showed his desire to 80.56% believe that a united team guarantees
join such organizations. According to the safety and provides a quiet working
rating scale, 83.33% of interviewing subjects environment, which is normal, given the age
consider "heavily" the importance of the of individuals at research. In these conditions,
provision of quality work immediately after they prove a real willingness and openness to
they exit from school. A high percentage of the social sphere. 5.56% maintained the same
previous notes that subjects focus on quality opinion, and 8.33% are "equally" agree with

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those stated. A percentage of 5.56% is each person, and can manifest in different
occupied by those who disagree with this ways. The data obtained shows that 77.78%
idea, which leads to the idea that individuals of subjects surveyed consider that they have
in this category may have a more managerial competence to enable a field. In
individualistic attitude in terms of personal this category is highly motivated individual
fulfillment. who want a job that requires a high degree of
- According to the survey, individuals who responsibility. The proportion of 22.22%,
have been our research, responded at a rate of other subjects considered not to have
91.67%, that in their opinion, not career managerial skills, which demonstrates that
comes first. This shows that the respondents they are aware of the other skills held and that
have already formed a view on life and have can help more in the kind of action to take to
compiled a list of priorities, and career is not ensure its successful future in your chosen
on top. On the other hand, 8.33% of the field.
subjects placed their careers first, which - Most of the respondents, 83.33%, believe that
means that there are dedicated individuals they will achieve success in their own ways,
among them, ready to do anything to achieve which is good considering the age category
that goal. When they were asked to express they fall. Note that they are realistic and
their opinion about the statement "one of the willing of self and what is most important, are
best ways to improve your life is to ensure aware of the efforts that have to do to reach
less successful in life", 94.44% have opted for the position of success. But as normal, 16.67%
the affirmative, which means that young disagree. They have at hand other ways to
people believe that success is the key to achieve success, or are frustrated by the fact
happiness, another 5.56% denied the that results are not appreciated at their true
allegation, probably the reason that success value. The evaluation grid, 86.11% of subjects
means nothing in their eyes. considered to be a successful person must have
- When asked in which subjects were asked money, while others, in proportion of 13.89%
their opinion on whether success is the result deny this hypothesis. The financial rewards are
of an extraordinary genius, a divine miracle important because they provide basic needs of
or anything else that does not possess, the individual, provides financial
subjects responded unanimously negative, independence, safety, feeling of prosperity,
which means nothing, then they are aware opportunity development new plans,
that success is the result of one's personal cultivating passions and hobbies. When asked
work and not something accidental, and that if success is given by personal satisfaction, the
this can be achieved by anyone undertake proportion of 94.44% said yes. For them,
effective activities to this end. personal satisfaction is the recognition of
- 88.89% of those surveyed believe they will effort, appreciation of family and friends, their
achieve success when they feel happy or status in a company and assessing colleagues
make in life, and the other 11.11% are against and superiors. This result shows that personal
this statement. It can be seen most clearly satisfaction is the most appropriate measure of
tending to see success in terms of happiness a successful career. A percentage of 5.56% are
achieved at a time. This bias is related to those who feel separate them with other
individual happiness is seen as distinct from criteria to evaluate success.
5 
 
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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

- If asking for the lack of success in the absence only certain privileged people, or endowed by
of extensive work experience, 83.33% of nature gifted or very lucky. In fact, success
respondents approve this statement, can be met by any person, if desired, sought
considering that going to build a successful and pursued consistently, if opportunities that
career, you need extensive experience in the is offered are valued regardless of the
field, and a weight of 16.67 % of respondents obstacles. We have shown over the three
sees different things, being more optimistic for attitude questionnaires were analyzed subjects
what's next. This idea is supported by the with a successful internal motive causing them
question that 97.22% of respondents believe to adopt behaviors that those attitudes lead
that successful people get to be experts in them to achieve success and how they
working, which confirms desire to excel in manifest their behavior.
subjects they have chosen. When subjects We cannot talk about success and
were asked whether success is conditioned by successful not to mention the feeling of
neglect / circumvention of laws, 25% of the happiness, fulfillment, contentment, it is
subjects were pro this statement, which essential that we view the success. If we start
worries can be put into the realities of today's the journey of life following picture
society, which not infrequently promotes "borrowed" a success or stereotypes imposed
attitudes unethical. by society, without taking into account what
- It is noticeable, however, that 75% of we want really, we cannot, ultimately,
respondents, as shown results are attuned to disappointment. Attitudes are not working and
ethical behavior, which involves the not the personality rather undifferentiated,
acceptance and observance of ethical codes of some are deeper, more intimately related to
organizations working and interacting with the each particular individual, others are less
community. For 97.22% of subjects, level of profound, more superficial and volatile, less
education is particularly important in career than about personality traits and peculiarities
development and success. Also, subjects were than the situation occur. As shown in
asked if a person's success influenced the Paragraph Gavreliuc (Gavreliuc, A. 2006, p
impact it has on the environment in which they 79), to achieve specific behaviors occur and
operate. On this question, 91.67% of them many other personality variables, insisting
confirmed, which means that they consider today than those related to information
environmental impact must be within the processing in cognitive structures. Concrete
community where the organization operates or research shows, on the other hand, the habits
globally. 8.33% of them have denied this. are, in many cases, stronger predictors than
55.55% of respondents consider that attitudes. Synthesis of meta-analysis studies
successful people can be seen in terms of show that habits matter greatly, as expected,
leisure time that it may benefit you want, the daily routine behaviors, such as putting a
while 45% think that this is not relevant. seat belt when driving the car. George
Respondents assessed the extent of 97.22% Pănişoară, in the his paper Effective
people think that to be successful, must be motivation: A Practical Guide (Pănişoară, G.
powerful and influential individuals and 2005, p. 85) argues that motivating human
52.78% of respondents considered that success actions oriented towards satisfying knowledge
can be controlled, which shows that of needs, the balance in relation to
respondents are very confident in their own environmental demands and to participate in
forces and future holds for them, 47.22% human relations. As a law rendering the entire
believe that success can not be controlled. psyche, it acts on the side of each personality,
including those controlled by the
8. CONCLUSIONS subconscious. To understand the functional
mechanism of the reasons that trigger and
As we have seen in this work, the maintain human behavior still need to
image of success is, for many, synonymous introduce a premise that is provided by
with the image of an excellent result, reserved empirical findings: "Human behavior is always

506
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caused" thus appears alongside the concept of Plato tells us: happiness consists of five parts,
reason and choice (Maxwell, J. 2005) The one is to make good decisions, a second is to
cause is an objective, existing mental have good health and bodily senses, third is
structures of the individual, innate or acquired successful as, entrepreneurs, and good
and stored in the form of instincts, needs, reputation of the fourth and fifth among the
habits, skills, attitudes, prejudices and other men abundance of money and assets useful
beliefs. This, in their concrete hypostasis, can life.
differ from person to person both in terms of
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508
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PROGNOSIS OF
SCHIZOPHRENIA

Camelia Maria DINDELEGAN

Associate Professor Department of Psychology, University of Oradea,
Clinic of Psychiatry, “Dr. Gavril Curteanu” Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania

E-mail: dindkamy@yahoo.com

Abstract : The purpose of the present research is theoretical, empirical and practical. Thus, we tried to
highlight and observe the difference between the parents of children diagnosed with schizophrenia who
have dysfunctional cognitive schemas and the parents who have mentally healthy children and the way in
which some differences are more pronounced in the first case than in the second.
The research was conducted on a sample of 89 people, divided into three groups: the first group
comprised 29 patients with a diagnosis of paranoid schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder, the
second group comprised 29 parents of schizophrenia patients and the third group, consisting of 31
subjects, parents of mentally healthy children with no family history.
The conclusions argue that there are significant differences in terms of dysfunctional cognitive
schemas among parents of schizophrenia patients and parents of mentally healthy children.
The dysfunctional cognitive schemas found in parents with schizophrenia children are even more
pronounced than those of mentally healthy children; they were supported by checking the average scores
obtained by each participant.

Key words: Maladaptive cognitive schemas, Etiopathogeny, Schizophrenia.

Introduction Papari, 2002), who reported a higher

frequency of schizophrenia in disadvantaged
This research takes as its starting point
areas of major cities. The conclusion was that
the ideas of Laing (1959, cited in Hayes and
factors as social and family environments full
Orrel, 2003, p 35), claiming that
"schizophrenia does not simply occur without of stress, lack of organization and poor
any apparent cause, but because the personal economy are believed to create a vulnerability
to schizophrenia.
lives of individuals are intolerable and that "a
retreat into madness" is often the only way The present study aimed to detect as
you can solve the contradictions they are many influences as possible that are exerted
subject to." The same author argued that on the child’s mental development, starting
psychiatry has failed to integrate in the with the early interactions that occur between
diagnostic the stress that schizophrenics often parents and them, to how to raise and educate
bear and which in many cases justifies their them in terms of dysfunctional cognitive
disorders. Studies on the role of social and schemas.
family factors are based on the research of Studies at this level show the
Faris and Durham (1939, cited Chirita and importance of family communication both on

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the onset of the disease and during its Questionnaire and those obtained by their
evolution (Pharoah et al., 2003, cited in schizophrenic children, on P and G subscales
Jeican, 2007). Most explanations and current of PANSS Scale.
research are biologically determined. There Research Sample
haven’t been found psychological factors that The research was conducted on a
cause schizophrenia from other humans, sample of 55 people divided into three
however there is strong evidence that groups. The first group consists of 15
psychosocial factors play an important role in subjects, clinically diagnosed with paranoid
determining the severity of the disorder at schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder.
people with biological vulnerability and it Patients were hospitalized at the Clinic of
causes psychotic episodes (Dindelegan, 2012, Psychiatry “Dr. Gavril Curteanu” Clinical
p 59) Hospital and others were registered at the
hospital and were coming to consultation.
Thus, we tried to highlight and
The second group consists of 15 people,
differentiate between dysfunctional cognitive
comprising parents of patients with
schemas of parents people diagnosed with
schizophrenia (one parent from each patient).
schizophrenia and those of the parents having
The third group is the control group of 25
mentally healthy people, as well as the
gradualness some are more pronounced than subjects (one from each family), parents of
others. From an empirical point of view, the mentally healthy children without personal
and family history.
study brings data to reinforce the idea of the
existence of relationships between Instruments, procedures and data
psychosocial variables of proximity, family analysis
Young Cognitive Schema
and the development of schizophrenia and
Questionnaire - Short form.
completes this idea with empirical data
In order to evaluate these schemas,
showing that high scores on certain schemas
dysfunctional cognitve schemas of the parent Young and his coworkers (Young et. al.,
associate with high scores of the 2003) developed the schema questionnaire.
schizophrenic child, on some dimensions of The YSQ-S2 short form consists of 75 items
the Positive and General Psychopathology distributed in 18 subscales representing
subscales (PANSS). This has some significant dysfunctional cognitive schemas:
implications for assessing the significance of Abandonment/ Instability (AB); Mistrust/
the patient's family environment. Thus, it is Abuse (MA); Emotional Deprivation (ED);
important to maintain a high level of Defectiveness/ Shame (DS); Social Isolation/
beneficial relationships in the family of the Alienation (SI); Dependence/ Incompetence
schizophrenic, to improve prognosis, to avoid (DI); Vulnerability to Harm or Illness (VH);
relapse and to provide a good environment. Enmeshment/ Undeveloped Self (EM);
Failure to Achieve (FA); Entitlement/
Methodology of Research Grandiodity (ET); Insufficient Self-Control/
The objective of this research aims to Self-Discipline (IS); Subjugation (SB); Self-
identify the extent to which psycho-social Sacrifice (SS); Approval-Seaking/
factors of proximity - family contribute to the Recognition-Seeking (AS); Negativity/
development and maintenance of a certain Pessimism (NP); Emotional Inhibition (EI);
type of thinking and to identify differences in Unrelenting Standards/ Hypercriticalness
the dysfunctional cognitive schemas between (US); Punitiveness (PU) (Dindelegan, 2008).
parents of schizophrenic patients and parents To establish the fidelity of the scale
of mentally healthy people. The hypothesis 160 subjects were included, young and
that initiated this research assumes that there mature. The administration of the tools was
is a significant association between high made both collectively and individually. The
scores obtained by parents on the subscales questionnaire has a very good fidelity,
of the Young Cognitive Schema yielding an alpha Crombach = .96. Crombach
coefficients were also calculated for the

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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subscales (between .68 - .90), supporting a The research was conducted in the
good fidelity of subscales (Dindelegan, period January 1st 2013- April 25th 2013 in
2008). The first tool used to validate the the Clinic of Psychiatry “Dr. Gavril
YSQ-S3 questionnaire is SPIN-Social Phobia Curteanu” Clinical Hospital. The average
Inventory, adapted to the Romanian duration of each appointment was 30-60
population by Chereji (2003, as cited in minutes for the PANSS questionnaire and
Dindelegan, 2008). YSQ-S3 subscales 10-15 minutes for the YSQ questionnaire.
demonstrated a good predictive validity.
Results of Research
PANSS Evaluation Scale (Positive After verifying the shape distribution
and Negative Syndrome Scale) of the scores of parents of schizophrenic
It is an assessment tool with seven 7 children, for the 18 subscales of the YSQ: AB,
levels of intensity in the form of a formalized MA, ED, DS, SI, DI, VH, EM, FA, ET, IS,
semi-structured interview that assesses the SB, SS, AS, NP, EI, US, PU we used the
dimensions of positive symptoms, negative Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and we obtained a z
symptoms or other type of symptoms. It which corresponds to the values: .561 , 1.07 ,
includes 33 items depicting: Positive Scale .769 , 1.01 , .637 , .973 , .470 , .707 , .853 ,
score (P), Negative Scale score (N) 1.38 , .985 , .786 , .670 , .712 , .726 , 1.12 ,
Composite Index (Scale Positive minus .900 , .920 and a significance level p> .05 on
Negative Scale), General Psychopathology subscales AB, MA, ED, DS, SI, DI, VH, EM,
Scale (G), Supplemental Aggression Risk (S) FA, IS, SB, SS, AS, NP, EI, US, PU; thus, the
and total score. result shows that the population distribution is
The investigated population is made symmetric for these items. We obtained a
up of people aged over 18. Cronbach's alpha significance level p < .05 at the subscale ET,
internal consistency index was calculated for with the result that the population distribution
the entire Romanian normative sample (N- is asymmetrical at this item. After verifying
83). For the standard model, the syndrome the shape distribution of the scores of people
scales (Positive, Negative and General suffering of schizophrenia, for the 13
Psychopathology) have shown adequate subscales of PANSS: G2, P1, G9, P6, G14,
internal consistency, with alpha values of P3, G1, G6, G3, P5, G10, G12, G16, we used
.83, .71 and .74; obviously the lowest inter- Kolmogorov –Smirnov test and we obtained a
item correlations belong to the General z which corresponds to the following values:
Psychopathology Scale as it captures the 1.54, 1.94, 1.94, 1.55, 1.30, 1.46, 1.01, 1.18,
symptoms of a wide range of .72, 1.46, 2.19, .96, 1.30 and a significance
psychopathology. The subscales of the level p> .05 on subscales: G14, G1, G6, G3,
pentagonal model obtained adequate internal G12 , and G16; thus, the result shows that the
consistency of the coefficients ranging population distribution is symmetric for these
between .60 and .78. Research on using the items. We obtained a significance level p <
PANSS scale was extensive, a simple search .05 on subscales G2, P1, G9, P6, P3, P5 and
of the number of occurrences of the PANSS G10, with the result that the population
in PsychINFO database distribution is asymmetrical at the specified
(Http://romania.testcentral.ro, 30.04.2013) items.
presented 536 records for the period 1985-
2005.

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Table no. 1 Analysis results of the Bravis-Pearson r test

g2 p1 g9 p6 g14 p3 g1 g6 g3 p5 g10 g12 g16

r ED -.27 -.033 -.059 .107 -.058 .024 .175 .294 .039 -.229 -.083 .030 -.058

AB -.49** .101 .082 .102 -.128 .110 .016 .142 .055 -.080 -.105 -.173 -.211

MA -.151 -.164 .055 .174 -.032 -.032 -.062 .434* .111 -.123 -.247 -.108 -.165

SI -.613** .103 -.004 .299 -.099 -.116 -.111 .275 -.030 -.164 .173 .090 .134

DS -.058 -.221 -.485** -.242 -.201 -.185 -.061 -.242 -.264 -.068 .006 .023 .227

FA -.280 -.081 -.026 .147 .093 .124 .138 .219 -.011 -.063 .012 .024 -.049

DI -.272 .065 -.097 -.217 .021 -.078 .063 .032 -.342 .000 .039 -.058 -.299

VH -.282 -.088 -.303 -.019 -.079 -.148 .070 -.136 -.177 -.014 -.173 -.135 .160

EM -.347 -.054 -.301 .341 .008 -.143 -.005 .131 -.044 -.060 .197 .161 .198

ET -.525** -.009 .075 .174 -.180 -.267 -.035 .111 -.230 -.168 .020 .072 -.015

IS -.088 -.193 -.351 -.041 .095 -.291 .122 -.264 -.329 -.149 .179 -.118 .171

SB -.064 -.331 -.493** -.304 -.230 -.440* -.281 -.209 -.157 -.190 -.124 -.063 .276

SS -.224 .181 .104 -.022 .279 .062 .153 -.113 -.052 -.128 .512** .225 .271

AS -.154 -.277 -.044 .342 .035 -.280 -.046 .200 .152 -.272 .157 -.215 .239

NP -.047 -.432* -.161 .309 .207 -.265 .066 .100 -.244 -.150 .071 -.010 -.139

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EI -.129 .285 -.068 -.188 .177 .090 .252 -.162 -.116 .218 .122 .030 -.067

US .107 .156 .209 -.011 .190 .258 .077 -.068 .066 .376* -.151 -.068 -.098

PU .048 .046 -.208 -.038 -.144 .126 .166 .133 .105 -.305 .018 .074 -.099

Correlations
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level 2-tailed
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level 2-tailed.

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”

AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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To check if there is a significant positive Abandonment / Instability (AB), their children

correlation between the results of parents with tend to get lower scores on Anxiety subscale
schizophrenic children at the Young (G2). While r is an expression of size effect
Questionnaire subscales and the results of (with reference to Cohen's criteria (1988, as
their children at the P and G subscales of cited Labar, 2008, p 83), we may say that the
PANSS rating scale, we calculated the relationship between Abandonment/
Pearson correlation coefficient r. Instability (AB) and Anxiety (G2) is weak (R²
= 0.05).
We used the Bravis-Pearson
correlation coefficient r for all variables The condition of the normality of
because we wanted to outline the relationship distribution the variables Social Isolation (SI)
between all variables in common, without and Anxiety (G2) was verified using
losing determination index and having a wider Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the results of the
observation of the subscales and because the social isolation variables (SI) [KS z = 1.01, p>
significance thresholds are far from the critical .05] and Anxiety (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
threshold of .05 and also because we knew statistically significant, show that the variables
that Kolmogorov-Smirnov test z is inexact in aren’t normally distributed. According to the
such cases. results obtained (Table No. 1), there is a
Following the interpretation of Table positive correlation between the subscale
No. 1 we see that there are significant Social Isolation (SI) and Anxiety subscale (G
associations between the following subscales: 2), r (27) = .613, p <. 05 we conclude: if
AB and G2, SI and G2, ET and G2, NP and parents with schizophrenic children get high
P1, SB and G9, DS and G9, SB and P3, MA scores on the subscale Social Isolation (SI),
and G6; US and P5, SS and G10. In the case their children tend to get high scores on
Anxiety subscale (G2).
of insignificant coefficients (p> .05), the
correlation is not linear for the respective The condition of the normality of
variables. distribution the variables Entitlement (ET) and
Anxiety (G2) was verified using Kolmogorov-
The condition of the normality of
Smirnov z, the results of the variable
distribution the variables Abandonment/
Entitlement (ET) [KS z = 1.38, p <.05],
Instability (AB) and Anxiety (G2) was
statistically insignificant, show that variables
verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the
results of the variables Abandonment / have a normal distribution; the Anxiety
Instability (AB) [KS z = 1.07, p> .05] and variable (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
statistically significant, show that the variables
Anxiety (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
aren’t normally distributed. According to the
statistically significant, show that the variables
aren’t normally distributed. According to these results obtained (Table No. 1), there is a
positive correlation between Entitlement (ET)
results, there is a negative correlation between
the subscale Abandonment/ Instability (AB) and Anxiety subscale (G2), r (27) = .52, p <.
01 we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic
and Anxiety subscale (G2), r(27)= - .49, p <.
01 we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic children get high scores on the subscale
Entitlement (ET), their children tend to get
children get high scores on the subscale
high scores on Anxiety subscale (G2).

514
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The condition of the normality of children get high scores on the subscale
distribution the variables Negativity/ Subjugation (SB), their children tend to get
Pessimism (NP) and General Illusions (P1) low scores on Unusual Thought Content (G9).
was verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z,
The condition of the normality of
the results of the variable distribution the variables Defectiveness/
Negativity/Pessimism (NP) [K-S z=.726, p Shame (DS) and Unusual Thought Content
>.05], statistically significant, show that the (G9) was verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov
variables aren’t normally distributed and for z, the results of the variables,
the variable General Illusions (P1) [K-S Defectiveness/Shame (DS) [KS z = .637, p >
z=1.94 p <.05], statistically insignificant, .05] and Unusual Thought Content (G9), [KS
show that variables have a normal distribution. z = 1.94, p> .05], statistically significant,
Application conditions being met, we show that they aren’t normally distributed.
calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient r Application conditions being met, we
(0.18). According to the results obtained calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient r
(Table No. 1) there is a negative correlation (0.23). According to the results obtained
between subscale Negativity/Pessimism (NP) (Table No. 1) there is a negative correlation
and the subscale General Illusions (P1) r ( 27) between Defectiveness/ Shame (DS) and
= - .43 p < . 05 we conclude: if parents with Unusual Thought Content (G9) subscales, r
schizophrenic children get high scores on the (27) = - .48 p <.01, we conclude: if parents
subscale Negativity/Pessimism (NP), their with schizophrenic children get high scores on
children tend to get low scores on General the subscale Defectiveness/ Shame (DS), their
Illusions subscale (P1).
children tend to get low scores on Unusual
The condition of the normality of Thought Content (G9).
distribution the variables Subjugation (SB) The condition of the normality of
and Unusual Thought Content (G9) was distribution the variables Subjugation (SB)
verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the and Hallucinatory Behavior and associated
results of the variable Subjugation [KS z = delusions (P3) was verified using
.786, p = .05] and Unusual Thought Content Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the results of the
(G9) [KS z = 1.94 p <.05], statistically variable Subjugation (SB) [KS z = .786, p =
insignificant, resulting in the fact that the .05] and Hallucinatory Behavior and
variables are normally distributed. associated delusions (P3) , [KS z = 1.46 p>
The condition of linearity between .05], statistically significant, show that the
Subjugation (SB) and Unusual Thought variables aren’t normally distributed.
Content (G9) subscales was verified by Application conditions being met, we
inspection of the cloud of points. Application calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient r
conditions being met, we calculated the (0.19). According to the results obtained
Pearson correlation coefficient r (0.24). (Table No. 1) there is a negative correlation
According to the results obtained (Table No. between Subjugation (SB) and Hallucinatory
1) there is a negative correlation between Behavior and associated delusions subscales
Subjugation (SB) and Unusual Thought (P3), r (27) = - .44 p < . 05, we conclude: if
Content (G9) subscales, r (27) = - .49 p <. 01 parents with schizophrenic children get high
we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic scores on the subscale Subjugation (SB), their

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

children tend to get low scores on aren’t normally distributed and Disorientation
Hallucinatory Behavior and associated (G10) [KS z = .21, p <.05], statistically
delusions (P3). insignificant, show the fact that the variables
are normally distributed.
The condition of the normality of
distribution the variables Mistrust/ Abuse The condition of linearity between Self
(MA) and Depression (G6) was verified using Sacrifice (SS) and Disorientation (G10)
Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the results of the subscales, we calculated the Pearson
variable Mistrust/ Abuse (MA) [KS z = .769, correlation coefficient r (0.26). According to
p = .05], statistically insignificant, show that the results obtained (Table No. 1) there is a
the variables are normally distributed and positive correlation between Self Sacrifice
Depression (G6), [KS z = 1.18 p> .05], (SS) and Disorientation (G10) subscales, r
statistically significant shows that the (27) = .51, p <. 01; we conclude: if parents
variables aren’t normally distributed. with schizophrenic children get high scores on
Application conditions being met, we the subscale Self Sacrifice (SS), their children
calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient r tend to get high scores on Disorientation
(0.18). According to the results obtained (G10).
(Table No. 1) there is a positive correlation
between Mistrust/ Abuse (MA) and
Depression (G6) subscales, r (27) = - .43 p <. Discussion
05; we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic In conclusion, the hypothesis that there
children get high scores on the subscale is a significant association between high
Mistrust/ Abuse (MA), their children tend to scores obtained by parents at Young Cognitive
get high scores on Depression (G6). Schema Questionnaire subscales and those of
The condition of the normality of their schizophrenic children at P and G
distribution the variables Unrelenting subscales of PANSS, is partially supported for
Standards (US) and Grandiosity (P5) was 5 of the subscales, namely: Abandonment/
verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the Instability and Anxiety (AB and G2), Social
results of the variable Unrelenting Standards Isolation and Anxiety (SI and G2),
(US) [KS z = .90, p> .05], statistically Entitlement and Anxiety (ET and G2),
significant, show that the variables aren’t Mistrust/ Abuse and Depression (MA and
normally distributed and Grandiosity (P5), G6), Unrelenting Standards and Grandiosity
[KS z = 1.46 p <.05], statistically (US and P5), Self Sacrifice and Disorientation
insignificant, show that the variables are (SS and G10).
normally distributed. Application conditions
being met, we calculated the Pearson
correlation coefficient r (0.18). There is a Conclusion
positive correlation between Unrelenting According to our research hypothesis,
Standards (US) and Grandiosity (P5) the results we obtained conclude that the
subscales, r (27) = .37, p <. 05: we conclude: combination of high scores of parents of
if parents with schizophrenic children get high schizophrenic children, at the subscales
scores on the subscale Unrelenting Standards Abandonment/ Instability, Social Isolation,
(US), their children tend to get high scores on Entitlement , Mistrust/ Abuse, Unrelenting
Grandiosity (P5). Standards and Self Sacrifice with the high
The condition of the normality of scores of their children at the subscales
distribution the variables Self Sacrifice (SS) Anxiety, Depression, Grandiosity and
and Disorientation (G10) was verified using Disorientation is due to the influence that the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, results of the variable parent has on the child because they spend a
Self Sacrifice (SS) [KS z = .67, p> .05], significant amount of time together and thus
statistically significant, show that the variables the parent has a bigger authority and
influence. The child who lives and grows

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around a parent who has such strong knowledge of possible psycho-social factors
cognitive schemas can develop traits such as involved in the development of diseases such
anxiety, due to the environment and the as schizophrenia, correcting them and
effects of his parent’s behavior on him; he creating an appropriate family environment
may take some thinking styles through social for the patient, can have amazing effects on
learning which include anxiety. the approach in terms of recovery and
avoiding relapse.
Sociocultural studies try to prove that
a bad pattern of behavior in the family, an A number of evidence supports
oppressive atmosphere, a hyperactive psycho-education in the family as one of the
schizophrenogene mother, along with other "best practices" for young adults with
negative influences, all have a degree of schizophrenia and their families. Because of
influence on the mental development of the this compelling evidence, researchers at the
child (Jeican, 2007). J. Harley (cited in Birt, University of Maryland have identified that
2001), states that any communication within psycho-education in the family - an
families is mutual and is characterized by evidence-based practice, should be offered to
behavioral manifestations. So parents with all families. This and other research studies
certain strong dysfunctional cognitive have shown reduced rates of relapse and
schemas can manifest their outcomeson the lower rates of hospitalization. Other findings
child; such behavior may be a trigger or even include a significant number of patients
an accelerator factor, if the child is already rehabilitated professionally, lower care costs
suffering of schizophrenia. and improve family welfare (Herseni and
Thoas, 2006). A meta analysis of 16
The correlation coefficient obtained
individual studies found that family
between the five variables/subscales was
interventions with less than 10 sessions have
statistically significant, indicating a linear
no effect on reducing family problems. There
moderate relationship between the subscales
are also several controlled studies that
Abandonment/ Instability and Anxiety (Ab
support the effectiveness of single and
and G2), Social Isolation and Anxiety (SI
multiple family interventions. Family
and G2) Entitlement and Anxiety (ET and
psycho-education studies were conducted
G2), Mistrust /Abuse and Depression (MA
outside the United States, China, Norway, the
and G6), Unrelenting Standards and
Netherlands and with a Hispanic population
Grandiosity (US and P5), Self Sacrifice and
of Los Angeles and California (Herseni and
Disorientation (SS and G10). This means that
Thoas, 2006).
whenever you increase the level of one of the
subscales dysfunctional cognitive schema This study has aimed to highlight
questionnaire of the parent (eg. errors that can lead to a dysfunctional family
Abandonment/ Instability), increases the communication, in finding more practical
level of one of P or G subscales of PANSS ways where intervention should be done
rating scale of the schizophrenic child (eg. within the schizophrenic’s family. Ienciu,
anxiety). Romosan and Lazarescu (2012, p 250)
mention the family perspective, especially
The practical implications of the
the systematic one, and talk about a new
results obtained in this study are clinical
evidence for the activity. Accurate

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paradigm extending the modeling Dindelegan, C. M. (2012). Incursion into

schizophrenia to socio-communicative level. Psychopathology and Clinical
Psychology. Bucuresti: Sper, Alma
Mater Collection, No. 30.
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Dindelegan, C. M. (2008). Cognitive Schemas
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Guilford Press.

518
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THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE AT STRESS

LEVEL PERCEIVED BY THE PEOPLE DIAGNOSED WITH
DEPRESSION

Camelia DINDELEGAN*, Florina SERAC-POPA**

*Faculty of Social Humanistic Science, Department of Psychology, University of Oradea Oradea,
Romania
Clinic of Psychiatry, “Dr. Gavril Curteanu” Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania
* Psychologist -Clinic of Psychiatry, “Dr. Gavril Curteanu” Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania

Abstract: In this paper we wanted to present the issue of stress perception, depending on the attributional
style of people diagnosed with depression and of clinically healthy individuals.

Currently, it is believed that emotional experiences, normal oscillations of affection are shown on a
continuum between a negative pole- represented by depression and a positive one- euphoria, these
oscillations having many nuances within these two poles. Most people are in a state of emotional
stability, but in some cases, due to changes to the environment, due to a vulnerability in the personality
structure of an individual, this state is disturbed and the emotional experiences can be movable toward
one pole or another.

Thus, attribution helps us understand our own behavior and that of the people around us. People
have a very strong tendency to give and achieve causal attribution for almost any activity they do and for
almost any behavior, realizing this at the unconscious level.

Key words: Stress, depression, attributional style.

519
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

affective experiences of pathological intensity

Introduction is the professional, social and family
performance collapse (Dindelegan, 2006).
The world we live in is constantly In the Larousse Dictionary of Psychology,
changing and this is happening at a dizzying 2000, depression is defined as a "morbid
pace that continually puts to test our capacity condition, more or less sustainable, especially
of resilience. In order to adapt oneself to of persistent sadness and a decrease in tone
environmental requirements, it is necessary and energy." The affected person is considered
that cognitive structures that filter out reality most times unable to face the least difficulty,
do not present major distortions. These also lacking any kind of initiative. She suffers
structures, called cognitive schemas, are from impotence and thinks that her intellectual
different beliefs we have acquired in early faculties, especially attention and memory are
childhood. Among them we find the belief that degraded. The feeling of inferiority further
we are more or less able to achieve the desired enhances melancholy.
results, by using our skills or the belief that we
are either or not able to control our own lives. 1.2. Attributions: definition and general
A significant importance in adaptation is view
also the person's attributional style, more Causal attribution helps us understand our
precisely the way he assigns the occurrence of own behavior and that of the people around
positive or negative events. Such attributions us. People have a very strong tendency to give
may be internal or external, stable or unstable, and achieve causal attribution for almost any
global or specific. The way these attributions activity they do and for almost any behavior,
combine depends on how the person adapts to realizing this at the unconscious level. In
the stressors of his/ her life. 1958, Heider initiated the development of
In this paper we wanted to present the attributional approaches in social psychology.
issue of stress perception, depending on the He claimed that the main reason people do
attributional style of people diagnosed with assignments is to predict and control the social
depression and of clinically healthy environment. Thus, if we can successfully
individuals. explain past behaviors, there is a chance that
the same or similar causes, allow us to
Chapter I anticipate what we will do in certain social
Theoretical aspects situations in the future.
1.1 Depression: Definition and conceptual Baron and Byrne (1997 cited Pennigton,
delimitation 2000) define causal attributions as the process
by which we seek to identify the underlying
Currently, it is believed that emotional causes of the behavior of others and thus to
experiences, normal oscillations of affection know certain stable features or their
are shown on a continuum between a negative provisions. This definition is useful, but fails
pole- represented by depression and a positive to make reference to the fact that people are
one- euphoria, these oscillations having many also concerned with making assignments
nuances within these two poles. Most people regarding their personal behavior. However,
are in a state of emotional stability, but in this definition emphasizes that causal
some cases, due to changes to the attributions are made in close relation with
environment, due to a vulnerability in the personality traits or characteristics of the
personality structure of an individual, this individual and his provisions.
state is disturbed and the emotional In the process of characterization of
experiences can be movable toward one pole causal attributions, it is useful to refer to the
or another, showing dysthymia. Consequently, following aspects- internal or external causes
the difference between a normal sadness or of attributions; spontaneous attributions vs.
grief and depression is quantitative, not deliberate attributions and attributions for
qualitative. A clear indicator of experiencing voluntary and involuntary behaviors.

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Regarding the first aspect, we can say that In this paper we wanted to present the
causal attributions are divided into two issue of stress perception, depending on the
categories: internal and external. The internal attributional style of people diagnosed with
ones reffer to the fact that one’s own behavior depression and of clinically healthy
or others’ behavior can be explained best by a individuals.
factor within the individual (temper,
personality, emotional state, etc.). In contrast, 2.2 Hypotheses, variables and design
the external attributions are achieved when Hypothesis. 1 The stress perceived
own or others' behavior can be best explained differs according to the level of negative
by the pressures of a particular person or attributional style, adopted by depressed
situation, an external factor. people, in contrast to the clinically healthy
As for the second aspect, spontaneous people.
attributions occur without any cognitive Variables : VI a – category of diagnosis
voluntary effort, and are usually based on a1- clinical group
certain stereotypes or impressions about a2 – control group
themselves or others. In contrast, the VI b – negative attributional
deliberate cognitive attributions present a style
cognitive voluntary effort and usually take b1- low level
place when we think about what we do or b2 – high level
what others will do in a social situation VD - the perceived stress
Hamilton and Mackie (1995 cited in Two-factor intergroup design
Pennington, 2000) have observed that people 2.3 Subjects
who have a good mood often do spontaneous The study was conducted on a sample of
attributions; engaging in a deep mental effort- 240 people, of which 120 participants were
to explain one’s own behavior or that of randomly selected from the normal population
others, can lead to the loss of the good mood. clinically healthy and the other 120
And in terms of attributions made for participants were individuals diagnosed with
voluntary and involuntary behaviors, various forms of depression (the most
Kruglanski (1975 cited in Pennington, 2000) common diagnosis being recurrent major
suggests that voluntary behavior should be depressive disorder); the 120 patients are
attributed to internal causes, and the hospitalized at the Clinic of Psychiatry, “Dr.
involuntary attributions should be attributed to Gavril Curteanu” Clinical Hospital in Oradea.
external factors. Behaviors that appear after The control group was composed of 69
experiencing strong emotions can be classified women and 51 men, aged between 30 and 60
as involuntary behaviors, and yet can be the years, their average age being 39.62 and the
subject of both internal and external standard deviation of 7.50. From the point of
attributions. view of the level of education, 4 people have
completed middle school (8th grade), 5 people
Chapter II have graduated from a vocational school, 79
Methodology of research persons with secondary education (high
2.1 Objectives school) and 32 persons with higher education
(university, college).

521
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

Clinical group consisted of 75 women we found that 54 of them had low levels of
and 45 men, aged between 30 and 77 years, negative attributions and 66 people had high
their average age being 52.85 with a standard levels of negative attributions.
deviation equal to 10.64. One person had no Having a problem comparing four
education, 15 people have completed primary independent samples, a two-factor intergroup
education (4 classes), 50 people have design and symmetric data distribution (Table
graduated from secondary school (8th grade), 2.5.1), we used ANOVA statistical method.
12 people have graduated from a vocational To test this hypothesis, we used the
school, 37 with secondary education (high comparison of scores obtained at Perceived
school) and five people had higher education Stress Scale, according to the presence or
(college). absence of depression and the level of
As for the area of origin, participants in attribution for negative events.
both groups were from both urban and rural. Below we present the results obtained
They participated voluntarily in this study by from Kolmogorov Smirnov test and the
giving their consent. comparison of the four samples.

2.4 Procedure
The people in clinical group were Table no. 2.5.1 Kolmogorov Smirnov test
presented the battery of tests individually by results for the stress perceived scale scores,
the assessor; they were presented the reason according to the style of the diagnostic
they will be evaluated, they were read the category of negative attributions
instructions and the content of each scale or Diagnosis Level of Z P
questionnaire and their responses were category negative
recorded on an answer sheet, being assured of attributiona
confidentiality of results. The battery l style
consisted of the following scales: Perceived Depression Low 0,666 .768
Stress Questionnaire (PSQ), Attributional group High 0,629 .823
style questionnaire (ASQ). Control group Low 0,834 .490
There wasn’t a time limit in completing High 0,833 .491
the battery of tests, in both cases. In Table 2.5.1 we see that Z index in the
four samples had thresholds significantly
2.5 Processing and interpretation of higher than 0.05, with a risk of error
results statistically insignificant, therefore we can say
Our research started from the hypothesis that data processing respects the condition of
we mentioned above hypothesized above, symmetry.
which was tested on two samples of subjects:
people with depression and clinically healthy Table no. 2.5.2 Results of comparisons
individuals. in the case of perceived stress, according to
Hypothesis. 1 The stress perceived the negative attributional style and
differs according to the level of negative diagnosis category
attributional style, adopted by depressed Independent F(1,236) P
people, in c ontrast to t he clinica lly healthy variables
people. Diagnosis Category 118,11 .000
We proceeded to Negative Composite (DC)
scores (low and high) dichotomization, based
Level of negative 0,17 .679
on the median value for the control group
attributional style
(average = 11.00) and the clinical group (LNAS)
(average = 10.00), so we got 58 people with a
low negative attributional style and 62 people Interaction between 2,12 .146
with high levels in the control group. And in (DC) şi (LNAS)
the group of people diagnosed with depression

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The results in Table 2.5.2, confirm once intensity, if we refer to the attributions for
again that the perception of stress differs negative events.
depending on the presence or absence of This is contrary to Seligman’s theory on
depression (F [1,122] = 118.11, p <0.01). attributional style. He argued that individuals,
Referring to the level of attributions for who perform internal, stable and global
negative events, we cannot decide on the attributions for the negative events they face,
existence of a differentiated stress perception are more vulnerable to experiencing strong
(F [1,122] = 0.17, p> 0.05), in the case of reactions to stress and depressive symptoms.
subjects included in the study. As the This is possible because, to feel the burden of
interaction between the negative attributional extreme liability for the occurrence of
style and diagnostic category, we cannot rule unpleasant events, to consider the reasons for
on their contribution, in differentiated which they take place are always the same,
perception of stress (F [1,122] = 2.12, p> that negative events will always be present
0.05). and will affect their lives are some beliefs that
Below we present the averages to see have negative consequences on the self-
how the distribution of scores is made. esteem of the person, especially if they get to
be chronic. One possible explanation for our
Table no. 2.5.3 Average and standard results is that the majority of people diagnosed
deviations for perceived stress, according to with depression were assessed at least one
diagnosis category and the negative week after starting drug treatment and their
attributional style condition began to improve. Another aspect
that could contribute to obtaining these results
Diagnosis Level of Average Standard is that healthy people, even if they had a
category negative deviation higher or lower level of attributions for
attributional
style
negative events, the impact on perceived stress
Depressi may have been mitigated by other factors such
High 80,50 11,82
on group as social support and the coping strategies
Control High 65,63 65,63 used.
group
Chapter III
In table 2.5.3 we can see that the clinical Conclusions
group has obtained the highest values in the The belief that we have some control
perception of stress compared to the control over our lives, that we have the ability to
group. For people diagnosed with depression achieve certain results due to possession of
who present a higher level of negative skills and the way we explain the events
attributions, the scores are almost equal whether positive or negative, are of crucial
compared to people who have this type of importance in regulating human behavior at
pathology, but whose level of negative cognitive, affective, behavioral and biological
attributions is low, the same thing happening level. These beliefs are reflected in both the
in the control group. reporting stressors and the experiencing of
It appears that for the subjects included in psychological or physiological disorders.
our study, stress is seen at about the same

523
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

It was found that people who are 6. Banyard H. , Hayes N. (1994),

diagnosed with depression perceive stressors Psychology : Theory and application,
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THE ANALYSES OF SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN THE FIELD OF

PROFESSIONAL CAREER

Mihaela GURANDA*

*Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: We are living nowadays in a society based on knowledge, which needs a qualified,
educated and flexible labour force. There is a great need of individuals who continuously develop their
competences, because it has not considered the problem of having a working place along the life time, but
the possibility to adapt to many working places and institutions along one period (Chao, 2005).
O`Reilly (2001) estimates that during the next years, the young persons that are coming into the
labour market will have seven-eight various working places along their career. Taking into account this
professional fluidity, the aptitudes of taking decisions for their career must be developed now more than
ever. The capacity of continuous evaluation and choosing the best alternative is a feature of the
demanding for the tomorrow working force (Smith, Ryan, 2011).

Keywords: career, significant changes, competences

1. Introduction professional evolution along the life time.

Conceived as a constellation of roles, the
In order to use eficiently the notion of career could be graphically designed as a
“career” we are going to refer to a number of rainbow. Each coloured arch from the career
significant conceptual delimitations. John rainbow represents the major roles of the child,
Arnold (2001a) presents eight definitions of the young person and the adult. The brightness
the concept of “career”. According to the and the breadth of the rainbow arch represents
specialised literature there are many others. the time and space of life nedeed to fulfill the
Three of them, belonging to Super, Perlmutter, roles. „While getting older, there are new roles
& Hall şi Gary Johns, underline the essential added to the rainbow, the new role
aspects of career. If Super (1978) considered reorganising the importance of the previous
career as a succession of professions, jobs and ones. Each human being has, in fact, a multi-
positions taken by a person along its life, role career in his life, in which he plays
Perlmutter şi Hall (1992) sustained that the simultaneously eight or nine roles” (Luca,
career is the ensemble of jobs characterized by 2002: 17)
training and experience, while a person Based on these definitions, it could be
reaches to superior positions, described by sustained a synthetical definition of career, as:
responsabilities and competences. Gary Johns ”Career is the succession of professions, jobs,
(1998) defines career as an evolving positions, activities, experiences and roles
succession of professional positions a person suggested/played by the individual along his
could have. As it can be noticed, the mutual professional life simultaneous with the
aspect of the three definitions is that of subjective interpretation that lead to distinct

527
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

professional trajectories (Zlate, 2004: 352). contract is of 18 months. It is a very short

The career makes sense to the professional period, according to the specialists in the
behaviour, establishing its direction and goal domain, who considere that a person needs a
(Savickas, 2002, Young, Valach, Collin, six months period in order to integrate in a
2002). The career could serve as a source of community, two years to accumulate all the
personal fulfilment, enrichment, happiness and vital aspects of a working place, 2-4 years to
satisfaction, important elements that influence obtain performance in that working place, and
the evolution of human personality only after 4 years there will appear the faze of
(Kahneman, Riis, 2005). professional calmness. In this rhytm it can be
said that a person may have at least 9 careers
2. Changes in the context of career along his life time. The person needs to adapt
continuously. The results of the study shows
The society is marked by a lack of that:
transition from school to the labour market. -50% of the candidates consider that they
The teens are taught, but after finishing their need 6 months to find a working place;
studies they do not have a working place. The -40% of the candidates consider that they
adults are compelled to attend another faculty need 3-5 months to find a working place;
in order to find a better working place. At the -8% of the candidates consider that they
national level there is registered a loss of need 1-2 months to find a working place;
human capital due to migration, the people -2% find a job in less than a month.
choosing to work abroad for more money and In Romania, according to the studies made by
in more decent conditions. The lack of The National Institute of Statistics, between
flexibility of the educational offer produces an 2003-2008, we may assert that the number of
unbalance at he level of labour market, and employees from the public sector has been
thus it imposes the transition from the continuously diminished, and as a result the
education centred on knowledge to the number of employees from the privat sector
education centred on competences. The role of grew. I consider that since 2008 until the
key competences and the quality of their present the statistics data are showing a
obtaining at different educational levels are continuously diminishing. The inactive
getting more and more important. Education population is as numerous as the active one.
for active life and the cult of work are (Table 2), and the number of unemployed is
becoming the major objectiv of all educational growing from one year to another.
strategies.
According to a study made in 2009 in
USA, the average of duration of a working

Table 2 . The working force (16-64 years) registered in 2008,according to gender and averages
(Investigation of working force in administration,2009)
Total Masculin Feminin Urban Rural
Active population
10.059.000 5.590.000 4.469.000 5.492.000 4.567.000
Employed population
9.493.000 5.228.000 4.265.000 5.116.000 4.377.000
Unemployed 566.000 362.000 204.000 376.000 190.000
Inactive population
11.469.000 4.900.000 6.569.000 6.348.000 5.121.000
Percentage
Activation rate 63,5 71,2 55,8 61,8 65,8
Employement rate 59,7 66,4 53,1 57,6 62,8
Unemployment rate 5,6 6,5 4,6 6,9 4,2

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The biggest part of the employed Regarding the unemployment (Figure 2.2), we
population is working in the agriculture, notice the fact that the year 2009 brought the
forestry and fishing, manufacturing and biggest growths of the unemployed number,
the year 2010 and 2011 offering a relative
commerce. 81% from the active population
ballance of the unemployment situation at
works in the private sector, and 17,5% in the Romanian level.
public sector. The adults have an important
involvement potential in the working process 800.000
Evolutia numarului de someri inregistrati in perioada 2008-2011

in comparison with the teenagers. 750.000

700.000

650.000

600.000

550.000

500.000

450.000

400.000

350.000

300.000
ian. feb. martie aprilie mai iunie iulie august sept. oct. nov. dec.
2008 383.989 379.779 374.050 352.466 338.298 337.084 340.462 345.510 352.912 364.183 376.971 403.441
2009 444.907 477.860 513.621 517.741 526.803 548.930 572.562 601.673 625.140 653.939 683.123 709.383
2010 740.982 762.375 765.285 738.187 701.854 680.782 679.495 675.790 670.247 645.453 633.476 626.960
2011 614.976 600.308 539.666 493438

Figure 2.2. The Evidence of uneployment between

2008-2011
(INS, 2010)
Figure 2.1. the evidence of vacant working places
between 2007-2010 (INS, 2010) If we are reffering to the unemployment
average according to the sex/gender, we are
In a communique of The National Institute of noticing that in April 2011, in comparison with
Statistics, (2010) it has been presented that the the previous month, the average of male
number of vacant working places in the second unemployment diminished from the value of
part of the year 2010 was of 23.300, 6,52% in March, to the value of 5,90%, and
diminished by 900 working places in the average of female unemployment
compariosn with the first part of the year and diminished from 5,24% to 4, 85% (Figure 2.3)
with 11.600 less than 2009 ( Figure 2.1). Evolutia ratei somajului inregistrat, a ratei somajului feminin si a ratei somajului

More than one third (8.500) of the total masculin in anii 2010 si 2011

number of vacant working places are to be

10,00

9,00

found in the manufacture industry, followed 8,00

7,00

by the public administration (2.700 working 6,00

5,00

places) and social care (2.400 working places). 4,00

ianuari f ebruar
e ie
martie aprilie mai iunie iulie august sept
octomb noiemb decem
rie rie brie

The fewest working places are registered in Rata somajului inregistrat 2010
Rata somajului f eminin 2010
8,10
7,26
8,33
7,36
8,36
7,43
8,07
7,20
7,67
6,90
7,44
6,70
7,43
6,77
7,39
6,84
7,35
6,78
7,08
6,54
6,95
6,38
6,87
6,20

the field of estate dealings (30 working places

Rata somajului masculin 2010 8,82 9,16 9,17 8,80 8,40 8,08 7,99 7,85 7,85 7,55 7,44 7,47

Rata somajului inregistrat 2011 6,74 6,58 5,92 5,41

Rata somajului f eminin 2011 5,99 5,80 5,24 4,85

). The biggest need of working force expressed Rata somajului masculin 2011 7,41 7,27 6,52 5,90

by the employers reffered to operators for Figura 2.3. The Evidence of uneployment according to
installations and machines, equipment gender between 2010-2011 (INS, 2010)
assemblers. The less working places
availability was among the members of the Regarding the structure of uneployment
executive assembly and public administration. according to the training level, the

529
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

unemployed persons with primarily, secondary The recent estimations shows that until
and professional training level represent the 2015, approximatelly 30% of the working
larger group of persons who are addressing to places will demand higher education and
the county agencies for the engagement of almost 50% at least highschool studies, being
working force in order to find and obtain a significantly diminished the working places
working place, and this is of an average of that are asking for a reduced level of
77,52%. The unemployed persons with qualification (Cedefop, 2008). This aspect
highschool and post highschool training level requires the teens and youths specialization
represent 16,70%, and those with university according to the market demandings, keeping
studies only 5,78%. From the point of view of in balance the request-offer report.
classification of the unemployed persons
according to their age, the representative ones 3. Conclusions
are the averages for the ages 40-49 years
(28,72 %) and 30-39 years (26,48%). The changes in the context of career are
According to the long term unemployment, at multiple and the new visions upon this are
the end of April, there were registered in the linked to the promotion of long-life learning as
evidence of the agency 16.598 unemployed a way of integration and reintegration on the
teenagers for over 6 months (that means labour market and to the enhancement of
31,46% from the total of unemployed persons efficiency and competitiveness of the
under 25 years old) and 91.134 adults being specialised institutions and of the staff
unemployed for over 12 months, (20,68% responsable with human resources
from the total of unemployed adults), the management. In the future, the accent will be
average of the long term unemployed from the placed on the short term contracts, and the
total unemployed persons being of 21,83%. office from home will become a much more
Taking into account the actual situation used alternative. The methods of staff
of the labour market it is necessary to take recruitment and selection will be more varied,
measures to bring improvement and to allow a and the career councellors will be better
better evolving of the teenagers, youth and trained and adapted to the new changes. The
adults on the professional level. One of the perspective upon career will change,
measures is that one taken through the competence being on the first place. The new
activities of career councelling, which offers Working Code has brought changes by the fact
career plans according to each individual. All that the employer may establish the objectives
these activities require the existance of results of individual performance and the evaluation
due to researches, studies, analyses, criteria of these. The proposal offers the
evaluations about the labour market or the jobs possibility to the employer to establish
world (Jigău, 2001). The councellor, together concrete objectives and performance adapted
with the adolescent or the adult, will explore criteria for his own employees. This change
the personality features and obvious will determine the growth of performance and
motivational aspects, the type of temperament, competitiveness among the employees
the intelligence level and professional (Dugulescu, 2011).
interests. By identifying the interests, The nowadays situation shows that
according to the personality type, it has done a Romania has made progress in restructuring
better implementation in his own system of the system of continuous professional
professional values. Analysing the profiles development. The strategy for short and
specific for each person, we find information medium term for continuous professional
and determine the growth of self-knowledge development intends to develop a structured
level. Fulfilled with information about the system of continuous professional
labour market, about the opportunities of the development, transparent and flexible, with an
working places, the opportunities of training or adequate level of financing and a great
specialisation, there are going to be identified involvement of social partners, which will
those occupations and jobs suitable for the assure the growth of working force mobility
analysed profiles. and to respond to the companies needs for

530
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
qualified working force, taking into account -Diminishing the predictability of career’s
the future economical restructuring and the course. The careers became less safe for
alignment to the European market. The the majority of persons.
implementation of some career management -Getting to careers open to aspects of large
programmes will be a future perspective of the sociability. The individual evolution
career evolution and it will assure human depends nowadays on the experience
capital with the potential to take coordinating gathered along his life time. His blooming
positions and to face some difficult situations. is due to the events from the outside of the
By the positions rotating will be improved the organization (Feldman, 2002).
abilities, knowledges and behaviours -Moving from career management to the
necessary for various professional roles. The selfmanagement. The individuals are much
employers tendency is to reassign, due to more involved in building their own
some staff restructuring, various tasks to the careers and thus they are more careful in
subordinated employees. Thus, very many the moment of choosing their career. The
employees will retrieve various transition is made from the model of a
responsabilities and will face many changes career managed by the organizations to the
( arapatin, 2011). By better knowing the model of a self-managed career (Werner,
employee, knowing his personality, motivation 2002) and it has transferred the risk of
and professional interests, the strategies of career development from the organization
career development will lead to the obtaining to the individual (Leana, 2002).
of wanted results. The actual studies in this -The simultaneous action of singular
field proved that the employees with an careers with limitless careers. The absence
increased career selfmanagement and who of careers limits means that these are
know their interests and personality have a surpassing the organizational boundaries
greater feeling of belonging to the organisation linked to the function and hierarchy, they
and, also, a bigger satisfaction. Under these needed a much more personal flexibility
circumstances, the companies must not give up regarding activities and abilities. The
to their role of managing their employees individuals may choose careers according
careers, but they must adapt a specific manner with their own personality.
to the actual context. By developing the -The development of new employment
competences of career selfmanagement, by ways (employment on a determined
optimization of the decision-making process period) including new documents with
and by creating a favorable climat to personal evidence of work (replacing the work
initiative could lay the foundations of an books with the electronic ones)
organizational culture open to the new. The changes from the labour market
Analysing all of these, we are briefly determined new visions upon career. Here
presenting the most significant changes in the are some of them:
career context: -The individual work reflects his
-Replacing the career stability with its personality. The independent persons
mobility. Nowadays, the jobs are more choose business professions that offer the
often changed than in the past (Huteau, possibility to have initiative and to lead.
2003). The agressive individuals will choose

531
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

competitive professions and the coercive vacante în perioada 2007-2010.

ones will take professions that require a http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/raport%2
certain degree of obedience. 0activitate/Raport%20de%20activitate
-The choosing of career becomes a _2010.pdf
decision-making process in which the • Jigău, M. (2001). Consilierea carierei.
individual compares the occupational Bucureşti: Editura Sigma.
alternatives according to an algorithm that • Kahneman D., & Riis J. (2005).
„inlcudes the correspondence between Living, and thinking about it: Two
aptitudinal requests, the competence ones, perspectives on life. In Huppert, F. A.,
the personality ones, the valuable ones, the Baylis N., & Keverne, B. (Eds.), The
attitudinal ones specific to each occupation science of well-being (pp. 285-304).
and his own aptitudes, competences, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
personality features, values and attitudes” • Krumboltz, J. D. (1994). The Career
(Luca, 2002: 22). Beliefs Inventory. Journal of
-People are forming their preferrances for Counseling and Development, 72, 424-
different activities through a multitude of 428.
learning experiences. They give significance to • Leana, C. R. (2002). The Changing
the activities through the ideas that have been Organizational Context of Career. In
sent” (Krumboltz, 1994: 17). Feldman, D. C. (Ed.) Work Careers. A
-People differ from the point of view of Developmental Perspective. San
aptitudes, personality features, interests and Francisco: A Wiley Imprint.
values. • Luca, M. R. (2002). Elemente teoretice
According to all these characteristics, the şi metodice pentru consilierea carierei
individuals are suitable for some professions, în şcoală. Braşov: Editura Universităţii
which give them the opportunity to organize Transilvania.
and to value their personality. Their success in • Perlmutter, M., Hall, E. (1992). Adult
the confrontation with the working
development and ageing. (2nd ed.).
environment depends on the maturity degree in
their career, that is the way in which the Chichester: Wiley.
individual is ready to face the demandings of • Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career
his profession. construction: A developmental theory
of vocational behavior. In D. Brown
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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

REFLECTIVE JOURNAL WRITING AS A METACOGNITVE TOOL

Ramona HENTER*, Elena Simona INDREICA**

*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Brasov, Romania,

** Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract:
Metacognition, the ability to think about your own thinking process, becomes an essential ability for
teaching in nowadays schools, where pupils no longer need just information (seen today as perishable
goods), but need to be taught how to use the information they get. As students need a more personal
approach, a specific feedback according to their own personality traits, both teachers and students are
moving towards more formative assessment, new strategies of achieving this are required, one of these
being the reflective journal. We aimed to teach subject matter specific information along with
metacognitive methods and techniques, as a basis for the cognitive development of freshmen in
educational sciences, as they will be the teachers that will face the future generations that may be very
different from today’s pupils. We chose the reflective journal as the metacognitive technique to be
discussed in this article. In a reflective diary, students record their thoughts on their awareness involved
in cognitive labour, comment on their learning decisions explore the ways of using learning strategies
consciously and of adapting the learning process to the concrete situations. Such a learning journal can
offer the stimulus for the student to start thinking about his cognitive processes. We analysed students’
learning diaries in order to identify the extent to which metacognitive training can improve learning and
to gain insight on the process of learning new strategies for academic study.

Key words: metacognition, reflective journal, formative assessment, academic performance

1. INTRODUCTION performance; they need a more personal

Teaching and learning have been evolving approach, a specific feedback. As teachers and
along with the changes in our society. Not the students are moving towards more formative
gathering of information is important assessment, new strategies of achieving this
nowadays, but the way one can use the are required, one of these being the reflective
information in order to progress. For this journal. Although the usefulness of learning
purpose, strategies of taking control over one’s diaries was recognized as early as the 80’s
knowledge have been developed, many [14,18,19], in Romanian schools this method
starting from Flavel’s metacognitive theory. is rarely used (or at least there are no reports
Recalibration of educational objectives has on such activities). This is why we wanted to
been also called for by modern teaching include the learning diary in our teaching
theories [15, 2], the accent being set on methodology in order to raise students’
students’ engagement in the learning process. metacognitive awareness as means to improve
At the same time, simple grades are not learning performance.
enough anymore for assessing students’

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK activity. They may appear before, during and

Learning strategies are seen as part of the after the actual activity. Metacognitive
cognitive skills necessary for the practice of knowledge and beliefs can be divided into
various tasks leading to fluent performance, those related to the person, task and strategy
that is to automaticity when performing a skill. categories [apud 5,13] The person category
For cognitive psychology, learning is a shift covers everything a person thinks about
from controlled to automatic processing [12], nature and people around seen as cognitive
meaning that conscious attention to the task is agents, as individuals who think and learn. It
necessary before the automatic stage is also covers awareness of one’s own abilities.
reached. The more consciousness allotted in The task category contains all the
the first stage, including metacognitive information on what the individual has done,
monitoring, the more profound the learning is. the problem solving management and the
Metacognition here can be seen as a process degree of probability of success in
that enables the learners to make their mental completing the task. The strategy variable
representation become explicit in order to refers to the identification of objectives and
analyse knowledge effectively [12]. sub-objectives and selecting the cognitive
Metacognition, defined by the Great processes and strategies likely to be effective
dictionary of psychology as "all the activities in achieving these goals. The third category,
in which the subject gets to know its own the objectives, covers the desired results of a
knowledge tools or manages their functioning" cognitive enterprise. The last category of
[1], has been introduced by John Flavell in factors is represented by the strategies used to
1976 to define awareness of thought process, monitor the cognitive progress and they are
as well as the ability to monitor this process. used by learners to achieve both cognitive
Metacognition represents what people know and metacognitive goals.
about cognition in general and about their own The research raised by Flavell's model of
cognitive processes, in particular, as well as metacognition revealed the existence of two
how they use this knowledge to adjust their dimensions of metacognition: knowledge of
information processes and behaviour. cognition and regulation of cognition [apud
Metacognition may be „the missing link 7]. Knowledge of cognition is composed of
in school learning” [11], the thing that three factors: declarative knowledge
differentiates individuals with similar innate ("knowing that"), procedural knowledge
potential as concerning their performance. ("knowing how", including the learning
Thinking about what we think, how we think strategies), and conditional knowledge
when we face a certain task or situation and (knowing where, when and why a person
why we think in a certain way are levels of uses a certain strategy). Regulation of
metacognitive awareness; metacognition also cognition includes: planning (which involves
covers the ability to monitor these processes. selecting appropriate strategies and allocation
Papaleontiou-Louca [13] underlines the fact of resources necessary to perform the task),
that metacognition, on one hand, and learning monitoring (aimed at awareness about the
and development, on the other hand, are not level of understanding and degree of solving
equal, metacognition meaning the process of the task during its performance), testing
regulating learning and development. (implementation of strategies), review and
Metacognition takes the form of evaluation of strategies (including the
metacognitive experiences, knowledge, evaluation of the methods used, of the
objectives or goals and activities or objectives and of the results) [17].
strategies. Flavell [apud 5] presents Research has revealed that academic
metacognitive experience as the conscious achievements is associated with higher levels
feelings that we have about our own of metacognitive awareness and that
cognition during an activity, feelings like we metacognitively aware learners use more
do not understand something or that we are efficiently specific learning strategies, and
completely cognitively engaged in that attain higher performances [8,4]. Also, the

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
level of performance and degree of effective is further intended to elicit metacognitive
strategy use are stronger related to learning strategies [8].
metacognitive abilities than to differences in In a reflective diary students record their
intellectual abilities [17]. thoughts on the level of awareness involved
Metacognition can be taught, that is in their cognitive labour and comment on
metacognitive strategies can be clearly their learning decisions [13,6]. Through a
defined and presented to students and by reflective journal one can explore the ways of
teaching students metacognitive methods we using learning strategies consciously and of
empower them, we make them overtake their adapting the learning process to the concrete
own learning process. Some may already use situations. Such a log can offer the stimulus
such strategies, intuitively, but even they for the student to start thinking about his
benefit from metacognitive trainings through cognitive processes. The student writes down
consciously planning and monitoring the his learning experience, focusing on the
learning process. Among the metacognitive success or failure of using a certain technique
strategies that can be used in academic or on the important data achieved, the
learning we mention: questioning the thought feelings developed, the attitudes created
process generating questions [13], walking during the learning process. Students can
among images [3,7], semantic maps [3,7], improve future learning by filling in a
reflective journals [6,13]. learning journal, by discovering less
Reflective journals can be used to successful strategies or by starting to think
monitor both metacognitive dimensions about aspects not identified before (like
(knowledge of cognition and regulation of setting objectives, describing feeling arisen
cognition), as the writer has to reflect on his during learning, extrapolation of data, etc.).
own strengths or weaknesses during Providing descriptive feedback to
performing an activity, but also on other students was proved to be helpful in
aspects related to self-management or motivating them to continue writing in their
resource management, such as time- journals, as well as in seeing the correlation
management (the ability to develop efficient between writing about their thinking and
learning schedules and adhere to them), the academic success [Bain apud 9]. Writing and
management of efficient learning thinking offers students the opportunity to
environments depending one’s own make new connections and start making
characteristics (e.g., right place, lighting, meaning of what they are learning and
temperature, management of distractors), understanding the importance of why they
peer learning, help seeking when needed, etc. are learning it [9].
[3,8,10,16]. The reflective journal is a Reflective journals have the potential to
technique that combines metacognitive make major contributions to learning as
processing with learning. It can provide students are encouraged to express and
students with descriptive feedback on a reflect upon their feelings, beliefs, knowledge
regular basis so that they will gain greater and skills and teachers receive information
confidence and experience greater success in about their students’ thinking and their
class [9,10]. Besides fostering cognitive instructional techniques, which consequently
learning strategies, writing learning journals could improve teaching [9]. As a result,

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

instruction becomes more personalized, to answer the following questions, but they
which is one of nowadays educational were instructed to add any other thoughts they
system’s demands. Previous research [9] has had about their learning:
also proven the utility of learning logs, in 1. Which were my goals for this class?
terms of improving students’ achievement 2. What did I learn/understand or did not
but also motivation. learn/understand?
3. STUDY DESIGN AND 3. How will I use what I learned today?
METHODOLOGY 4. What do I have to learn connected with
3.1. Study design today’s topic? And how will I do that?
We recorded students’ journal entries for 5. How would you grade your activity
the five compulsory questions, then we today? (On a range from 1 – the lowest
to 10 – the highest).
performed a frequency analysis on the data
Students were given instructions on how to
obtained. We also recorded students’ grades keep a learning journal, they were given
(ranging from 1- the lowest to 10 – the examples and the teacher modelled writing the
highest) at the Developmental Psychology journal on the first assignment because
subject matter, as they kept the logs during research showed that students do not
classes allotted for this subject. sufficiently engage in cognitive and
We aimed to assess the impact of journal metacognitive strategy use in writing their
writing on learning performance. Our learning journals if there is no instructional
hypothesis was that using reflective journals support [16].
will increase students’ metacognitive They were encouraged to write their own
awareness and it will improve their academic thoughts, reassuring them that there is no
results for the subject matter where they used correct or wrong way of keeping a diary and
the journals. that their answers are important for their own
3.2. Sample learning process. The focus was on the
The participants of this research study metacognitive strategies used by each student,
included students from the Faculty of as the cognitive strategies were explicitly
Psychology and Educational Sciences, in the chosen by the teacher (the same teaching
first year of study, who were studying method was used with all students, including
Developmental Psychology. The division into those in the control group). However, students
the experimental group and the control group in the experimental group were asked how
was done according to their major: students they would keep on learning for that topic, so
majoring in special psycho-pedagogy and they had to think about other possible teaching
pedagogy were allotted to the experimental methods or about (metacognitive) strategies
group (consisting of 55 students, 21.3 average they could use for further learning at home.
age) and students majoring in teaching at They were asked to fill in the learning
preschool and primary school level were journal during the last minutes of each class,
allotted to the control group (the first group of over one semester. Group feedback was given
the year, of 35 students, 21.6 average age). at the beginning of next class, without personal
Both groups were formed by girls only. nomination. Completing learning journals
Selection was completed in this manner to provided students with the opportunity to
avoid any bias: all students had Developmental reflect on their own cognitive processes
Psychology in their compulsory curriculum involved in studying developmental
and they were taught by the same teachers, psychology.
using the same teaching methodology. 4. FINDINGS
3.3. Data Collection and Analysis The purpose of this research study was to
Students in the experimental group were determine if student achievement could be
asked to record their reflections on their improved by using reflective journals as a
learning content and process. They were asked metacognitive technique. All the students
involved are freshmen, as we thought they

536
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
would benefit the most of a metacognitive dimension, as most of them could explain very
training. well what they have learned or what was not
The control group’s average grade was very clear about the topic discussed (87% at
8.09 whereas the experimental group’s average the beginning of the semester), still this
point was 8.48. Although there is no number reached 93% at the end of the
statistically significant difference, we consider semester, as proof of the influence of
that this difference makes a point in terms of metacognitive strategies. Students (about 95%
actual results obtained by the students. The both in the beginning and in the end of the
experimental group proved to be more semester) had very clear in mind that they will
effective. This may be due to the students’ use all new knowledge in their career or as a
personal characteristics or effort, too, but parent, in future, thus showing use of
entries in the journals make us believe that metacognitive planning in an untrained way.
writing a log may have had an influence on Students wrote that they usually had to
their grades. study further to master each week’s topic, but
The analysis of the journal entries was in the beginning their answers were diffuse,
done separately for each question and for each without any method being clearly named of
participant. We took into account five journal described. As writing in the journal
entries for each participant, written at a 2 or 3- progressed, they mentioned the repetition of
week distance so that the differences would be the method used in class, but in the last entries
more obvious. more than half of the students described the
The first question concerned setting method they would use at home. The methods
objectives for that class. At the beginning of and techniques were from among those used in
the semester, in the first journal entries, most class, on different occasions, but students were
of the students had general expectations, such able to identify those more suitable for the
as “being active in class” (T.I., 21), “learning topic and for their learning style, thus showing
new things” (P.I., 21). But probably being a strong metacognitive abilities and highlighting
freshman implies all these. The answers the success of our endeavour, as previous
evolved towards statements like: “be more research showed that combining metacognitive
involved in team work” (B.C., 22), “pay strategies is one of the most important
more attention to the topic” (A.I., 21), “do my metacognitive abilities.
part of team work the best I can” (B.A., 24). In The last question required the students to
the last class, the objectives concerned more assess themselves and give themselves grades
detailed involvement (“give personal opinion” for their activity during each class. After the
(B.C., 22), “share knowledge” (S.A.M., 21), first session, most of them evaluated their
“conscious attendance” (U.A., 21), “awareness activity with 8 (the range being from 1- the
in class” (T.I., 21), all these showing more lowest to 10 – the best mark). The grades
phases of metacognitive awareness than in the increased gradually, up to 9 or 10 in the last
beginning of the semester. class, thus showing students’ greater self-
The next questions were aimed at confidence and feeling-of-knowing.
monitoring the cognitive processes involved in 5. CONCLUSIONS
learning during the lesson. Students seems to Metacognition seen as the ability to reflect
have been mastering this metacognitive on what you do or do not do as a learner can

537
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

bring about changes in the way of learning. Implications for EFL/ESL Teachers. The
Students may develop self-regulatory learning Reading Matrix. 11(2), 150 -159 (2011).
skills in an unconscious way, but specific 8. Kallay, E. Learning strategies and
training of the metacognitive abilities is the metacognitive awareness as predictors of
one that provides academic success. One of the academic achievement in a sample of
strategies of raising metacognitive awareness Romanian second-year students.
is using a reflective journal, as shown in the Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An
present study. But this is just one of the Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. XVI (3),
techniques that can be used for this purpose. 369-385, ISSN: 1224-8398 (2012).
Also, metacognitive strategies should be 9. Olson, J., Johnson, C. S. (2012).
practised on a regular basis and, as Olson and Implementing journal writing in grade 8,
Johnson (Olson & Johnson, 2012) highlight, Academic Research International, Part-II:
writing journals should become a weekly Social Sciences and Humanities, 3 (3),
routine in order to meet its purpose, along with ISSN-L:2223-9553, ISSN: 2223-9944.
a descriptive feedback offered each time by Available: www.sacap.org.pk (2014)
the teacher. 10. McCrindle, A. R., Christensen, C. A. The
Among the limits of this study, we include impact of learning journals on
the limited representativeness of the sample metacognitive and cognitive processes and
(students from one faculty and only girls), learning performance. Learning and
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COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN THE

WORK OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR

Elena HURJUI
Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Institution: Spiru Haret University, Braşov, Romania

         
Abstract This paper attempts to draw attention on the importance of communication in the
classroom, as a means of solving conflicts and on the method to solve future conflicts through student
participation in the counseling program.
Communication is an open process, influenced by many factors. The concept of "barrier" in the
communication process designates several categories: barriers related to the system, process, message,
reception, understanding, acceptance, action.
Communication blockages could have such intensity so as to produce noticeable differences
between the information transmitted and the message perceived. Ineffective communication leads to
loneliness, conflicts, family problems, professional dissatisfaction, psychological distress, physical illness
and even death when communication is completely disrupted.
The lack of conflict resolution skills was observed in students who had inappropriate
communication style.
Being a student these days is a difficult task. During this period the requirements and
expectations of society accumulate, becoming the source of many conflicts and tensions.
Working with students represents an important and beautiful activity, but a very difficult one. To
be a true teacher means understanding the needs, the way of thinking of the students and acting
thereunder when teaching the lesson.
In classes where the ability to solve conflicts is reduced, most of the time is spent on solving such
conflicts that arise during breaks and during the day.
Appropriate means of communication contribute significantly to choosing the adequate conflict
resolution strategy.
        

Keywords: communication, conflicts, barrier, information, message, inefficient communication

1. INTRODUCTION future conflicts and aggression of students that

participate in that program.
The purpose of this research is to The following specific objectives
analyse to what extent there is a significant emerged from the general objective:
influence of offering counselling services for - analysis of conflict resolution
conflict resolution on the ways of resolving techniques in a group of students

541
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

- analysis of aggression in a group o definition of desired performance

of students that did not attend the counselling level
program o construction of a training program
- analysis of conflict resolution that guides group performance to the desired
techniques after attending the counselling level.
program The results obtained allow us to
- analysis of the behaviour of a consider that at student’s group level, although
group of students during the counselling the psychosocial environment is functioning,
sessions aiming at solving conflicts characterized by high trust in the teacher and
- analysis of aggression in a group themselves, strong collective opinion, good
of students that attended the counselling adaptability, high normativity and professional
program training, there are communication and
This research was performed on a relationship problems between team members
batch composed of 62 students. that affect it often.
A questionnaire was applied on Tensions and even conflicts are present
student/student conflict situations and an and ideas and initiatives are often not
interview. expressed.
We used two batches of students There are a number of organizational
(namely two classes). On the first category we issues that need attention; they may not be
applied the questionnaire on student/student very serious at this stage, but preventive
conflict situations and after a period of time measures must be taken before problems
(one week) we applied a survey. escalate to problems difficult to repair.
On the second batch we applied the Analysing the results obtained by the
same questionnaire on student/student conflict subjects, we identified specific problems, such
situations. Subsequently the students as:
participated in a counselling program (3 1. Deficient communication due to
sessions of 3 hours each). insufficient inter-knowledge of all team
In this research we relied on the hypothesis members, to the tendency to turn dialogue into
that the influence of collective counselling monologue, stereotypes in the ways of
activity for conflict management on transmission and presentation of information,
appropriate solution techniques and students’ the use of high tone, lack of attention or skill
aggression exists and can be validated. in directing and controlling the dialogue.
2. Relationship difficulties between
2. THE INSTRUMENTS USED team members due to the difference in skills
WERE THE FOLLOWING: THE and habits, difference of opinions, preferences,
INTERVIEW AND THE aspirations.
QUESTIONNAIRE. One of the elements with great
  influence on psychosocial environment is
We identified and analysed the communication, and more precisely
educational environment where the classroom interpersonal communication. The
activity is conducted, focusing on development of this type of communication is
communication issues. In this regard we essential and plays a special role in the
developed a questionnaire. organization. Good interpersonal
The questionnaire for the analysis of communication will lead to the development
organizational and communicational of appropriate behaviour, favourable for
environment is structured on questions and positive development of the work group.
answers defining trust, work satisfaction, The planning phase of the change
group cohesion. process consists of defining precisely, starting
It provides information on: from the diagnosis of the situation, the most
o identification of problems at group appropriate actions to achieve the desired
level

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

change. The planning phase can be guided by Each group member shall practice and
the answers to three categories of questions: experience different roles required by the
- Questions regarding project situation, shall participate in decision making.
feasibility ("Is the intervention project The program includes 3
accepted by all persons involved?") “communication practice” sessions.
- Questions regarding the selection of The impact of the program on the
change strategy ("Which is the intervention group: noticeable changes in attitude,
strategy?", "Which will be the intervention behaviour, motivations that influence in a good
areas?", "What exactly will aim the change way the professional activity.
process?"); To achieve the objectives and methods
- Questions regarding the programming proposed, we will use the interview and
of the intervention ("What will be the start?", questionnaire to identify and analyse potential
"Who are the persons in charge and resources problems. Both methods are approached from
necessary for each action?", "Which will be the view of the school counsellor, whose task
the results’ evaluation criteria and how will is to solve this kind of problems.
the evaluation be conducted?"). We will present you hereafter the way
Optimization of psychosocial the research was conducted through
environment by improving interpersonal counselling interview. First we will present this
relationships and communication irrespective type of study, and then we will illustrate how it
of individual behaviour based on the idea that is applied, with the objective to integrate
interpersonal relationships within the work marginalized and undecided students,
group and communication can be developed in regarding their choice of future profession
a positive way through games and group within the majority group.
dynamic exercises. Brammer and Macdonald describe very
Ameliorative psychological comprehensively the essence of individual
intervention on organizational environment. counselling, which involves two steps: creating
The training program resorts to the client-counsellor relationship and facilitating
group of students and aims at creating new change (positive action), all in a context
opportunities to change and develop the defined by work alliance. The authors express
group. their views in a paper that became the basis for
The methods are interactive, chosen all counsellors who want to become effective
based on the problems identified, relying on practitioners: "The Helping Relationship,
the experiences of participants and providing a Process and Skills", in its sixth edition in 1996.
broad framework for dialogue and interaction. This presents the conditions to achieve a level
The program means carrying out a of interpersonal relationship that would allow
series of exercises and dynamic group games facilitating change and development: the
resulting in communication and networking counsellor must implement special personal
between group members. qualities and develop a range of appropriate
Group members are directly involved attitudes, while the client responds with
in the practical actions without theoretical confidence and availability. The authors call
thoroughness. the counselling relationship as helping
relationship, support relationship. Basically,
during the individual counselling process, a

543
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

point of utmost importance is represented by its evolution: intervention in crisis situations,

the collection of information from the client. ameliorative intervention, prevention,
The intake interview is presented by formative and development intervention.
Hackney and Cormier as a crucial element to Individual counselling is a personal
achieve a desirable level of efficiency in the interaction between the counsellor and the
counselling relationship. Presented and subject, during which the counsellor assists
described both as a start time for client- the subject in solving mental, emotional or
counsellor information sharing and as a social issues. Individual counselling is
method of assessment, the intake interview conducted in sessions providing maximum
(also called history interview) is different from confidentiality, which allows exploration of
other discussions between the client and the problematic ideas, feelings or attitudes. The
counsellor and involves collecting information counsellor and the counselled person form
on the general identification data of the client, together a team.
its lifestyle, current issues, personal and Group counselling involves a
family history, recommendations, etc. relationship between the counsellor and a
Findings: group whose members have a common
Through his/her way of thinking, how problem. The counselling process leverages
he relates to himself/herself, the interviewed the experience and knowledge of each
subject has a positive attitude, which is highly counselled person. At group level, a social
important for his/her professional life. Positive network is established through which, the
thinking can help move forward, to succeed in methods and plans to clarify the current
life and be happy. situation, leading to the individualization of
By attending one of the school the problem are developed for each individual.
counselling meetings, the subject reinforced This type of interaction contributes not only to
the belief on his decision to choose football the development of the individual but to the
career, gaining trust in his own forces. Now, development of the group as a whole. In group
he can be determined in exposing to his counselling a sense of community based on
colleagues his option for the football career. the need for affiliation, membership is
crystallized, clarifying desires, needs and
3. FINAL CONCLUSIONS options, and positive self-realization of each
member is related to group dynamics. Group
The art of communication is not a counselling objectives aim at creating an
natural process or a skill we are born with. We environment to develop participants' ability to
learn to communicate. Therefore we need to obtain information and skills, to develop
study what we learn in order to be able to use constructive attitudes.
our knowledge more effectively. Any Since educational counselling is a
communication involves creation and complex process, this process shall be
exchange of meanings. These meanings are following certain steps and techniques
represented by “signs” and “codes”. It seems depending on the problem and the personality
that people have a real need to "read" the of the counselled person.
meaning of all human actions. Observing and The initial step in counselling involves
understanding this process may cause us to be establishing an effective relationship between
more aware about what happens when we the counsellor and the student. Establishing
communicate. this relationship is absolutely necessary to
Counselling provides support to the create positive change. Only acceptance and
individual in exploring and understanding trust offered by such a relationship provides
his/her own identity, supports him/her in this. Formulating together goals on
developing strategies for problem solving and behavioural changes, decision making skills
decision making. In counselling four and eliminating negative thoughts is also a
directions derived for the problems approach step that must be performed. At this stage it is
of problems that individual may face during very important for the student to receive

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

signals that he/she is accepted as he/she is, joint development effort, characterized by
with the problems he/she has. This is individual goals, and common objectives:
indispensable in order to proceed with the - work closely with the counsellor during
counselling process. Also in this stage the assessment of counselling needs and
summarization has a special role: together own potentialities;
they highlight the essential elements, keeping - assume personal responsibility regarding
in focus the main issues and being able to involvement in the counselling process
glimpse some options. Finally, we can judge that the
The second step in counselling will importance of individual counselling
proceed to assisting the child to develop social relationship is a major one in the profession of
interests, cooperation and communication with the counsellor. Counsellor trainers all agree
others. Focus is set on helping the children to that the experience in individual counselling is
know and evaluate themselves. Warm a necessary stage for the next step, group
environment and empathy shall be provided counselling. In fact, all the other roles of the
without excluding interpretations and counsellor (consultancy, training,
constructive confrontation. At this stage organizational development) are based on
information shall be used as working communication and support skills that a
technique, meaning that a lot of information counsellor can only practice during individual
will be directed from the counsellor to the counselling.
child. Also the use of suggestion can be very
helpful for the student. Possible options can be
suggested that will add to those already BIBLIOGRAPHY
identified by the child and even methods, ways
1. Adler B.R., Rodman G.
that may be taken into consideration. The
Understanding Human Communication, New
technique of addressing questions is useful
York.(1985).
because it can help much in the way of seeing
2. Băban, A. (coord.). Consilierea
things and to highlight certain issues that
educaţională. Cluj- Napoca. (2001).
otherwise might remain unknown.
3. Birkenbihk, Vera.,.
The final stage in counselling will focus
Antrenamentul comunicării sau arta de a ne
on directing the child’s attention on
înţelege. Bucureşti: Ed. Gemma Pres. (1997).
constructive acts and behaviours. Specific
4. Butnaru, D. (coord.), Consiliere şi
procedures will be taught, action plans will be
orientare şcolară. Ia i: Ed. Spiru
developed starting from the simplest ones to
Haret.(1999).
the most complex ones in order to adopt a new
5. Cornelius, Helena, Faire,
behaviour. At this stage confrontation will
Shoshana, Ştiinţa rezolvării conflictelor.
provide support to children to assume their
Bucureşti: Ed. Ştiinţă şi Tehnică. (1996).
responsibilities. Encouragement is one of the
6. Deutsch, M. Educaţia pentru o
best ways to help the child achieve its needs
lume paşnică în Psihosociologia rezolvării
and to assimilate new behaviours.
conflictelor. Ana Stoica Constantin. Iaşi: Ed.
During the established relationship, the
Polirom.(1998).
counsellor and the student should not forget for
7. Dumitriu, Gh. Comunicare şi
one moment that they are partners engaged in a
învăţare. Bucureşti: EDP.(1998).

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8. Egan, G., The skilled helper: A 15. Slama-Cazacu, T. Stratageme

systematic approach to effective helping, comunicaţionale şi manipularea.Ia i: Editura
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.(1990). Polirom. (2000).
9. Grant, W., Rezolvarea 16. Stoica Constantin, Ana.
conflictelor. Bucureşti: Editura Teora. (1998). Psihosociologia rezolvării conflictelor. Ia i:
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_ Ed. Polirom. (1998).
Rogers; 17. Tomşa, Gh. (coord.). Dicţionar de
11. http://www.who.int/en/; orienatare şcolară şi profesională. Bucure ti:
12. Jigău, M., Consilierea carierei. Ed. Afeliu. (1996).
Bucure ti: Editura Sigma. (2001). 18. Tran, V., Stănciugelu, I.., Curs de
13. Levine, M. Effective problem teoria comunicării. Bucureşti: Editura Facultăţii
solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
(1994). de Comunicare şi Relaţii Publice "David Ogilvy".
14. Peretti, A. Tehnici de comunicare. (2001).
Ia i: Ed.Polirom. (2000).

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COUNSELING OF CHILDREN COMING FROM DISADVANTAGED

ENVIRONMENTS TO PREVENT FAILURE AND AVOID SCHOOL
ABANDONEMENT

Elena HURJUI

Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Institution: Spiru Haret University, Braşov, Romania

Abstract The democratization of social life imposes education preparing children and
adolescents to face their limits and with the condition of satisfying personal needs in the context of
reciprocal social relations. The existence of students who do not adapt to the requirements of the
educational environment represents the reality of any educational system. In Romania, this phenomenon
is highlighted by the low school grades, low test scores, second examinations and grade repetition,
absenteeism and school abandonment.

The significant proportion of students with school difficulties requires the reassessment of this
problem and finding new solutions for preventing school failure in disadvantaged children by the ratio
between the institution and their individual and family characteristics. Individual determinants of school
difficulties are often backed-up by the institutonal determinants and cause some children to enter the
downslope of failure or partial achievement of learning potential. Through a proper task mediation, by
encouraging the transfer from similar learning activities, by learning strategies and concepts, through
personal development activities and optimization of emotional and social skills, the child may acquire the
ability to overcome the typical performance level and to access a higher performance level.

Keywords: communication, conflicts, barrier, information, message, inefficient communication

1. INTRODUCTION The research objectives are the

following:
Purpose of the research • To identify the initial socio-emotional
This study aims at counseling children development levels and three cognitive
from disadvantaged environments by applying functional domains: attention and
a customized intervention program and executive functions, language,
investigating the opportunities for personal sensorimotor functions in children
development to increase adaptation capacity from the experimental and control
to a specific context of learning to overcome groups.
school difficulties and to avoid school • To develop cognitive functions in the
abandonment. three domains (attention and executive

547
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

functions, language, sensorimotor b) Socio-emotional adaptability

functions) and socio-emotional skills in assessment scale
children by applying the customized In order to assess the socio-emotional
intervention program. adaptability and the socio-emotional maturity
• To evaluate the neuropsychological level of preschoolers we have designed the
development in the three domains socio-emotional adaptability assessment
established and the socio-emotional scale.
skills of children after applying the Objective: To identify strengths
customized intervention program. (resources) and weaknesses (vulnerabilities) in
• To define the utility of customized preschool children.
counseling programs for children from Customized intervention program
disadvantaged environments. This program provides an insight on how
Research hypothesis we can help children become happy, to have
By implementing a customized an unconditional self-acceptance and to
intervention program during counseling hours become active subjects in their own learning
with children from disadvantaged process. The program will provide a range of
environments, the reduction of school real life situations that are applicable to
abandonment as well as the appearance of children from all socio-economic and cultural
continuity between pre-school and school environments. Different situations will be
levels is achieved. addressed: poor performances in tests or at
Research subjects: school, dealing with unfairness and rejection,
This research was conducted on a total coping with disruptive family situations and
of 100 children aged between 5 and 8 years inducement to violence and school
old, enrolled in regular schools. abandonment by the group the children belong
to. The activities will use the game as a
2. TOOLS USED IN THIS RESEARCH method of teaching and learning to make the
children aware that they are in a learning
a)Developmental neuropsychological situation and to determine them to use rational
assessment – NEPSY 1 NEPSY is a tool thinking skills, to develop unconditional self-
intended to assess neuropsychological acceptance, to experience problematic
development of preschool and school children, emotions and to stop destructive behaviors.
created by Marit Korkman, Ursula Kirk, Sally The methods used are inspired by classical
Kemp. The test was developed in three phases: psychodrama (J.L. Moreno) and from the
experimental, standardization and validation, structural-cognitive changeability theory
during 1987-1997, in the United States of (mediated learning) of Professor R.
America. Standardization of Feuerstein.
neuropsychological assessment of The program contains "exciting
development-NEPSY battery on Romanian lessons" adapted both to educational
population was conducted in 2005, by SC framework and to counseling framework and
COGNITROM-Cluj Napoca. presents a stimulus activity adapted to the
The most common types of development level, aimed at developing the
assessments with NEPSY tool concern: skills necessary to cope with this stimulus and
a) neuropsychological status of the containing summarizing questions and
child; sequences which allow children to make the
b) extended or selective assessment for transition from intellectual insight to the direct
a deeper analysis of specific cognitive application of concepts and skills in real life.
disorders; The ascertaining experiment, as a
c) full neuropsychological assessment. preliminary step of the research, aimed at
identifying age, gender, neuropsychological
                                                             
1
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S. 2007. A development level and socio-emotional
developmental neuropsychological assessment.

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development level differences of the subjects children in the experimental and control
in the two groups. groups, we executed graphs showing such
We started from the assumption that development levels, by using SPSS statistical
cognitive functions can be developed and processing program.
streamlined to optimize the integration of We associated to this objective the
children from disadvantaged environments in following hypothesis: we suppose that
order to overcome school difficulties and to initially, between the two groups of subjects
avoid failure and school abandonment by there were no significant differences in the
initiating training to compensate gaps and to three basic cognitive domains: attention and
ensure the development and intellectual executive functions, language, sensorimotor
acquisition of children, by implementing a functions. Following the analysis and
customized intervention program. interpretation of data, this hypothesis was
With reference to the purpose of the confirmed.
present research, that of counseling children Upon a first data analysis we obtained
from disadvantaged environments to reduce for the mental operation diagnosis test the
absenteeism and to prevent school following results:
abandonment, we recorded the values of The recorded low scores (52% of the
school attendance where the children are subjects in the experimental group and 46% in
enrolled. the control group - well below the desired
The analysis reveals the following level, 46% of the subjects in the experimental
results: 12% of the subjects in the group and 48% in the control group – below
experimental group and 8% in the control the desired level) reflect deficits in the ability
group had a low frequency, 68% of the to assume and to generate new solutions to
subjects in the experimental group and 62% in problems and to plan the strategy. Difficulties
the control group had an average frequency, encountered in visual and auditory attention
and 20% of subjects in the experimental group tasks suggests that the subjects are deficient in
and 30% in the control group had a high terms of attention - poor attention, impulsivity,
frequency. or both. For the third level, the limit level, the
First, we were interested to see if the results obtained (2% of the subjects in the
experimental group and the control group are experimental group and 6% in the control
equivalent in terms of the degree of group) show poor attention and vigilance for
neuropsychological development of children, repetitive tasks, impulsive reactions or
given that the assignment into groups was difficulties in applying complex rules. None of
done randomly. In order to verify this, the the subjects in the two groups is included in
subjects from the two groups were tested this domain at or above the desired level.
using NEPSY battery of tests, measuring three In the domain of language the subjects
complex cognitive domains selected from the did not reach the desired and above the
five domains of the test. desired level corresponding to age category. In
To achieve the objective of identifying the category well below the desired level 6%
the initial neuropsychological development of the subjects in the experimental group and
level in the three cognitive functional 4% in the control group were included, in the
domains: attention and executive functions, category below the desired level 74% of the
language, sensorimotor functions of the subjects in the experimental group and 72% in

549
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

the control group were included, and in the 40% of the subjects in the experimental group
category limit level we found 20% of the and 36% in the control group are included in
subjects in the experimental group and 24% in the low level of sociability category, 52% of
the control group. the subjects in the experimental group and
Low scores in this domain of language 58% of the control group are included in the
reflect generalized speech and language average level category and 8% of the subjects
disabilities, learning disabilities that are based in the experimental group and 6% of the
on language, i.e. scarce perception and control group are included in the high level
auditory- phonological analysis which category.
negatively affects language understanding and This dimension measures the ability of
learning. The difficulties in accessing social integration of children providing them
language labels can be caused by poor with rules, habits, ways of thinking and
updating of sound - symbol associations and spatial-temporal frames in accordance with the
of the spoken word - written word links social environment in which they develop.
involved in learning how to read and write. The high percentage of subjects included in
Following the analysis and the low and average level of socialization
interpretation of data, the subjects showed requires intervention in order to increase
values below the average for their age, as adaptation to the social group.
follows: 38% of the subjects in the The results obtained in the dimension
experimental group and 38% in the control involvement as engagement and active
group were included in the category well intervention capacity in a task, resulting in
below the desired level, 38% of the subjects in increased individual performance, with the
the experimental group and 44% in the control items: compliance with rules, curiosity,
group showed values below the desired level, initiative, are distributed as follows: 66% of
and in the limit level 24% of the subjects in the the subjects in the experimental group and
experimental group and 18% in the control 62% in the control group are included in the
group were included. category low level of involvement, 34% of the
Poor performance in this domain subjects in the experimental group and 38% in
indicates difficulties in organization, the control group are included in the average
sequencing and quick and accurate monitoring level category.
of fine digital movements, difficulties Independence, expressing the will,
associated with the language, reading emotional stability, self-confidence were
difficulties and attention disorders. Also, we measured in the self-esteem dimension. The
can conclude on the existence of difficulties in results obtained are included in two categories
fine motor coordination required to reproduce only, namely 76% of the subjects in the
positions - inefficient processing of tactile and experimental group and 78% in the control
kinesthetic information. For subjects included group are included in the category of low level
in the lowest levels, the presence of a high of self-esteem, 24% of the subjects in the
degree of impulsivity, a constant lack of experimental group and 22% in control group
planning and estimating the degree of are included in the average level category of
difficulty of the task are obvious. this dimension.
During the preliminary stage we were From the above observations and
interested in the degree of socio-emotional presentations it results that there are no
maturity of children. To assess the socio- significant differences between the children in
emotional adaptability of children we the experimental group and those in the
designed a specific psycho-diagnostic tool: control group in terms of how they were
Social and emotional adaptability assessment evaluated by experts and hence in the degree
scale in children. of socio-emotional adaptability.
The following results were obtained in
the sociability dimension that includes
relation, participation and receptivity items:

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

3. CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY
Through this paper I wish to
emphasize the importance of counseling
children in forming their personality and in 1. Ashman, A., Conway, R., An Introduction
their preparation for life. to Cognitive Education. Theory and
The increasing number of school failures Applications. Londra: Routledge. (1997).
and abandonment, of delinquent or unhealthy 2. Băban, A. (coord), Consiliere educaţională
behaviors, of emotional disorders among students, – Ghid metodologic pentru orele de dirigenţie
indicate that the school should be doing much şi consiliere. Cluj: Ed. Ardealul. ( 2001).
more in this direction. To meet these real needs, 3. Cadet, B. Psychologie cognitive. Paris: In:
the Ministry of Education and Research proposes Press. (1998).
in the new National Curriculum the introduction of 4. Clinciu, A.I. Chestionar de inadaptare
the optional study discipline “Counseling and şcolară. Braşov: Lux Libris. (2005).
Orientation” for all three levels of schooling:
5. Elias, M., Tobias, S., Friedlander, B.
elementary, secondary school and high school. Inteligen a emo ională a copiilor.
The new study discipline meets the basic Bucure ti :Ed. Curtea Veche. (2002)..
needs of any child and adolescent: self- 6. Feuerstein, R. Instrumental enrichment and
knowledge, communication skills, creativity, the concept of cognitive modifiability.
decision-making and problem solving. Baltimore: University Park Press. (1980).
7. Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, R., Kozulin, A.
Conclusions after applying the The ontogeny of cognitive modifiability.
customized intervention program on Jerusalem: ICELP. (1997).
children. 8. Feuerstein, R.S., Falik, L., Rand, Y. The
Present life exigencies, the need to Feuerstein Instrumental Encrichment
cope with complex problems and changes in Program. Jerusalem: ICELP. (2006).
various activity sectors have made adaptability 9. Ivey, A., Simek-Dowing, L. Counseling
a priority issue. and Psychoterapy: Skills, Theories and
This social background supposes Practice. Enblewood Cliffs Nj: Prentice Hall,
education preparing children and adolescents Inc. (1980).
to face their limits and with the condition of 10. Kopciowski Camerini, J. L’aprendimento
satisfying personal needs in the context of mediato. Orientamenti teoricied esperienze
reciprocal social relations. practiche del metodo Feuerstein. Brescia: Ed.
Children do not learn through La Scuola. (2002).
abstract concepts and pure reasoning but 11. Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S.
through feelings and involvement. Thus, Evaluarea neuropsihologică a dezvoltării.
affection becomes the channel for cognition. Manual de administrare. Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Cognitrom. (2005).
12. Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S.
Evaluarea neuropsihologică a dezvoltării.
Cluj-Napoca: Editura Cognitrom. (2007).
13. Malim, T. Procese cognitive. Bucureşti:
Ed. Tehnică. (1999).

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

14. Piaget, J., Noam, Chomsky, Teorii ale 17. Tomşa, Gh. Orientarea şi dezvoltarea
limbajului. Teorii ale învăţării. Dezbaterea carierei la elevi. Bucureşti: Editura Casa de
dintre Jean Piaget şi Noam Chomsky. Politică, Editura şi Presa Viaţa Românească,. ( 2003).
Bucureşti: Ed. Politică.(1988). 18. Vrăsmaş, E. Educaţia copilului preşcolar.
15. Sălăvăstru, C. (1994). Logică si limbaj Elemente de pedagogie la vârsta timpurie.
educaţional. Bucureşti: E.D.P. Bucureşti: Ed. Pro Humanitate. (1999).
16. Ştefan, C.A., Kallay, E. Dezvoltarea a. La lutte contre l’échec scolaire: un défi
competenţelor emoţionale şi sociale la pour la construction européenne,
preşcolari. Cluj-Napoca: Editura ASCR. www.eurydide.org.
(2007). b. www.jvis.com/links/counselor.htm - (
links-uri pentru consilieri)

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

IMPACT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON EDUCATION:

PERSPECTIVES

Diana ILIŞOI*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The alteration of the modern world’s principles, the relativization of values, the vanishing of
references, the invasion of the new and of the unpredictable, the hallucinating promotion of quantity and
appearances to the detriment of quality and core values, the indeterminism and uncertainty – are only a
few of the traits that characterize the contemporary world and that hold an impact on the human
condition. In this context, the very status of pedagogy, as a science and art of education has modified,
whereas the perspective of enlightenment over the paideic action has come to an end. Within the
managerial type of school, learning becomes a mere transfer of useful data for the final purpose of
graduating and not a process in which actors enjoy the process itself. The paradigm of the managerial
type of school transforms the relationship educator – educated, from a deeply human relationship into a
contract-based relationship. The application of European quality standards in the field of education
imposes the surpassing of mimesis, amateurism and improvisation and, not the least, a change of
mentality in all those concerned about the quality of education.

Keywords: quality management, contract-based school, education paradigm, humanist psychology

claiming that we are now witnessing the death

The alteration of the modern world’s of pedagogy and the increasingly emphasized
principles, the relativization of values, the tendency, on behalf of the academic
vanishing of references, the invasion of the community, to make the move from
new and of the unpredictable, the hallucinating “education, perceived as pedagogy, to
promotion of quantity and appearances to the education regarded as management”. (Michael
detriment of quality and core values, the R. Allen “The Death of Pedagogy”).
indeterminism and uncertainty – are only a Following the same trend, Pascal
few of the traits that characterize the Brukner states: “The more pertinent is the
contemporary world and that hold an impact hierarchy of schooling institutions, based on
on the human condition. In this context, the their results, the more they become nothing
very status of pedagogy, as a science and art of else but factories producing customers and not
education has modified, whereas the free human beings, which finally equal the
perspective of enlightenment over the paideic destruction of schools”.
action has come to an end. There are voices

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

The perils are also noticed by the conditions”. The very examination tools fall
French thinker, Jean_ François Lyotard, who under standardization. Predominant are
realizes that the spiritual formation of a human examinations of “factual” type, the education
being (Bildung) falls under desuetude and the “market” being invaded by books and other
process of knowledge is excessively materials containing multiple-choice tests and
pragmatic. Within the managerial type of quizzes. The educator turns into a
school, learning becomes a mere transfer of “troubleshooter” of shortcomings, he or she
useful data for the final purpose of graduating supervises the successful passage of his/her
and not a process in which actors enjoy the clients through the bed of Procrustes: “An
process itself. The paradigm of the managerial <<odd>> student who does not match
type of school transforms the relationship typologies benefits from a special
educator – educated, from a deeply human <<treatment>>, as if he raised a quality issue.
relationship into a contract-based relationship. His adjustment is experimented, whereas
In this scenario, the professor or educator correction is looked for, and, should all efforts
becomes and administrator of data-goods and be useless, the student is abandoned and the
concentrates his or her attention toward three process of education is continued” (Michael R.
directions: Allen “The Death of Pedagogy”). “Deficient
1. teaching identifies with “goods- delivery”, products” are often concealed, in order to
which needs to be “wrapped”, to the extent preserve the image of the institution on the
in which data and its belonging abilities market. The institution’s promotion takes over
need to be well organized and delivered to the trend of commercial advertisements, meant
be consumed (passively) in measured to attract financial resources and gaining of
doses; popularity by means of specialized personnel
2. the “delivery” process has to be well in public relations, but who are unaware of the
planned and organized; area of education.
3. the information organization and the Pascal Brukner warns about: “Although
institutional organization hold the same school constitutes the place where certain
objective, clearly defined and quantifiable: useful preparations occur, which later on will
passing of exams. be commercialized, it has to continue to
The topic of quality and the formative facilitate the learning of some disciplines, free
meaning of education are omitted. of cost, and which are related to one’s very
The allocation of such a “role” to an personal accomplishment” (“Misery of
educator has overwhelming effects on medium Prosperity”).
and long terms. On the one side, there occurs a The famous American philosopher and
de-professionalization of educators, and, on pedagogist, John Dewey, criticized the
the other side, individualized education makes redundant, erudite and disconnected from
room for routine and external limitations reality school, and promoted the idea of
imposed by passing exams, which becomes a progressive education, seen as reconstruction
priority, and a target in itself. and continuing reorganization of experience,
In this context, the role of the student is excluding any prescription of determining,
reduced to a buyer’s role that has to be external model. In “Democracy and
seduced by means of “nicely looking Education”, a reference work for the twentieth
merchandise”. The same contract- based century pedagogy, Dewey perceives
relationship is to be met in between school and democracy as “shared experience”. Starting
society: the school provides society with form this assertion, education itself, in the
individuals well equipped with the necessary spirit of democracy, implies an individual’s
competences for its reproduction and self-improvement, and more than that, his
maintenance. School thus becomes a participation. This is the weak point of the
“manufacturer whose product is the very entrepreneurial school that, ignoring
graduate that stands for a person who passed pedagogy, ends up ignoring the very core of
pre-established exams, under optimal democracy.

554
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
The contemporary education takes over the (“homo-humanus” – Karl Jaspers) by
tensions and dysfunctions of society in its promoting the education centered on people
whole. Analysts discover the status of and based on the humanist psychology.
confusion, hyper-bureaucratization, At the core of the humanist psychology
depersonalization, demoralization of lies the human being, considered to be a free
personnel, emotional weariness, fall of being that possesses a growing and
infrastructure, curricular stagnation and development potential in need to be valued
violence as being characteristics of the through education. An emphasis is laid on the
education system, which represent, at the same uniqueness and the infinite diversity of the
time, the mirror image of the contemporary human beings, on their freedom to choose and
world. to build their own existential path.
In a society based on money, placed under In this context, the abusive use of
the tyranny of economy, all activities are scientific, statistical, exclusively quantitative
filtered through the cost-profit ration, methods is considered to be inadequate for the
including education. Nigel Blake criticizes the study of the human being.
approach to education as “market economy”, The role of psychology and, implicitly, of
which distorts the specificity of education, education is to help people to maximize their
reducing its chances to oppose deviations and potential of psychological growth and to
dangerous tendencies of society (technicism, support them in reaching their psychic and
consumerism etc.). social maturity. Moreover, the humanist
The economic perspective and psychology offers an optimistic perspective on
management applied to education result in the human beings and their becoming, and is able
aggressive reduction of the teaching action and to increase their pedagogical optimism, whose
educational relationship’s depth and efficiency has already been proven in the
complexity, of school’s culture and ethos. The educational action.
industrial type of management cannot become Nevertheless, knowledge and
a paradigm for the educational reality understanding of the human being, together
administration, without ignoring the human with his entire personal and relational life, of
infinite diversity and the human excellence. his subjective and conscientious experience,
The antidote could not have come but from do not represent a purpose in itself. They are
the field of humanities. Thus, an ample but the premises for the drawing of action
process of establishing a new educational methods for the purpose of surpassing internal
paradigm has begun, and it was designed so as or external obstacles, and appreciating
to diminish the radicalization of consequences personal potential.
of modernity, while improving the human Starting from the humanist psychology,
condition, paradoxically subdued to hardships. new models of psycho-pedagogical action
The post-modern paradigm of education have been designed, and their common trait is
belongs to the interpretative movement of the individual-centered approach, an
humanities and education sciences and it individual found in a double status: object of
consists of the existential-humanist paradigm formation but also subject of his/her self-
and the interactional one. formation.
The existential-humanist paradigm reflects To the opposite pole are the supporters of
the society’s effort to recover the human side standards application and of recommendation

555
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

for quality assurance in education. They They are an extrapolation of any teaching
appreciate that any rejection act reflects action, irrespective of the nature of the
isolation, lack of realism or lucidity. Denial of contents transmitted. Following the same
criteria is not justified so long as these criteria manner, the rule of 3Ms (methods, means,
hold only an orientation character and are materials) can be applied so as to identify the
perfectible. necessary resources for the accomplishment of
Although “quality” in the industrial era is the objectives proposed.
approached exclusively in relation with the The closest to the “core” of education are
technical field, (something that may be the standards regarding the personal dimension
controlled, incorporated within a product as (human), including behavior and attitude
the result of manufacturing), after the Second within the educational endeavor of those
World War, through voices of E. W. Deming involved in it. These aspects, harder to be
and J.M. Juran, we witness an expansion of the quantified, are finally reflected in the quality
term, a new interpretation, outside the of education. One’s personal set of values,
manufacturing process. Going beyond this philosophy of life, attitude toward the human
utilitarian meaning of the term, quality aims at being, toward self, own profession etc. are
activities, processes, organizations etc., giving dimensions belonging to the human nature and
them some attributes capable to satisfy specific which have an impact on the quality of the
requirements. Thus, the term is used in actions performed.
reference to the quality of a university, The harmonization of the education
consisting of the quality of education activities actors’ expectations (teachers-students) is also
taking place within the university. an important aspect holding major
Even though the idea of evaluating consequences in the quality field.
organizational performances of universities is Accomplished expectations lead to
European, it came to be used on the American satisfaction, whereas unaccomplished ones
continent as well. At the middle of the become source for frustration and
twentieth century, Sir Arthur Norrington, disappointment. Even though these standards
Chairman of the Trinity College of Oxford are the result of the economic and managerial
proposed a classification of universities into thinking application within the field of
three categories, based on their value standards education – an activity profoundly spiritual –
(quality of educational processes), proposal the heart of the issue remains connected with
that led to numerous oppositions. Still, the idea the human psychology. Those who design and
is accepted in the USA, where an agency is apply into practice their projected ideas are the
founded – “College Connections” and fifty people. In the absence of an anthropological
publications take care of rating the best approach, there is the risk that the issues of
American universities. Only in 1998 are quality in education remain a mere slogan, an
debated reconsidered in England, and in 1999, abstract requirement, an extra load of
sixteen indicators of performance are applied bureaucracy, with no effect on the real world.
to universities. The basic principle of the quality
Education quality standards need to be management is “Describe what you do and do
clearly formulated, they should be clear and what you describe!” Therefore, any significant
concise, but realist, that is, they must be change in the quality of education starts with
applied to the school realities at a specific the teachers. These are the ones to apply what
time. These standards constitute an important they do. We belong to the former stage:
instrument for the education institution describe what you do, which results in
management, but also for the teaching staff emitting some impressive quantities of
and students engaged in the educational documents that nobody has the time to apply
process. Their teleological value lies in the into practice. We are caught in this whirlpool
clear formulation of objectives to be reached. of documents like in a trap, our own trap that
Where do I want to reach? How do I reach consumes our powers.
there? How do I know that I reached there?

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
Maybe the system in itself is not a bad surpassing of mimesis, amateurism and
one, yet, the manner in which it is applied is improvisation and, not the least, a change of
wrong. The mechanical application, lacking mentality in all those concerned about the
criticism, of some models and their quality of education.
implementation within the Romanian space
reveals not only incompatibilities but also
weaknesses of the Romanian people, which BIBLIOGRAPHY
Constantin Radulescu Motru spotted. The
Romanian thinker identifies the lack of 1. Dewey, John (1973). Democra ie i
perseverance as a characterisitic of the educa ie, Bucure ti: EDP.
Romanian soul, which becomes visible in the 2. Motru, C. R. (2012). Psihologia poporului
nineteenth century, once with the român, Bucure ti: Paideia.
reorganization of the Romanian state. At that 3. Nica, Panaite (2000). Managementul
time, the “professional improvisations epoch” calită ii i ierarhizarea universită ilor
started, through imitations from other foreign române ti, Phare, Universitas.
nations. 4. Stan, E. (2004). Pedagogie postmodernă,
The application of European quality Ia i: Institutul European.
standards in the field of education imposes the

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SOCIO and HUMANITIES

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

TRAINING PROGRAMS APPROACHES IN THE CONTEXT OF ADULT

EDUCATION. CASE STUDY ON A TRAINING PROGRAM IN
DEVELOPING ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCES

Nicoleta LIŢOIU *

* Teacher Training Department, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The European strategies in education focus on key competences as autonomous elements of
personal and professional development to be supported by specific learning activities and patterns. One
of these key competences at European level is represented by the entrepreneurial competences. From this
perspective, the need for communication and collaboration, for exchange ideas and experiences in order
to harmonize the training programs approaches is obvious. This paper is aimed to present the lesson
learnt after implementation of professional development training program on entrepreneurial
competences and the benefits for all involved, in the context of adult education. This training program
was developed throughout a European project, coordinated by the University Politehnica of Bucharest
and represents a suitable solution to transfer good practice in training field and to support mutual
learning, as specific practices in adult education and professional development, particularly. During 3
years of implementing this European project, among other specific activities aimed to promote the
entrepreneurial culture and increase the awareness, a training program in entrepreneurial field was
designed, authorized and implemented, as a key element of sustainability. The training program has
benefited of comprehensive curricula, in terms of knowledge and skills, and consists of 10 modules
focusing on development of entrepreneurial skills and competences and is addressed to employers,
employees and persons who want to start an independent activity, in order for them to get support in term
of counseling and expertise in entrepreneurial field.

Keywords: adult education, training program, entrepreneurial competences.

1. THE ROLE OF TRAINING reason, any initiative in designing and

PROGRAMS IN ADULT EDUCATION implementing professional development
training programs has to take into
From an organizational perspective, consideration the key assumptions about adult
professional development has to ensure that learners, defined by the Eduard Lindeman
the performance improvement needs are met, (1926), statements which focus on the
generating, in this way, some adaptation and following aspects, commented by M.S.
compromise of the main adult education Knowles [4]:
principles. The application of these principles - Adults are motivated to learn as
requires practitioners to experience and they experience needs and interests that
manage effectively the tension created learning will satisfy; therefore, these are
between adult learning characteristics and the appropriate starting points for
organization’s performance principles. For this organizing adult learning activities (i.e.

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

professional development training and European educational projects focused on

programs). human resources development as useful and
- Adults’ orientation to learning adapted implementation tools.
is life-centered; therefore, the
appropriate units for organizing adult 2. EDUCATIONAL PROJECTS AND
learning are life situations, not subjects. THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
- Experience is the richest source PROGRAMS
for adults’ learning; therefore, the core
methodology of adult education is the In line with the social and educational
analysis of experience. policies promoted at the European level, one
- Adults have a deep need to be of them already mentioned above, there is an
self-directing; therefore, the role of the important direction in educational projects
teacher is to engage in a process of dedicated to the human resources
mutual inquiry with them rather than to development, particularly Sectorial
transmit his or her knowledge to them Operational Programme Human Resources
and then evaluate their conformity to it. Development (SOP HRD), to emphasize,
- Individual differences among among other objectives, the role and benefits
people increase with age; therefore, of professional development training
adult education must make optimal programs. One example is represented by the
provision for differences in style, time, professional development training program in
place, and pace of learning. entrepreneurial competences field, designed
Moreover, defining adult education as the and implemented through the European project
process of adults gaining knowledge and “Development of the entrepreneurial
expertise based on theirs goals, we need to competences - an efficient alternative for
take into consideration the phases of the adult adaptation to the labour market in the
learning planning process. The four phases set information society (SOP
up by the R. Swanson in 1996 [4] are referring HRD/92/3.1/S/62353)”. This is a project
to: financed by the European Community through
- Need in order to determine what the Sectorial Operational Programme Human
learning is needed to achieve goals. Resources Development (SOP HRD) 2007 –
- Create strategy and resources to 2013, Priority Axis 3: „The adaptability’s
achieve the learning goals. growth for employers and IMMs”, Key Area
- Implement the learning strategy and use of Intervention 3.1: „Promotion of
the specific resources. entrepreneurial culture”.
- Evaluate the attainment of the learning During 3 years of implementing this
goals and the whole process of reaching European project, among other specific
them. activities aimed to promote the entrepreneurial
From another perspective, one of the main culture and increase the awareness, a
objectives the European policy in education profesional training program in entrepreneurial
and training set out in the strategic framework field has been developed, authorized and
for European cooperation in education and implemented, as an important argument in
training – ET 2020 [2] is focused on ensuring sustainability of the project’s
improving the quality and efficiency of activities.
education and training by enabling all learners The specific project objectives, correlated
to acquire the basic skills and competences to the main activities, were aimed to: (a)
needed for their employability by encouraging increase the awareness and promotion of the
cooperation between all sectors of education, entrepreneurial mind through public
training and the world of work. This specific information campaign, networking between
important objective, emphasized at the different categories of beneficiary as well as
European level, might be achieved even using the development of a study which refers to
professional development training programs entrepreneurial opportunities correlated with

560
the new occupations on the labor market; (b) develop and practice entrepreneurial skills and
support and provide counseling and expertise competences. In line with these ideas, the
in entrepreneurial field by carrying out the increasing ability of participants to put in
specific activities of Entrepreneurial practice various, creative and practical
Assistance Center; (c) develop the business ideas became one key issue of the
entrepreneurial skills and competencies in training program, focusing on practical
order for a number of 500 persons to start applicability of the modules in the real life
business by specific activities and training contexts and situations.
programs; (d) certify 95% participants of the The training program was based in its
professional training programs in design on the key aspects of a general
entrepreneurial field; (e) ensure the framework outlined in the financial proposal
appropriate conditions, study facilities and of the project, basically referring to the
educational resources for all participants of principles of entrepreneurship in information
training program by using the dedicated e- society; ABC in business and the development
Learning platform. of a business plan; culture, motivation and
entrepreneurial attitude; strategic management
3. CASE STUDY ON TRAINING and marketing; risk management; ethics in
PROGRAM IN ENTREPRENEURIAL entrepreneurship and competences’
FIELD development; creating social networks; labor
market’s trends and opportunities of
As we already mentioned, a professional development; relevant legislation supporting
training program has been developed the business competition.
throughout the project, based on the main For each module of the training program
findings and results of the empiric study was developed a specific manual, which was
Entrepreneurship – opportunity, ability, distributed to the participants and uploaded to
innovation, and future, focusing on the dedicated e-learning platform of the
entrepreneurial opportunities development, project. The study materials and the
with specific reference to the new complementary educational resources have
occupational domains on market labor and to been designed by the experts according to the
the dimension of entrepreneurship in Romania. specific features of the adult learning –
The training program has benefited of accessible content and a friendly format,
comprehensive curricula, in terms of which facilitate individual study, but also
knowledge and skills, in an attempt to cover stimulate the dialog and debates during the
the major areas of interest in order to provide face to face interactions in training sessions.
support and assistance to someone interested All these materials and resources are still
to start a business/independent activity. available on the project e-learning platform,
For this reason the training program having a user-name and password for access.
includes ten modules with different The training program has been accredited
perspectives, as follows: 1. Entrepreneurial by the National Authority for Qualifications
culture; 2. The business and the legal and implemented during the period March,
framework; 3. Business plan; 4. Innovation in 2013 – June, 2013, involving 20 trainers and
business; 5. Strategic Management; 6. 153 participants who completed the program
Marketing; 7. ICT supporting your business; out of 168 selected to start the courses. The
8. Project Management; 9. Human Resources attendants have been organized in six groups –
Management in start-up business; 10. What an G1-G4, persons who want to start an
entrepreneur must know about finance? independent activity and G5-G6, employers
The training program, as the listed modules and employees, distributed in two locations.
suggest by names, is aimed to familiarize Each group has covered 105 training hours,
participants to main contents and information as follows: 20 hours for theory concepts and
needed for setting up an overview on the 85 hours for applications, including individual
entrepreneurial field in order for them to study. Moreover, 50 hours (20 hours -

561
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

teaching activities and 30 hours practical

activities) out of those 105 training hours of 30
25 Medium
the program, have been designed as face to 20 Level
face activities, during of 8 training days (i.e. 3 15
10 High
alternative weekends spread out on 5 weeks). 5
0 Level
The rest of the training hours, according to the
accredited technical proposal, worked out in Very High
individual study sessions and applications Level
facilitated by the e-learning platform,
dedicated to the training program.
The training program ended in June 2013
with a graduation exam, and all those
promoted have been received a certificate, Figure 1 - Level of beneficiaries’ satisfaction
recognized by the Ministry of National
In the above diagram it is significant that
Education and the Ministry of Labor, Family,
the “low level” receive no answers from all
and Social Protection.
those 143 respondents to the questionnaire and
Moreover, after the completion of the
participants to the training program, and the
training program, the participants benefited of
last two options of the answers, “high level”
two counselling/coaching sessions for each
and “very high level” registered 91,61% of the
group.
total appreciations.
4. IMPACT STUDY AND RESULTS
120
In order to evaluate the effect of the 100
implemented activities, a project’s impact
study has been developed. Based on the data 80
collected by questionnaire and focus-group
60 Location 2
instruments and analyzed on different topics
with relevance for the main activities Location 1
40
implemented (i.e. networking, information
campaign, Entrepreneurial Assistance Center, 20
training program), conclusions have been
drawn and shared with all the beneficiaries 0
during the closing project conference. Good Very Good Poor
The specific objectives of the impact Figure 2 – Training program’s quality
analysis imply the correlation between the
results and proposed objectives for the main Referring to the other findings of the
activities, and the identification of the next impact study, the quality of training program,
directions for action, in terms of project in terms of contents/modules (the Figure 2),
sustainability. The good lessons learnt from the number of beneficiaries who answered
the project experience will become the starting according to the descriptors “good” (30,7%)
points for planning the next steps in action and “very good quality” (68,53%), cumulative,
plans. leads to an impressive percent of 99,3%.
As far as the training program is concerned, Majority of these respondents have declared
the main findings emphasize high levels of that they started courses with high
beneficiaries’ satisfaction and, respectively, expectations, which have been met after the
appreciation of the program quality, as the training program completion (59,5%) or they
following diagrams show, taking into had different initial expectations, but the
consideration the two locations involved for quality and accuracy of information, the
the six groups of trainees. examples used and the educational resources
provided and accessible on the e-Learning

562
platform, have convinced them to appreciate and its replication is also a key issue for all
the training program content’s quality as very those are willing to learn about
good (9%). entrepreneurship and business plans, or to
These arguments are only a part from improve their entrepreneurial competences.
those which recommend the training program
in developing entrepreneurial competences as REFERENCES
an important element of project’s
sustainability. 1. Council conclusions of 12 May 2009
on a strategic framework for
5. CONCLUSIONS European cooperation in education
and training (‘ET 2020’), 2009/C
The project impact study focused mainly on 119/02, Official Journal of the
levels of objectives’ attainment, but not European Union, 28.5.2009.
forgetting the entrepreneurial opportunities 2. Craft, A. Continuing Professional
development, with specific reference to the Development, Routledge Falmer,
new occupational domains on market labor. USA, 2nd edition (2000).
Many respondents considered the project as 3. Knowles, M., Holton, E., Swanson, R.
“very applied”, “a challenging experience”, The Adult Learner, Routledge
“open mind experience which stimulated Publishing Company. USA, 7th
learning of entrepreneurship fundamentals”, edition (2012).
“an experience which motivated participants in 4. Litoiu, N., Negreanu, M. (Eds.).
their will to become entrepreneur” etc. Entrepreneurship – opportunity,
Moreover, in their opinion, the professional ability, innovation, future, Printech
training program in developing entrepreneurial Publishing House, Bucharest (2013).
competencies has contributed substantially to 5. Marquardt, M. J. Building the Learning
provide participants better opportunities for an Organization, New York: McGraw-
active, adapted participation on the actual Hill (1996).
labour market, flexible and inclusive. 6. Recommendation of the European
Overall, “no educational institution teaches Parliament and of the Council of 18
just through its courses or workshops; no December 2006 on key competences
corporation teaches just through its in-service for lifelong learning, L 394/10
training programs (…). They all teach by Official Journal of the European
everything they do (…) and this argument Union 30.12.2006.
leads us to place increasing emphasis on the
importance of building an educative
environment in all institutions and
organizations that undertake to help people
learn” [4].
This line of reasoning has led to the
conclusion that beyond the training program
implementation, in terms of courses and
modules taught, the real profit for everyone,
trainer or trainee, is the innovative approach
put in practice, with a flexible structure, in a
warm atmosphere, stimulating communication
and feeling expression, emphasizing on
developing and using resources, based on a
functional collaboration.
Summarizing, the professional training
program the paper presented, is the main
benefit for all those persons who promoted it

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SOCIO and HUMANITIES

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

THE EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP

THE PARENT-STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP

Roxana Viorica MAIER

Universitatea de Vest „Vasile Goldiş” din Arad, Arad, România

Abstract: The present study has its roots in the desire to find solutions for a better teacher-student-parent
relationship. When we bring the subject of education into discussion, we find ourselves in a potential
space, the one of our development and of our all possibilities to fully round our inner selves. This space
develops and increases through the mediation of the meeting we all have, as students, with the one being
our teacher. But this world, this space is not complete if the process of our completion as individuals is
not attended by our parents, involved in an educational partnership relation. Thus, the child-parent-
teacher team traverses phase after phase, building a relationship within which the child manages to
develop and complete his inner self. The present study brings forward issues which are quite common
during puberty and adolescence – increased aggressiveness and faulty relationships. The objectives of the
present study are to reduce the level of aggressiveness at a class level, as well as between students and
teachers, and to attract parents into being educational partners alongside their children’s teachers. The
sample used for the research was formed by a class of eight graders and their parents, observed during
an intervention done at the level of both groups.

Keywords: education, educational partnership, student, parent

view, the teacher is a being who wants to

THE TEXT OF THE PAPER transmit, who has knowledge to share, who
insists in seeing beyond appearances and what
In a broad meaning “any type of education the student decides to show at a given
derives from an implicit or explicit conception moment. Precisely because of this, the teacher
about the child, his psychology and about has such a huge responsibility and his aim is
learning methods” [1]. (Radu, 2001, page so high and difficult to attain. The
317). In a narrow meaning, education means a kindergarten and the schooling years are a
magical encounter lasting for several years, period of discovery, first of the exterior,
with the potential space of our development physical reality, then of the human one and
and with the one being the modeller of this finally of the student’s own reality. This
space- the teacher. Seen from this point of endeavour is facilitated by an authentic

565
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

communication and individual understanding important for education to regain its real sense
of the real meaning of development and of determining the growth, development and
growth, all these having their basis in the formation of valuable individuals. Thus, it is
student-teacher relationship. The child passes of utmost importance for the parent to be
from an imaginary world (“we are playing asked to make a team with the teacher for the
mother and father, at the doctor’s, at school, child’s sake. Everything starts from simple
etc.”) into the actual reality, he begins to habits of a healthy lifestyle, which gradually
understand its way of functioning and the rules turn into growth, development and wise
which have to be obeyed; he starts learning choices for a life as fulfilled as possible, when
how to adjust to various difficulties and how to the child turns into a fully grown individual.
replace fictional and strictly subjective Puberty and adolescence are difficult
attitudes with others, which are objective and periods into our development. According to
realistic. On this route, the child will be Zlate the teenager faces a series of new needs
supported by his/her parents, teachers and the or the needs described in the previous periods
peer groups – each having a different share of undergo an important change: the need to
influence, in accordance with the child’s age. know, to be affectionate, to belong to a certain
These sequences of personal growth group, to be independent and the need to have
are rounded through education and through models to look up to. The need to know is
interaction with others. On the temporal axis present starting with the early school age; this
of our development, most of this process is joined during puberty by the need to create
unfolds having as a central space the family, which turns during adolescence in the need to
closely seconded by school, where we spend create with a social value. The kindergarten
on an average ten, twelve or even seventeen and primary school pupil’s need to imitate
years. “The child builds his own image by turns into the desire to be unique during the
reference to others, through the mirroring and first phases of adolescence, followed by the
assigning effect, followed by the awareness teenager’s need to express himself/herself as a
and understanding that certain traits, attitudes personality [3]. (Zlate, 1994, page 158).
and values are of his own. The interiorised and The present study makes reference to
personalised information is used to understand the 13-14 year old age group and its issues-
and assimilate his own identity as a result of unequal development between boys and girls,
the reactions which other people have towards increased aggressiveness, increased personal
him” [2]. (Mitrofan, 2004, page 32). vulnerability, self-image formation, etc. and all
The development of each person from the situations triggered by these issues-
childhood to adulthood passes through the learning, relationship, communication
educational system as a training institution. difficulties, good or less fortunate decisions.
The teacher has the responsibility to guide the The research was approached by taking
student on a route that is at the same time into consideration two dimensions:
suitable and progressive for him/her. Thus, the „ Of building a secure space in a class of
teacher’s great task is to discover what is students overwhelmed by
suitable for the student. aggressiveness; of decreasing the class’
As a teacher, one is responsible for level of aggressiveness and of
assisting the student and in his/her turn, the improving the relationship that the
student is responsible for the way in which students had with their teachers.
he/she walks along the shown route, where he „ Of attracting parents as educational
discovers, seeks and finds what he needs. But partners through parenting activities.
nowadays, this route is passed in high speed, The expected results of the present
with almost absent parents, with dedicated and research are the genuine expression of
enthusiastic teachers or on the contrary with feelings, difficulties, of the relating
engrossed or even sad educators, living methods at a group level and of wishes to
without paying attention to emotions, without change; all of them being doubled by
accessing them and without having a genuine socializing at a class level and by the
communicative act. Thus, it is even more parents’ involvement in the whole process.

566
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
Objectives: administering a questionnaire to parents and
„ Identification of start indices in order the second phase consisted in the initial
to construct and reconstruct the class assessment of the group. The questionnaire
reality (with reference made to the that was applied to the parents targeted a few
children’s reality doubled by the of the child’s interests and also the parents’
teachers’ reality). expectations from the meetings that I was
„ Highlighting the aspects that can be going to have with the class. The initial
improved, as well as the indices that assessment of the class revealed the following
need to be kept under observation in malfunctions:
order to make the change (decrease of „ increased aggressiveness
the aggressiveness level, a better „ dysfunctional relationships among
relationship with the class teachers, and students and between students and their
a better relationship with the teachers
classmates). „ absenteeism
„ Attracting parents in establishing a „ non-participation in group activities (in
closer relationship with the school. general, not in those that were
The hypotheses of the study: conducted by me)
„ The class’ aggressiveness level „ faulty communication- difficulties in
decreases as a result of the intervention following the rules of the group,
„ The dimensions of the class difficulties in expressing their real
relationships are changed after the thoughts (the students refused to
personal development classes (through express their opinion on various
relationship we understand the problems of their class, even when they
teachers-students relation and the were told that their written answers
students-students relation) were to be kept anonymous)
„ There are important differences in the „ low levels of responsibility
class relationships after the parents’ The questionnaire administered to the
involvement in parenting activities. parents highlighted through its results that
Sample Description these had great difficulties in believing into a
„ The sample of the present study positive change and that their expectations
consisted of a class of eight graders were scarce.
from an elementary school located in “By communicating with others the
the capital city and their parents. child manages to get a distance from the actual
Research Tools reality, and his experience enriches gradually,
„ The tools used during the study were as his rapports with reality are increasing in
provocative tools used in personal number (…). As the child’s communication
development and a questionnaire which processes are developing and are becoming
targeted the personal expectations more and more complex, in all their
deriving from the research meetings. components, there arouses the possibility to
Results and Discussions describe and analyse the surrounding reality”
The first part of the research had two [4]. (Golu, Ioniță, 2009, page 18).
phases: the first phase consisted in

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

The exercises proposed for the The next step was to give this change a
following phases of the research allowed the permanent aspect. This step was only partially
children to explore the space of their own carried out because after eight weeks of
image and of the role which each had within meetings with the class, the parents decided to
the class, as well as to discover their personal interrupt this endeavour temporarily.
resources. A few examples of the exercises An aspect that frequently appeared in
used during the research, include: ”I am you”- all students’ “stories” was the time spent with
the exercise targets the student’s ability to their parents- the results point out the amount
focus on details, the ability to reproduce a of time they spend with their “nanny” or even
message as exact as possible, the ability to by themselves. Another aspect which was
select those messages which are relevant for noted by the students themselves was that they
his/her own description; “My qualities and I”- lacked “self-control”, “common sense”,
the exercise targets the student’s ability to “desire to change” and “responsibility”.
connect with his/her own qualities, the ability Having these results, those from the
to make the difference between his/her own questionnaire administrated to the students
image and the one reflected by the others, the (which had the same questions as the ones
differentiation capacity when choosing the addressed to the parents and thus, the
qualities that represent him/her; “The Squigle” comparison of the given answers pointed out
drawing exercise which targets the students’ how well the parents knew their own children),
ability to understand the difficulty of as well as the results from the exercises
establishing a relationship in the absence of applied during the meetings, the class tutor and
words, the student’s ability to decipher a I convened the parents for a meeting. After the
message with the help of a drawing; whether analysis of the questionnaires and the results
or not there is a difficulty in letting yourself obtained during the exercises done with the
being led by somebody else’s message; whole class, parenting meetings were
“Modelling the Group” – the exercise targets proposed. The topics addressed were:
the students’ ability to model their class and to understanding the specific features of early
discover the elements that make it a functional adolescence and the difficulties that might
or a dysfunctional one, as well as their ability arise due to this process, positive discipline
to choose the change that would be the most “what fixed tasks does your child have at
suitable for them, for the given moment; “The home”, “which are the family rituals and
Labels”- the exercise targets how labels are which is their purpose”, “which is your child’s
build up, their number, which of them are role within your family”, “what does quality
more adherent than the others and ways to time mean”, etc.
remove them. The class meetings led to an
The results obtained during the present improvement into the class’ behaviour, to a
research were mostly related with the group’s better group dynamics, to more productive
dynamics- a better communication among communication and to a partial improvement
students, the boys tried and even succeeded in of the students’ academic results. The
being less verbally aggressive and the ones meetings with the parents led to a better
who were considered as being “the bullies” of communication between these and their
the class managed to behave differently. After children, to a better relationship with the
the first progress at a class level and after school and to the parents’ involvement in their
certain students’ and the whole class’ children’s activities.
accountability on several tasks (and not only “Any authentic educational process is
on tasks but also on carrying out the task and committed in the perspective of a spiritual
the change), it was observed a first change in meeting between people and it implies a
the class image at the level of the relationship certain dynamics, a succession of quests and
with the teachers- after meeting the students findings of two beings who have a surplus or a
for three times, the first progress was request, who have something to give or to
highlighted by the class teachers. receive [5]. (Cucoș, 2008, page 15). Thus, I
am convinced that within this educational

568
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
system, which seems to have lost its meaning, because of these aspects their presence at the
one can still identify the desire of certain proposed activities was most of times
teachers to offer answers to those who seek insufficient. Because of the absence of some
them and to attract as many educational parents or to be more precise, due to their
partners as possible, in order to round their sporadic presence the results and the pursued
students’ education and training. objectives lacked a certain consistency.
However, I believe that the greatest
CONCLUSIONS & shortcoming of the class activity was the
ACKNOWLEDGMENT limited presence. Although, the results were
positive and they were recorded quite fast, thus
The parents’ involvement as educational showing the students’ and their parents’
partners has led to significant improvements in availability to work, change in a certain
the students’ behaviour at both class and environment is not enough. What counts more
school level. Starting from a situation, in is to give this change a permanent character. If
which the parents and the teachers were we consider that the intervention usually has
present side by side into the students’ life only three levels: the strategic one (which targets
during the parents’ meetings, we have the correct choice of the goal), the tactic one
managed to involve the parents into their (which implies the correct choice of the
children’s school life. This resulted into a method needed to solve the problem) and the
series of common extra-curricular activities internalization of the change, we may state that
unfolded both within and outside the school in the case of the present study, the class
perimeter. Within this space, especially activities covered only the first two levels.
created for education, the target is on gradual REFERENCES
growth, development and discovery of the 1. Radu, N. et al The psychology of education,
abilities, resources and strategies through Bucharest, România de Mâine Foundation
which the student becomes a complete adult Publishing House, (2001), pg. 317
and the teacher ascertains that the chosen 2. Mitrofan, L. Basic Information on Social
occupation is in fact a calling, a completion Psychology, Sper Publishing House,
done as each generation passes by. This (2004), pg.32
process is more efficient if the parent succeeds 3. Zlate, M. Introduction in Psychology, Şansa
in following it continuously. It is precisely for Publishing House, Bucharest, (1994), pg
this reason that my research on creating 158
abilities for the students and their parents 4. Golu, F., Ioniţă, C. Practical Applications
targeted the making of parent-student-teacher of Child’s Psychology, personal
educational partnership. development as an alternative education
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY programme, Sper Publishing House,
The present study started from the (2009), pg. 18
premise that the student-parent-teacher team 5. Cucoș C., Education-love, edification,
has a greater efficiency than the student- completion, Polirom Publishing House,
teacher team. Thus, the first limitations of our Iasi, (2008), pg. 15
study appeared- the parents’ availability to
work and their time in general is limited and

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SOCIO and HUMANITIES

570
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION- A PREMISE FOR A HARMONIOUS

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 

Roxana MAIER, Angela BLOGUŢ

“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania, Individual Office of Psychology
Angela Bloguţ, Timisoara, Romania

Abstract: The aim of the present study is to be a brief insight into the world of primary school children,
(grades I-IV) through the stories created and invented by them. The research is based on the assumption
that the development process of any child can be facilitated through creative methods and the first step to
achieve this goal is to gain access to the child’s world. In order to obtain the necessary data for our
study, we proposed art-therapeutic group meetings, which had the purpose to activate the children’s
resources and inner potential, to improve the student-school relation, the parents-children relation, as
well as the parents-children-teacher (primary school teacher) relation. By applying the principle of
social-constructivism, according to which “reality is built through conversation”, we initiated a process
of building and rebuilding the children’s reality, so as to turn it into an individual space of knowledge, 
self‐knowledge and personal development. 
Keywords: story, child, personal resources, school, self-knowledge 

1. INTRODUCTION A deliberate implementation or

removal triggers the processes of cognitive
The present study has as its starting point the inhibition. Any deliberate mental control is
numerous transformations undergone by the inherently associated with a process that
primary school student throughout the school determines the diminishing of one’s attention
adjustment process and during his/her change and the elimination from a person’s conscience
from an ordinary child to a responsible and of any informational flow which might
involved student. interfere and endanger the achievement of our
There are numerous experimental intention. The starting point for the two
proofs which demonstrate the crucial role of complementary processes is our intention to
inhibition in any activity subjected to get engaged in a mental control: one process
interference. The inhibition is a general label aims to implement attention, while the other
applied to a group of mechanisms which have aims to inhibit any collateral informational
the purpose to deactivate or partially eliminate flow (from external stimuli to thoughts)
the answer or the metal content and to reduce (Miclea, 1999).
or eliminate the interference of the current The counter-intentional effect is the
load which contains irrelevant information opposite effect initiated by an intention to
(Miclea, 1999). control a state or a behavior;

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

“The situation in which, the more we purpose achievement is activated. When the
strive to obtain something, the more intended mental control, competes with
determined we are to succeed, not only do we processes that need less resources, the
fail, but the higher the chances are to obtain probability to succeed is considerably higher
the exact opposite effect.” [1] when compared with tensed, stressed, time-
According to Miclea, the pressed situations. The additional mental tasks
implementation of an intentional state involves will increase the possibility of having counter-
three different types of processes: intentional errors. Thus, in order to go through
a) An activation or executive mechanism, this age period (primary school) in an
which has the purpose to activate the appropriate manner, it is more than welcomed
mental contents which are congruent any support which facilitates the child’s
with the desired mental states. understanding of all changes which he/she has
b) An inhibitive mechanism aimed to face and handle.
towards the deactivation of irrelevant The available cognitive resources are
information and of additional always limited and insufficient. Any mental
processing flows. process, intentional control included, has to
c) A metacognitive mechanism which compete with other processes which need
assesses the functioning of the other resources. Thus, it is advisable for the primary
two mechanism as well as the subject’s school student to have the best possible
own efficiency. contact with his/her own resources. The
This model “predicts” that the counter- metacognitive process refers to the cognitive
intentional effect is more powerful in those representations and to the propositional
characterized by low levels of self-efficacy attitudes which humans have about their
and by deficient inhibitory mechanisms. capacity to implement an intention to control
The primary school period is marked and about the efficiency of the respective
by numerous changes like, the adjustment to control. It also includes the conscious and the
another working rhythm, a sequence of the unconscious feedbacks, which humans receive
work and relaxation periods totally different while or after the implementation of an
form the one in nursery schools, a different intentional mental control. All the received
relationship with the classmates and with the information is included in a general scheme
class teacher and a higher workload than in about the ability to succeed in general or when
nursery schools. Thus, the children need to in a similar situation (Miclea, 1999).
internalize the related rules, to have their A series of theories emphasize the
behavior more strictly controlled and to inhibitory inefficiency of children in the
understand in a different way the human context of an incomplete cognitive
relations. development, characterized by susceptibility
We use to say that in most cases our towards inefficiency. Thus, Dempster claims
thinking is oriented towards achieving a goal that the resistance to interference represents a
like: problem solving, behavioral control or basic cognitive function which affects
the updating of some information. There are performance in various types of tasks. Among
also moments (when we do not have a precise the experimental tasks which demonstrate
purpose) of relation, boredom when a certain sensitivity to interference one can include the
mental content is scanned semantically. When ones that imply the switching of attention or of
there is no precise purpose, a random trait of the type of given answer, the competition
the content (an image, a thought, a desire, an between stimuli or answers, respectively the
emotion) is exemplified and a rapid search of changing of conditions necessary to administer
the relevant information connected to the trait reinforcement.
is performed. Thus, one can extract from The optimal functioning at the level of
his/her memory a thought connected to this the prefrontal cortex is done during early
and the process is repeated until one realizes adolescence, the child’s difficulty to resist
that the thought has a specific purpose; this is interference being caused by the immature
the moment in which the subroutine of the development of the prefrontal cortex. Thus, the

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
resistance to interference represents a basal The reasons behind an activity are not
cognitive process, which is extremely always evident to the child. “Family life is in
important for the understanding of individual fact the first school of emotions and feelings
differences and development. The time span for any child” [3].
between six and ten years old or the end of the Towards the end of the pre-schooling
childhood age is in fact the period of period, the child learns under the influence of
early/primary schooling. The first four the impulses given by the adults around him,
schooling years, even if they follow due to his desire to comply with his/her status
immediately after the nursery school years, of future student, which attracts him/her and
bring major changes in a child’s daily routine also because of the desire not to upset his/her
and in the events that govern his/her life parents (Simon, 2004). Gradually, the child’s
(Bonchis, Secui, 2004). In spite of these motivation is increased by the nursery school
changes, the child does not have the necessary teacher and then by the primary school
robustness. The child is sensible, instable and teacher. Their psychological place and role is
gets tired quickly (Schiopu, 1997). well defined for the children. The requirement
A reason is the main cause of a certain to learn in order to satisfy a sort of family or
behavior. However, not any cause is a reason. personal identity feeling and to keep the
The child’s development towards the parents’ affection and the other’s respects,
formation of his/her personality is mirrored by remains a basic motivational structure for
a series of reactions and manifestations children and it is in general more tensional
occurring in the behavior he/she displays. The than motivational learning triggered by other
child might have the proper attitude, he/she types of motives (Şchiopu, 1997). During the
might display diligence or he/she might nursery school period the child finds
express a greater or a lesser desire to learn. In himself/herself at the intersection of three
other circumstances, the child might display types of environment: family, nursery school
nervousness or laziness (Oance Ursu, 1998). It and the social one, this last one being
is of utmost importance to understand the observationally crossed (the street, the shops,
factors which influence the changes in a the means of transport, etc.). When the child
child’s behavior (Cretu, 2003). At the basis of reaches the primary school age, the dynamics
the child’s attitude are various reasons, of these environments changes and so does the
through which we understand the child’s reaction to them. Although, integrated
representations or the ideas which determine in the same social life, the three components of
the action necessary to fulfill a certain need or the environment ask the child not only to
an interest. “The individuals of a society are adjust his/her behavior to systems which have
trained to enter an organization, an activity different requirements under different tutelage,
branch and eventually the labor market”[2]. protection and affection conditions, but they
Some psychologists claim that the pre-school also create a more profound apprehension of
student will manage to assimilate a content of the diversity of the world and life in general, a
knowledge or to assimilate a certain way of more dense and complex decision making
behaving, on condition that he/she unfolds a process, deep emotions, curiosity and a
pleasant, attractive and accessible activity profound desire to learn in unusual
(Bonchiş, Secui, 2004). circumstances (Cosma, 2001). During the

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

schooling period, the child will switch from girls and 10 boys, 23 students in total) and the
being a simple observer of the social life, to fourth grade (11 girls and 10 boys, 22 students
being actively involved in it. If in the in total).
beginning he/she is a mere spectator of the
surrounding world, through the diversification Study Tools
of his/her house chores and not only, he/she is The tools used during the study were:
involved in various processes which take place Early Schemes Inventory (scale for
every day. By going through these processes, insufficient self-control), taken after Bouvard
the child learns the skills that are necessary for (2002), “The story with a given beginning”
various tasks, becoming more and more and “The six-step story”. The story with a
prepared for a complete, independent adult given beginning is a tool that aims to help the
life. child discover and be aware of the
Starting from these theoretical aspects, relationships extant in his/her family of origin
the following general objective of the study and of his/her role in that family. The six-step
was established: the picturing of primary story is a tool that aims to help a child deepen
school education through its essential his/her self-knowledge, starting from building
dimensions- school adjustment, the up a character and following his/her
conversational and relational space. adventures, the way he/she relates to
Work Objectives: dangerous situations, supportive characters,
1. Identifying the differences in the way he/she fulfills the given tasks and the
perceiving reality according to the way in which he/she finds positive solutions to
subjects’ age. various situations.
2. The enrichment of the relational and RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
conversational space with the help of
stories and exercises leading to the Hypothesis number 1. Starting the
child’s understanding of his/her study from applying to each class the Early
position within the class, his/her Schemes Inventory, the results point out the
relation with the end product-the story, significant differences extant between classes,
the conscious reporting to others, a concerning the insufficient control, as it was
better relations with himself/herself expected (F=13,215 to p=001). By identifying
and a more efficient group dynamics. the differences extant between classes, we
proceeded towards establishing the objective
Work Hypothesis: for optimizing the control for both task
1. Enrichment of the experience of achievement and the relational space.
reality is different according to the “The story with a given beginning”.
subjects’ age. This exercise allows the children to explore
2. Enrichment of the conversational the space of their own families and the role
and relational space by means of they have within them. If during the first
group intervention. grade, it is more obvious the dependence a
child has towards one of his/her parents, the
Sample Description children become more independent as their age
The study was done on students from increases. The building of the story pointed out
four primary school classes in Arad, as the differences extant in the relationship
follows: one first grade with a students’ between children and parents from the point of
average age of 6,89, one second grade with a view of both the distance (greater in the case
students’ average age of 7,65, one third grade of older children) and closeness towards one
with a students’ average age of 8,04 and one of the parents. An element that appeared
fourth grade with a students’ average age of frequently in all the stories was the one
9,34. The number of students in each class was referring to the time that the parents used to
as follows: first grade (12 girls and 13 boys, 25 spend with their children. The results pointed
students in total), second grade (11 girls and out the amount of time that the children spent
12 boys, 23 students in total) third grade (13 with their “nanny” or even by themselves.

574
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
These results can be related to the number of resources so as to end the mission with a
times the support character occurs in the “six- happy ending. Most personal resources were
step story”. Thus, in the case of children who grouped around a few characteristics, such as:
display dependence on one of the parental well-behaved, industrious, good. There were
figures, the support characters were either the other characters having characteristics, such
mother or the father. However, in the case of as: ambitious, strong, kind, clever, etc. At the
children who spent most of their time with first grade students, one can observe the
another person (grandmother, nanny or a existence of a more restricted list of qualities
family friend) the support characters were which evolves and ramifies as the children
usually the embodiment of their friends. The grow older. This is a normal thing due to the
discussions that followed the building up of child’s subsequent development and the
the story clearly highlighted the differences in guiding lines he/she receives in the school
family life, ways of spending leisure time and relationships concerning the desirable
the time spent working, playing or just having behavior. During the group sessions, we
a talk. A problem that was observed at the constantly pointed out the positive
level of all classes was the little amount of characteristics, as well as the possibility to
time that the children spent with their parents make a change if the children found out that a
and the numerous hours spent in front of the certain aspect was not functional or did not
computer or being “connected to various meet their expectations.
modern gadgets”. When it came to leisure Hypothesis number 2. When it came
time, the results pointed out that most children to the relational and conversational reality, the
were practicing a sport (basketball, football, exercises focused on highlighting the reality of
dancing, etc.) but beside this activity, none of the class and the role and the place each
them was involved in any other type of student had within it. It was observed that the
outdoor activity. description of actions, characters and scenes in
“The six-step story”. The first step of the story became more elaborate as children’s
this technique is to ask the child to describe age increased. That could be partially
the main character of the story. The first explained through the acquisition of new
graders were asked to draw the character words, which enriched the children’s
because they did not know how to read and vocabulary but also to the fact that most of the
write. The results pointed out that the children children read and some of them were literary
perceived their body scheme, and in most gifted and even had an inclination towards
cases the gender assignment was done presenting the world in a metaphoric way.
correctly. The second, third and fourth grade However, the differences that appeared from
students made up more elaborated descriptions one week to another were due to the working
and it was possible to observe a transition from methods having been used. Thus, it was
physical descriptions typical for lower grade observed an evolution of the children’s
students, to a description that included the creativity; in the beginning the stories were
character’s feelings and affective traits. The short and had few details but as the time
story continues with the building up of a passed by and the children attended more story
mission in which the main character needs workshops, their stories became longer and
support and he/she needs to use his/her own contained plenty of interesting details. This

575
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

evolution can be explained through the own change. They also pointed out that it is
formation and development of skills, and necessary for the parents to be involved in the
acquirements during the workshops. The class and extra-curricular activities alongside
children learnt how to present real life objects the class teacher.
and notions, and how to render the deepness of
human relations (the discussions that followed REFERENCES
each story offered additional data about how
each student perceived reality). The workshops 1. Miclea, M. Brain, Cognition,
also favored a continuous work of creation. Behavior, volume IV, (1999), page 29
The exercises proposed during the research, 2. Barus – Michel, J. Giust –
facilitate the children’s access towards their Desprairies, F, Ridel, L. Crisis- A
feelings, self-knowledge and the exercising of Clinic Psychosocial Approach, Polirom
their analysis and auto-analysis abilities. The Publishing House, Bucharest, (1998),
story analysis makes the difference between page.15
how the personal resources are structured as 3. Elias, J. Tobias, ST.E. Friedlander,
years pass by, and also points out how these B.S., Emotional Intelligence in Child
resources are used. A very interesting aspect Education, Curtea Veche Publishing
was related to the children becoming House, Bucharest, (2002), page 5.
conscious of the resources they had. The
results of the present study were discusses BIBLIOGRAPHY:
during parents meetings held at the level of 1. Bonchiş, Secui– Psychology of Human
each class. When working with the parents we Ages, The University of Oradea
focused on methods necessary to be applied in Publishing House (2004)
order to offer the child the quality time he/she 2. Cosma, T., Parents’ Meetings in
needs and on ways to support the child Elementary Schools, Polirom
overcome the difficulties encountered at Publishing House, Iaşi, (2001).
school. The parents were invited to parents- 3. Creţu, D., The Development of the
children workshops, during which we focused Motivation for Learning, Sibiu,
on helping the parents discover their children’s Psihomedia Publishing House, (2003)
leisure activities and how the children 4. Elias, J. Tobias, ST.E. Friedlander,
perceived the parents’ presence at the B.S., Emotional Intelligence in Child
respective activities. Education Curtea Veche Publishing
CONCLUSIONS & House, Bucharest, (2002)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 5. Miclea, M. Brain, Cognition,
The challenge of a story creates a Behavior, volume IV, (1999), page 29
working space that facilitates the access to the 6. Oancea Ursu, Gh., Heredity and
inner-self, to the discovery of a group relation Environment in the Formation of
model, to the understanding of the role, which Human Personality, All Publishing
the children perceive and actually have within House, Bucharest, (1998)
their peer group and in the relations with the 7. Şchiopu, U. Introduction in Psycho-
adults around them. The feelings experienced Diagnosis, Printing House of the
during the exercises proposed by the University of Bucharest, (1976).
researchers, were also explored. The working 8. Simon, A.M. Parental Counseling,
methods were chosen on the basis of the Polirom Publishing House, Bucharest,
children’s age and thus, they were easy to be (2004).
applied. The discussions which took place
throughout the research pointed out the
children’s possibility to make their own .
constructions and to be responsible for their

576
 THE EFFECTIVE TRIAD: IMPACT, DIGITAL CONTENT AND ADULT
EDUCATION. A CASE STUDY APPROACH

Loredana Manasia*, Alina Bozon**

*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania,

** Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Lifelong learning, continuous learning, accessibility and quality of education and training
systems in Europe play a decisive role in attaining the development of knowledge-based society. The
paradigm of e-learning is expansively growing in adult education. The purpose of this paper is to assess
the impact of e-learning and digital technologies in adult education. To achieve this goal a research study
was conducted. The study proposed in this paper aims to point out the answers to the following questions:
Does the digital content bring significant changes in adult learners? Is this type of educational content
valuable for adult training? What are the contexts and conditions to produce effective learning by using
digital content and technologies? The paper consists of four parts. The introduction is focused on the state
of the art regarding e-learning, digital technologies and adult education. The second section describes the
research design: research problem and questions, research goal and hypotheses, research methodology,
research instruments and data analysis procedures. Furthermore, the third section discusses the research
results. The fourth part reveals the conclusions of the study.

Keywords: adult learning, digital educational content, impact assessment

1. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT linguistic skills, mathematical abilities and

digital technologies’ (ICT) use are necessary to
The European society crosses a period of acquire processes and assimilate new
profound social, economic and educational knowledge and skills. European citizens are
changes, whose main goal is the transformation facing new barriers: linguistic and multicultural
into the most competitive and dynamic skills are becoming increasingly important on
knowledge-based economy worldwide [3, 5]. the European labor market and in European
Knowledge and innovation are its most societies developed on a wide variety of
important strengths comparing to other traditions and cultures. New technologies
economies. Lifelong learning, continuous change work processes requiring additional
learning, accessibility and quality of education skills, stimulating the advance of knowledge-
and training systems in Europe play a decisive based economy [3]. The complexity of work
role in attaining the development of responsibilities generates the need for updating
knowledge-based society. The process of and restructuring professional or technical
lifelong learning requires the ability to follow, competences, but also cross competences, so-
continue learning and to organize one’s own called life skills.
learning process. The key competences such as

577
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

In this context, adult education is an element refers to a number of public employees using a
of support and necessity for professionals who LMS and digital educational content
need to integrate and to practice efficiently in (multimedia resources) to train their selves. The
different professional and organizational content was designed by following the phases
environments. From the perspective of learning and processes stated by the ADDIE (Analyze,
organizations, the investment in people is one Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate)
of the effective ways of increasing the instructional design model [1]. Fig. 1 presents
productivity, competitiveness and efficiency of the chain processes of the mentioned model.
the employees. Trilling and Fadel [5] reinforce
Fig. 1 ADDIE model
this thesis by arguing the 21st century brought
remarkable changes to professional Analyze
environments. As the authors note, there are
four powerful forces leading instructional
designers to create new learning contexts, Evaluate Design
namely knowledge work, thinking tools, digital
lifestyles and learning research. These four
forces act in a double direction: they create the
need and supply the tools and learning contexts
to support new ways of producing learning. E- Implement Develop
learning expresses best tools, environments and
opportunities to respond to the professional
needs. The following section describes the research
The paradigm of e-learning is expansively methodology and focuses on training sessions.
growing in adult education. However, the lack
of clear and reliable evaluations limits the 2. DESIGN OF THE STUDY
appropriate use of this innovative approach [4].
The answers the scholars have to formulate are 2.1 Research problem and questions. The
not only related to the cost-effectiveness of e- design of this research study was guided by the
learning. need of answering two main questions:
The study proposed in this paper aims to A. Does the digital content change
point out clearly the answers to the following something in adults’ learning activity?
questions: Is e-learning effective? For what B. Is this type of educational content
groups of learners? How do different learners valuable for adult training?
respond? In other words, the study will answer the
Thus, the study translates in concrete results question: Which is the impact of digital content
the impact of e-learning, namely digital in adult learning activity?
educational content hosted by a learning The research problem gathers two important
management system (LMS) in adults’ training. aspects, operationalized as research variables:
To support and clarify the research goal and digital content, on one hand, and impact, on the
methodology, the paper states the following other hand. As argued before, the impact is
definition of impact in the field of adult operationalized through a set of indicators
training: the measurable results arising from measured during the implementation of the
the existence of an e-learning strategy that research project.
demonstrate a change in the learning activity 2.2 Research goal and hypotheses. The
for which the resource is intended. In addition, goal of this research is to investigate the impact
the term ICT or digital technologies refer to a of digital content on adult learning activity,
collection of computer-based technologies to focusing on motivation, performance, attitudes,
support teaching and learning, communication and interests.
and collaboration [1]. To achieve this goal, objectives and targets are
In order to assess the impact of e-learning in linked to this goal. The usefulness of specific
adult education, a research study was objectives is to guide, at a practical level, the
conducted. The context supporting this study research implementation. In the context of the

578
study, the following general hypothesis (Hg) Fig. 3 Subjects’ age distribution (N = 242)
can be formulated:
Hg: Use of the digital educational content in the
training process leads to a higher degree of 22% 20%
efficiency in training. Research hypotheses
operationalize Hg by referring dependent 24%
34%
variables, namely motivation, performance,
attitudes, interests, and learning outcomes, in
relation to the digital content.
2.3 Research methodology. The research
sample included 242 professionals working in 25 - 30 y.o. 31 - 35 y.o.
the public sector participating in a training 36 - 40 y.o. 41 - 45 y.o.
program based on the use of learning
management system and educational digital Data collection procedures. The study
content. The sampling design followed a followed a correlational design implemented in
theoretical and realistic approach based on the three phases: a) phase 1 consisted in profiling
criterion of relevance [2]. All the public the participants; b) phase 2 refers to training’s
servants were purposefully selected based on delivery; c) after the training session, the
their job’s profile. participants were re-tested. In the following, we
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 describe subjects’ gender briefly describe the three phases of the project.
and age distribution. Most of the investigated The profiling phase consisted in applying
subjects are females, with a relative balanced different instruments to assess knowledge,
age distribution. motivation, attitudes and interests on learning,
Fig. 2 Subjects' gender distribution (N = 242) and expected outcomes. Before entering the
formation program, the participants were tested
to identify their level of ICT skills. All the
subjects benefited of a training session
regarding the use and features of the LMS.
43% Thus, it can be assumed that participants had a
57% comparable level of LMS usage skills. The
participants completed a self-administrated
knowledge test regarding their technical
competencies. Learning, motivation, attitudes
and interests were assessed by using dedicated
questionnaires and interview protocols. The
collected data was an input to design the digital
Female Male educational content.
The second phase focused on training
delivery. The training comprised both
asynchronous and synchronous instruction
strategies [1]. The total duration of the training
was 120 hours of instructional time, from which

579
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

40 were dedicated to synchronous learning. The digital technologies on adult learning. As

participants benefited of a virtual classroom argued before, learning motivation, attitudes,
LMS module, where an instructor guided them interests and performance operationalized the
to solve general and specific tasks, where they impact of ICT. A qualitative and quantitative
could ask questions and discuss the previous mix of research methods and tools instrumented
topics. both testing moments (before and after the
The training goal was to improve both cross training program).
and technical competences. This goal was Firstly, knowledge tests were applied
refined after conducting the needs analysis [6] through the LMS platform. To understand
as the first part of the ADDIE instructional better motivation, attitudes and interests on
design model. The needs analysis process learning, two research instruments were
revealed the participants were willing to designed: the LIMA questionnaire and an in-
improve their ICT skills (such as using text depth interview protocol. LIMA questionnaire
processors, data mining tools, internet comprised two scales [7], namely motivation
searching), but also communication and scale (MS) and attitudes scale (AS). The MS
negotiation skills. Communication in foreign scale [7] focused on both intrinsic and extrinsic
languages represented a significant needs area. motivation, comprising items guided by
Regarding technical skills, the participants previous qualitative research [7]. The AS scale
attended courses on quality management, encompasses other five subscales: enjoyment of
financial management, European funds, learning, self-confidence, control of the
performance management and project learning process, self-concept as a cognitive
management. According to their level of subject and relevance of learning. The 50 items
information on these topics, the participants of LIMA questionnaire were Likert rated,
followed the modules either for beginners or for having a good internal consistency of each scale
advanced learners. (MS Chronbach’s alpha = .89, AS
The courses addressing cross competences Chronbach’s alpha = .87).
proposed the same level of difficulty for all the The in-depth interviews aimed to explore
participants, excepting the foreign language deeper the participants’ opinions on learning
courses (designed based on the European motivation and attitudes. The interviews were
language framework). conducted after applying the knowledge tests
During training sessions, the participants and LIMA questionnaire.
were able to share with their fellows by using After the training program delivery, the
the forum module or with their instructor by participants were re-tested by using the same
accessing the email or chat services. To instruments. In addition, the interview protocol
facilitate self-paced learning, the training included a section dedicated to learning the
courses by the following structure. A course experience in digital environments.
comprises several learning sessions. One 2.5. Data analysis procedures. To analyze
learning session equals an hour of learning time narrative data collected through in-depth
divided into learning objects (LO) with a interviews, content analysis was performed.
duration of 5-15 minutes each. Content analysis supposed a systematic coding
The training covered 8 months. Traffic operation.
reports revealed that participants were logged Statistical analyses were conducted to
in for at least 2 to 3 hours per week. analyze quantitative data. The psychographic
After conducting the training, the subjects segmentation (based on K-Means cluster
were re-tested in order to evaluate the impact of analysis and factorial analysis) reveals three
the program. A hybrid research methodology, segments of learners, according to their
blending traditional quantitative and qualitative learning motivation and attitudes: a) the
research methods (questionnaires and Hunters; b) the Lurkers and c) the Hobbyists
interviews) was preferred to support the (Error! Reference source not found..
correlational design. The Hunters have low intrinsic motivation,
2.4. Research instruments. Many different looking to achieve future career aspirations, to
methods and tools can assess the impact of gain qualifications or to satisfy employer’s

580
requirements. Financial support or incentives motivation. The means calculated for all the
are a powerful method to motivate Hunter structural elements of learning motivation
employees. indicate a gap between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. There is a statistically significant
difference between them, p = .002. The subjects
Fig. 4 Clusters’ distribution (N = 242)
respond better to financial or material rewards
Hobbyists
14% than they do to personal gain, which is not a
Hunters productive behavior for learning efficiency.
32%
Table 1 Learning motivation before training
(N=242)
Learning motivation Mean St.
Min. Max.
1 dev.
Learning motivation 2.57 .27 1.75 3.25
Lurkers To achieve future career
54% 3.49 1.13 2.00 5.00
aspirations
To gain qualifications 3.45 1.14 2.00 5.00
For personal development
The Lurkers are extremely low motivated to 1.96 0.82 1.00 3.00
To develop skills, experience
improve their personal or professional skills. If and knowledge
2.58 1.11 1.00 4.00
needed, they will involve in a training program By receiving professional
2.05 0.85 1.00 3.00
just to earn some instant gratification (such as support, information, advice
and guidance
promotions or bonuses). The Hobbyists are By receiving support from 2.01 0.80 1.00 3.00
intrinsic motivated, willing to participate in peers
training programs in order to share with their By a style of learning or 2.00 0.80 1.00 3.00
learning environment
fellows, to develop technical capacities or For entertainment and interest 1.93 0.79 1,00 3.00
become more competitive. In addition, the As an employer requirement 2.93 1.38 1.00 5.00
Hobbyist think financial incentives are an As a productive use of time 2.06 0.81 1.00 3.00
appropriate way to acknowledge their personal By financial support and 3.99 0.81 3.00 5.00
incentives
efforts. To widen options and increase 2.48 1.12 1.00 4.00
The following section of the paper discusses opportunities
other clusters’ characteristics.
Learning attitudes are consistent with
3. DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESEARCH subjects’ low learning motivation (Table 2).
RESULTS
Table 2 Learning attitudes before training (N=242)
Learning attitudes St.
The frequency analysis revealed that an Mean
dev.
Min. Max.
impressive majority of subjects (96%) low Enjoyment of learning 3.32 0.76 1.50 5.00
motivated lo learn and increase professional Self-confidence 3.27 0.77 1.50 5.00
capabilities. Depicting the composite score of Control of the learning process 3.25 0.82 1.67 5.00
Self-concept as a cognitive 3.19 0.73 1.33 4.83
learning motivation showed relevant subject
differences among the structural elements of Relevance of learning 3.17 0.84 1.33 5.00
motivation. Table 1 synthesizes values of
statistical indicators relevant in conducting a The means calculated for all the five
diagnosis of subjects’ level of learning subscales regarding learning attitudes indicate a

581
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

relatively positive attitude, but not strong, and training as an intrinsic need, in order to
enough to support self-regulated and effective increase personal and professional capabilities.
learning. The Hobbyists are highly self-confident. They
Consistent with quantitative data gathered affirm learning and training are powerful tools
through LIMA questionnaire, qualitative data to become more competitive in the work field.
point out relevant behaviors to sustain the need However, learning is not an organizational need
to change the strategy in adult learning. As only, but an individual one. This category of
argued in a previous section, the three subjects manifests interest in learning for
psychographic segments of teachers, Eraser personal development too. In their opinion,
teachers, Wood teachers and Sharp teachers, collaborative learning is as useful as individual
will guide the discussion of the empirical learning. Hobbyists are intrinsic motivated;
results. their training activity non-related to job
Learning attitudes and motivation vary requirements sustains this fact. Outside of the
among the three psychographic segments. work environment, most of the Hobbyist
The Hunters do not have a clear career path, attended at least one course for personal
and they are always looking for better development in the last three years. The
opportunities. They agree to learn is relevant if Hobbyists are mostly young males, aged 25-35.
it increases the opportunities for promotion or The results in the knowledge tests are
other types of career advantages. The Hunters consistent with the data collected through the
are young professionals, aged 25-35, both LIMA questionnaire and interviews. Fig. 5 and
females and males. They do not enjoy learning Fig. 6 describe subjects’ results according to
but have a well-defined self-concept as their results on knowledge tests.
cognitive subjects. In their opinion, learning is
Fig. 5 Subjects’ distribution according to
relevant if widens options, increases
knowledge tests results (N = 242)
opportunities or is an employer’s requirement.
In addition, the Hunters focus on improving
their qualifications’ portfolio. Otherwise, they
do believe adults can learn and adapt to new
employment contexts.
Unlike Hunters, Lurkers are low motivated Between 5
Between 7
and 8,9;
and 6,9;
persons, who do not believe adults are able to 33%
37%

learn. Learning is not a specific activity for Between 9

Lower than
mature professionals as they identify their 5; 13%
and 10; 16%

selves. Thus, Lurkers have a negative

perception on their selves as cognitive subjects.
Most, they feel learning is a requirement, a will
of the employer and they cannot control this The most of the respondents (70%) have
process. Financial gains and material incentives average performance on knowledge tests. They
act as strong extrinsic motives to support obtained grades between 5 and 8.9.
learning. Comparing to other two segments of Fig. 6 Psychographic segments distribution
subjects, the Lurkers hardly initiate the learning according to knowledge tests results (N = 242)
process as an intrinsic need. Unlike Hunters,
Lurkers have a clear career path, feeling they do
LURKERS 28 58 14
not need to change anything or to look for
greater opportunities. The Lurkers are mature
HUNTERS 35 51 14
professionals, aged 35-45 (most of them are 40-
45 years old), mostly females. In the context of
HOBBYISTS 33 67
the study, it was expected this category would
show the greatest resistance in adopting the
digital technologies in training. Lower than 5 Between 5 and 6,9

The Hobbyists are the smallest segment in Between 7 and 8,9 Between 9 and 10
the investigated sample. They perceive learning

582
 As expected, The Lurkers are the subjects For instance, before the training program,
with the lowest performance. Most of them learning for personal development was not an
(58%) have grades between 5 and 6,9. important motive to support learning (Mean1 =
The Hobbyists and the Hunters have good 1.96). The training program changed
performance: 67% of Hobbyist are between 9 participants perceptions in a positive direction,
and 10 while 14% of Hunters obtained the same and they declared that they could improve their
performance. personal capabilities by learning (Mean2 =
The training program addressed both 2.95; Mean2 > Mean1, p = .000). Other
technical and transversal competences. At the improvements point the entertainment and
end of the program, subjects were re-tested. interest as motives for learning. Before the
Statistical analysis reveals there a significant training, most of the subjects did not agree that
difference between the two measured moments. learning in adult age could be enjoyable
Table 3 and Table 4 present the values of (Mean1 = 1.93). By using digital technologies
learning motivation and attitudes variables after and appropriate digital educational content,
the training program. they changed their opinions (Mean2 = 3.07, p =
The training program improved .000). The t-test is significant for the pair
participants’ learning motivation (Mean 2 > learning motivation before and learning
Mean 1). Unlike the variables regarding the motivation after the training (t = 22.153, p =
extrinsic motivation for learning, statistical .000). Expressing the results of the study in
analysis flag significant differences between terms of the size effect, confirms the hypothesis
the components referring to intrinsic that ICT has a positive impact on adult learners
motivation. motivation. Cohen’s d value (d = 2.09)
indicates that the training program had a very
Table 3 Learning motivation after the training (N =
large effect on participants’ learning
242)
motivation. Lurkers and Hunters are the
Learning motivation Mean St.
2 dev.
Min. Max. subjects who improved best their learning
Learning motivation 3.20 0.36 3.20 0.36 motivation. In addition, the use of ICT had a
To achieve future career 3.93 0.84 3.93 0.84 positive impact on attitudes on learning. All the
aspirations
To gain qualifications 3.51 1.09 3.51 1.09
means calculated for the five subscales of
For personal development 2.95 1.41 2,95 1.41 learning attitudes are greater than those before
To develop skills, experience and 3.50 1.07 3.50 1.07 starting the program are. Self-confidence raised
knowledge after using digital technologies for learning
By receiving professional 2.99 1.43 2.99 1.43
support, information, advice and (Mean2 = 4.42, Mean1< Mean2).
guidance
By receiving support from peers 2.98 1.43 2.98 1.43 Table 4 Learning attitudes after the training
By a style of learning or learning 2.57 1.16 2.57 1.16 program (N = 242)
environment
Learning attitudes St.
For entertainment and interest 3.07 1.35 3.07 1.35 Mean Min. Max.
dev.
As an employer requirement 3.01 1.42 3.01 1.42 Enjoyment of learning 4.31 0.50 2.27 5.00
As a productive use of time 3.12 1.35 3.12 1.35 Self-confidence 4.42 0.45 3.17 5.00
By financial support and 4.06 0.82 4.06 0.82 Controlling the learning 4.35 0.40 3.32 5.00
incentives process
To widen options and increase 2.67 1.30 2.67 1.30 Self-concept as a cognitive 4.39 0.47 3.17 5.00
opportunities
subject
Relevance of learning 4.36 0.53 2.27 5.00

583
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

Great changes of the self-confidence altered their perceptions in a positive way.

variable were measured especially for Lurkers, Lurkers and Hunters discovered ICT supports
the category of subjects characterized by the them to ask questions and receive a piece of
lowest values of this indicator. advice without being uncomfortable in such a
The t-test is significant (p = .000) for all the situation. For the Hobbyist, the training was an
five pairs referring to the scale of attitudes on opportunity to change their perceptions on the
learning. Table 5 summarizes the size effect of work environment. Pre-test results revealed the
the training program on learning attitudes. Hobbyist believe the work environment was not
so learning supporting. Collaborative tools
Table 5 Size effect indicators
offered the contexts to share with their fellows
Pairs Cohen’s Size
t- test
d effect and discuss issues and options. In this way, new
Pair 1 Enjoyment of 21.433 1.54 Large opportunities were created.
learning To conclude this research results, the digital
Pair 2 Self-confidence 25.557 1.84 Large
Pair 3 Control of the 22.294 1.64 Large
technologies have the potential to support adult
learning process learning, but further research is needed.
Pair 4 Self-concept as a 23.294 2.67 Large
cognitive subject
Pair 5 Relevance of 22.000 1.72 Large REFERENCES
learning
1. Adăscăliței, A.. Instruire asistată de
As argued in the first section of this paper, calculator. Didactica informatică. Iași :
the impact encompasses also the learning Polirom (2007).
performance (learning results). If before the
training program most of the participants 2. Emmel, N.. Sampling and Choosing Cases
registered average performances, the training in Qualitative Research. A Realist
program best improved Lurkers and Hunters’ Approach. London: Sage Publications
(2013).
technical performances. The Hobbyists scored
3. European Commission - Eurydice. Key Data
better in courses addressing cross competences.
on Learning on Innovation through ICT at
school in Europe 2011. Bruxelles (2011).
4. Leinenbach, J.. E-learning Management.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Iași: Polirom (2007).
5. Trilling , B., Fadel, C.. 21st Century Skills.
The research confirmed the general
Learning for Life in Our Time. San
hypothesis (Hg) that the use of ICT in adult
Francisco: Joessy-Bass A Wiley Imprint
learning has a positive impact. The results are
(2009).
visible for all the psychographic segments we
6. Vaughn, R. H.. Manualul trainerului
were able to identify, namely Lurkers, Hunters
profesionist. Planificarea, livrarea și
and Hobbyists. However, to give an answer to
evaluarea programelor de instruire.
the research question asking on whom ICT has
București: CODECS (2008).
a greater impact, it is possible to conclude that
Lurkers and Hunters had the most visible 7. Department for Business, Innovation and
changes in their learning behavior. They Skills. Motivation and barriers to learning
increased intrinsic motivation for learning, for young people not Education,
discovering that learning is enjoyable and can Employment or Training. www.gov.uk.
be more effective in collaborative contexts. The [online]. Available:
fact the training program blended both https://www.gov.uk/government/publicatio
asynchronous and synchronous learning
ns/motivation-and-barriers-to-learning-for-
sustained the development of self-confidence
and self-perception as a learner. At the young-people-not-in-education-
beginning, the Lurkers expressed that they are employment-or-training (February 2013).
not able to learn and their work environment is
not so demanding. However, the training

584
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

IMPLICATION OF PARENTAL AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Aurelia MORARU

Psychosociology Faculty, “Andrei Saguna” Constanta University

Motto.  „Human  being  need  love.  Life  without  tenderness  and  without  love  is  nothing  but  a  dry 
mechanism, creaking and heartbreaking”. (Victor Hugo) 

Summary. The researches made in psychotherapy field have proved the importance of child’s
relathionship with his group affiliation and with his family, as a prereqiusite for balanced development
of child’s personality and his social optimal integration. Based on this researches, we have found that the
best predictor for a harmonic child’s development is given by the relationship seted between child and his
family members and the effective communication within family. For the investigation we aimed to
specifically evaluate how the child relates to other family members using structured psychological
interviw and observation, we have continued the investigation of the personality using clinical evaluation
instruments and for the personality’s restructuring we used individual and family psychotherapy. Our
desire was not only to determine and to investigate the causes of the disorder but also to implement
psychological activities in order to improve child behaviour. We have considered that the relathionship
that they have and effective communication can lead to personality rebalancing and to a good
intergration both in the family and in the psycho-social area (school).

Keywods: aggresion, children, parents, psychotherapy, personality, behaviour.

 

his anger or offend people around him.

Aggressiveness in children is manifested also
1. Introduction when he has profond dissatisfaction or when
In psychology is especially used the the affection is missing him, he is not valuated
concept of aggression while in sociology it is or he does not sleep enough. When parents
used the concept of violence . assess to the children certain standards on
The aggression is related to the bellicose learning or discipline and the child cant reach
nature of a person. This concept characterize them the parents extremely punish them, these
the dynamism of a subject that does not run can lead to revolt or breaking-up the child’s
because of difficulties or fight. (Psychology personality. Learning this aggressive role is
Dictionary, 2000). For many psychologist the another issue in child and adolescent
agression is closely related to frustration: a aggression manifestation. When talking about
child who is not free to play, clamp because adolescents the aggression have a central

585
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

place. Certain questions appear every time we in relationships with others. The child absorb
talk about aggression: does it develop the emotions with all his senses and if senses
individually or in group? Does it have „tell” him that he is wanted, loved and
common causes for all ages and some specific important the child know who he is and what
causes for teen-agers? The researches show he represents in this life, avoiding to always
that the aggression is not specific only for look for love proofs from those around him.
adolescents, since Antiquity the aggression is The abnormal behaviour and poor
described as a particular disposition of this communication are rooted in issues related to
period of time. In this stage of life, there are poor communication. For the range of the
psysical, psychic and internal disturbances child we must observe the context and the
leading to that distinctive effervescence moment of its occurrence, consequences of
regarded as normal for adolescents. The behaviour. An action is maintained by its
aggressivness is felt by the adolescents even consequences, therefore it is necessary to
when it is not active as a psysical or verbal change the attitude to promote and mantain a
behaviour (Clerget Stephane, 2008). The new behaviour.
adolescent feel the aggression even outside
him when he attache his own aggression to the 2. Parental behavioral training
others. Thus, Ariana belive that her teachers Most family therapist have as a working
have somenthing against her, in fact is about hypothesis that the family not the individual is
internal elements who projects to other people. the problem, so that the whole family is
External elements are family and school convinced to solve the problem (Michael P.
environment. The children and teen-agers are Nichols 2005). On the other hand, it is also
extremely sensitive to family and school accepted the parent’s point of view that the
violence. The violence of the adolescents has child is the problem and the therapists meet in
economical and political causes, this causes sessions with only one parent and the child.
resonate with other factors. Another reason Guess who’s missing? We assert that a child
lies in the models offered by mass media, by has a problem but not the child is the problem.
movies and materials realized by television Working hypothesis: the root of the
and journalism. The family environment has children’s problems consist in providing
an important role in explaning the existence of inconsistent or innapropriate consequences for
aggressive behaviour in pre-school and school behavior problem (Patterson & Brodsky,
age children. We are loved and we love as a 1966) and the failure to support positive
child in our strong relathionship with our behaviour (Patterson & Forgatch, 1995).
parents, brothers and sisters. This love confirm The training consist in strengthen the
the idea that we are appreciated and important. change in small steps. Family management
The opposite of love is hate, the rejection. The involves the agreement between parents to
person who does not feel loved is frustrated, make some changes due to the changes made
has a state of anxiety. Who can live without by their children. Giving and taking rewards
love, appreciation, understanding and respect? and punishments based on children’s
For the child, love is a requirement for behaviour (sending them in their room, sitting
growing and for an healthy and harmonious in the corner).
development. Love is the nurture for the soul
of which human being need to exist. The child 3. Nonviolent communication
will hardly survive and he will feel troubled Is a powerfull process that inspire human
and lonely without love. The smile, connections and compassionate actions.
appreciation, attention can be as effective as Known as „Giraffe Language” nonviolent
money or sweets (Bandura, 1969). communication can help prevent and resolve
Any kind of abuse on children lead to conflicts and to improve communication and
serious behaviour disorders, to delay in needs satisfaction. It provide practical
psysical and emotional development and instruments that can be applied in educational
occurrence of psysical and verbally aggression institutions in bussiness area and in industry,

586
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
psychosocial industry , politics and family - unlocking the resources and awaking
(Marshall B. Rosenberg, 2005). latent potential with their effect of individual
Nonviolent communication teach us development;
empathy and honesty language, thereby - developing alternatives;
increasing goodwill, it is also described like - reduce aversive behavior;
„the language of the soul”. It help us to avoid - increasing family hapiness by forwarding
an aggressive language which may hurt souls positive behaviors;
awakening human being resentments and - effective, authentic communication skills;
reducing confidence with decreased self- - learning the art of negociation;
esteem. We learn throughout our life - learning to solve problems in a
experineces that we are responsible for our constructive way;
choices, for the content of our language, the - develop new interests, interest for each
way we speak must have as a reason the other, increase family cohesion.
symapthy rather than fear, the guilt or shame.
7. Case study: Andrew
4. The effects o f non-violent Anamnesis: Andrew is a 9 years old child
communication with superiour intelligence. His parents are
- strenghthening the capacity to build intellectuals, busy all day with their jobs
relationships based on compassion, having performance in their career. Andrew
appreciation and respect; has two smaller brothers who were bred by
- the power to cleary hear the feelings and grandparents and nanny, the parents were
the needs of others; coming home late in evening. Andrew’s
- developing the ability to clearly formulate mother has supervised his homeworks in the
requests that can enhance the chance to get evening when she was available. The father
what we want; does not communicate enough with Andrew
- prevention and resolution of conflicts; because he comes late in the evening and tired
- shorting the thinking pattern that lead to and he go in his office to perform certain
anger and depression. activities such as the documentation for his
profession or reading. Father is paying
5. Educational measures to reduce attention to how the child is fed and he impose
aggressive behavior certain requirements on food choices and body
- valorization of desirable behavoiur in weight. Andrew is bored during the class, he is
terms of social and moral values; playing like a clown, he aggress his classmates
- providing a healthy environment in which and he hurt his grandparents talking bad with
the child can receive care, support and them. Grandmother and the nanny informed
affection; his father about his acts of indiscipline and he
- the parental couple, family have to be a was punnished for his behavior with critics
model; and beating. Recently Andrew has beaten his
- child and family counseling. grandmother and the nanny. He is taking
medication prescribed by the psychiatrist but
6. Goals of psychotherapy the violent behavior was not changed. When
- dismantling symptoms and improve father come at the office with Andrew, the
behaviour; child keeps a certain psysical and emotional

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

distance, he seems to not be attached by his - family therapy with parents and
father. grandparents.

Psychosocial factors thet caused child The effects of psychotherapy

aggression - rebalancing the personality and its
- lack of affection and time of the parents; restructuring;
- the high requests of the school and family - redefinition of certain labels and
for learning and behavior; behaviors;
- the frustration because of the diet imposed - spending quality time with parents;
by his father; - effective communication with the family;
- the criticism, nagging and depreciation of - reduce the conflicts between parents and
the child by grandparents and parents; avoiding this in the presence of child;
- conflict of parents in the presence of the - improvement child’s behavior and his
child; integration in the classroom.
- psysical and emotiobal abuse of the
father. 8. Bibliography
1. Michael P. Nichols, Family
Clinical and psychotherapeutic strategies Psychotherapy, 2005
- psychological evaluation by the family 2. Marshall B. Roseberg, Be a good parent,
test, tree test, raven test; Elena Francisc Publishing, Bucharest, 2005
- therapeutic scenarios, stories and 3. Stephane Clerget, Adolescence crisis,
metaphors; Tree Publishing, Bucharest, 2008
- modeling, drawing; 4. Norbert Sillamy, Psychology Larousse
- therapy centered on goals and solutions; Dictionary, Enciclopedic Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2000.

588
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

  THE TEENAGERS AND YOUNG BEHAVIOUR, DETERMINATION

AND SELF-ADJUSTING VALUES

Aurelia MORARU*, Adina MORARU**

* “Andrei Şaguna” University, Psychosociology Faculty, Constanţa

** Clinical psychologist/psychotherapist -Psychology Office Adina Moraru, București
 

Abstract: The values and their organization during teenage years represent an impotant acquirement
for personality and their impact have importance both short and long terms regarding person’s
behaviour during the life. We consider the determination an essential element in choosing certain values
for teenage years. Organization of the character who constantly express in different contexts of life
depends on how human values organize in this sensitive period of life of each person, even if this values
remain at a subconscious level, they represent reactions that preced and direct human behaviour. The
motivation for choosing the theme and performing the research is expressed by the interest that we have
for this age and for the proper organization of the values. We started from the premise that the values
constitute a “capital”, perhaps the most valuable of the human being and according this, the human can
be shown in good advantage; in this way, he adjust to social contexts in a suitable, flexible and realistic
way, he create successful socio-professional and interpersonal relathioships and live in harmony with the
other people. Hoping that this study reveals in an authentic way the essence of the psycho-moral values
internalisation, we wish we can contribute to socio-psychological education of teenagers. They represent
the basis of future society and certainly they will bring their contribution in maintaining and creating
positive attitudes for the values promoted by romanian society. The purpose of research is to identify and
to orientate personal and interpersonal values.
Key words: teenager, behavior, determination, values, character, self-adjusting, personality.
 
1. INTODUCTION The reversal of values in transition society
This work can be considered as a possible disturb the creation of personal system of
reflexive and critical-constructive exercise values with consequences for practical
about the problems of adolescence, the behavior of each person and for choosing the
teenagers being a category/sample of youth, way of self-achievement.
most explosive, most researched and The work that we have developed
interdisciplinary approached. attempted to approach this world in a
The adolescence crosses everywhere today psychological and pedagogical perspective
a non-values, challenges and incertitude without neglecting axiological, sociological
troubled world. and anthropological perspective.
Romanian teenagers quickly follow the 2.DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
adolescence’s crisis.

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

The origin of the adolescence is in the latin and mechanisms, whose main role is to
verb ”adolesco-ere”, which means „to grow optimize the behaviours in order to achieve a
up”, „to develop”, „to become strong” and it particular objective with adaptative value.
emphasize the biological maturation and Voluntary action is ”an action in the
psychological development specific to this present which synthesize the archeology of
age. The adolescence is a transition stage that the system and its reflexive capabilities (so it
connects the child phase with the adult phase, is complex and it is singular and personal) for
the self and its elements: psysical, sexual, action in a rational and present reality and to
vocational, moral – spiritual are now defined. initiate beyond reason itself” (Beauvois, J.L.,
The moral-spiritual identity, refers to ethical Ghiglione, R., cited Zlate, 2000 ,p. 215).
dimensions of each person, to the principles The character is a self-regulating system
that will guide him during the life, to all that of values, attitudes and traits, it appears as a
means spirituality. It is the stage when moral relatively stable element, also having an
development reaches self acceptance level, adaptative value. For Klages, the character is
from voluntary compliance to ethic, it force nothing but “the determination morally
preconventional stage – the acceptance of organized”. Other authors define the
decisions to avoid the punishment and character as “the characteristic of personality
conventional conformity with the role- the enlightened by intellect, supported by feeling
acceptance of decisions in order to maintain and directed by determination to take an
the relathionships. (L. Kohlberg). attitude toward reality” (Zisulescu, S.,
The adolescence is between 14 and 20 Caracterul, 1978).
years, and it is followed by post-adolescence The values are „explicit or implicit
untill 25 years old (Creţu,T., 2003, p. 297); it conceptions about what is desirable”
is characterized by many changes and (Vlăsceanu, L.,). They are not direct
transformations, and for this reason it was observable, it involve cognitive, evaluative,
considered by de J.J. Rousseau ”a second social, cultural, spiritual, emotional elements,
birth” or ”an essential moment in human and are relatively stable over time. They can
psychic developmet” according to N. Lehalle. determine behaviors and attitudes, they are
The behaviour is a term introduced in determined and also determine the features of
scientific psychology by Pierre Janet, and it socio-cultural milieu, are interconnected with
means ”the acvity and the action, internal- other values. The changes in romanian society
subjective and external-motive and always had an impact in the structure and the
considering the unity between psychic and functions of the family and in fixing the values
behaviour.” (as cited in P. Neveanu, 1978). at teenagers and young people (Moraru, A.,
Janet introduced in psychology the concept of 2006). The values are existential milestones
behaviour, this meaning all visible of a person that help us to make choices
manifestations oriented to „ outside”, and also raported to certain standards.
meaning all invisible processes for organize Personality constitute ” a dynamic
and control it. More precisely, the behaviour organization of psychopsysical system, which
represent all the acts of an individual from the determine a characteristic way of thinking
simplest(movements) to the most complex and behavior” (Allport, G., 1991).
(reasoning), goal oriented and full of
meanings. According to the french 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
psychologist, the behaviour unifies and 3.1. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
synchronizes as an unity the behaviour and the (1.) Identifying the main personal values
subjective innner life. that are currently accepted by the teenagers;
The determination is a superior form of (2.) Setting the dynamic of personal and
psychological adjustment, it represent one of interpersonal values as subjects get older and
„the highest levels” of mental determination. acquire another professional status;
(Zlate, 2000, p. 215). We consider very (3.) Identifying the personal and
appropriate to put the determination in the interpersonal values specific to boys and girl.
system of adjustment/selfadjustment forms

590
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
3.2. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS and so on until grade 1 considered as the less
(1.) Main hypothesys: It is a ssumed that important value for the subject.
there are cores o f specific values at Only 10 of the 40 values presented will be
adolescence and these are influenced by noted, according to their importance, the scale
gender. could be assimilated to those ordinary
(2.) Secondary hypothesis: It is Qualitative
presumed that the age of teenagers is a 3.4.3. Focus group
differentiator/modulator factor in terms o f 3.4.4. Case study
values orientation. 3.4.5. Descriptive dimension
All qualitative tools emphasize personal
3.3. RESEARCH SUBJECTS biography and social side.
The study was conducted on a total of 97 3.5. RESEARCH RESULTS
subjects, high school students from Bucharest Table no.1 – Subjects distribution
and Constanta, we also explored in a realistic according to their gender
way the values of youth. In terms of Gender

biological gender, a total of 31 subjects are Cumulative

males (32%) and 66 girls (68%). The sample

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Masculin 31 32,0 32,0 32,0
contains more girls than boys due to the Feminin 66 68,0 68,0 100,0
Total
humanist characteristic of high schools and
97 100,0 100,0

universities where we applied the instruments.

3.4. RESEARCH TOOLS

Quantitative
3.4.1. Inventory of interpersonal values,
SIV Questionnaire. The research was
centered on a questionnaire pre-tested and
validated by the Center of Applied Psychology
in Paris.
This tool tries to provide measurements for
a category of values, interpersonal values:
• Dependence (S);
• Conformity (C);
• Social Consideration (R);
• Independence (I);
• Benevolence (B); Figure no.1 – Structure chart of subjects
• Order/Management (L) distribution according to their gender
3.4.2. Adolescent’s significant values Regarding the age, the 97 studied subjects
list: We built an instrument that includes a are betweeen 13 and 26 years old, average age
number of 40 values that subjects must is 18,5 years, median is 18 years and modul is
prioritize according to the importance they 18 years. The amplitude of this distribution is
attach to the value. The hierarchy is made 13 years, and standard deviation is 2,53 years.
according grade 10 to the most important
value, grade 9 to the value on the second place

591
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

Table no.2 – Subjects distribution tendency. Subjects age is not a normally

according the distributed variable.
age
Statistics 

Subjects age 
N  Valid 97
  Missing 0
Mean  18,57
Median  18,00
Mode  18
Std. Deviation  2,533
Skewness  ,882
Std. Error of Skewness ,245
Kurtosis 1,445
Std. Error of Kurtosis ,485
Range  13
Minimum 13
Maximum  26
Percentiles 33,33333333  18,00
Figure no.2 – Bar chart of subjects
66,66666667  19,00 distribution according the age

Main hypothesys : It is assumed that

there are cores o f specific values at
The distribution is asymmetrical positive adolescence and these are influenced by
(Skewness=0,88; Standard Error gender.
Skewness=0,24) subjects with small age are Meaningful values list for teenagers
prevalent and leptocurtica (Kurtosis=1,44; indicates us the orientation of subjects in
Standard Error Kurtosis=0,48) distribution terms of personal values that they choose.
have a large uniformity age around central

Table no.3 – The choices and rank average for values list
Statistics

Good self-image Good Successful Marriage

 
Adaptability Truth Affection Ambition Self-Control Good leader
  and family
N Valid 11 29 16 26 19 9 11 11 Career 31
Communication   35
Missing   86 68 81 71 78 88 86 86 66 62
Mean 5,82 4,55 5,81 3,92 6,00 5,33 4,64 7,27
abilitues  4,90 3,54

Statistics

  Conscientiousness Open
Empathy  Generosity
  Moral Courage Dignity to new Discretion Balance
N  Valid Money32 11  8 40 18 13 2 13  1 21
Missing 65 86   
behavior 89 57 79 84 95 84  96 76
Mean  Earnings
5,41 5,36 5,50 5,08 5,06 4,77 7,00 6,92 5,00 5,10

592
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 
Statistics

Mediator of Problem solving

Indulgent Impartation Confident Initiative Education Freedom conflicts Patriotism  Persuasiv
N  Valid 18  1 8 8 19 30 5 oriented 5  2 2
Missing 79  96 89 89 78 67 92 92 95 95
Mean  6,00 5,00 7,25 4,63 6,74 5,60 6,60 7,00 5,00 7,50

Statistics

Help for
Power
Amiability
  Patience Respect person in Delicacy Humility Solicitude Tolerance Vigilance
N  Valid 7 
38 to influence 20 35 10 10 3 1  7 14
Missing 59 90 77 62 need  87 87 94 96 90 83
Mean  5,84 7,14 6,85 6,00 6,90 5,40 5,00 8,00 2,14 7,29

Meaningful values list for teenagers Chioces

indicates us the orientation of subjects in 40

terms of personal values that they embrace. 35

Using a simple frequency analysis

30

25

we found according to the tables and graphs 20

Alegeri

that the size of “courage” has the largest 15

number of choices, 40. Next is “friendship”

10

with 38 choices, the “respect”, the “marriage” 0

Courage Friendship Respec Marriage and Money Succesfull Freedom
and the “family” each with 35 choices, family
 
career

“money earnings” with 32 choices,

earnings

“successful career” with 31 choices and

Figure no.3 – Bar chart for the most
“freedom” with 30 choices.
frequent values.
Significant personal values choosen by
Insignificant values located opposite,
the subjects of research, in order of the
chosen by the research’s subjects are:
importance, are:
1. Problem solving orientation
1. Courage
2. Mediation of disputes
2. Friendship
3. Humility
3. Respect
4. Discretion, patriotism and persuasion
4. Marriage and family
5. Empathy, communion and solicitude.
5. Money earnings
6. Successful career
7. Freedom

593
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

5   For all other significant chosen values, the

4,5  subjects are oriented in the area of theoretical
 
average and they are not directed to a certain
4

3,5 
3   value pole.
2,5 
2  
1,5 
1   Ranks Average

0,5 
 
10
0
9
Communion
Solicitude Empathy DiscretionPatriotismPersuasionHumility MediationProblem

 
of conflicts 8
orientation
solving 7

Figure no.4 – Bar chart fo the less frequent 3

values 1
Courage Friendship Respect Marriage and
Money
  Succesful Freedom Ambition Vigilance Patience

   
earnings

 
We used test „t” Student for compare the  
Family career

average of the population with the average of

a sample to analyse whether the rank average
of a value is significantly different from 5,5. Figure no.5 – Significant differences
Apart from the cases when the choices had depending on the theoretical average
extremely low values, we could observe a
number of three values where the average of According to the first hypothesis we
ranks is significantly different from the have shown the existence of a values center
theoretical average. for teenagers. To see how these values are
sensitive to biological gender of the subjects
Table no.4 – Significant differences we used the “t” Students test for independent
depending on the theoretical average. samples where we compared the averages of
One-Sample Test
ranks obtained by boys with those obtained
by girls.
Test Value = 5.5
95% Confidence

In the table above we note the

Interval of the
Mean Difference
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Lower Upper
Ambitie -2,830 25 ,009 -1,577 -2,72 -,43 existence of three values that differentiate
Casatoria si familia
between boys and girls, as follows:
-3,818 34 ,001 -1,957 -3,00 -,92
Vigilenta 2,210 13 ,046 1,786 ,04 3,53

• Self-control is significantly better

Rabdare 2,736 19 ,013 1,350 ,32 2,38

valued by girls than it is for boys (t(17)=2,39;

Although „Ambition” and „Marriage and p<0,05);
family”, are in the system of values of the • Marriage and family significantly
subjects (because of the number of choices), better valued by boys than it is by girls
they are significantly moved to lower places, (t(33)=2,64; p<0,05);
the average of ranks is significantly different • Vigilance is better valued by girls that
from the theoretical average (t(25)=2,83; it is by boys (t(12)=2,86; p<0,05);
p<0,01 for Ambition and t(34)=3,81; p<0,01 for
Marriage). „Vigilence” and „Patience” are The choice of values depending on
significantly different values from the subject’s biological gender
theoretical average, this time they are strongly According to the first hypothesis we
valued (t(25)=2,21; p<0,05 for Vigilence şi have shown the existence of a values center
t(19)=2,73; p<0,05 for Patience). for teenagers. To see how these values are
Therefore, among all the values that have sensitive to biological gender of the subjects
met a number of choices to become we used the “t” Students test for independent
representative, it is shaped a pole of strongly samples where we compared the averages of
rated values (with significant scores over 5,5) ranks obtained by boys with those obtained
in the sense of Vigilance and Patience and a by girls.
pole of marginalized values (with significant
scores under 5,5) in sense of Ambition and of
Marriage and family.

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Table no.5 – Significant diferences between boys and girls in terms of value orientation
Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df  Sig. (2-tailed)

Self-control  Equal variances
assumed 
,018 ,894 -2,397 17 ,028

Equal variances
-2,550 7,988  ,034
not assumed
Marriage and family Equal variances
assumed 
3,633 ,065 2,644 33 ,012

Equal variances
2,205 10,748  ,050
not assumed
Vigilance Equal variances
assumed 
4,031 ,068 -2,865 12 ,014

Equal variances
-2,865 8,547  ,020
not assumed

We can declare that the first hypothesis is Of the 97 investigated subjects a total of
confirmed. Indeed we find the existance of 58 subjects are small age subjects (59,8%) and
some values centers oriented to positively 39 subjects are big age (40,2%).
valuate and negatively valuate some values
and some of these values can help to Table no.6 – Subjects distribution
distinguish the subject’s gender. according the age group
Age group

Secondary hypothesis It is presumed  

Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
that the age of teenagers is a Valid Small age 58 59,8 59,8 59,8

differentiator/modulator factor in terms o f

Big age 39 40,2 40,2 100,0
Total 97 100,0 100,0

values orientation.

Because the subjects age is a

continuous variable with the median placed at
18 years old, we can consider all subjects
under 18 years old small age and all subject
after 18 years old big age. The result is a new
categorial variable that distinguish between
two category of subjects and with which we
can study the effect that age group determine
over the values system.

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Figure no.6 – Subjects distribution

according the age group To verify the relation between personal and
interpersonal values of the subjects we used
The age of subjects is an important factor Pearson bivaried correlation coefficinet.
influencing the value orientation. To show We note that there is a significant
this, we used „t” Student test independent correlation between interpersonal values and
samples. two personal values Marriage and family, and
Courage.
Table no.6 –Age differences in valuing There are significant correlations, mild and
successful career negative between marriage and dependence
(r=-0,36; p<0,05), and between marriage and
management (r=-0,34; p<0,05). The persons
Casatoria  for who marriage and family represent an
si familia Curaj important value obtained lower scores at
Dependence Pearson Correlation  -,366 ,575 dependence (oriented to dependence pole) and
Sig. (2-tailed) ,031 ,000 also low scores to management (this value is
N  35  40 not dominant in interpersonal relathionships).
Conformity  Pearson Correlation  ,315 -,646 The courage, as individual values is
Sig. (2-tailed) ,065 ,000 significantly correlated, positive and strong
N  35  40 with all interpersonal values. Thus the
Social consideration  Pearson Correlation  -,331 ,679 correlation between courage and dependence
Sig. (2-tailed) ,052 ,000 is r=0,57; p<0,01, between courage and
N  35  40 conformity r=-0,64; p<0,01, between courage
Independence Pearson Correlation  -,281 ,610 and social consideration r=0,67; p<0,01,
Sig. (2-tailed) ,102 ,000 between courage and independence r=0,61;
N  35  40 p<0,01, between courage and benevolence
Benevolence  Pearson Correlation  -,322 ,597 r=0,59; p<0,01 and between courage and
Sig. (2-tailed) ,059 ,000 management r=0,58; p<0,01.
N  35  40 The subjects which strongly valorize the
Management Pearson Correlation  -,340 ,581
courage they appreciate the independence in
Sig. (2-tailed) ,045 ,000
interpersonal relationship, are non-conformist
N  35  40
(the only negative correlation), they valorize
the social consideration, they are independent,
kind and they tend to manage.
We noticed the existence of one single There are not significant differences
value which make a significantly difference regarding the interpersonal values between
between the subjects with samll age and the boys and girls or between two age groups.
subjects with big age (t(29)=3,24; p<0,05). Because the relations between courage as
It is about successful career, where the personal value and interpersonal values are
subjects with big age valuate it significantly very strong, we propose to predict the value of
stronger compared to small age subjects. the courage based on the scores obtained at
Therefore, we can say that the second interpersonal values. For this purpose we used
hypothesis of the study was confirmed. linear regression as a statistical method where
we built a number of six hierarchical models,
Table no.7 – Corelations between personal corresponding to six predictors determined by
values and interpersonal values the inventory variables of interpersonal
Independent Samples Test values, by which we will study the multiply
  relation between them and criterion,
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

represented by courage
     
   
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)

 
Successful career Equal variances
,182  ,672   -3,248  29 ,003
 
assumed

-3,155 
 
Equal variances
21,335 ,005
not assumed

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.
Table no.8 – The validity of six hierarchical regression models
ANOVAg

Sum of
Model  Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 
1  Regression  96,897 1 96,897 18,798  ,000 a
Residual  195,878 38 5,155
Total 292,775 39
2  Regression  124,023 2 62,011 13,596  ,000 b
Residual  168,752 37 4,561
Total 292,775 39
3  Regression  148,932 3 49,644 12,424  ,000 c
Residual  143,843 36 3,996
Total 292,775 39
4  Regression  157,835 4 39,459 10,235  ,000 d
Residual  134,940 35 3,855
Total 292,775 39
5  Regression  157,853 5 31,571 7,956  ,000 e
Residual  134,922 34 3,968
Total 292,775 39
6  Regression  159,963 6 26,660 6,624  ,000 f
Residual  132,812 33 4,025
Total 292,775 39
a. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence
b. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism
c. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration 
d. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, 
Independence 
e. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, 
Independence Benevolence
 
f. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, 
, Bunavionta 
Independence Benevolence Management
g. Dependent Variable: Courage
, Conducere 

After the analysis of the variance, we find p<0,01), this determine us to study it to
in the table number 8 that all six models exactly identify its predictive power.
significantly explain the variance of criterion.
The most powerfull model is the model with
six predictors. Of the 292,77 variance of
criterion (sum of squares), the regresiv model
explain 159,96, and 132,81 are not explained.
This model is significant (F(6,33)=6,62;

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Table no.9 – The summary of six regression models

Model Summary

Change Statistics

Adjusted Std. Error of R Square

Model  R  R Square R Square the Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change

1  ,575 a ,331 ,313 2,270 ,331 18,798 1 38 ,000

2  ,651 b ,424 ,392 2,136 ,093 5,947 1 37 ,020

3  ,713 c   ,509 ,468 1,999 ,085 6,234 1 36 ,017

4  ,734 d ,539 ,486 1,964 ,030 2,309 1 35 ,138

5  ,734 e ,539 ,471 1,992 ,000 ,004 1 34 ,948

6  ,739 f ,546 ,464 2,006 ,007 ,524 1 33 ,474

a. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence

b. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism

c. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism,Social Consideration

d. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence

e. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence, Benevolance 

f. Predictors: (Constant), ), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence, Benevolance, Management 

Analysing the summary of models, we see predictive power is significant (t(1,38)=18,79;

that the best model is the fourth (with four p<0,01). The second predictor brings an
predictors), able to explain 48,6% of creiterion information of 9,3% which explain the
variance (R2 ajustat=0,48). The inclusion of criterion, information is also significant (R2
the fifth predictor determine the decrease of changed=0,09; t(1,37)=5,94; p<0,05). The third
the predictive power to 47,1% and the sixth predictor has also a significant role, bringing
predictor disturb the model, this having a 8,5% information (R2 changed=0,08;
prediction power of only 46,4%. t(1,36)=6,23; p<0,05).
Only the first three independent variable The information brought by the fourth
significantly contribute to the prediction predictor, are not significant and don’t
power of the model, as the hierarchical improve the predictive power of the model.
statistics indicate. Thus, the first predictor, Knowing this we decided to use, to write
dependence, explains 33,1% of Courage the regression equation, the fourth model, the
criterion (R2 changed=0,33) and this model with the highest prediction strenght.

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Table no.10 –Regression model coefficients
a
Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model  B Std. Error Beta t  Sig.
4  (Constant)  -8,749 7,236 -1,209  ,235
Dependence  -,056 ,083 -,279 -,675  ,504
Conformism  ,160 ,135 ,748 1,182  ,245
Social consideration  ,627 ,217 2,554 2,890  ,007
Independence  -,198 ,130 -,903 -1,520  ,138
a. Dependent Variable: Courage

• There are some differences in their

In this model, the most important predictor structure in girls than boys;
of courage is social consideration, (β=2,55; • Self-control is significantly better
t=2,89; p<0.01), followed by independence valued by girls than it is for boys;
(β=-0,90; t=1,52; p>0,01), conformism • Marriage and family significantly
(β=0,74; t=1,18; p>0,01) and dependence (β=- better valued by boys than it is by girls;
0,27; t=0,67; p>0,01). • Vigilance is better valued by girls that
Regression equation is expressed in gross it is by boys;
notes: • Age is an important variable in
Courage=-8,74 -0,05×Dependence + creating the teenagers values determining the
0,16×Conformism + 0,62×Consideration – orientation to differentiated values; teenagers
0,19×Independence over 18 years old are more interested about
Or, expressed in standardized notes „z”: career than are the teenagers under the age 18;
Courage= -0,27×Dependence + • The values are continuously structured
0,74×Conformism + 2,55×Consideration – and restructured at the age of adolescence,
0,90×Independence they represent a continuum, this process is
flexible and complex;
4. CONCLUSIONS • The interactions between educational
• The adolescence is able to appropriate models of family, school, group of friends,
values and to be guided by values; society, are very complex in human
• At adolescence age values centers are personality edification and in values selection
crystallized. The teenagers have choosen for and creation.
certain significant values, such as: courage, • The study of psycho-socio-pedagogical
friendship, respect, marriage and family, and personal factors involved in values
money earnings, successfull career and creation is extremely complex;
freedom. They placed other values at opposite:
• This study suggest as way of psycho-
settlement of disputes, humility, discretion,
socio-pedagogical intervention the
persuasion, empathy, communion and
identification and promotion of those
solicitude;
significant aspects that have a direct impact in

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human personality creation from birth to 2. CREŢU, T., (2003), Ages Psychology,
adolescence and even after this; Ed. Credis, Bucureşti.
• We also propose educational, training 3. ENĂCHESCU, C., (2005). Moral
and deviant correction on values psycho- Psychology , Technical Publishing House
socio-pedagogical problems; Bucharest.
• At adolescence age the individual 4. GOLU, P., (2000), Social Psychology
begins to assert his own identity in relation Fundamentals, Ed. Ex Ponto, Constanţa.
with the others, seeking to become original, 5. ILUŢ, P., (1995), Knowledge and
they don’t agree the uniformity; support, Ed. Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca.
• The teenagers filter the way to relate 6. MORARU, A., (2006, Nr. 5). Single-
with the values and through will they self- parent family, “Psychology Today” magazine,
adjust their behavior, compared with previous Bucharest.
ages when the family had the essential role in 7. NEACŞU, I., (course 2005),
values orientation. Educational Psychology, Bucharest.
8. POPESCU-NEVEANU, P., (1978).
5. RECOMMENDATIONS Psychology Dictionary, Ed. Albatros,
(1.) Setting the educational process by Bucharest.
which children learn since childhood to 9. ROGERS, C. (1968), The
distinguish between good and bad, the family development, Ed. Bordos, Paris.
and the school have the essential role; 10. SAVA, F., (2004). Data analysis in
(2.) Restoring the Romanian cultural psychological research, Ed. ASCR, Cluj-
values; Napoca.
(3.) Recreating the morality base; 11. SCHULTZ, D. (1986). Theories of
(4.) Promoting Romanian perennial values personality, Thierd edition, Pacific Grove,
through various cultural and educational California.
programs, both in schools and in media; 12. STĂNCIULESCU, E., (1998).
(5.) Exposure to positive models which Education of family sociology, Ed. Polirom,
have an impact in human personality shaping; Iaşi.
(6.) Psychosocial intervention by 13. ŞCHIOPU, U., VERZA, E., (1995).
organizing conferences and workshops with Ages Psychology ,Life cycles. Didactic and
topics focused on values; Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest
(7.) Consistency in education; 14. TEODORESCU, T., (1972).
(8.) The young people must be educated in Psychology of behaviour, Scientific
order to understand that they have to socialize Publishing House Bucharest.
in groups that promote desirable social values 15. TEODORESCU, S., (1997).
and awareness the influence that the group Psihoantropogeneză, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi.
exert on the individual; 16. TOMŞA, GH., (course 2006), Career
(9.) Reducing the exposure to negative counseling, Bucharest.
behavior models and to the television shows 17. VERZA, E., VERZA, F.E., (1993).
which promote the violence and non-values; Age psychology, Ed. Hyperion, Bucharest.
(10.) Media have a very important role in 18. VRĂJMAŞ, A. (course 2006). Family
the direction of positive information and sociology, Bucharest.
modeling of human personality through 19. WINNICOTT, D.W. (2004). Human
publication and broadcasts content. nature, Ed. Trei, Bucharest.
20. ZLATE, M. (2002). Ego and
REFERENCES personality, Ed. Trei, Bucharest.
1. ALLPORT, G. W., (1991). Structure 21. ZLATE, M., (2000), Psychology
and personality développent, Didactic and Fundamentals, Ed. Pro Humanitate,
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22. ZAMFIR, C., VLĂSCEANU, L., 24.
(1993), Sociology Dictionary, Ed. Babel, www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c4_d
Bucharest. escriptive_statistics/determine_skew:kurt.html
23. ZISULESCU, S., (1978), The : University of New England, Armidale, New
character, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing South West, Australia.
House, Bucharest.

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INSTANCES OF FEMINITY IN THE NOVEL “VOICA”,

BY DE HENRIETTE YVONNE STAHL

Daniela NAGY*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Feminism and femininity have often been confused in relation with literary works. The
confusion consisted of attributing feminine characteristics to writings belonging to female writers.
Literary criticism has managed to clarify these two distinct concepts, and even to identify elements of
masculine writing in female authors. The novel under scrutiny, “Voica”, by Henriette Yvonne Stahl
displays a range of facets of femininity; nevertheless, the manner of writing is purely masculine, the
author appealing to the psychological observation, using a masculine-like language for the novel’s
dialogues and preserving an external realism. Apart from the gender differences, absorbed by the
supreme power of creation, the literature written by women offers a new perspective, freed from
constraints, an inner image of the topic of femininity, an autonomous space, populated by original and
very interesting characters, who appear to have been taken out from the real world.

Keywords: feminism, feminity, feminine writing, masculine writing, literary feminism

1. INTRODUCTION feminism was a powerful movement and it

Feminism and feminity are two distinct advocated for vital rights, through appeal to
concepts disputing supremacy in the areas of numerous fields of activity, from mythology to
ideology and literature, but which harmonize psychoanalysis and sociology, feminity was
with each other due to their common concern accepted as a literary matter, capable of
to confer the woman a new identity and a highlighting the colors of life and of providing
visibly modified and improved status. women with their former charm and vitality.
Although feminity represents a social The vision of women was permanently
construct, it is made up of both social factors influenced by ideologies and by the status that
and biologically created ones. Based on the women held within the society of that time, so
famous feminist manifesto, launched by that feminist ideas also penetrated the literary
Simone de Beauvoir, in 1949 - „Le Deuxième field, but the aesthetic factor prevailed and the
Sexe” 1 , feminity has its origin in biology 2 . If virulence of ideas was diminished to the point
                                                              that they did no longer represented a purpose
1
  Although Mrs. de Beauvoir’s manifesto appeared 25 in itself. Literature that was written by women
years after the novel under our scrutiny was published, approaches feminity in a manner different
the saying “One is not born a woman, but becomes one”
will be used for analyzing various literary works written from male writers’ perspective. Subjectivity,
by women, both from a psychoanalytical perspective sometimes excessive, turns into a negative
and from socio-psychological or linguistic-semiotic                                                                                                 
ones. 2
“anatomy is destiny”, in Sigmund Freud’s acceptance

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trait; the topic of feminity condition becomes a that had enjoyed a positive reception at the
pursuit of happiness, in most of the cases, and time of their first publishing.
this very instance leads to the replacement of The novel Voica by Henriette Yvonne
the narrative by an array of sensations. The Stahl, the author’s debut work, was met with
French feminist researcher, Hélène Cixous enthusiasm by Mihail Sadoveanu and Garabet
identified a “feminine writing” (“écriture Ibrăileanu, both writers sensing a promising
féminine”) or a feminine expression at the artistic potential in the young woman writer.
crossroads of poetry, magic, madness, in other At the time of Stahl’s issuing her second
words, outside the dominant masculine volume, of short stories, Aunt Matilda,
logocentrism. 3 Nevertheless, Cixous did not Perpessicius joined the criticism of the epoch,
exclude the possibility, which was proved, in the manner of appreciating and confirming
through Joyce’s works, among others, that Henriette Yvonne Stahl’s talent, while almost
men writers could write in this manner, too. As fifteen years after the publishing of her first
long as the woman’s feelings are realistically novel, Eugen Lovinescu included the writer in
rendered, the writers’ gender is irrelevant; the the third volume of his History of the
only relevant issue will be the aesthetic Contemporary Romanian Literature, in the
reception of such literary works. From this chapter dedicated to “The stream of
perspective, although all feminist novels focus consciousness epics”. Still, certain nuances of
exclusively on women characters, not all of misogyny are present in the critical works of
them manage to highlight psychological the above mentioned critics, not in the mode of
figures, capable of walking out of the pages of a negative association of the writing with its
the book and entering their readers’ minds, author’s gender, but, on the contrary, in the
while remaining imprinted in their memory. meaning of a recognition of the power of
And this happens because some of the writers Stahl’s pen, of her power of impartial,
struggle too much to catch the stream of distanced observation, of her psychological
consciousness of their female characters, to the introspection, yet, in a masculine manner. This
detriment of the work of art, in itself. approach is extremely interesting in relation
In case of the Romanian literature from with Stahl’s perception among her male peers
the beginning of the twentieth century, novels of the time. Sadoveanu, Ibrăileanu or
written by women writers did not enjoy an Perpessicius never made any reference to
objective criticism. On the one side, this was feminity or feminism when writing about
due to that time’s reticence of the male Henriette Yvonne Stahl; only Lovinescu did
criticism toward the women writers’ abilities mention about a “feminine plot, in what
to write “literature” (perceived as a male’s femininity holds as its most specific trait, in its
talent); on the other side, the very absence of sexual pathology, with all of its wanderings
women critics had led to that reality, and not and nervous shocks, with all the absurdity of
the least, the social, economic and political opposite attitudes, yet, treated in a virile
factors contributed to the false perception that manner, without romance or sentimentalism”,
writing was the men’s job only. Nonetheless, but his appreciation was in relation with
women writers were tolerated within the world Stahl’s novel The Star of the Slaves (1934).
of letters, some of them were more intensely Even so, the novel Voica displays a
made public, whereas most of them got broad range of instances of feminity, feminity
marginalized, then completely forgotten, even perceived as a sum of feminine feelings and
by the simple act of not republishing the works social behaviors in relation with the place, the
time and the human interaction.
                                                             
3
Hélène Cixous was the first to coin the phrase feminine 2. INSTANCES OF FEMINITY
writing in her essay “Laugh of the Medusa” (1976), in
which she asserted: “A woman must to write her self: Generally, in Henriette Yvonne Stahl’s
she has to write about women and to bring women back
within the art of writing, from which they have been novels or short stories, feminine characters
driven away as violently as from their bodies.” display a crisis of identity, namely the crisis of

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their feminine identity. The author’s merit is to posture as a mother, represented in the novel
have managed to depict, in a very realistic and by Ana and Stoiana, holds the role of
genuine manner, this crisis generated, in many satisfying the needs of the other people
instances, by the heroines’ own figment, surrounding her: these needs manifest at the
although most female characters possess a same time with this woman’s power of self-
strong, sharp lucidity. On the other side, sacrifice (for her children and husband). The
characters’ crisis is related to their need to wife satisfies the worldly craves of her
reach the depth of self. The lack of prejudice husband, without any opposition, with a sense
of the female characters in Henriette Yvonne of resignation and consolation that “it is
Stahl’s novels, their fragility in front of public supposed to be like this”, “for he may find
judgment, confer them a certain feminine some other woman, maybe a virgin”. Voice,
dignity. In relation with the masculine world, for example, is not concerned about the fact
feminine characters possess a specific self- of being “used” (in fact, there is not explicit
sufficiency, which stands for a quest for their mentioning of this attitude), but she is worried
own identity. In their relation with love, one that the mere fact of neglecting her husband
cannot even affirm that these characters are and household may lead to “separation”, and
disappointed. They manage to overcome the through this, to the loss of commonly
border of disappointment caused by random acquired goods with her life partner. Her
love that was offered to them. Suffering, sister-in-law, the wife of Dumitru’s brother,
sadness and disappointment are but various temporarily replaces the runaway wife, yet, it
manners of profoundly searching for the self. is not because she would like to consolidate
In Voica, Henriette Yvonne Stahl family relationships, but out of mercantile
presents the instances of feminity both from a interests, for the sake of obtaining something
feminine perspective and a masculine one; from the more affluent relative.
still, the manner of her writing is doubtlessly The devil-woman is not depicted by Henriette
masculine, characterized by objectivity, Yvonne Stahl in a romantic manner, but a very
realism, psychological observation, emotional realistic one. This category also includes
impartiality, and schematism. Thus, from the Voica and old Ioana. Voica is a temperamental
masculine viewpoint, we have identified the woman, in her relationship with Dumitru she
instances of the ordinary woman (mother, will not accept his refusal to give her those
wife, sister-in-law, virgin), of the devil- two acres of land in exchange for her taking
woman (temperamental), those of the care of his illegitimate child, whereas toward
adulterous woman, the materialist woman; her sister-in-law, Floarea, Voica does not
whereas from the feminine perspective we manifest any understanding, compassion or
have recognized the instances of the fertile/ mercy at all, so long as the latter “aspires” to
sterile woman, the impure/ victim, the woman her social status and goods. Old Ioana is sold
victim of prejudices, the emancipated woman. to money and for the money sake, she is ready
Apart from these instances, and beyond to intervene in the destiny of marriage between
gender-related appreciations, we could add an Voica and Dumitru, although “indirectly,
instance of the woman that behaves socially, through a man she knows…”. The instance of
in relation with her time, with the place and the adulterous woman is concisely presented
interaction with other human beings. by Anca, the little girl who looks after her step
Hence, the ordinary woman, in her brother. This time, the young lady’s

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intervention and supplementary questions society, insensitive and loyal to some primitive
come to render the cruel truth: the little girl mentalities.
has a step father and does not manage to The instance of the emancipated woman is
understand why her natural dad died. From the proved by the manner of action of the young
perspective of her tragic experience, she Lady, in relation with the other women of the
speaks about her woman neighbor Floarea’s village: detachment, superiority, education,
runaway with Vasile, as about trivia, but still, belonging to a superior social class; but also
she is influenced by the comment of the adults by the presence, in the middle of peasants, of
around her. Therefore, Anca perceives the fact Maria, the young Lady’s personal servant, a
that Floarea’s cheated husband got crazy as young woman, aspiring to a social status
something natural and a good reason for his which she will never reach. Maria’s
running away, too. The materialist woman is superiority is reflected only by some items of
portrayed against the severe life conditions, “town-like” clothing; by wearing them Maria
immediately after the First World War. Voica differentiates herself from the vestimentary
defends her possessions with an animalic kitsch of the local women peasants.
obstinacy, sister-in-law, Floarea takes Henriette Yvonne Stahl manages to
advantage of the domestic shortcomings of her depict these facets of feminity through
brother-in-law, Dumitru and hopes to obtain psychological observation, using a masculine
something in exchange for some house chores, language for the dialogues of the novel while
old Ioana keeps her money at her breast – for preserving that external realism mentioned by
rainy days-, and even the doctor’s wife does the Garabet Ibraileanu. Inner introspection
not refrain herself from taking away differs radically from the one used by Virginia
everything that comes to her hand, from the Woolf, by appeal to the interior monologue,
sick woman’s house. The doctor’s wife also steady time-mobile space; Stahl rather uses
displays a cheap careerism, she dresses herself relations between characters; she uses nature
without refinement, but she pretends to belong description to complete her feminine
to the high class: a “lady”. characters’ feelings in the novel.
The instances of the fertile woman or her
opposite, the sterile woman are this time 3. CONCLUSIONS
presented from a feminine perspective. Stoiana
gives birth to a child every year, whereas Beyond the gender differences
Voica cannot give birth, just like her sister. absorbed by the stupendous power of creation,
Fecundity and sterility make victims of both the literature written by women offers a new
two women, equally: Stoiana suffers from vision, freed from constraints, an inner image
child delivery and she would like some advice of the topic of feminity, an autonomous space,
not to remain pregnant again; Voica knows her populated by original and interesting
handicap, she is aware of a woman’s nature characters that appear to have been cut out of
and the role she holds in her home, and, the real life.
consequently, she has to accept her usband Although Henriette Yvonne Stahl did
illegitimate child. The impure woman, victim not manage to be remarked within the
of emotional blackmail and equally of the rural Romanian literature of the interbellic period at
community’s prejudices, the bride without a the same value as Hortensia Papadat-
name, accept with resignation to be married to Bengescu, maybe that the appreciation of her
a widowed man, with two children. Mention writings would have been different if she had
should be made at this point that the bride is been lucky enough to have her works
the only woman in the novel who is not given republished. Some of her novels were only
a name. it is possible for the author to have printed in the edition princeps, and her
intended, by this, to generalize the sensual tumultuous private life, the influences and
woman’s victimization, through the prejudices consequences of her cohabitation with her two
of those people composing a patriarchic husbands – Ion Vinea and Petru Dumitriu-
contributed to the superposition of the author’s

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public image over her image as a writer, which Bucure ti: Minerva;
was to the detriment of the latter. 3. Lovinescu, Eugen. (1968). Istoria
The novel Voica is not necessarily a literaturii române contemporane.
work of art, yet, it holds the merit to have been Bucure ti: Editura Academiei;
among the first works created by the woman to 4. Stahl, Henriette Yvonne. (1957). Voica.
whom the label of “literary feminism” was Bucure ti: Editura de stat pentru literatură
associated. i artă;
5. The Women and Language Debate: a
BIBLIOGRAPHY sourcebook/ edited by Camille Roman,
Suzanne Juhasz, Cristanne Miller. (1976).
1. Beauvoir, Simone de. (1949) Le deuxième Rutgers University Press
sexe, Paris, Gallimard (trad. rom Al doilea 6. Zaharia Filipa , Elena. (2004). Studii de
sex. 1998. Bucure ti: Univers; literatură feminină . Bucureşti: Paideia.
2. Ibrăileanu, Garabet. (1979). Studii literare.

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A STUDY ON THE TRAINING AND FORMATION NEEDS OF

TEACHING STAFF IN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES

Gabriela Carmen OPROIU *

** Associated Professor PhD., Teacher Training Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest

Abstract: The role and importance of continuous teacher training and formation has become increasingly
important within the context of present preoccupations for quality in higher education institutions.
Teaching staff in universities is represented by professionals that need to be permanently preoccupied
with their continuous formation and training, in order to develop both their scientific and their
methodological and psycho-pedagogical competences. The present paper present the results of a study on
the teaching staff in several higher education institutions with technical profile in Romania. The study
aimed to identifying the continuous formation and training needs, including the interest in professional
training, the domains where this is a must, the competences that need to be developed. Also the concrete
means by which formation is identified. The results of the study demonstrated the necessity of a coherent
system in professional development in technical higher education.

Keywords: technical higher education, professional training, professional skills, teaching

1. INTRODUCTION multitude of activities in which they are

involved (teaching activities, research,
European policies regarding professional guidance). Considering these aspects a
development in the case of teaching staff in university professor needs to be a very good
technical and vocational institutions represent specialist in his field, a good researcher, but
one of the domains of priority for the also an innovator and a model from the
European cooperation by education [1]. Thus, didactic point of view. Besides the above-
there is particular concern at European level in mentioned roles, he or she is - first and
order to develop professional skills required foremost - a teacher whose didactic
teaching staff from universities [2]. competences are formed and permanently
Within this context, the main condition for trained.
quality education is represented by continuous As a conclusion, alongside professional
training and formation for the teaching staff in competences, a professor needs to have
universities. acquired general and specific teaching
Teaching staff in universities have a competences, either by completing the psycho-
particular profile, generated by the pedagogical program, or in an empirical
professional roles they have. Their profile and manner, as a result of his experience in
competences are complex, owing to the working with students.

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On the other hand, as a result of the fact the questionnaire made up of 12 items, most of
that knowledge becomes outdated very which are closed items. The questionnaire was
rapidly, and of the changes that occur in applied online to the members of the target
society and on the labour market, formation group.
and training should become a continuous Since the present paper does not constitute
process, organised in higher education itself as an exploratory study, it should be
institutions as well. So, university teachers mentioned that, due to the reduced number of
involvement in training programmes becomes respondents, its conclusions cannot be
a necessity. generalised.
It is a well-known fact that secondary In order to highlight the formation needs in
education benefits from a coherent system by technical universities, a non-probablistic
which teachers are continuously trained, sample was used, comprising 60 university
whereas teacher training in higher education teaching assistants, lecturers, associate
institutions is a matter of personal choice, and professors and professors, all of them holding
is completed, in most cases, by one’s personal permanent positions in the universities where
efforts. they teach: University Politehnica of
Unlike secondary education, where there is Bucharest, Valahia University of Targoviste,
a less rigorous selection of teachers, the University of Bacau, Politehnica University of
selection criteria for teaching staff in higher Timisoara, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu.
education system are more restrictive, because The respondents teach mechanical, electrical,
the graduates with the highest grades and the chemical and computing disciplines.
best results in research are selected. As a The target group presents a certain degree
result, the human resource is more valuable of heterogeneity, determined by age, scientific
and better motivated. This is the reason why title and experience in teaching certain
the involvement of this social and professional technical disciplines. The respondents’
category in continuous education which structure shows that they have various
demands the elaboration of specific learning scientific titles, the distribution according to
programmes. It is necessary that these this criterion being as follows: 57% are
programmes must be adapted to the lecturers, 20% are associate professors, 16%
participants’ particularities and focused on are teaching assistants and 4% are professors
their specific needs. (figure 1).
The present paper presents the results of a
study regarding the formation needs of
teaching staff in technical universities.

2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study aims at giving a realistic picture

of the involvement of teaching staff in
Romanian universities in continuous formation
and training activities. Also, the extent to
which the teaching staff in technical
universities are informed on the existent
Figure.1 Scientific title
formation offer in Romania is presented. At
the same time, in the paper the necessity of The great number of lecturers who
introducing a national formation system that participated in the study demonstrates that they
addresses the needs of university teaching staff are very much interested in their formation and
is identified. training at this particular moment in their
The research can be included in the career. As regards experience, the sample
category of quantitative studies; as a research consists of 41% respondents that have been
method, we have used the questionnaire-based teaching in university for 11-20 years, so they
inquiry. As a research instrument, it was used

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are still during the accumulation and formation
period (figure 2).

Figure 4. Importance of professional formation

The same percentage (98%) state their

Figure 2.Experience willingness to take part in formation
programmes, whereas 2% are not interested in
As regards the taught disciplines, most attending any formation programme.
participants teach mechanical disciplines When asked on the reasons why they
(41%), whereas 27% teach chemical disciplies would like to attend formation courses, the
and a mere 16 % teach electrical and answers were diverse. Thus, 26% wish to
computing disciplines (figure 3). acquire new teaching and specialty
competences, 23% are interested in experience
exchanges with other colleagues (which is
perfectly natural, since we cannot find practice
examples at higher education level, the
teaching staff being isolated, both in their
teaching activity and in research). We
remarked the interest in professional
development for 22% of the respondents. A
mere 2% expressed their interest in obtaining
professional credits as a result of their
attending formation courses, or admitted that
  they were determined to participate by the
Figure 3. Specialty recommendation of the head of the
department. Thus, we can notice that the
A first issue that the study addresses is the respondents are animated by intrinsic
respondents’ opinion on the importance of the motivation, as, for them, professional
formation and training activity among formation is - to a great extent- a result of their
teaching staff in technical universities. Almost wish for professional development and
all the respondents (98%) considered it of advancement, without being imposed by
utmost importance or important, whereas a anyone.
mere 2% deny its importance.

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Table1. Motivation for attending the formation We can conclude that the respondents are
programme in favour of formation and training by their
Motivation for attending the % direct participation in formation courses, in
formation programme order to improve their teaching and specialized
Acquiring teaching and technical 26% skills, by participating in seminars, themed
competences
events or workshops and are less in favour of
Interest in professional 22%
individual study and attending conferences. An
development
Developing Personal portfolio 11%
interesting fact is that only 2% would call a
mentor. We can notice the respondents’
Obtaining of professional credits 2%
interest in their training in a formal
Recommendations of department / 2%
environment, by acquiring information from
faculty management
their colleagues, rather than by individual
Exchange of experience 23%
study or personal research.  
Curiosity 10%
Regarding the frequency of formation
Others 2%
opportunities, 61% appreciated they are rare,
whereas a mere 2% appreciated these
Among the sources of information on the opportunities appear often; 6 % could not give
formation and training programmes we should any answer (figure 6).
mention friends, colleagues and collaborators
(38%), the universities they belong to (28%),
but also the internet (specialized sites) 17% or
the conferences they participate in (16%)
(figure 5).

Figure 6. Frequency of formation opportunities

Another item referred to the types of skils

that should be developed by the respondents’
participation in formation courses.We could
Figure 5. Information sources notice that the respondents are mostly
interested in developing their specialised skills
Another item of the questionnaire referred (75%), but also with improving their
to identifying the most effective means of communication with students, using modern
professional formation and training. The teaching techniques and approaches (61%),
answers were centralised in table 2. and using equipment and multimedia products
Table 2. Training means
in teaching, learning and assessment. Certain
Training means % aspects, such as communication in foreign
Training to improve teaching skills 18% languages and learning specific methods of
Training for specialized skills 18% scientific research should be improved by
Self-study 12% professional formation courses. More than
Participation in professional 65% of the respondents are genuinely
13%
conferences interested in project management, whereas a
Participation in seminars, themed much smaller percentage are interested in
18%
events, workshops entrepreneurial competence.
Exchanges with other professionals in When asked about the criteria they take
19%
the field
into account when they choose the formation
Call a mentor 2%
Other 1%
programmes, 19% indicated the topic of the

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course, a second criterion being the costs that
the formation implies (17%). Other important
criteria are the formation period and the period
of ongoing (17%). The answers are reflected in
figure 7.

 
Figure 8.The extent to which the educational offer
fulfills the formation needs

67% of the interviewed teaching staff

appreciated the necessity of a coherent system
of continuous formation, whereas a mere 2 %
Figure7. Selection criteria for courses participation did not consider it necessary.
 
When asked about the number of formation
programmes they participated during the
previous 5 years, 76% specified they had
attended 1-2 programmes and 8 % had
attended more than four programmes. An
encouraging fact is that all respondents had
attended at least one formation programme,
owing to the fact that formation programmes
have been organized with the support of
European projects for the last 3 years.
For the question To what extent does the
Figure 9. The necessity of a coherent continuous
professional formation/training offer at the formation system for teaching staff in universities
level of the Romanian education system fulfill at national level
your needs for personal development? the  
answers were ambiguous, as 39% answered “
excellent”, whereas an equal percentage 3. CONCLUSIONS
answered “fairly satisfactory”. 4% considered
the present offer fulfills their formation needs The following conclusions can be drawn,
only to a very small extent. as a result of the present study:
- teaching staff in universities, irrespective
of their scientific title, are aware of their needs
for formation and professional development,
both in their specialties and related to
teaching;

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- although their motivation is different and - the courses are selected by topic, but also
varies from professional development, by cost and the ongoing period.
experience exhange to the acquisition of We can conclude that there is an explicit
specialised knowledge, most of them are necessity for the teaching practitioners’
intrinsically motivated, being aware of their formation at university level, which requires
formation needs and willing to evolve the existence of a formation system, similar to
professionally; the one at secondary level, in order to enable
- the information on the formation offer is their professional evolution.
rarely available; the main sources are
colleagues, specialised websites or
communication sessions, conferences, REFERENCES
seminars;
- the formation ways are mostly 1. Commission staff working document,
represented by meeting specialists in the same Lisbon Strategy evaluation document,
field or related fields, workshops, the Brussels, 2.2.2010l.
respondents being less interested in 2. Communication from the commission to the
professional formation by individual study; Council, the European Parliament, the
- their formation needs include both European economic and social committee
communicating with students, and using and the committee of the regions,
equipment and multimedia products in Implementing the Community Lisbon
teaching, learning and assessment ; Programme: Fostering entrepreneurial
- they are particularly interested in mindsets through education and learning,
acquiring project management skills, foreign Brussels, 13.2.2006.
languages and research methods, but they did
not manifest much interest for entrepreneurial
skills;
 

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THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IN CLINICAL

PRACTICE

Maria Dorina PAŞCA

Assistant Professor Ph.D, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Târgu-Mureş

Abstract: Experimental neuropsychology is an approach which uses methods from experimental

psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive function. The paper
work aims to emphasize the importance of neuropsihology in the clinical practice. Mental health
practitioner’s need working tools. Facilitates the clinicians work. In practice neuropsychologists tend to
work in research settings (universities, laboratories or research institutions), clinical settings(involved in
assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems), forensic settings or industry (often as
consultants where neuropsychological knowledge is applied to product design or in the management of
pharmaceutical clinical-trials research for drugs that might have a potential impact on CNS functioning).

Keywords: neuropsychology, central nervous system, brain, behavior, symptom

1. INTRODUCTION function, and the function is the manifestation

of the structure. Each structure belongs to a
Neuropsychology, called by some certain, or certain functions and determine the
authors Neurophysiology, terms that do not structure’s changing function and vice versa,
overlap completely, study the relation between appropriate structural changes induced
the central nervous system structure and functional changes. Neuropsychology is a core
implementation of various functions, processes discipline of psychology. However it is not a
and mental activities. Neuropsychology arose separate science in the traditional sense, but
from the necessity to understand the only in the field of research at the confluence
relationship between the structure of the of numerous biological sciences as
nervous system and mental activity in order of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology,
deciphering physiological mechanisms of endocrinology, pharmacology, physiology, cell
human and animal behavior. One must know biochemistry, genetics.
the structure and physiology of the nervous
system.
2. THE TEXT OF THE PAPER
By function we mean the embodiment
of the activity of various structures. So the 2.1 Methods and techniques of
structure is the material support of the investigation in neuropsychology

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To investigate the relationship between The logical-mathematical method, the

the psyche and brain, there are three major logical-formal method and Cybernetics are
categories of methods: physiological, used in situations where we intend to shape a
anatomical and psychological. In this context particular psychological process.
we are interested basically in psychological
methods. Neuropsychological investigation We can say that it is well known that
should not be limited to neurological psychological determinism of diseases can
investigation methods, but must involve reach up to a 50%. On the other hand, it is
psychological ones. believed that about 65% of diseases have a
purely psychosomatic basis.
The great complexity of human
psychic system required the development of a It is also known that there is a close
wide variety of research methods and relationship between the immune system and
procedures. Among these, four appear to be mental health. The effect of positive or
essential for neuropsychological investigation: negative emotions on the body's resistance to
activity products analysis method, the method disease is known from ancient times. In a
tests and laboratory experimental methods, different compartment of the hormone and
genetic and comparative method. neurotransmitter research brought new data
regarding the role of these substances in
Activity products analysis method is behavioral adjustment. It is known that
used for knowing the motivations, interests different brain regions deliver substances that
and creative availability of the person. The annihilate pain, substances that are often more
method has been introduced in effective than morphine.
neuropsychological to determine the general
mental development, in order to distinguish 2.2 Cerebral hemispheres
between abnormality and normality and a Are directly involved in the
more efficient professional and orientational construction of psychological mechanisms
selection. The test can be used both as a and processes.
diagnostic tool and as a research tool . A
problem with the tests is their huge number The frontal lobe is involved directly in
(estimated 10,000), which leads to difficulties the mechanisms of affective behaviors.
in the selection and interpretation (eg, general Affective disorders are known in frontal lobe
intelligence test Binet-Simon test aperceptiv lesions. Also in the same injury can occur
theme (TAT) Rorsarch, 16-PF (Cattell) irritability, drowsiness, lack of initiative, along
Eysenck test, etc.). Laboratory and discrete personality disorder. We are talking
experimental method involves a rigorous also of mood and character disorders
control of the independent variable and the consisting in increasing affective tone with
conditions for the experiment (method widely euphoria and eroticism, alternating with phases
studied during experimental psychology). of melancholy not least with psychopathic type
reactions. Disorders relates activity the
Important is that the transition from external physical activities and mental
one stage to another in terms of psycho- manifestations. There is a gap between the
behavioral development is supported and patient and the outside world, the poverty of
linked to the transition from a lower to a relationships and the absence of reactions to
higher level in the structural-functional external events. Add apathy, indifference to
organization of the brain (eg, myelination). pain, akinetic mutism and can lead to coma

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and death. Intellectual Disorders relates, caused by various diseases of the
involving attention and memory. Can range hypothalamus. Anger is emotional-behavioral
from confusion, disorientation temporo-spatial expression, caused by the damage of
state of perplexity to dementia. ventromedial hypothalamus. By contrast, the
stimulation of the posterior region of the
The parietal lobe is in relation to the hypothalamus cause reactions of fear and
functions of proximity and gnosis, the body horror. The hypothalamus adjusts the behavior
schema and language. In parietal lobe lesions in three ways: coordinates the autonomic and
appear three types of disorders: praxis affects endocrine and motor behavior
disorders, ideomotor apraxia, dressing apraxia. component, generate appropriate behavior
Perception disorders of own body size and to affective state the intensity of each
posture. Language disorders - leading to behavioral act.
sensory aphasia.
These conclusions were drawn from
The temporal lobe is in relation to experiments on animals. Inhibitory mechanism
memory, consciousness and emotional- of behavior is related to the frontal lobes
affective life. Can be observed feelings of cortex, but the exact pathways are not well
sadness, fear of death, feeling of loneliness, established. It is assumed that the
anger and violence, personality changes, hippocampus integrates all motor and
somnolence, catalepsy, amnesia and partial endocrine responses involved in emotional
breaking of reality. behavior, while the telencephalon suppressing
The occipital lobe is in functional emotional responses to inconsistent and
relationship with the perception of time and insignificant stimuli .Telencephalon is the
movements, the visual space, memory and connection of the hypothalamus with the
mood disorders. external world, which allows manipulation of
autonomic and endocrine system and
2.3 Adjusting emotionally affective appearance of appropriate emotional
behavior expressions in response to external conditions.

It is known that physiological Excessive or uncontrolled sexual

expression of emotion depends in part by the behavior is a rare manifestation, which puts
sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic many questions and that may occur in relation
nervous system and that the hypothalamus is to damage of the hypothalamus, limbic system,
one of the main centers that integrates the and the telencephalon. It appears that
peripheral autonomic system in the complex hypothalamic lesions produce hipersexual
activity accompanying somatic emotional behavior associated with excessive anger and
expression. Anger and fear is the most desire. Decreased libido is also a common
common behavioral disorders in adults and symptom found in the hypothalamus diseases,

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

especially in males. In conclusion, the individuals with neurological or

hypothalamus is not only a core engine for developmental problems.
autonomic nervous system, but is an important A neuropsychological evaluation is
essential for obtaining school-based services,
integration of various information necessary to
testing accommodations for college entrance
ensure appropriate responses, consistent and examinations and accommodations in one’s
well organized, both autonomous and somatic. place of employment.

REFERENCES
3. CONCLUSIONS & 1. Chiri ă, A., Curs de neuropsihologie,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Bucharest University (2008).
2. Dănăilă, L., Golu, M., Tratat de
Test results will establish a baseline of neuropsihologie, Vol. I., Publishing House
current functioning that can be used as a Editura Medicala, Bucharest, (2000).
marker to assess the progress of 3. Gabbard, G., Tratat de psihiatrie
pharmacological, surgical, and rehabilitation psihodinamica, Publishing House Trei
efforts as well as determine the course of (2007).
cerebral dysfunction and recovery. 4. Stanciu C., Introducere in psihofiziologie –
Neuropsychological testing can help in Integrarea Neuroendocrină, Publishing
planning and developing remedial education, House Editura Fundaţiei Romania de
rehabilitation and vocational programs for Mâine, Bucureşti, (2000)
 

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF PILOT ACTIVITY

Mihaela PĂUNESCU*, Clara – Maria NEACSU**

∗ ∗∗
Psiholog, UM 01838, Boboc, Lt. Psiholog, UM 02470, Buzău

Abstract: The hereby paper is part of the studies and research initiated to define, evaluate and
analyze the concept of " the flight activity ", especially within those areas involving high-risk activities,
during which errors may occur and lead to catastrophic consequences, such being the case of aviation, as
well. We used a variety of documentary sources, the most relevant and up to date, and many of the issues
are accompanied by examples and statements on real situations resulting from our experience gained
both as an aviation psychologist and an associate instructor in the Department of aviation within “Aurel
Vlaicu’’ Air Force Training School, Boboc

Keywords: flight activity ,abilities, satisfaction

knowledge (general and occupational

During 2009 we have conducted a study that culture);
would analyze the activity of pilots, not only • high level of aeronautical knowledge
from the psychic processes point of view (aerodynamics, meteorology,
during the actual flight, but also from the point navigation, aeronautical medicine,
of view of educational and organizational aeronautical psychology);
demands, that are to be controlled by the • steady flight skills (in order to achieve
human factor. Our main purpose was to this point, students must attend a
analyze the flight activity from the point of sustained physical, theoretical and
view of pilots, doctors and psychologists. practical training);
Thus we have asked them to identify which • solid information about the
are the psychological, physical and recuperation techniques in case of
organizational demands they have to cope tiredness;
with. The first step was to apply a • the ability to recognize the importance
questionnaire aiming some points such as: of some apparently secondary factors
planning the flight, the abilities and qualities during flight missions (airplane
required by the flight activity, the obstacles specificity, the influences of flight
they have to outrun, the satisfactions of the ambience, the influences of personality
flight activity, the dangers to which they are traits of each crew member);
exposed, the unadvisable traits and the • information about healthy life style
compensation factors, the means of (these are extremely important in order
professional development and the job they to avoid accidents due to stress or
would like to reshape in case of medical tiredness);
unfitting. • permanent professional training
(specialization sessions, refreshment
I. When talking about educational sessions);
demands, our participants have identified • solid self-assessment techniques.
the following:
• solid theoretical and practical

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

II. Steps of flight activity 9 Spatial representation and topographic

ability.
• Receiving the mission
• Making a plan Average rated:
• Prioritization 9 Space orientation (ability to determine
• Theoretical preparation of the flight the distance and direction to the target
• Identifying the matrix of risks point);
(acceptable risks) 9 Ability to assess correctly the distance,
• Mass-briefing the size and the shape of objects;
• Preparing the flight activity 9 Ability to assess correctly the speed;
• Performing the flight activity 9 Ability to observe airfield (adequate
• Following the prior plan inspecting-exploring strategies).
• Permanently assessing the present
status; • Motor abilities
• Permanently predicting the future Highly rated:
status;
• Permanently assessing their own 9 Motor coordination;
performance; 9 Ability to control muscle exercise
• Assessing acceptability of present and capacity;
future status; 9 Reduced response time.
• Identifying small tasks which may Average rated:
amplify the level of acceptability (of
present and future status); 9 Movements reliability;
• Assessing available resources; 9 Automation skills;
• Assessing both their own actions and 9 Rapid reorganization of motor
their effects; skills;
• Identifying proper future actions and 9 Rapid accommodation of motor
predicting their effects; skills to air traffic demands.
• Choosing a plan or an action; • Attention qualities
• Following/applying the flight plan and
assessing the effects of the actions; 9 Post voluntary attention (the skill of
• Reassuming this steps up to the end of paying attention);
flight session 9 Stability;
• Solving particular situations 9 Concentration (resistance to
• Assessment of flight sessions/ distractions);
debriefing 9 Distributive;
9 Volume.
III. Required qualities
• Sensorial qualities Intellectual qualities

Highly rated: Highly rated:

9 Good visual acuity; 9 general intelligence above average;

9 Good colour discrimination; 9 ability to adapt to new situations;
9 Good peripheral acuity; 9 spatial and topographic memory;
9 Good visual accommodation to dark; 9 motor memory (needed for flight skills
9 Good visual accommodation to learning).
twilight conditions;
9 Normal hearing acuity;
Average rated:
9 Normal tactile, proprioceptive and
kinesthetic acuities; 9 ability to deliberate during

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ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

hazardous/crisis situations; 9 Persuasive.

9 ability to balance properly both their
own resources and workload demands IV. Difficulties or unpleasant aspects
during working hours.
• High organizational stress;
• Flight requires a lot of time spent away
Motivational and emotional traits from family;
• Stress due to potential impairment
9 Being passionate about the flight;
(medical or psychological);
9 Emotional stability;
• Stress due to physical factors (noise,
9 Emotional maturity.
vibrations, accelerations, radiations,
toxic substances);
Will qualities • IMC flight missions.

9 Persistence; V. Satisfactions
9 Strength;
9 Independence; • The pleasure derived from the passion
9 Timeliness – ability to deliberate of flying
quickly during a complex emergency • Satisfaction of a well done job
situation; • Professional fulfillment
• Appreciation from colleagues
Personality traits • Special social status
• Recognition of the ability to be pilot
Highly rated: • Money
9 Resistance to stress; • The unique character of the work
9 Conscientiousness; • The noble character of the work
9 Punctuality; • Acquiring new information and skills
9 Meticulousness; • Adrenaline
9 Team spirit; • Identifying with the job itself ( "Job
9 Flexibility. that characterizes me" )

Average rated: VI. Hazards

• Death
9 Sincerity; • Spondylosis
9 Responsibility; • General bone problems / fractures
9 Reliability; • Decreased hearing
9 Composure; • Injuries, burning and cutting lesions
9 Discipline; • Irradiation
9 Self-assessing ability; • Intoxication
9 Self-criticism; • Temporary or permanent disability
9 Empathy; • Psychomotor disorders
9 Sense of humor;

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VII. Teamwork Implications compensated

IX. Conversion professions

• Management
• Collaboration • Pilot in other institutions / companies
• Documents’ preparation • Manager
• Goals setting • Air traffic controller
• Establishing execution details • Sports instructor
• Tasks allocation in order to achieve the • Any profession related to aeronautics
ultimate objective with minimum X. Means of professional training
effort
• Crew coordination • Individual study
• Co-pilot instruction • Continuous practice
• Technical computing and navigation • Greater number of flight hours
data • Systematic training on flight
• Data collection simulators
• Information sharing • Training qualification courses with
• Survivors "Recovery" pragmatic content
• Maintaining sobriety
Factors to be avoided: • Training in various weather conditions
• Fatigue • Attending all types of training (training
• Stress for instrument flight)
• Professional frustrations • Comprehension of new methods of
• Alcohol consumption training
• Drugs consumption • Conformity with flight training
• Medication methodology
• Negative affective mood • Level courses
• Psychological discomfort both at home • Centrifuge training
and at work • Bilateral exercises with experienced
pilots
VIII. Qualities and compensatory factors
REFERENCES
• Experience
• Physical resistance 1. ***, HUM.ET1.ST10.100-
• Mental strength GUI-01, Guidelines for developing and
• Regular activities / Physical exercises implementing TRM, 15 Mar 1996;
• Intelligence 2. ***, HUM.ET1.ST10.2000-REP-01,
• Adaptability Team Resource Management Test and
• Time management Evaluation 30 Nov 1999;
• Appropriate lifestyle 3. Allaire, François, Rovenţa-
• Calmness Frumuşani, Daniela, Resursele umane şi
• Ability of detachment from problems teoria organizaţiei, Bucureşti, Editura
("A certain amount of detachment") Cavallioti, 1999;
• Proper rest 4. Amado, Gilles, Guittet, Andre,
• Avoiding alcohol Psihologia comunicării în grupuri, Editura
• Proper nutrition Polirom, Iaşi, 2007;
• Understanding coming from third 5. Bachman, Lyle, Fundamental
parties Considerations in Language Testing,
• Creating a proper working climate Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990;
• Power of concentration
• Deficiencies that cannot be

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

6. Bogáthy, Zoltán, Manual de managementul securităţii zborului”, Editura

psihologia muncii şi organizaţională, Sfântul Ierarh Nicolae, Brăila, 2011;
Editura Polirom, Iaşi 2004; 20. Neculau, Adrian., Dinamica grupului
7. Bride, J.B., Holmes J., (coord.), şi a echipei, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2007;
Sociolinguistics. Harmondworth: Penguin, 21. Neculau, Adrian, Manual de
1972; psihologie socială, Ediția aII-a rvizuită,
8. Cole, G.A., Organizational Editura Polirom, Iași, 2004;
Behaviour, D.P. Publications Ltd, Aldine 22. Pânişoară, Ion-Ovidiu, Comunicarea
Place, London, 1995; eficientă. Metode de interacţiune
9. Coman, Alina, Tehnici de educaţională, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2003;
comunicare: proceduri şi mecanisme 23. Peterwagner, Reinhold, What is the
psihosociale, Editura C.H. Beck, Bucureşti, matter with communicative competence?
2008; Analysis to encourage teachers of English to
10. Cook, Guy, Seidlhofer, Barbara, assess the very basis of their teaching,
Principle & Practice in Applied Linguistics, Munster-Hamburg-Berlin-Wien-London-
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; Zurich LIT Verlag, 2005;
11. Dell Hymes, „On communicative 24. Pierre de Visscher, Neculau, Adrian,
competence”, în J.B. Bride, J. Holmes (coord), Dinamica grupurilor. Texte de
(editori). Sociolinguistics. Harmondworth: bază, Iaşi: Polirom, 2001;
Penguin, 1972; 25. Şoitu, Laurenţiu, Pedagogia
12. Dulea, Gabriel, Sociodinamica comunicării, Institutul european, Iaşi, 2001;
grupului militar, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 26. Wickens, C.D., Mavor, Anne S.,
1991; McGee, James P., (coord), Flight To the
13. Enăchescu, Constantin, Tratat de Future. Human Factors in Air Traffic
teoria cercetării stiinţifice, Editura Polirom, Control, National Academy Press,
Iaşi, 2005; Washington D.C., 1997;
14. Goleman, Daniel, Inteligenţa 27. Wickens, C.D., Mavor, A.S., The
Emoţională, Editura Curtea Veche, Future of Air Traffic Control: Human
Bucureşti, 2001; Operators and Automation, National
15. Hopkin, V.D., Human Factors in Air Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1998;
Traffic Control, Hampshire: Ashgate, 2005; 28. Wiener, Earl L., Nagel, David C.,
16. Katzenbach, J., Smith, D., Les (coord), Human Factor in Aviation,
equips de hautes performances, Paris, Academic Press Series in Cognition and
Dunod, 1994; Perception, San Diego, California USA,
17. Kirwan, B., Rodgers,M., Schaefer, 1988;
D., Human Factors Impacts in air Traffic 29. Wise, John A., Hopkin, David,
Management, Taylor & Francis, Hampshire, Garland, Daniel J., (coord) Handbook of
1995 Aviation Human Factors, CRC Press, USA,
18. McQuail, Denis, Comunicarea, 2010;
Institutul European, Iaşi, 1999; 30. Spitzberg, B. H., Cupach, W. R-
19. Neacşu, Clara, Păunescu, Mihaela, Interpersonal Communication Competence,
„Factorul uman, element cheie în Sage, Beverly Hill CA,1984.

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 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

A PREGNANT TEENAGER.
ASSESSMENT, DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION 15 YEARS LATER

Aurora SIMIGIU, PhD student

* Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: This study focuses on the evolution of the life of a teenager mother. Her personality’s
assessment takes place 15 years after she gave birth to her first child and captures her history (data
obtained through a semi-structured interview), psyco-diagnosis and items that require psychotherapeutic
intervention .
We consider important the personal assessments of a mother watching back on her teenage life as
a longitudinal approach captures the causal elements of life experiences. The psychological evaluation
was performed with NEO FFI, FFNPQ (personality test), DAS (test for relationships in a couple) and
PAXonline for assessing anxiety.
The purpose of this qualitative research is part of the desire to find answers to the following
questions: How does a teenage mother assess the decision she took 15 years ago? Does she regret it?
What impact did this decision have on her life? How is her psychic now? What can be done now to
optimize her life, from a psychological point of view? We hope this study brings more knowledge on these
life situations, more and more frequent in Romania nowadays.

Keywords: adolescent, mother, anxiety, neuroticism, case study

1. INTRODUCTION was most in need of help? To what extent does

If the pregnant teenager has been she believe that childhood influences have
studied in terms of case study, of counselling contributed to the state of pregnancy in
and prevention strategies, based on the adolescence? Does that experience turn her
fundamental theories on maternity stated by now into an overprotective mother with her
Freud, Bowbly, Lebovic, and Winnicott or on teenage daughter? How did she resist familial
the online intervention (Simigiu, 2012, and social pressures? What does she think that
Simigiu, 2013), we now approach the same can be done to prevent accidental pregnancy
issue from another perspective - that of a during adolescence, now having a considerable
teenage mother in a longitudinal approach. life experience?
Looking back to a teen mother, 15 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
years later, we ask ourselves the following Our research objectives were:
questions: does she regret her decision to keep 2.1. Identifying the consequences of early
the baby? How did this decision affect her pregnancy;
life? How would she advise her daughter, now 2.2. Establishing a therapeutic intervention
a teenager, too, if history repeated itself? How plan after the diagnosis.
vivid in her soul is the wound caused by the 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
baby’s father who abandoned her when she

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

We used the case study method with a case study. Our goal was to identify the
research design that uses the interview for data subject’s degree of satisfaction in the couple,
collection. The overall assessment of relationship that led to a pregnancy.
personality was achieved by using licenced DAS is an assessment tool that consists
NEO FFI, FFNPQ and DAS as well as anxiety of 23 items. Each item is rated by only one
screening tools (Paxonline, 2013). answer, chosen from a given list. DAS
The interview guide consisted of includes four subscales: consensus in couple,
several sections, including: date of birth and couple satisfaction, couple cohesion, and
data on the family of origin, traditions and emotional expression.
cultural context in which she grew, We used paper and pencil version of
identification of possible social factors that the test. We used manual rapid scoring form,
have marked her evolution, education, data on then transferred it to the profile sheet, where
her teen love and pregnancy, life after she scores are represented visually and compared
gave birth, and the impact of this event on her with the corresponding normative sample.
life scale. Conversion to T-scores is automatically done
The three tests were administered using the scoring form.
under license and score by Test Central which Anxiety was tested with the screening
provided psychological profiles in PDF tools created for PAX (Cognitrom - Cluj
format. The first two are built on the Big Five Napoca, Paxonline, 2013), based on diagnostic
personality model, one being a verbal criteria from the DSM-IV-TR, also consulting
personality test (NeoFFI) and the other, a ICD-10. Each criterion was included as a yes /
nonverbal test (FFNPQ). no question and the specifications for each
Both have 60 questions requiring an criterion (severity, specific symptoms, etc.)
application time of approximately 20 minutes were recorded based on multiple answers. The
each. Neo FFI measures neuroticism, report was automatically generated by
extraversion, openness to new experiences, fulfilling DSM-IV-TR criteria for each
agreeableness, conscientiousness, negative disorder, then adding a description of the
self-esteem, negative emotionality, specific symptoms reported by patients. The
socialization, activism, conscientiousness, algorithm used to generate this report is
mental flexibility, courtesy, productivity and similar to the protocol described in SCID.
organization factors. The test shows the 4. DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS,
evolution of these factors in the future and AND INTERPRETATION
occupational clusters, too. FFNPQ, a Data acquired through the semi-structured
nonverbal personality test, measures interview
neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, R. A. is 34 years old, unmarried, she
conscientiousness and openness to new has two children, and is retired on medical
experiences factors. reasons (stage II cervical cancer with a
Regarding DAS (Dyadic Adjustment surgical intervention).
Scale), it measures the quality of the • Data on her family of origin
adaptation of the partners in dyadic marital or Her childhood was a normal one, in a
consensual relationship. Its author is PhD. family with three children, she and two
Graham B. Spanier and the scale was adapted younger brothers. R. A. was not a desired
to the Romanian population by Dragos Iliescu child, which can be seen throughout her life, as
and Ligiana Petre in 2009. she has never been close to her mother.
DAS is a clinical assessment tool Her coming into the world (through an
internationally recognized as one of the most unwanted pregnancy) ended her mother’s
widely used tools for evaluating satisfaction in career, who was professional handball player.
couples. Although both partners are tested As this happened during the communist
with it, if the goal is couple therapy or dictatorship, when women could not decide on
counselling, it can be applied only to one their own body, she had to keep the pregnancy
partner for purposes of diagnosing the quality and gave birth to the child. R. A. remembers
of the dyadic relationship, which we did in the

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
her mother had always told her that she ruined Then another huge trauma was the
her life and career. birth of her first daughter. She had a
Her father, instead, wanted the baby relationship with a 14 year old boy from the
very much. He was an officer. A martinet, who neighbourhood. She wanted very much to be
beat her and but loved her at the same time. He loved, so that she cleaned his house and did
died at 44 of internal bleeding. R. A. was in anything she could to be accepted by him and
the tenth grade and she was pregnant at that his family, but this did not happen.
time, but he didn’t know it when he died. She got pregnant at first intercourse.
The climate at home was not the best. They did not know to protect themselves and
Parents often quarrelled and got violent, but she realized relatively hard that she was
R.A. believes that the mother was the one who pregnant. Her boyfriend drove her away, his
caused these conflicts and the beating she family disowned her, and she was alone and
received was deserved. frightened but she wanted to keep the
• Traditions and cultural context pregnancy. The hardest part was that they
R. A. recalls the celebration of called her slutty and told the neighbourhood
Christmas which was very important for her that is not that boy’s child.
father, who used to buy a tall-to-ceiling tree Her father never found out she was
every year. She is doing the same now. She pregnant. She has mixed feelings now. On the
remembers how he would take her to the one hand, she knows that she wouldn’t have
puppet show, only her, as she was his favourite wanted to hurt him and embarrass him, but on
child and he would buy her toys. R. A. the other hand she is sorry he did not get to
remembers that they were not a religious live the joy of being a grandfather. He knows
family as her father was sergeant major and he that after beating her soundly, he would have
never attended church sermons so the children eventually forgiven her.
did not go, either. Her mother found out about the
• The influence of social factors pregnancy only after she gave birth to her
She remembers her mother watching daughter. She insisted on giving the baby up
TV and not being too interested in her for adoption but she did not want that. R.A.’s
children. Only her father loved her mother, support came from an aunt who took her from
although he often beat her, which the mother the hospital and bought baby clothes.
deserved as she was rude. She believes that the From the hospital, she went home with
most traumatic childhood event was the day the child. Her mother glared at her and the
she found out about her step-brother. She baby. She had to immediately get a job as a
knew that her father had been married before bartender at night and stayed at home for two
her mother, but she did not know that a child months, then went to Austria and Switzerland
resulted from that relationship. When he rang for 2 years where she had the same profession.
at the door and she opened it, it was as if she Longing for her daughter was overwhelming.
saw her father. It was a striking resemblance She sent money home and bought her a lot of
that troubled her. R. A. was not happy for dolls, but her daughter called her “auntie”
having a brother, she was afraid of losing the when they met. That made her stay with her, a
place of the favourite child in her father's decision she regrets now.
heart.

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

• Importance of education him because she has no income and the little
She believes that education is very girl needs a father. She wants to go back to
important in life, even more important than Switzerland, to work and to take the girls with
love, because it is the only one who can offer her. Only there she was happy.
an independent living. She has been living Psychological assessment
with another man for the past 10 years, a man The large amount of neuroticism (96),
that reminds her of her father. He often beats the negative self-esteem (99) and negative
her, but she says he loves her, too. She has no emotionality (99) induce a picture of a person
regrets on having decided to give birth to her showing intense emotional reactions with
eldest girl and she often scolds her for not respect to stimuli that normally would not
learning enough. trigger such emotions.
She would have liked to follow her She has an emotional state that
father’s footsteps in career, but she said the fluctuates frequently, she is irritable,
pregnancy ended her dream, just like she depressed, impulsive, anxious, nervous,
ended her mother's dream by coming into this vulnerable, unstable, agitated, introverted,
world. She thinks this is their fate. She says submissive, confused, lonely and pessimistic,
that if her mother had wanted her and loved and she has the structure of a victim. It is
her, maybe she would not have repeated the possible that this grim picture to be
ninth grade, when he ran away from home for emphasized on the background of the
two days and she would not have fallen in love diagnosis of incurable disease she is struggling
with the wrong boy so early in life. Her with.
biggest regret is that she did not finish school R. A.’s mental flexibility is very low,
and returned to Romania after two years of with a share of 5 on a scale of 1-100. It is
living in Switzerland. possible that for this reason she can poorly
• Love and work adapt, knowing that such people try to shape
She does not want to talk about love their behaviour according to the requirements
because she does not believe in it anymore. It of social and religious morals. Her teen
was a negative experience for her that taught pregnancy and trying to hide it created large
her that love comes together with pain. She intra-psychic conflicts, the effect being greater
has a low opinion of men. All her life was share of neuroticism and confusion.
ruined because of them. She got cervical By combining the high score on the
cancer also because of men. She says she is neuroticism factor and the lower score in
going to die because of them. He hates men. extraversion, there resulted a pronounced state
• Major life themes of pessimism, which alters significantly her
The decision to keep her first born life quality.
child was a crucial decision, the hardest she Her maladaptive defence style is
ever took in her life. She proved to manage it generating conflicts in relationships with
and she did not regret what she had done. Her others. She frequently uses dysfunctional
two girls are her only achievements. She defence mechanisms such as repression, denial
regrets that she lied to her father and he died or other reactive patterns. Such people
without knowing that he would be a generally do not analyse or think about their
grandfather. Her priority in life now is to stay own problems, having difficulties in
healthy and to see her girls grow up. verbalizing their emotional states, even when
• Vision of the future they are of high intensity.
She wants to get better and to leave the Combining the high neuroticism score
man she is in a relationship with at the with the high agreeableness score imprints a
moment, who is the father of the second girl, shy character anger management, sketching a
as he beats her badly, he is possessive, jealous, victim’s profile. This explains why although
locks her inside the house, does not give her constantly assaulted by a partner, she prefers
any money, terrorizes her and cheats on her. to forgive him every time.
She says that she had some happy She has difficulties in indicating
moments in life, but few. She does not leave discontents, confusion being a feature of her

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
personality. She frequently directs anger The chart above illustrates the
inward, not knowing what to do with it. evolutionary trend of personality traits
The DAS questionnaire shows poor measured by us. The high share of neuroticism
scores on all measured components. It seems seems to decrease. Most traits were measured
that in the couple that resulted in this on a downward trend, R.A.’s psychic energy
pregnancy there is a lack of consensus on the being reduced possibly because of the daily
important factors for the relationship, a lack of struggle with an incurable disease.
sexual satisfaction as well as while a high level 5. CONCLUSIONS
of frustration. At 34, still young, R. A. has to face the
The anxiety test is positive for spectre of death, suffering from an incurable
posttraumatic shock and generalized anxiety. disease. Retired on medical reasons, with two
The cancer diagnosis marked her profoundly girls from two different relationships,
because it came suddenly at a young age. emotionally abused in childhood, she keeps
Graph 1 . Evolution of the personality traits the victim's behavioural pattern and accepts to
be abused and financially supported by a man
who reminds her of the father to whom she
had ambivalent feelings.
She believes that life has passed by her,
without knowing love, although she wanted
fulfilment in love early, but her teenage
pregnancy brought the most painful betrayal.
Her life was full of frustration, having
to fight for acceptance of her child, and then to
leave the country and the girl in order to earn
money for raising the child. So she lost her
daughter’s early childhood, but also her
affection, when she came home her daughter
was closer to the grandmother who became
like a mother to the girl.
The fact that in childhood love was at
packaged with violence confused her as an
adolescent, marking negatively her subsequent
choices in love relationships. She repeated the
parental model because it was the only model
she knew. Being initially unwanted by her
mother led her to seek adolescent love in an
inappropriate way. The lack of information on
sexual topics led to an unwanted pregnancy,
without being at all ready to be a mother.
The psychological evaluation
emphasizes neurotic tendencies, negative self-
esteem, negative emotionality, generalized

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anxiety, which all make it difficult for R. A. to 3. Graham, B.. Scala de adaptare în cuplu:
adapt to the status of mother, wife and patient. manual tehnic, trad. Iliescu, D., Petre, L..
The therapeutic intervention plan Cluj Napoca: Sinapis. (2009).
aimed at a cognitive-behavioural approach on 4. Papalia, D., E., Wendkos, S., Feldman, R.,
the Paxonline platform, as follows: D.. Dezvoltarea umană. Bucure ti: Editura
Reducing neurophysiological hyper Trei. (2010).
activation through autogenously training and 5. Simigiu, A.. Teen pregnancy prevention
physical exercise through outdoor sports, International
Reducing distress associated with trauma Scientific Conference,Youth in the
recall through the “expressive writing” perspective of the olimpic movement,
technique Bulletin of the Transilvania University of
Progressive mental exposure and Brasov, Series VIII ART SPORT nr.1/2013
desensitization (2013).
Optimizing the problem solving process 6. Simigiu, A.. Online Psychological
Correcting the dysfunctional conscious / Counselling of the Pregnant Teenager,
unconscious thinking International Scientific Conference,
Reducing the avoidance behaviour through eLearning and Software for Education,
the method of exposure (2012).
Increasing sleep quality 7. Simigiu, A.. Teen pregnancy. Factors.
Developing positive emotions Options. Consequences, AFASES
Developing assertiveness Scientific Research and Education in the
Developing time management skills Air Force (2012).
Reducing the symptoms of depression 8. Simigiu, A., Henter, R.. Meta-stereotypes
associated with anxiety (ICAR procedure) Concerning Teen Pregnancy, AFASES
Scientific Resarch and Education in the Air
REFERENCES Force (2012).
9. Yin, R.K. Studiul de caz. Iasi: Editura
1. ***PAXonline. Diagnostic i evaluare Polirom. (2005).
psihologică ini ială.
https://paxonline.ro/?q=diagnostic_si_evalu
are_psihologica (2013).
2. Adams, G., R., Berzonsky, M., D. (coord.).
Psihologia adolescen ei. Ia i: Editura
Polirom (2009).
 

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”

AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC  
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER
AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014 

CHALLENGES OF IRAQI INTELLIGENCE IN POST-SADDAM ERA

Constantin-Ioan STAN*, Ecaterina CEPOI**

*Col. PhD Associate Professor „Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania 
                                                                 stanconstantin03@yahoo.com

**PhD Candidate, „Carol I” National Defense University , Bucharest, Romania

cepoi.ecaterina@myunap.net

Abstract: In the majority of post-war Middle Eastern countries, marked by authoritarianism, frozen
political systems, constant destabilizing attempts and revolutions against official order, intelligence
services have become pillars for power preservation, constantly transgressing their specific objectives in
order to become control and repression instruments against both internal and external threatening
elements. Ba'athist Iraq comes as a classic example, since the new elites led by Saddam Hussein develop
and extend security and intelligence services (Mukhabarat, Istikhbarat, al-Amn al-Amm, al-Amn al-Khas
etc.), transforming them into systems with multiple tentacles, modelled by interests at the level of tribes,
clans, regions, sects, through which the regime controls an entire political and social structure, and
diffuse information throughout the complicated Middle East and internationally. After the military
campaign from 2003, all intelligence services are dissolved by new installed Iraqi government following
an advice from US officials, in order to establish new structures. In the entire post-Saddam era however,
the structures faced an infinitely complex system of threats to national security, deriving from terrorism,
insurgency, organized crime and generalized violence, from competition and rivalry between them, and
from representation of competing interests at political or confession level: Shi’a, Kurdish, Sunni actors,
as well as the ones between US and Iran. Taking into account the increasing authority of Nuri al-Maliki
and the projection of Iraq's destiny in a regional conflict with multiple actors, e.g. Iran, Saudi Arabia,
US, Turkey, the new Iraqi intelligence services are permanently constrained to rethink their operational
strategies and fidelity both at national and international scale.

Keywords: Iraq, intelligence, Saddam Hussein, Nuri al-Maliki, Mukhabarat, Istikhbarat, Sunni, Shi’a

1. BETW EEN NATIONAL S ECURITY (political, ethnic, sectarian, tribal) threats and
AND DE FENDING THE REGIME: external tensions, conflicts at regional and
INTELLIGENCE SE RVICES DURI NG international levels. After modern Middle
SADDAM ERA East's formation, First World War and then
decolonization, the majority of newly created
Development and extension of intelligence states faced serious problems in defining a
services and security structures are closely stable political and security structure,
related to Iraq's specifics, as a country situated confronting coups, revolutions, political
at the confluence of multiple internal instability, continuous interference from

631
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

external powers, social and economic crises, MID), was created once Iraq released itself
and community challenges and so on. This from British mandate and gained
entire collection of factors will determine the independence. Until the 8th decade, it was
characteristics of an environment subjected to coordinated by Defence Ministry in order to,
permanent insecurity, rivalry and conflict, later, enter under direct supervision of the
imposing the development of a highly president, like all other services. Main MID
competent intelligence system capable to functions covered both internal affairs
defend both national interests and ruling (monitoring military officers, protecting
regimes. Similar to Ba'athist Syria, Iraq offers military objectives, counterinsurgency,
after 1968 a clear example of state in which infiltrating Shi’a and Kurdish movements,
security and intelligence services become a supporting terrorist or militant foreign
pillar supporting authoritarianism and movements) and external collecting
repression as well as control of both intelligence and other operations (aiming
government and society. Modern and Jordan, Gaza, Syria, Iran, Gulf States mainly).
contemporary Iraq inherits a history of fierce After a failed coup in 1973, attempted by
violence and in order to better understand its General Security Service chief, Nadhim Kazar,
background and consequences on internal and intelligence services are profoundly
external stability, one must consider the restructured; the event underlines Saddam's
fundamental role that intelligence services complete domination together with his trusty
played and will play in limiting or, on group [14]. Asking KGB's help, he starts
contrary, developing conflict and modernizing al-Amn al-Amm and transfers
disequilibrium. Until its fall in 2003, Saddam some of its responsibilities to a new created
regime built a complex security and general intelligence service, Mukhabarat.
intelligence services, whose main role was to General Security Service remained under
defend the regime and its main leader Defence Ministry until the 8th decade, when it
especially [2]. Due to a continuous competition would be transformed into an autonomous
and mutual control, their tasks were agency reporting directly to Presidential
overlapping considerably. Both, were led by council. Along with other services, al-Amn al-
members of president's family or clan and Amm, was led during Saddam by his clan
doubled by professionals chosen through members or trusted characters, recruited from
rotation from elites, in order to balance Tikrit area or surrounding Sunni regions. Its
interests around Saddam and to avoid an last director, Rafi Latif Tilfah al-Takriti, was
eventual excessive influence and power within installed in 1997, and after regime's fall in
mentioned services. 2003 remained free, being considered after
The first Iraqi intelligence service, General 2004 an organizer of Iraqi resistance in the
Security Service (Mudiriyat al-Amn al-Amm), Sunni triangle.
was created in 1921 during British mandate. In 1973, Saddam founded another new
Since then, it permanently served as an security and intelligence structure, the General
institution dedicated to internal security Intelligence Department (GID) - Da’irat al-
control, an instrument used by different Mukhabarat al-’Amma. It represented the
regimes to preserve order and prevent internal institutionalization of his personal security
threats. After Ba'ath Party's rise in 1968, al- system dated back in 1964 (al-Jihaz al-Khas –
Amn al-Amm is quickly transformed into a The Special Apparatus, becoming in 1968, al-
repressing force used against inside and Jihaz al-Hanin – The Yearning Apparatus),
outside groups considered rivals (communist inside Ba'ath Party [1]. Anchored both in
movement, Shi’a and Kurdish movements), as political and president's private life, GID is the
the party was incorporating factions yet not first service to defend his clan's interests and
trusty to clan's president, Muhammad Ahmed concomitantly coordinate foreign intelligence.
al-Bakr or to Saddam Hussein. The second Led by president's family members or elites
Iraqi intelligence service, al-Istikhbarat al- from Tikrit, it coordinated internal action of
’Askariyya (Military Intelligence Directorate - other services (monitoring Ba'ath, population's

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surveillance, combating Shi’a and Kurdish position at other services. Similarly, al-Amn
opposition, monitoring foreign embassies and al-Khas was directly involved in managing
foreign visitors, counter-espionage) as well as unconventional arming programs as well as
external (collecting intelligence, sabotage and complicated relations with UNSCOM
terrorist acts against neighbouring countries, inspection commissions, successfully
supporting groups hostile to competing camouflaging documents and objectives.
regimes). After the Gulf War, a new structure is
The most influential agency was Special formed, in 1992, incorporating elements
Security (al-Amn al-Khas) – officially from Istikhbarat al-’Askariyya, directly
denominated as Special Security Directorate coordinated by the Presidential Palace and
(Mudiriyyat al-Amn al-Khas), Special Security from Military Security (al-Amn al-’Askari). Its
Apparatus (Jihaz al-Amn al-Khas) or role consisted in supervising and controlling
Presidential Intelligence Apparatus (Jihaz armed forces and officers' loyalty, especially
Mukhabarat al-Ra’isa). It was founded in under the circumstances created by coup
1982, due to war against Iran and a failed kill attempts. It is the case of a tragic attempt, for
attempt against Saddam, firstly as an example, initiated by CIA and supported by
organisation securing the president and his the exiled Iraqi general Mohammad Abdullah
group by selecting loyal members of General Shahwani as member of the opposition party
Security, Mukhabarat and Istikhbarat. After National Alliance, and after 2003 director of
1984 it extended, becoming an autonomous the newest intelligence service. In June 1996,
service; most of the members came from Mukhabarat discovered the coup d’Etat he
Tikrit, Huwayja, Samarra, as exclusive Sunni initiated and comprised other 200 Iraqi
regions. Special Security was in its first years officers: 80 officers are executed, among
linked to Kamil brothers, president's cousins which two of Shahwani's sons.
and sons-in-law: Hussein Kamil, back then The entire net of services not only shared
Minister for Military Industrialisation as the tasks and competence areas, but competed and
official to recruit first forces from the other supervised themselves continuously, by cross-
intelligence services and which together with checking intelligence and constantly fuelling
Saddam Kamil managed the service until their suspicion in order to eliminate any possible
getaway in 1995. After 1992 however, Saddam threat oriented against the regime. Every
Hussein’s son, Qussay [5], supervises the matter was consequently considered a
service. Special Security quickly became, surveillance and security issue, including not
directly or indirectly, a super-service meant to only the society but also its political, military,
serve as superior intelligence processing intelligence and security elites. The closer
centre, controlling other intelligence services some persons were to Saddam and his clan, the
and the two major para-military structures the more control was exerted upon them; regime's
Special Republican Guard (al-Harras al- survival was ensured on Saddam's capacity to
Jamhuri al-Khas) and Saddam's Fedayeen [6: permanently keep key positions for his family
44-52]. The fidelity of this praetorian security or loyal clan members. Starting the 8thdecade
service was well reward: according to time's of last century, intelligence, and security
records, the salary of a Special Security services became personalized and tribalized;
section chief was ten times higher than one's parallel, informal ones, under direct
from Military Intelligence and five times supervision of Saddam or his sons [3] double
higher than one's in a similar intelligence its official structures. Among them, one can

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mention: The Special Protection Apparatus resistance soon after, directed now against
(al-Jihaz al-Himaya al-Khasa) - designated to foreign forces and new political structures. In
protect the president and his residence, the June 2003 already, insurgency will encompass
Special Republican Guard (al-Haris al- a significant part of “Sunni Triangle” in terms
Jamhuri al-Khas) – incorporating 15.000 of nationalist and Islamic ideology; it is
soldiers, the Special Security Committee (al- doubled by the emergence of a challenging
Majlis al-Amn al-Khas), Saddam's Fedayeen current from the Shi’a community, led by
and so on. Totally, the entire system was Muqtada al-Sadr. Consequently, the security
counting over 150.000-200.000 members. perspective worsens rapidly in Iraq: on top of
Finally, the National Security Council (al- Sunni and Shi’a insurgency, increasing
Majlis al-Amn al-Qawmi), also known as the violence reaches social dimensions,
National Security Bureau (al-Maktab al-Amn determined by poorer living standard and
al-Qawmi), served as coordinating entity for deterioration of socio-economic conditions
the other intelligence and security structures. generally [11].
Far from representing a structure like the Multi-national Force troops from Iraq
others, its role was to control and coordinate prove themselves insufficient and especially
operations, complicating the puzzle, and incapable to assume operations for ensuring
stimulating competitiveness and rivalry. Led population's daily security; reinstalling police
Saddam Hussein himself and sometimes and security forces is difficult to complete.
delegated to Qussay as in charge for solving Therefore, militias arise, grouped around
directly problems, the Council was formed by political parties and movements, as well as
representatives of the five important ethnic and confessional groups (Shi’a, Sunni,
intelligence services as well as members of Kurdish, and Turkmen) or tribal. Political and
Presidential Palace's Secretariat, like Abid administrative live, institution rebuilding, are
Hamid Mahmud as Saddam's main based on formalizing community logic,
collaborator and adviser, with an important favouring the rise of Shi’a and Kurdish actors
coordination role. while bringing the role of Sunnis to periphery.
All of these favoured a fast reinstatement of
2. NOWADAYS CHALLENGES FACED security and intelligence services, meant to
BY IRAQ'S INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM limit Sunni and Shi’a insurgency and on larger
scale to attenuate the development of Sunni
Saddam's fall in April 2003 led to jihadi movements. Finally, the new security
dissolution of the entire political and security and intelligence system had to stop massive
system created by Saddam's old regime, as foreign destabilizing tendencies exerted by
decided by the American governor of Iraq, regional powers like Iran, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
Paul Bremen, and Coalition Provisional which take advantage from the momentary
Authority, in their will to wipe out Ba'athist lack of security structures and quickly start to
past and set the basis for a new institutional seed influence networks, political clients, and
and political nation building. By CPA no. 2 militants [18].
Decision, dated May 23, 2003, all “entities” The pressing need for a local intelligence
are abolished, meaning the entire defence and structure, capable to support MNF-Iraq's
security system: army, intelligence services, efforts, determined CIA and MI 6 to gradually
Special Forces, paramilitary troops. Strongly recruit members of the ex-structures,
argued afterwards, the decision worsened especially the ones covering anti-Iran and anti-
security conditions in Iraq, not only through Syria intelligence, whose professionalism was
abridging the state of its instruments, but by vital. This nucleus, comprising mainly Sunni
leaving 350.000 officers and soldiers without officers, did not interfere initially with the
any professional perspective or earning means, temporary Iraqi government Iraqi Governing
in an increasing economic crisis [12]. A Council (IGC), dominated by Shi’a and
significant part of the intelligence services' Kurdish influences. It becomes official in
members, especially Sunni, will form the April 2004, once the new integrated security

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and intelligence structure is operational: groups. As CIA creation, trained and
National Security Council (Majlis al-Amn al- financially sustained with over USD 1 billion
Watani). The latter, led by Paul Bremen until 2007, INIS followed two main directions:
initially and then set under the authority of infiltrating jihadi movements and limiting
Iyad Allawi as Iraqi PM, rapidly became a Iran's influence. It tried to overpass the logics
confrontation reason between different of community partisans which affected the
political forces from IGC, as Allawi was formation of new military forces and police
confronting already Shi’a Islamic parties. and to keep a national dimension, massively
Shi’a camp will support Mowaffak al-Rubaie recruiting members (from Sunni camp
as national security adviser. As an al-Da'wa predominantly and ex-members of the Ba'ath
member, in close relations with 2005 elected services) that will be trained in Jordan and
Iraqi Ibrahim al-Jaafari, al-Rubaie was Egypt [13].
suspected to pro-Iranian sympathies. In Situated under Interior Ministry, INIS does
response, Iyad Allawi as secular Shi’a not the right to perform interrogation or arrest
exhibiting pro-American opinions will form a according to its status, the main task being par
new rival structure surrounding prime excellence intelligence collection. Its double
minister’s institution: Ministry of State for role, e.g. counterinsurgency and blocking
National Security Affairs (Wizarat al-Dawla Iranian activities (Teheran's initiatives for
li-Shuoun al-Amn al-Watani). In the following supporting and training militias and Shi’a
period, especially under Nuri al-Maliki, it is to groups), exposed it quickly to retaliation.
become the main interface and instrument Starting 2004, INIS officers have become
situated between political power and targets for Shi’a death squads. Furthermore,
intelligence services [15]. service's autonomy, US support, the relative
As first acknowledged intelligence service increased number of Sunni members and anti-
after Saddam's regime, in April 2004 it was Iranian actions would raise anger among the
denominated as Iraqi National Intelligence new Iraqi political authorities, installed after
Service (Jihaz al-Mukhabarat al-Watani) – January and December 2005. Along with his
INIS, and placed under the supervision of assignment as prime minister, Nuri al-Maliki
Muhammad Abdallah al-Shahwani, the ex- tried to found parallel structures in order to
leader of failed coup back in 1996. With Sunni completely control military, police and the
and Turkmen roots, married to a Shi’a wife entire ruling structures. Consequently, Al-
and elected as deputy on Kurdish lists, the CIA Maliki will grant a large support to Ministry of
client al-Shahwani was in the eyes of his State for National Security Affairs (MSNS)
American protectors the perfect reflection of a and its director, Sherwan al-Waili, in order to
system exhibiting national, trans-ethnic and form his own parallel intelligence structure as
trans-sectarian inclinations, meant to ensure a an alternative to INIS and its influence. In fact,
local intelligence interface, sustaining the tacit conflict between intelligence services
Coalition’s efforts to pacify the country, stop is the expression of an Iranian-American
insurgency and set the basis for a new, stable battle, carried out on Iraqi soil between two
political and security order [7]. However, since systems serving as proxy for foreign interests.
its very beginnings, INIS did not enjoy a MSNS has built a service comprising more
privileged position and had to successively than 5000 officers, serving primarily al-
face opposition exerted by interest groups Maliki's interests rather than national interests,
coagulated around new political actors or Shi’a being equivalent to Special Security Service

635
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

(al-Amn al-Khas) under Saddam. Without a partisans eliminates any attempt to assume a
proper legal status, MSNS is dominated by coherent and unified strategy, in the context of
Shi’a camp and serves as a surveillance increasing Sunni insurgency action and jihadi
instrument for internal politics, oriented movements, starting with al-Qaeda in Iraq.
towards al-Maliki's opponents and Sunni Deficiencies arise at legislation level, as well
representatives. as institutional and operational. There are no
As the reconstruction of Iraqi security and central data bases, as they are distributed at
military forces was advancing, new regional level, preventing the authorities from
intelligence services rises starting 2006. In the efficiently tracking terrorists' and militants'
frame developed by Interior Ministry, National displacement across the territory. Each agency
Information and Investigation Agency has its own intelligence network and sources,
(Wikalat al-Maalumat wa al-Tahqiqat al- information sharing being limited;
Wataniyya), as a structure similar to FBI, furthermore, processing is difficult since
focused on domestic intelligence and intelligence analysis capacity and prioritization
empowered to operate arrests as well. Under according to urgency level is limited. Many
Ministry of Defense, General Directorate for terrorist act or violent actions are not blocked
Intelligence and Security (Al-Mudiriyat al- in time, although their happening is imminent,
Aama lil-Istikhbarat wa al-Amn) is founded, due to slow decision making and reaction
active both internally and externally. As if not mechanisms. A major cause is represented by
sufficient, Joint Headquarters uniting the three lack of professionalism and recruiting based
services (Iraqi Army, Iraqi Air Force, Iraqi on corrupted criteria favoring ethnic and
Navy) founded its own service, M2 - Military sectarian selection. If INIS took advantage of
Intelligence Directorate (Mudiriyat al- the experience ex-Saddam officers had, the
Istikhbarat al-Askariya), following DIA model intelligence structures created after 2006
and responsible for collecting and processing comprise members without professional
military intelligence. Finally, in addition to aptitudes or experience, vital for facing a very
MSNS, al-Maliki initiated the founding of difficult nowadays Iraq.
another intelligence service, under prime- The main obstacle in post-Saddam Iraq
minister's direct authority and reporting only remains however a rivalry between the two
to him: the Office of Information and Security main structures INIS and MSNS [10]. Led by
(Maktab al-Maalumat wa al-Amn). Led by CIA and US, INIS tried to limit the increasing
Abu Ali al-Basri, loyal to al-Maliki, OIS's role influence Iran exerted upon Iraq, with direct
and resources are not clearly defined; it serves negative consequences upon its officers.
as a supplementary instrument in facing his According to Stratfor, that quotes INIS
rivals [13]. officials, more than 500 of its officers have
The main disadvantage of all agencies is been assassinated, mostly by Iranian agents or
however the lack of coordination, while, on a intelligence forces while more than 700 have
larger scale, the rivalry between them reflects been imprisoned by al-Maliki regime [17].
the divergent interests of political groups MSNS is meanwhile accused by US and INIS
supporting them, both internal and external. to have served Iranian interests. After al-
Although two institutional structures are Waili's run from Iraq, in the ‘90s, he
created for coordinating intelligence activities, maintained close relations to Iranian and
(at inter-Ministry level: National Intelligence Syrian intelligence service, partially
Council – al-Hay’at al-Wataniya li al-Tansiq confirming the allegations. The profound
al-Istikhbari, at operational level: National disruption determined by sectarian motivation
Intelligence Cell - Khaliyat al-Istikhbarat al- (INIS is mostly Sunni) and external interests
Wataniya), the intelligence proficiency was only partially covered with al-Shahwani's
remains low after Saddam era, severely resignation in August 2009, as a protest
affecting the capacity to limit security risks against al-Maliki's increasing authority and
and threats, coming from both interior and usage of intelligence resources against his
exterior. Their division in factions and rivals. General Zuheir Fadel al-Ghirbawi was

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”

AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC  
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designated the new director of INIS but his services weaken and become incapable to
relation with al-Maliki followed the same approach increasing security issues the country
route marked by tension and limited faces for the past 3 years. Lack of coordination
collaboration. Iraqi prime-minister together and professionalism, influences exerted by US
with his loyal group, e.g. MSNS members and Iran, officers' politicization and sectarian
especially, try to limit INIS's anti-Iranian division, constant political interference in
attitude and control the service from inside, by decision making and corruption affect the
increasing the number of Shi’a officers in INIS entire Iraqi intelligence activities. Influenced
and balance power controlled previously only by the Syrian crisis, Iraq faces after 2012 an
by Sunnis [16]. Considering the election increasing Sunni challenge addressed through
campaign from 2010 and the incipient revival radical jihadi movements, which united
of a Ba'ath movement, al-Maliki led a strong themselves and join the Syrian ones, leaguing
action for eliminating many of political and new transnational structures like al-Qaeda in
sectarian rivals, along with other hundreds of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). In front of these new
politicians, intelligence officers, accusing them insurgency movements and large scale terrorist
of membership in the old structures [8]. The attacks in Baghdad and against Shi’a
action was obviously taken against Sunni objectives or official forces, meaning military
rivals that might have ran for the elections or troops, police, intelligence officers, Iraqi
support other candidates. From intelligence authorities can only admit their incapacity and
services other than the ones led by prime- lack of professional resources now, without
minister's regime (INIS, Defense Ministry, any option for limiting negative effects of
Interior Ministry, M2), 376 officers were anterior decisions [4].
dismissed in February 2010, from which 190 The actions presented previously have
belonging to INIS. M2 director, Alaa al-Amiri, weakened the operational capacity of al-
tried to resist and was dismissed as well. With Maliki's intelligence services. Himself a
no exception, all of them were experienced discrete supporter of the Assad regime,
professionals but Sunni. They are replaced through an almost recognized alliance with
with inexperienced Shi’a officers, members of Iran, in a total opposition with regional Sunni
prime-minister's party al-Da'wa, some of them countries and challenged not only by the Sunni
being even ex-refugees in Iran during Saddam population in his country but by a part of the
regime, sustaining therefore Iran's influence Shi’a parties, al-Maliki still relies on the
[9]. authoritarian power system built in the last 8
The process had two major consequences. years, so well-known in Iraq's political culture.
On one hand al-Maliki increased his personal Unlike Saddam regime however, current
domination on the entire intelligence field, regime's intelligence services are extremely
military and security services, where he unstable and fragile, fractured by internal
delegates own clients. He refuses to appoint fights and incapacity to handle a deteriorating
ministers for Defense and Internal Ministries, security environment. As proven by the
taking over the two portfolios. Consequently, amplitude of last year terrorist attacks, the
all intelligence services along with state's authorities were unable to control Sunni
important institutions are dominated and insurgency in al-Anbar province, al-Qaeda's
politicized by al-Maliki, like in Saddam's era, fierce violence and its attacks in Baghdad
but as Shi’a, not as Sunni any more. On the (Abu Ghraib prison on July 22, 2013, and
other hand, Iraqi intelligence and security liberation of hundreds of jihadists). As a

637
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

consequence of political power's failure to Journal of Intelligence and

build a coherent and unified security system, CounterIntelligence, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.
Iraqi intelligence are bypassed and incapable 202 – 211 (2003)
to handle security related events. 4. Al-Marashi I., Iraq’s security outlook for
2013, ISPI Analysis, No. 197 (2013)
3. CONCLUSIONS 5. Baram A., „The Iraqi armed forces and
security apparatus”, Conflict, Security &
The general chaos at both information and Development, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 113-123
operational levels, within the military security (2001).
and intelligence institutions, is extremely 6. Baram A., Building Toward Crisis: Saddam
dangerous in a very tense national context and Husayn's Strategy for Survival,
especially in a volatile regional one, marked Washington: The Washington Institute for
by denominational fractures and by an Near East Policy, Washington (1998).
exacerbated violence. In addition, 2014 is an 7. Bennett G., Iraq’s Security and Intelligence
election year, which can mark the Structures: More Problems, Conflict
disappearance of the power system built with Studies Research Centre (May 2006)
so much attention by al-Maliki for eight years, 8. Blanche E., „Maliki takes control”, The
or can reconfirm it. Both alternatives, contain Middle East, pp. 12-15 (January 2010)
a strong potential turning point, firstly, due to 9. Cochrane M., Maliki’s Authoritarian
the lack of political unit that will drive the Regime, The Institute for the Study of War
country toward a crisis, as in 2010, aggravated (2013)
now by the fractures between Sunnites, 10. David Ignatius, “A Sectarian Spy Duel in
Shi’ites, Kurds, and even among themselves as Baghdad,” The Washington Post (June 14,
communities; secondly, by the fact that, while 2007)
in power, al-Maliki will continue the same 11. Hashim A. S., Insurgency and Counter-
strategy towards exclusive domination of the Insurgency in Iraq, New York: Cornell
field decision-making, thus intensifying the University Press (2006).
opposition's violence against him. In this 12. International Crisis Group, Iraq: Buildind
complex environment, the role of intelligence a New Security Structure, ICG Middle East
services is vital. They have today, more than Report No. 20 (23 August 2003)
ever in the Iraq's history, a decisive role not 13. International Crisis Group, Loose Ends:
only in facing security threats, using only their Iraq’s Security Forces between U.S.
own resources in order to defeat any danger Drawdown and Withdrawal, Middle East
against the state, and especially towards Report No. 99 (26 October 2010)
population, but also in being attached 14. Kahana E., Suwaed M., Historical
sufficiently to the national interests in a such Dictionary of Middle Eastern Intelligence,
way that Iraq will not fall back into civil war, London: Scarecrow Press (2009)
or even more, fracture. 15. Rathmell A. et al., Developing Iraq’s
security sector: the Coalition Provisional
REFERENCES Authority’s experience, RAND
1. Al-Marashi I., „An insight into the mindset Corporation (2005)
of Iraq's security apparatus”, Intelligence 16. Shashank Benghali, “WikiLeaks: Maliki
and National Security, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. filled Iraqi security services with Shiites,”
1-23 (2003) McClatchy Newspapers (December 3,
2. Al-Marashi I., „Iraq’s security and 2010)
intelligence network: a guide and 17. Stratfor, An Uncertain Future for Iraq’s
analysis”, Middle East Review of Intelligence Services (January 11, 2012).
International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2002) 18. Wilcke C., „A Hard Place: The United
3. Al-Marashi I., „The Family, Clan, and States and the Creation of a New Security
Tribal Dynamics of Saddam's Security and Apparatus in Iraq”, Civil Wars, Vol. 8, No.
Intelligence Network”, International 2, pp. 124-142 (2006)

638
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

DEATH IN THE ROMANIAN CULTURE

CASE STUDY PRESENTATION/ ADLERIAN APPROACH

Mihaela Alina STATE

Cabinet individual de psihologie 1BV4243/TEL. 0770595825

Abstract: “To live with death” can be considered a pun, but basically it constitues a starting
point for reflections upon death. In time, people everywhere have been preoccupied with
questions regarding death, loss, immortality. Thoughts about death affect life in various ways.
Some are threatening and scary, others are useful and inspiring. The thoughts about our own
death or that of close ones cause sadness, anxiety. Death threatens everything that we know and
appreciate. The meanings that we attribute to death and the reactions to these meanings are
different for each individual. The perception of death is socially determined, with significant
differences in different cultural areas. These differences appear as a result of some religious,
cultural convictions, of the environment in which the man lives, of the family atmosphere, of the
emotional climate. Attachment lies at the basis of any connection. A person who does not know
how to become attached, will never know to separate either. If the relationship of attachment has
been uncertain, then the separation phases are lived improperly and the mourning labor is not
solved. There are people who do not get attach at all, for fear of separation, there are people
who get too much attached, they are very adhesive and they experience separation in a very
difficult way. In any relationship, there are four phases: attachment, connection, separation and
mourning. If the mourning process is not accomplished, the person will not be able to get
involved in another relationship and will not connect in an authentic manner, it will be just a
substitute for the lost bonding. If mourning and grieving are not accomplished, the person will
stay mentally blocked in the past. This shows the person’s inability to integrate the loss and to
move on, to adapt to a life without the deceased one .In this paper I will present the case of a
patient I have worked with in psychotheraphy from an Adlerian perspective, assisting her in
grieving the loss of her son, offering therapy and support psychological assistance to allow her
to adapt to a life without her son.

For ethical and professional reasons, the

I. CASE STUDY PRESENTATION patient will be called VICTORIA, this being
Case description: just a literary nickname. Victoria came to the

639
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

office after being previously scheduled by this child became a beautiful, responsible
phone by her best friend at the time. He asked character, with a social interest, generous and
me to see her telling me that Victoria really upright, appreciated and loved by all the
needed to talk to a psychologist, since her son people he met? Who supported him in his
brutally died in a traffic accident. The accident educational actions? Who ensured his
happened about a month before the meeting. participation in sport competitions? Who stood
Socio-cultural aspects: by him when he succeeded and when he
Victoria is a woman who raised her child on failed?..... Victoria understands the idea. She
her own since he was six years old, forming knows that without her efforts, her maternal
together a single parent family. Her family was dedication, Dan could not have become what
a modest family, living in the countryside, in a he was. For the first time she says, she
mountain area, accustomed to nature and manages to change perspective and the feeling
destiny hardships. The family was Romanian, of guilt is diminishing. I talk to her about the
of Orthodox religion, with higher education. difference between being guilty and feeling
Now Victoria is living in a small town in the guilty. But we are just starting the
central part of Romania, she has established a journey........I need to state the fact that
business on her own, she has a medium- high Victoria has begun psychotherapy and we
socio-economical status, and she is 44. started together searching and descovering
Case conceptualization: personal, internal resources, without using
I received Victoria nervously. She came in medication.
awe, in true pain obvious from her whole Slowly, Victoria starts to reveal herself, the
being. She was not a person, but a source of therapeutic alliance is built and widens more
tears and a pair of blue eyes around which a and more. Personally, I think that a good
human being could be seen. I was shocked by therapeutic alliance brings about the success of
her appearance, her speaking, the way she kept every theraphy. From my chair, I gradually
her son’s photo and she was aking: „have you and deeply entered Victoria’s life, and later on
ever seen such a beautiful child?” ... her lifestyle.
In an odd way, I felt, from her very first visit Thus, I found out that Victoira and her son
to my office, an extraordinary force which was fought Death long before this appeared. Six
hidden behind this huge pain. There was so m months before the accident, after some
uch passion, so much real feeling, that I knew periodic control, Dan was under suspicion of
that together we would be able to redirect this leukemia. He was admitted to different
vital force to the path of rediscovery and hospitals, several meetings with well-known
personal reconstruction. doctors, from the capital and even in the best
Victoria spoke about her son, about the fact medical centres, took place.
that he was the result of a failed marriage, that Blood tests were not conclusive, the medical
he meant her life, her reason for being, that all approaches were confusing, they could not
her efforts as a single mother were directed give a definite diagnosis. Victoria was
towards her son’s shaping and development. struggling, searching, trying to find answers
Dan was an amazing cild. Talented, sportive, and she was praying. The last months of her
poet, a good student, a good friend, very loved existence, before the accident were tormeting
by his colleagues, an exceptional child. and she kept running between hospitals, cities,
Victoria was tormented by feelings of guilt. churches. She was looking for solutions and
She was sorry that due to her continuous work she tried everything to save her son.
and her special efforts, she could not spend Meanwhile, Dan got acquainted with the
enough time with Dan lately. I asked her to tell feeling of being caught in the claws of
me about her son’s results. death....One way or the other, even before
She proudly showed me some of his lyrics. I meeting actual Death.....Until one day, when a
asked her who was responsible for the dedicated doctor, discovered that Dan’s
evolution of this child? Who contributed to his „illness” was in fact a lab mistake, given by a
raising and becoming? Who made sure that substance which was less used in medical labs.

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

Therefore, back to life. Until the fatal day, our way” at some point in life. Then we do not
when „the dark character” dashed into her life get along anymore, we do not find ourselves,
when she was not even thinking about it. And we cannot get back the way we were and we
now in the psychotherapy office, she was cannot choose a direction in life. This is why it
confused, angry, lacking faith, without any is important to discover these convictions that
existential purpose. intefered with our growth and which do not
Together we followed a long and difficult match the actual life situation. Then I did
road, with ups and downs, blockings and research on how my patient approached life
decodings, with understanding and question tasks, like intimacy, family, friends and social
marks, but never giving up. Together we network, work. I was interested in her
underwent the specific stages of grieving, I memories of her accomplishments and last but
dealt with denial, I assisted and helped to not least in her early memories. Our memory
honour her fear, to manage her protest, we is selective and it is full of meanings. Not by
stepped together towards acceptance and accident, during some moments of our life we
understanding, then the fight, the rediscovery think of some memories and not others.
of the self and the creation of a new meaning Remembering is just a metaphor of the actual
in life. situation of our life, it shows the emotion
Then I followed the step of knowing Victoria present at that moment, the way towards which
starting with early childhood, since every we are turning or what we are running from, it
person creates her/his own personality, shows our qualities, resources, our strenghts
lifestyle, starting with her/his birth. From the and sometimes even solutions to the problems
interaction with the environment in which he we are facing. Victoria underwent a period
is brought up, the child observes and draws during which she could not bring childhood
some conclusions. He learns what to do, how memories into therapy. Her return to her own
to do it, to feel, to think. He establishes past was a very difficult task. A strong
purposes to be fulfilled. All these landmarks emotional blockage kept her still, not allowing
are created unawares, and then they shape the her to go back in time. With the help of
way we operate every day. In fact, our lifestyle therapeutical stories, psychodramatic methods
reflects our personality. To understand her and „discussions with the inner child”, I found
better, for her to know herself better, I tried to out that when she was 12, she had been abused
discover her lifestyle. What the parental by a family member. Another rage, another
figures meant to her, or any other adult rebellion, other torments of the child who,
representative figures from her childhood, from an early age, dealt with loss, learnt to live
family atmosphere, family constellation, birth in suffering, assimilating it and impregnating it
order, gender realtionship perceived as a child, within the coordinates of her life. For her joy,
convictions which were created at that time, trust, other people’s appreciation, other
but which intefered with her growth. All these people’s good will, were unknown. And
aspects are lifestyle components, they speak unawares, we turn to those people and
about moving through life. Our conviction situations that confirm and validate our
system represents the bone system for the convictions. Victoria understood this aspect of
body. That is support. Convictions help us be her life, and she understood the choices she
what we are, but some of them, shaped under made throughout her life. This pattern of
the form of early experiences, tend to „be in thinking with the unconscious purpose of

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suffering turned towards her ex-husband, that intervention. What is the lifestyle of a
she separated from when Dan was 6. A man person and how does it help to know it
who validated her conviction about men and in an psychotherapy approach? I
marriages which are „unhappy”. Then Victoria further present some clarifications
managed to unlock some memories, she spoke meant to facilitate the comprehension
about meaningful dreams, all being entrance of the process:
gates, access gates towards knowledge and “The lifestyle of every individual is a singular
self-understanding. matrix of thought, feeling and action, which is
My intervention plan took into consideration: unique and represents the context
1. The acceptance of the loss reality. (Zusammenhang) in which all the specific
2.Working with suffering: going through the manifestations must be considered.”
stages of mourning, assisted management of (Shulman&Mosak, 1995). In time, Adler
anger, working with aggressive energy, named it guideline, life plan and then lifestyle.
working with the self, emotional expression. Lifestyle components:
3. Adapting to a world from where the 1. about „what it is” (our individual self
deceased person is missing. and the reality we deal with)
4. Emotional re-focusing (going on with life). • The self:
5. Rediscovery of personal resources, It comprises: sense of the body (what „I” is),
qualities, internal strenghts and their value. identity (who I am), self-image (what I am),
6. Adjusting convictions which intefered with self-esteem (what quality I have), the self as an
the person’s growth and the understanding of object (what affects me).
mistaken purposes.
7. Lifestyle improvement and creating a new • The image of the world or Weltbild:
meaning in life. It is a set of convictions about everything that
8. Optimal approach of life tasks as a result of is „external” to the self. It comprises:
analysed lifestyle. - convictions about life in general;
- convictions about the social world
In the psychotherapy approach of this case I – from culture and especially from
had the following guidelines as principles of personal convictions.
my interventions:
• Pain is an individual process, each 2. about the values and behaviours that
individual deals with loss in an we will follow to solve „what it is”
original and unique way.
• Pain is an opportunity of inner • The ideal self (guide):
development, as a result of limit- - It is the ultimate purpose of that
experiences we dicover the richest person’s life;
inner resources. - „orientation point” for guiding
• Pain can be manifested in an the”movement line”;
environment which provides safety for - the effort in this direction is
the grieving person endless;
• Pain cannot erase an unwritten natural
law: we are genetically programmed • Moral judgments:
for life - the ideals judge what is important
I will futher present the summary of or not, good or desirable;
my patient’s lifestyle, realised with the - basic ethic attitudes are considered
help of Adlerian methods and more or less an individual
techniques. I used the lifestyle psychological matter rather than a
inventory, a working instrument that I result of mass propaganda or social
used not only to collect data, but also systems.
as a possibility of psychotherapy
• Methods (how to be done)

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

- there are methods used consistently The female model was completed by the
during that person’s life, as grandmother, a good and kind person who
behavioural techniques for the always had something put aside for Victoria.
effort to reach the main purpose; Later, a good and elegant teacher, charitable
- every main purpose can have one and understanding, she completes the feminine
or more methods, and similar portrait in Victoria’s life.
methods can be found associated The gender relationship was a tense one,
with different purposes; in which the man was violent, dominant,
aggressive and hostile, provider and financial
3. Lifestyle influences: Lifestyle source for the family, and the woman took
influences are biological, care of the house, children and did not allow to
psychological and social. be criticised in society and give up an unhappy
marriage. Her children were above all, and the
THE SUMMARY OF FAMILY woman puts up with everything for their sake.
CONSTELLATION – VICTORIA
THE SUMMARY of early recollections
A second child in a family of two children (interpretation)
and psychologically the second born, the I receive joy and silence in my life and
daring, rebel, impulsive Victoria was raised in special things come to me. The woman works,
the family trying to do everything to get what shares and brings peace and silence in my life.
she wanted. Unlike her brother,S. arrogant The woman works a lot, but not in vain.
and proud, hidden rebel, superficial and I know that good things are kept
withdrawn, Victoria found her special place by somewhere, in a corner for me and I am happy
being self-confident, creative and humorous, to receive them in a special way..
the artist in the family during childhood. Everything shines when I win, I know to
The atmosphere in the family was tense, be special and to reach the top and be above
conflictual and intimidating, and the family all.
values were education and religion. THE MAIN PURPO SE (not aw are
The male model offered by the father, M., of)_:
was that of the dominant, powerful, handsome, I try to be different and to do things in a
but very tough, violent man with a strong special way; I know how to run when I
justice sense and a great will to impose power identify danger.
and supremacy and to have them The others are against me, they are
acknowledged. aggressive towards me and they use me.
The female model offered by the mother, Life is tough and hostile, a battlefield, a maze
B., was that of the complex, evolved mother, a through which the woman has to find a way
mixture of contrasts, „fire and rock”, full of out.
force, energy and though strong, very Therefore I try to push away those who come
understanding and kind to the loved ones. She in my way, I have learnt to fight bare-handed,
spread around much affection, was open to to run and to defend myself, to work a lot to
communication and her main concern was for earn my safe place in the world, somewhere
her children to be well taken care of. „above the others”.

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IDEAS W HICH INTERFERE WITH 10. V is generous and honest.

GROWING: 11. V. can create projections, making her
1. V. thinks that the man must be own comfortable world and isolated
proud of what the woman does. from the hardships of the world.
2. V. thinks that men must be The implications of the psychotherapy
dominant to be strong. approach/ Conclusions
3. V. thinks that the woman must be An important aspect for V. was to understand
„petrified” to resist in life. the mistaken position that she had adopted
4. V. thinks that the woman must not towards the world, through her experiences in
give up when confronted with some difficulty, early childhood. Giving up hostility, she
she is built and meant to fight. learned to receive and not just to offer out of
5. V. thinks that you can measure the fear of being rejected, she considerably
your force by provoking fight or inviting to improved her social relationships, she
fight. approaches the task of friendship in a more
6. V. thinks that the others are unfair, confident way, and she has built a real support
use her and abuse her. network. Surprisingly, using her qualities and
7. V. thinks that marriages are internal strenghts („no one saw me like this”
unhappy. she says with tears in her eyes), she re-
8. V. thinks that the woman is meant balances her self-esteem and she has the
to work very much and at any cost, it is the courage to imprint a new direction to her
only way to reap success and to enjoy it. professional life. Today she is studying
9. V. thinks that you must do psychology, a totally different field as
everything to be above all, only than you can compared to her professional activity, she is a
be safe. second year student and she has very good
THE M OST M EMORABLE results and she has passed all exams with
OBSERVATION: flying colours. To commemorate her son, she
The family is a place in which the man is chose to do something useful for the living
bad, tough, violent and he brings a lot of ones. She organises and sponsors every year a
sadness and unhappiness. sport championship for gifted children in the
QUALITIES AND STRENGHTS: county teams, who play professional football,
1. V. is brave and tenacious, she is a true like Dan did. The sport championhip offers a
fighter. honorary cup bearing her son’s name, and
2. V. is intelligent and she has the right thus, every year, Dan is present among those
strategies at hand at all times, she finds the children, who play in his memory.The event is
right solutions to the problems she deals with. already well-established, filmed, awaited and
3. V. is not defeated by anything, she every year Victoria manages to give happy
fights all the way, she is a warrior. moments, honour, trust and courage to the
4. V. is a dreamer, creative and with a children participating in this competition. It is
high aesthetic sense. a method of true commemoration of the son
5. V. has leader qualities, she is a good beyond old rituals, customs or preconceptions,
organiser, she always knows what she has to it is a method of much interest and social
do. utility, that Victoria thought of when she
6. V. is ambitious, perseverent, tends to discovered her resources and internal
reach her aims. strenghts, creativity and generosity. Adjusting
7. V. has a sense of humour, is flexible wrong convictions, self,life, world-conceptions
and open to new horizons. helped her redefine her feminity, accepting her
8. V. is feminine and beautiful, she knows position towards the world and towards the
how to glow in front of the others when she man. This woman’s evolution in life was
wants it. governed by rebirth despite multiple losses. Of
9. V. is adventurous, willing to explore course, there are moments of breakdown,
and to know. severe sadness, mourning, especially around

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

important dates in the calendar, during the 2. Adler, A. Înţelegerea vieţii, Trei,
winter holidays, but these are her sacred, Bucureşti, 2009
intimate, isolation and praying moments, that
she manages today with trust and a lot of 3. Frankl E. Viktor, Omul în căutarea
courage. Her choice is called LIFE and sensului vieţii, Meteor Press, Bucureşti,
PRESENCE. 2009
Adlerian psychotherapy is a psychotherapy of 4. Mosak, H. H. and Shulman, B. H.,
encouragement, of respecting the man’s Manual for Life Style Assessment.
individuality and approaching it in a holistic Bristol: Accelerated Development.
way. Just like in medicine Hippocrates said 5. 1995,Zani, Bruno, Palmonari, Augusto,
that „there is no disease, there is a sick Manual de psihologia comunităţii,
person”, a concept of uniqueness is necessary Polirom, Iaşi,
in the psychotherapy approach. Individual 6. 2003,Mitrofan, Iolanda &colaboratorii,
suffering remains unique, the suffering of a Cursa cu obstacole a dezvoltării umane,
mother who lost her child is comprised in a Polirom,
development of the unnatural. Everything that 7. 2002,Kohlrieser, George, Soluţionarea
contradicts normality is difficult to understand, conflictelor şi creşterea performanţei,
to accept, and I think that this idea is to be Polirom,
found irrespective of the culture, religious 8. Iaşi, 2007,Profesor preot Branişte, Ene,
aspects, dogma and rituals of a community. Liturgica general, Ed. Institutului Biblic
şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe
BIBLIOGRAFIE Române, Bucureşti, 1993
1. Adler, A. (1995). Sensul Vieţii. 9. Diacon David P.I., Călăuză creştină, ed.
Bucureşti: IRI. Episcopiei Argeşului, 1994

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646
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION, RECIPROCITY IN THE

PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP

Marilena TICUSAN

Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University of Spiru Haret, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Throughout the parenthood, the priority is and shall remain at all times to ensure the
physical, mental and emotional health of the child. The balanced development of the children is
determined by adequately meeting the needs involved by different development stages of the children.
Often the parents feel helpless in their capacity, being unable to identify the actual needs of their children
or approaching them wrongly, thereby generating negative effects that can sometimes mark for good the
behavior of the future adult.
Ill-treatments applied to the minor are actions of the parents or of the person to whom the child is
entrusted for raising and education, actions that seriously jeopardize the physical, intellectual or moral
development of the child. Today’s generation has a much faster development rhythm. Today’s children
are the future adults; the responsibility for their education lies with their parents and teachers, but the
society is not relieved from such responsibility. For the parents to successfully accomplish this
responsibility, support is required from the community, from the entire society. The parents represent the
key-elements in ensuring the observance of child’s rights, as the child spends the most of the time at
home, and the parents or the adults fulfilling the role of parents have the most significant influence on
shaping the child’s psyche and personality, whether they are aware of this or not.

Keywords: responsibility, influence, family climate.

1. INTRODUCTION continuous assimilation process of social

experience in an unlimited variety of contents
Each family has its own place, but also its and forms. Understanding its position in
own role in the progress of the society. The different circumstances and providing
family as the primary element the child takes appropriate answers, means catching the way
contact with and remains the permanent and to process the information provided by the
fundamental landmark in the condition of the environment.
individual, in manifesting civic, moral and
behavioral attitudes. The human being is the 2. THE PARENTS-CHILD
being whose relationship depends essentially RELATIONSHIP
on communication and given this, its building,
reliability and vocation cannot be explained 2.1 Theoretical approach.
outside the exchange of messages. Through Communication is the binding element of
communication the individual is humanized, any group and the essential link between its
forms and develops its personality in a members. It has a number of vital functions on

647
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

the group: it adjusts individual behaviors, preparation of parents or of potential parents to

allows the existence of influence and achieve the educational competences represent
domination, it facilitates the delivery of one of the objectives of the school system. In a
performance by the groups in fulfilling their family where mutual respect prevails,
tasks, it ensures group cohesion, it values the manifesting stability and where its members
group, it represents a socio-cultural unity are satisfied by the results of interactions, the
element making the group to become a child is central. The existence of a child carries
reference for the individual. The need for a positive meaning, but complicates the
lifelong learning became evident and was bidirectional relationship between the spouses,
structured amid concerns for adult education. turning it into a tridimensional one. The child
Lifelong education triggers many institutions exerts its influence on the family, restructuring
and means provided by the society. Thereby a its activity, requiring adaptive change. Under
permanent shaping of human personality is normal circumstances this does not lead to an
obtained, both through the various levels of the imbalance of the family, but to a new
educational system and through the organization, imposed by goals considered by
instructive-educative and cultural actions the parents worthy of their sacrifices.
addressed to all age groups of the population, Dysfunctional families usually have
in particular to the adults. affected communication patterns, family
The family is an educational factor that balance is severely disturbed by the existence
guides the human being for the longest of of conflicts. Just one flaw of the family is
his/her life. The child lives most of its time in enough to affect the psychic life of the child,
the family, where they learn the language, resulting in a number of drawbacks, including
customs and civilized behavior, this is why we the difficulty in its dominant activity; mental
say that "good family upbringing in early or moral trauma may arise, the child falling
childhood" has a decisive role on the through in psychiatric disease states, in
subsequent building of its personality. The reprehensible conduct. Parents easily accept
high educational potential of the family is that they may not be perfect, but would like
conditioned by the structure, material and some perfect children to meet their own moral
cultural level, by the relational and emotional or behavioral ideal. Parents must accept the
atmosphere in the family (harmony between child as he/she is, with strengths and
spouses, normal life, good organization), by weaknesses, to love and support him/her
their responsibility towards the education of unconditionally. Every family has its own
children. The family is the first social style of education, which is mainly dependent
environment for development and fosters the on parenting style, referring to the action
establishment of contacts of the child with the method of the parents over the children and
society, where the child receives the first may be harmonic or disharmonic unity
education elements. One of the main features between personal education styles of both
of the family is that it provides stability and parents.
strong affection, promoting thereby learning. Within every family both spouses have
Common knowledge is that in a family the to act as one over the child and to avoid
mother represents affectivity and the father the adopting educational strategies that might
authority. The question in this regard is to influence negatively the child’s behavior and
establish a balance and a safe environment to contribute to smooth building of its
conducive to the harmonious development of personality.
the child. Unfortunately, the living conditions Many times parents are not able to
of children in our country are stressful, the solve their own problems with their own
parents are overwhelmed by the worry about children. They use excessive authority,
the future, by the job insecurity on the one violence, do not communicate enough with
hand, and on the other hand the divorce, child their children or are indifferent and do not
abuse and aggression manifested on children notice when their children have problems.
represent several negative aspects in the Family and parent education targets
normal, natural development of the child. The those actions aimed at practicing educational

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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
function and at developing effective to determine passive behavior, addiction and
communication and interaction practices in the unresponsiveness.
family. As a subsystem of lifelong learning, it
responds to specific, actual needs and offers 2.2 Research dates.
alternate ways and conditions for self-
education. Parent-children communication Information and training of parents
poses serious problems because parents born regarding child schooling requires, at least, for
and educated in a world with rigid each parent to know its legal obligations on the
conceptions, have children born in a world full education of the child, the rights it has for the
of movement and change. education of the child, the importance of its
Information and training of parents on attitude for its child school success, the
child schooling requires each parent to know methods to collaborate with the school.
its legal obligations on the education of the Parenting is evolving, and what used to
child, the importance of its attitude for its child be fit for our parents is no longer adequate for
school success, the methods to collaborate today's children. We need to rethink the way
with the school. the role of parents is understood and their
There are numerous situations where communication with the child, as well as the
work is needed to inform and educate parents coherent and organized support to achieve
including: them.
o Complexity of child development at This research aims at highlighting the
different ages; role of parents in child's education, namely the
o Educational roles the parents have and effect of parental education on communication
need to have; and their behaviors in relation to children.
o Development of the quality of inter- It is based on the hypothesis that
individual relationships in the parental participation in educational activities
community; will lead to acquiring skills and abilities in
o Maturity and development of social terms of educating their own children,
responsibilities; resulting in changing the education method of
o Partnership with the child in various children within the family and at school.
affective disorders or other disorders; Questionnaires were applied to parents,
o Prevention of problem situations, of children and teachers, regarding the awareness
education and development risks. of the need to educate parents, explanation of
Studies have shown that a so-called good the answer and group interview targeting
parent is one who manages to respond information on child education methods, new
appropriately to their child's needs, by not knowledge learned by the parents, problems
developing obedience but the respect of faced and other issues.
individuality and autonomy from the earliest This research is ascertaining.
ages. Permissive relations determine Considering that parental education directly
inaccurate, aggressive and disobedient impacts children, questionnaires were
behaviors, the authoritative relations cause provided to parents and children, as well as to
obedience and lack of initiative and self- teachers involved in the education of the child.
esteem, and the overprotective relations tend The research subjects were chosen from

649
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

Brasov. Predominant ages are between 31-35 terms of collaboration of the kindergarten with
years, namely 22.37% and between 25 and 30 the family, most teachers mentioned: parent
years - 15.23%, as seen in the chart below meetings, daily discussions (given that parents
(Figure 1). come every day with their children in
kindergarten), home visits. Other activities
mentioned were: roundtables with invited
persons, joint activities for the manufacture of
Age of parents materials, toys, trips with the children and
parents, demonstrations in which parents can
see the child's knowledge in relation to that of
5, 8%  the group, the development level reached by
7, 12%  2, 3%  the child. As a novelty the parent clubs, parent
15, 25% 
resource center are mentioned, which could
include a wide range of services provided to
parents: special hotlines, expert advice offered
by psychologists, teachers, doctors. The most
effective technique for controlling behavior is
Figure 1. linked to encouragement which states that the
behavior resulting in the desired consequences
By analyzing the age of the parents a will repeat itself, namely that if a child likes
big age difference is observed between the what is happening as a result of its behavior, it
child and the parent. This is particularly will tend to repeat such behavior.
important since the differences between Unfortunately many parents, without realizing
generations become more visible, the parents it, criticize, nag and punish more than they
of this generation of children being raised and should, failing to notice the good things done
educated by completely different moral and by the child, contributing thus to the
spiritual values . In the last decade the family aggravation of the child's behavior. To obtain
has undergone major changes due to socio- good results it is important that encouragement
economic conditions. Although the following or reward appear as an immediate reaction, to
analysis of the responses of parents and react with enthusiasm and to repeat the process
teachers regarding the quality and many times. It is much more effective to pay
collaboration between them is rated as good, attention to the behavior. This behavior should
there are a number of problems that hinder the be punished or verbally praised at the right
teacher’s work and depend largely on the time. Behaviors that constitute problem for
parents. Some parents believe that educating parents are personality disorders: the child is
children is the exclusive responsibility of stubborn, distrustful, shy, hesitant, cranky,
teachers, they take their children to the moody; and discipline problems as the child
kindergarten casually, have different ideas does not comply with the rules: does not sleep
about educating children than the teachers, do in time, is messy etc.
not have time to communicate with the Given that these behaviors refer to
teachers, are protective or over-protective preschool children and the child's personality
towards their children and this hampers their is built at this age, behavior problems are
relationship with the teacher, do not have time normal, such as: distrustful, shy, hesitant.
to attend parent meetings, misunderstand Parents should intervene by using verbal praise
information about the kindergarten and the for the child to create a positive self-image.
children, have exaggerated expectations from Recent research has shown that both children
the kindergarten and the children. Also, and adults who respect themselves and have a
teachers believe that parents should respect positive image about their person will be self-
them more, to take into account their confident. Most parents cannot help
comments and suggestions, considering that if themselves to tell the child words such as: you
parents show them more respect this will lead are bad, stupid, lazy, cocky, fool, ridiculous,
to the same behavior from the children. In clumsy, etc. All these statements of parents

650
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
and teachers make the child to feel humiliated, The number of single-parent families
ashamed, unhappy and to doubt its value. Such has significantly increased, the standard of
feelings begin to appear in childhood and are living is low due to the high rate of
still nurtured by a performance-oriented unemployment, the number of abandoned
society. Results affect self-image of the person children has increased, school dropout
and its whole life. increased, the number of cases of children
abused physically, emotionally or sexually
3. CONCLUSIONS & increased. In all these cases the family is no
ACKNOWLEDGMENT longer the optimum environment for child
development. Parents concerned with the
The child tests its parents love through major issues of survival can no longer provide
its behavior, so they often are bewildered and the child affection, warmth, joy of childhood-
exasperated and will interpret certain necessary elements for the balanced
behaviors as disrespect. When a child personality development of the child.
misbehaves means that one of its needs was Information, awareness and
not satisfied. It often checks the parent’s involvement of parents in their own child 's
authority through different behaviors. The education and development is not just their
child needs to learn from practical examples, problem , but it must become a concrete,
as long as its ability to think abstractly has not systematic and permanent action for all
yet been developed. Our own character traits categories of professionals working with
are reflected in the lives of our children. children, of the central and local authorities, of
Behavioral psychology has found that NGOs, communities and civil society in
changing the response to a particular situation general. Parent education should become a
can lead to a major change in the whole constant professional concern of teachers and
situation, i.e. if parents change their attitude psychologists. It is necessary to strengthen the
towards a certain behavior, it will change the collaboration between the family and the
child’s behavior as well. educational institution (kindergarten, school),
Times have changed, but human to create a flexible system in the
relationships that represent the basis of communication and collaboration relation with
building the character have not. Children need parents, to achieve harmony in child education
parents to provide them a warm home, love outcomes optimization efforts. Parents should
and guidance, effective communication, a be aware of their responsibility in child
close relationship to set the beginnings of the education, to consider kindergarten and school
human. as a reliable partner in this noble task.
The education of parents contributes to
their social and spiritual emancipation. Socio- REFERENCES
economic changes in the early 20th century, the
transformations undergone by the married 1. Abric,Jean-Claude.Psihologia comunicării,
couple, the family as core of the society, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, (2002).
require parent education to prevent negative 2. Bunescu, Gheorghe, Alecu, Gabriela,
effects on the child development. Badea, Dan - Educaţia părinţilor, strategii

651
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

şi programe, Editura Didactică şi aplicative, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,

Pedagogică, Bucureşti, (1997). (2002).
3. Eysenck, Hans, Eysenck, Michael, 7. Pânişoară, I. O.,. Comunicarea eficientă,
Descifrarea comportamentului uman, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, (2006).
Editura Teora, Bucureşti, (2001). 8. Schneider, Meg F.,. Educaţia copilului
4. Kidd, James Robbins, Cum învaţă adulţii, meu în 25 de tehnici care nu dau greş,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, (2003).
(1981). 9. Van Pelt, Nancy L.,. Secretele părintelui
5. Mitrofan, Iolanda, Mitrofan, N.,. Elemente deplin, Editura Pioneer, Tg.-Mureş,
de psihologie a cuplului, Casa de Editură şi (2001).
Presă “Şansa” S.R.L., Bucureşti, (1996). 10. Ziglar, Z.,. Putem creşte copii buni într-o
6. Păun, E., Potolea, D.,. Pedagogie. lume negativă, Editura Curtea Veche,
Fundamentări teoretice şi demersuri Bucureşti, (2000).
 

652
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

SCHOOL DROPOUT IN CURENT SOCIETY

Marilena TICUSAN

Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University of Spiru Haret, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: School abandonment is a plurifactorial phenomenon, and his degree of seriousness is

highlighted by the ease with which it occurs, namely: family disfunctionality, entourage, the student's
performance in relation to the teacher or the individual as a system. All this can lead on short term to the
appearance of school failure, resulting in school dropout. The dropout risk is higher for micro group
represented by the family, whose normal and efficient functioning is essential for child development.
Without being a reality of last period, school leave gained particular proportions in recent years and
presents an upward dynamic. The prevention activities are complex because it requires specific
interventions that will reduce the phenomenon of school drop, actions that will limit or eliminate where
possible, the causes of dropouts.

Keywords: abandonment, family disfunctionlity, communication

1. INTRODUCTION inevitably leads to decreased school

performance, behavioral disorders and finally
Modern man is gradually adapting to almost certain failure and school dropout.
transformations of the entire society, the real
possibility of progress and development being 2. STUDY ASPECTS
influenced and especially conditioned by
education. School dropouts represents a 2.1 General aspects. The pressure group,
serious issue facing higher education. It is a its negative implications, the risk of exposure
complex phenomenon within the educational at drug consumption and other forms of
environment that is represented also in a dependence, associated with weak and
broader context, taking into account the inconsistent educational methods, curriculum
following dimensions: economic, socio- overload, dysfunction in the assessment and
cultural, ethnic, psychophysiological and grading, fear of exams, and others are just a
pedagogical. During the transition period, it few factors that support this phenomenon.
was found that students in increasing numbers The students avoid confrontation with these
tend to leave the educational system. They are factors of stress and discomfort by running
surrounded by hostile family climate, careless from hours; the absenteeism becomes a social
and disinterested attitude of the parents for the issue that, uncontrolled, has serious
school, an institution that is no longer a implications for the entire society. Not only
priority and not provide and guarantee a job. the phenomenon is important in itself, but also
The massive emigration to the Western states, its consequences.
causes improper care from parents, who offer The inability of students to keep up with
their children freedom of movement, which the best colleagues in school , discipline

653
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

problems , poor social relationships with class sensory, existing personality disorders, in most
teacher and parents, will lead to the unability of the cases intensify. At people with hearing
to adapt to the demands of society and rigors and vision deficiencies, speech disorder
of life. These students, will abandon surely the creates additional problems in the process of
school before completing a full cycle and social integration due to the absence or poor
obtaining skills that can maintain and promote understanding of speech or compensatory role
professional competences. The reasons of in structuring representations of the word, in
dropout are closely linked to the socio - both cases with a risk of reducing social
economic transition and the period of crisis relations, given the difficulties of
and recession. According to national statistics, communication and understanding of the
in recent years, the dropout rate has increased message between the parties. The quality of
to an alarming percentage, placing Romania school life and education influences the
on the first place in Europe in this regard. dropout rate. From the pedagogical point of
Each abandonment has a personal history, view, educational method is approached as a
student faces a number of difficulties which set of strategies, models concerning the ability
result from the himself, family, school, of favorably influencing by the use of
community. The instability of the educational adequate educational resources, the
system is due to fluctuations at economic and development of the personality of each
political level. The development of Romanian individual. The causes of pedagogical type,
society after 1989 was influenced by changes relate to the quality of school life, to the
in democratization and the transition to a relevance of teaching methods adapted to
market economy in the context of a prolonged students' cognitive style, to the characteristics
economic crisis. of the evaluation of educational and vocational
In families with low incomes and high guidance, and to the openness of the school to
unemployment, most often, the children are community problems.
abused, abandoned, they do not develop The teaching causes are frequent and
normally (both physically and mentally) and diversified, being found both at the school and
have health problems, thus increasing the family level. In school the most significant
chances of school drop and juvenile causes are:
delinquency. In Romania, there is a disparity -incompatibility of teacher - student ,
between urban and rural communities teacher personality can provide psychological
concerning the economic, social and cultural realities stimulating and mobilizing or
background. In terms of dropout from school conversely, frustrating, stressful and inhibitory
there is a discrepancy, and the major share -deficient educational styles, consisting of
being held by the rural community. In rural intellectual and nervous overload students with
areas remains a certain lack of interest, passed excessive teaching tasks
on from one generation to another, and a -improper teacher-student communication
relatively low cultural level. This lack of through subjective evaluation, arrogance and
interest is seen among those who are still at threats which humiliate the student.
school, grade repetition being an important The school is not a friendly environment
indicator in this respect, with a major for all pupils and has no effective means of
percentage in rural areas. facilitating the integration of students of other
There are causes of psycho-physiological ethnicities. Gradually, it becomes a medium
dimension that complement the dropout for reproducing social and ethnic inequality.
phenomenon, supposing two dimensions that The manifestation of covert discrimination
complement each other. The anatomic and acts in local school space, gives unequal
physiologic causes concern sensory treatment from some teachers at students in
deficiencies as sight and hearing disturb cause and do nothing but to increase and
speech development, which has long-term highlight the existing phenomenon.
negative effects on reading and writing. When In family atmosphere, the role of
language disorders occur, they appear based parents is crucial, both emotionally as well as
on other deficiencies, such as physical or pedagogical. Poor attitudes of some parents

654
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
who do not allow the child to gain autonomy education received in family, children will
and the requirement in terms of schooling, develop their own personality and will be
wanting to become the best of the best, more or less prepared for the extensive process
generate child active or passive opposition in of becoming adults.
conduct. This opposition and resistance, The poor communication in the parent-child
generalized or focused on school, will relationship can generate a number of
eventually overwhelm the child and lead to problems, the child loses confidence in grown-
abandon. However not loaded school program ups and retreats into an imaginary world,
influences negatively, student attitudes resulting in a decline in school performance
towards school, but rather inadequate program and behavior disorders. In families with social,
requirements. The knowledge from the point financial or occupational problems, some
of view of utility, are not related to the present. parents adopt domestic violence, physical
2.2 Study dates. We live in a time when punishment measures applied to the child
each individual in society is assessed, being devastating. The frequent application of
prioritized and diagnosed according to socio- inappropriate punishment will lead to
professional skills. These skills are formed by disruption of communication.
covering a long process of training and The purpose of this research is the
education. The education is one of the most identification and mitigation of factors that
important services that a company offers to trigger and maintain the dropout phenomenon.
children. The adaptation to accommodate the The research objectives aim at advising the
children at school requires pedagogical students on the verge of dropping out of
requirements necessary to maintain and school, increasing students' motivation to
improve the morph-functional, psycho- attend courses, trust and collaboration among
emotional and social integrity balance. students, parents and teachers.
The radical change in his life, sudden The assumptions of the study are: students
changes accompanying the new age in the from disadvantaged families present a higher
development of childhood can cause him a risk of school abandon; lack of motivation for
shock. Overwhelmed by the requirements of the attendance at courses increase the dropout
the school will adopt a withdrawal behavior in rate; hostile family background can change
itself, stubbornness, negativism. His relations, child behavior in school. The subjects of the
as he knows the family, acquires new research are: students with very weak situation
dimensions, new school environment is a in school, with absences exceeding the limit
colder climate more hostile towards the family allowed and parents of children at risk of
or in the nursery, where the child feels dropping out of school
comfortable. The research was developed by applying the
The positive family climate determines the document analysis, observation and
effectiveness of educational influences having investigation on the basis of questionnaires.
vital importance in social and cognitive The teacher perceives this job to be demanding
development of the child. The parents, through and stressful at the same time. He feels
their authoritarian, permissive or indifferent sometimes that he is overwhelmed, working
attitude develop children positive or negative hard and the results are below expectation, and
cognitive skills. Following the years of he feels that he has sacrificed in vain without

655
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

any acknowledgement. In each class, there are school failure. Tensed family environment,
students which create problems of indiscipline, frequent quarrels and lack of affection in
disturbing the lesson. He noted that punishing couple alter adversely the child's behavior.
them in some way, does not solve the problem Repeated violence causes an unfavorable
and continued supervision of unruly students environment for normal development of the
will deprive their colleagues of attention. child. The emotional shock suffered by the
Applying new ideas, demonstrating tact in child will lead in time to emotional instability,
teaching and involving pupils in school causing depression and anxiety. This is
activities, may increase the discipline in the manifested physically by nausea, vomiting and
classroom and automatically bring a positive abdominal pain and psychically by a feeling of
change in their behavior. insecurity, panic (fear, fear of punishment, fear
Without counseling, family problems or of being locked alone in the house, so on...).
school, the pupil will find difficult to integrate The students will depart school forever, and
into the community and will not adapt to the chances of returning to school are void.
requirements of attending courses of society. Leaving education triggers a process of mutual
The lack of motivation is induced by the lack rejection-student school, as evidenced by all
of interest of parents towards education. The the research conducted on dropouts. Ideally,
majority of parents neglecting their children the school should adopt an attitude of
are not interested in the school situation, encouragement, not rejection for the students
believe that school is useless and unprofitable. who learn more difficult. The grade repetition
In turn, children build their negative self is not a saving solution, the maximum penalty
image, their performance in school becoming being a total exclusion from the system. The
weaker, and becoming unable to adapt to the statistics show that most of those who
school. The student has his own perspective on remained repeaters do not returned to
school, considers some material as education, leaving school for the street. As for
unnecessary, which does not help with the children, most of them want their parents
anything in life. Education has no value for to be more patient and understanding, few
him, forced by their parents to perform certain perceive their parents as best friends. It
jobs that bring income, the child will consider appears that most children have only demands
school as an additional burden. The temporary on family and school, they want total freedom,
absence of a parent, or both, mentally they think they deserve it but do not want to
unbalanced child, who feels alone and give anything in return. For them school does
abandoned, confused and disoriented, loses not have importance, and teachers do not
confidence in himself, does not learn enough, receive respect. They enter in conflict with
causes school failure. Total lack of supervision school authority, became lazy, do not make the
reinforces the feeling of abandonment of effort to acquire knowledge devoid the
children by parents and they become insecure accountability for the school. In turn, parents
and introverted. Student unsupervised by say that because of prolonged program of
foster parents feels rejection on all that employment, are forced to neglect their
belongs to school, will miss for the start a few children, spend some time with them, leaving
hours and after that, will miss several days in a them largely unsupervised. They would like a
row. better communication with their children, but
This is inevitably followed by the integration encounter fierce resistance when trying to give
in various deviant groups, where they adopt advice or an opinion.
attitudes characteristic to delinquent activities.
Finally they give up on school life, considering 3. CONCLUSIONS &
abandonment as an act of protest, as a ACKNOWLEDGMENT
rebellion against society and the indifference
mixed with hatred of school. The lack of The developing of effective policies in
proper communication, the total neglect of the support of families in need of material support,
needs of the child and the need to find reintegration of children who risk being
confidants in those around him, will cause marginalized and professional training of

656
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
teachers, are just some efficient measures 2. Bocoş, Muşata-Dacia. Instruirea
needed in education. The education is vital for interactivă. Iaşi: Editura Polirom (2013).
uneducated child that will not be able to 3. Chelcea, S.,. Iniţiere în cercetarea
integrate into society; without child attending sociologică.Bucureşti:Editura
school to become a social individual, he will Comunicare.ro. (2004).
be unproductive and will have no future. 4. Ciot, Melania-Gabriela. Educaţie şi
The focus on measures to support poor societate. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Eikon
families is the main lever that can reduce the (2012).
extent of this phenomenon. There should be 5. Ciot, Melania-Gabriela. Managementul
vigorously promoted a climate of support and educaţiei. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Eikon
social measures being adopted in all schools, (2012).
from both rural and urban areas. The main 6. Cucoş, C.,. Educaţia. Experienţe, reflecţii,
mechanism of socialization is education, the soluţii. Iaşi: Editura Polirom (2013).
school is an education institution and the 7. Enăchescu, Eugenia. Învăţarea continuă.
family is the first child's educational Aplicaţii la educaţie şi
environment. The collaboration between învăţământ.Bucureşti: Editura Universitară
family and school is a priority, as a (2011).
prerequisite for combating school dropout. The 8. Joiţa, Elena. Metodologia educaţiei.
establishment of partnership strategies, Schimbări de paradigme.Iaşi: Editura
including teachers, parents and students should Institutul European (2010).
mobilize and motivate students in order to 9. Miller, G. John. Cum să formezi caracterul
obtain success in school. The responsibility of copiilor. Metoda responsabilităţii
building this strategy rests on teachers who the personale. Iaşi: Editura Polirom (2013).
need to develop initiatives in this regard. 10. Neacşu, I.,. Introducere în psihologia
Schools should work with the family, it is very educaţiei şi a dezvoltării. Iaşi: Editura
important that the family is fully involved so Polirom (2010).
as to make this partnership to work and be 11. Neamţu, Cristina. Devianţa şcolară. Iaşi:
effective. Editura Polirom (2003).
12. Vallieres, Suzanne. Trucuri psihologice
REFERENCES pentru părinţi. Educaţia adolescenţilor,
Iaşi: Editura Polirom (2013).
1. Anghelache, Valerica. Managementul 12. Văideanu, Gabriela. Educaţia la frontiera
schimbării educaţionale. Iaşi: Editura dintre milenii. Bucureşti: Editura Politică
Institutul European (2012). (1988).
 

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SOCIO and HUMANITIES

658
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2013
Brasov, 23-25 May 2013

THE ROLE OF THE FEUERSTEIN INSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT

PROGRAM IN THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
CHILDREN
Otilia Anca TODOR *

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania,

Mediated learning theory was operationalized through the 14 instruments of Feuerstein’s

methodwhich in their turn were articulated in a so-called "instrumental enrichment program"
(Instrumental Enrichment, or IE). The program aims directly at some cognitive functions, often short in
people with learning difficulties: the ability to compare structures, to findanalogies and differences, the
ability to model and materialize, to generalize, to plan, to abstract, to orient in space and time, the
capacity to establish analogic, serial numeric relationships, etc., visual and numeric memory, graphical
representation capacity. By the attractive, unconventional presentation method, theinstruments motivate
both children and adults to perform exercises and overcome thinking difficulties. Theinstrumentation of
child’s thinking with elements helping to mobilize and adjust its own thinking will aim to create its
intrinsic need to use higher intellectual ways in solving its school and social problems. Child’s strive to
make autonomous intellectual activity will increase its degree of independence and will change its own
perception of itself as autonomous cognitive personality.

Key words: mediated learning, cognitive modifiability, mediation criteria, learning potential.

1. INTRODUCTION each category being divided, at its turn, into

two groups, i.e. the experimental group (50
Objective: The socio-emotional subjects) and the control group (50 subjects).
development of children in the Experimental design: This experiment
experimental group through the consisted of three phases: ascertaining
Instrumental Enrichment Program. experiment, formative experiment and
Hypothesis : It is assumed that the evaluative experiment and was conducted over a
application of the Instrumental Enrichment period of 24 months. The initial and final
Program will lead to significant differences in evaluation were performed using the "I am "
terms of socio - emotional development in test, and the intervention was conducted with
children in the experimental group. five tools from Feuerstein’s Instrumental
Research group: This research was Enrichment Program. The formative experiment
conducted on a total of 200 school children, was conducted over a period of one school year
aged between 8 and 10 years, enrolled in and ended with the final evaluation period. The
regular schools in Brasov. The research group intervention with the IEP instruments was
consists of 100 children with Special conducted in two weekly sessions of 1 hour and
Educational Needs and 100 nonSEN children, 30 minutes each.

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

The formative phase of the appears as a set of exercises focused on the use
experiment was conducted in the Elementary of 14 instruments, with controllable valences
school no. 3 of Braşov. in mental capacity development. The
“I AM…” PERSONALITY TEST instruments as creativity exercise software
Adapted by Ursula Şchiopu and Mielu modules (Guilford, Torrance, Parnes and
Zlate (M. Zlate, 2002), useful in comparative Nicola) are relatively neutral to the study
studies by age, profession etc., the test reveals disciplines; they do not target the acquisition
the representation of various features and sides of specific knowledge, but the building of
of personality, emphasizing its structures. mental skills, cognitive orientation “engines”
„In essence, the test consists of an essay in different situations.
that the subjects have to write about In presenting the Instrumental
themselves. The students are required to Enrichment Program reference is made
consider as many topics of self-knowledge as commonly to class-group, as the recipient of
possible, the teacher drawing the attention of its application, but the Instrumental
the students that knowing themselves means Enrichment Program can be used in various
not only writing down the name, age, gender, situations. Each instrument focuses on a
some personality traits, or some favorite specific cognitive function with utility in a
activities, but infinitely more. On this occasion wider range with more difficult levels of
other self-knowledge topics can be listed and abstraction.
discussed as well, suggesting that the reference In a synthetic formula, the program
in self-portrayals to as many of them as involves three fundamental elements of mental
possible, mentioning the personal way of structure:
being in relation to them, avoiding the ¾ cohesion between the parts of
reductions to one to two subjects, which equals total; to use in a wide and
to poor self-image, represent important criteria broad way the experiences
of self-knowledge depth and authenticity. acquired in specific
The primary analysis of essays written situations;
by children was based on Self-knowledge Grid ¾ structural plasticity in
that contains 17 topics listed below with the adapting and strengthening
name and meaning. own mental activities;
1. Identity ¾ self-reproduction - the ability
2. Physical appearance to change for an act of
3. Psychical traits. autonomous will; the
4. Performance in school and at symmetric or the hard drive
work self-regulation (self-
5. Preferences, desires fulfillment) in personology.
6. Relationship system In this research the formative
7. Views and experiences intervention was achieved by using five
8. Searching for self. instruments from IEP 1 :
9. Isolation and self-confidence. a. Organization of points
10. Adaptation and social b. Spatial orientation I
integration. c. Comparisons
11. Need for self-help and self- d. Images
improvement e. Family relationships
12. Attitude toward self.
13. Table of values. Table 1 Frequency of answ ers in
14. Conflicts and contradictions. the test “Who am I?” posttest phase
15. Self-ideal.
16. Reflected self. Topics/su SEN SEN Non NonSE
17. Status of the person.                                                              
In its personalized form, the 1
The instruments have been described based on the
Instrumental Enrichment Prog ram (IEP) Internal use manual, created by Reuven Feuerstein and
adapted by Jael Kopciowski

660
 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2013
Brasov, 23-25 May 2013

 
btopics of Con Experi SEN N beliefs
self- trol mental Cont Experi and faiths
knowledg rol mental Conflicts 10 23 26 47
e and
Identity 50 50 35 46 contradict
ions
Physical 48 40 38 29 Self-ideal 15 29 31 49
appearan
ce Reflected 4 16 18 37
Performa 27 39 34 47 self
nce in Status of 9 21 25 42
school/at the
work person
Preferenc 22 31 35 49
es, desires From the analysis of Table 1, which
presents the frequency of occurrence of self-
Relations 16 24 31 47 knowledge topics contained by socio-
hip emotional development level assessment,
system information can be extracted on the subject’s
Views and 5 17 19 32 degree of familiarity with the self-knowledge
opinions process and its ability to convert subjective
Searching 2 14 18 39 states into clear and lucid thoughts, on the
for self level of awareness of their strengths and
Isolation 43 22 15 4 weaknesses and the intention of correction of
and self- negative traits.
confidenc The IEP intervention between the pretest
e and posttest phases of the experiment led to
Adaptatio 7 18 23 46 increasing socio-emotional adaptability and
n and involvement in self-knowledge process,
social moving from cautious and reserved attitude in
integratio expressing feelings, thoughts, feelings to the
n description without omissions, consistent and
Need for 5 12 19 33 diversified of subjects’ dimensions and
self-help dominants. Thereby it is highlighted the fact
and self- that the intervention on the cognitive system
improvem leads to development of self-knowledge and
ent self-evaluation, insight and critical thinking.
Attitude 3 11 22 39 We note that the frequency of identity
toward criterion increased in children’s essays, which
self highlights a greater need for display, thus
strengthening the identity as a prerequisite that
Table of 8 19 21 43
will ensure uniqueness of the individual, the
values,

661
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

need for affiliation and identification with a in the initial essays of children, and later, in
group of age, gender or employment. the posttest phase, their frequency increased,
The decrease, in the posttest phase, of the especially in the experimental groups (SEN,
frequency of the information on physical nonSEN), resulting therefrom, as Zlate M.
appearance and how it is perceived by the (2002) says, the need for privacy, for
subject, reflects the decrease of egocentric fulfillment and achievement through another,
trends or those of exaggeration to concrete. for protecting privacy. From here emerges also
Related to the same feature, original essays the insecurity of emotional experiences and a
reflected an expansion of the physical ego and certain mental tension in some difficult
inferiority complexes with or without coverage moments in the existence of subjects that
in physical ego. Initially, this topic of the scale require an effort to adapt and adjust.
has been frequently shown in the answers Regarding the search for self, the
listed briefly, in a single sentence, which frequency of occurrence in the initial phase is
reveals that subjects showed uncertainty and, very low in both groups of subjects, then in the
therefore, self-display. The same criterion is posttest phase, this significantly increases in
found in essays in the posttest phase, this time nonSEN children, especially in the
expressed in ample sentences, which include experimental group, which leads to say that
detailed descriptions, highlighting the desire after mediated learning activities, children
for self-knowledge. show tendencies towards self-knowledge and
The third topic in the scale concerns the self-discovery, they become aware of the
performance in school or at work. Compared complexity and difficulty of self-knowledge
to the initial phase, the frequency of process.
occurrence of this criterion in the posttest The criterion isolation and self-
phase is increased, demonstrating the confidence, which provides information on the
increased availability of subjects to learn and introspection and self-confidence trend, but
work, adopting positive attitudes towards also on the difficulties of adaptation and social
performances obtained, the latter reflected in integration, recorded decreases in gross
personality traits such as honesty, self- frequencies between the observational and the
acceptance, need for self-improvement, etc. evaluative phase of the experiment. This
Regarding the preferences and desires of highlights that initially children were hiding
the subjects, only those related to leisure time increased tensions in adaptive plan and a low
or close in terms of time to the moment of the potential for social networking.
discussion, were present in the initial phase, The adaptation and social integration
highlighting poverty and shallowness of criterion is closely related to two of the criteria
interests, unilaterality of concerns and low mentioned above: the relational system and
level of involvement in their practical search for self. This shows availability for
realization. Posttest phase highlights the learning and playing social roles, the desire to
frequent occurrence of vocational preferences join social groups and to participate in social
and deep desires, with a greater perspective, life. Low frequencies of occurrence in the
revealing an increase in the level of initial essays, indicate some difficulties of
intellectual development, proved by the social integration and their growth in the
extension and depth of listed interests. posttest phase becomes significant for
Regarding the relational system assessment attitudes, support and
described in the children’s essays, the posttest understanding of the behaviors of others. The
phase presents an increased frequency of its cooperation spirit, both on horizontal, with
occurrence, revealing socio – relational colleagues and friends, and on vertical, in the
availability, the need for affiliation and social relations with adults is also asserted.
integration, increased inter-relational potential, For the criterion Need for self-help and
selective relationships, deep and stable, based self-improvement an increase in the frequency
on personal criteria. of occurrence in the posttest phase is noticed,
The opinions and personal experiences highlighting the necessity of change for the
occurred rarely or never (SEN group children) better the personality. Initially, the utterances

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expressing this need emanated strength, to a model or ideal prototype, the individual
nonconformity and a trend for mental becoming able to orient and focus in one
encapsulation, subsequently they turned into direction even if it is transient, modifying to
statements that rendered the need for suit personal or influence group preferences.
qualitative, content and tinge change of The criterion Reflected self highlights
personality. the capacity of self-knowledge and the need
For the attitudes towards themselves, the for self-definition in relation to others.
increase of gross frequencies in the two Increased frequencies between the initial
phases, the initial and the final one of our moment and the final one of the experiment
experiment, expresses a shift towards self, highlights an increase in the capacity of self-
becoming comfortable with insight, with assessment from others points of view, but
subjective analysis - based on criteria systems, also to be dependent on the opinions of others.
the need for genuine self-knowledge. The Status of the person reveals the
Superlative adjectives impregnated necessity to stabilize statutes, to acquire new
expressions illustrate the existence of slight ones or to overcome the old ones. Again
excitement and overstatement trends. frequencies change upward in posttest phase,
The table of values, beliefs and faiths as providing information on the nature of the
the topic of socio-emotional evaluation grid, statute, its certainty or uncertainty.
recorded significant increases in posttest The objective of this research aimed
phase, especially in the experimental groups at evaluating the socio-emotional
(SEN and nonSEN). If initially the topic was development of children, after applying IEP
frequently expressed by conditional sentences and led us to produce the following two
(I am ... if ....), demonstrating a certain degree ideas:
of mental immaturity and low frustration - by increasing the cognitive
tolerance, subsequently the same topic is capacities socio-emotional self-control was
expressed in extended sentences, which strengthened, namely the voluntary
demonstrates the existence of superior inhibition;
motivating agents of behavior, intellectual - the increase of self-esteem and
flexibility and increased opportunities in involvement are expressed in epistemic
achieving own generalization arising from curiosity of children and inferential-
own experiences. hypothetic thinking;
Inner conflicts and contradictions of the The objective aims at evaluating socio-
individual, important for the development and emotional development in children after IEP
future of the personality, increase in frequency intervention, associated to the hypothesis
in the posttest phase, demonstrating the based on which: the application of IEP will
engagement of personality in the process of lead to recording significant differences in
development. terms of socio-emotional development between
Ideal self, closely related to the topic the two groups was reached, and the
preferences and desires, recorded significant hypothesis was confirmed.
increases for all subjects included in the
experiment, which entitles us to conclude that
at this age the individual develops by reference

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 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

REFERENCES 10. Feurerstein, R., Hoffman, M., (1995),

Instrumental Enrichment Teacher's
1. Feuerstein, R., (1980), Instrumental Manuals, ICELP, Jerusalem
enrichment and the concept of 11. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Feurerstein,
cognitive modifiability, University Park R.S., (2005), La disabilità non ѐ un
Press, Baltimore limite. Se mi ami costringimi a
2. Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, R., cambiare, Firentze, Libriliberi
Kozulin, A., (1997), The ontogeny of 12. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hazwood,
cognitive modifiability, ICELP, C., Jensen, M.B., et al., (1985), LPAD -
Jerusalem Learning Potential Assessment Device
3. Feuerstein, R., Klein, P.S., & Manual, HWCRI, Jerusalem
Tannenbaum, A. (1991), Mediated 13. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman,
learning Experience (MLE). M., (1979), The dynamic assessment of
Theoretical, psychological and retarded performers: the learning
learning implications, Freund potential assessment device (LPAD),
Publishing House, London Baltimore, University Park Press
4. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Feuerstein, 14. Gouzman, R., (1997), Major problems
S.R., (2006), You love me!!... Don't of blind learners using tactile graphic
accept me as I am, ICELP, Jerusalem materials and how to overcome them
5. Feuerstein, R., Martinez Beltran, J.M., with help of the FIE Braille program,
(1998), The theory of structural ICELP, Jerusalem
cognitive modifiability, Bruno, Madrid 15. Mara, D., (2004), Strategii didactice
6. Feuerstein, R.S., Falik, L., Rand, Y., în educaţia inclusivă, Ed. Didactică şi
(2006), Creating and Enhancing Pedagogică, Bucureşti
Cognitive Modifiability: The 16. Minuto, M., Capra, A., Rossi, C.,
Feuerstein Instrumental Enrichment (2009), La mediazione nei processi di
Program, ICELP Publications, apprendimento il metodo Feurestein
Jerusalem nel mondo, Otto, Torino
7. Feurerstein, R., (1996), Mediated 17. Minuto, M., Ravizza, R., (2008),
Learning in and out of the Classroom, Migliorare i processi di
Pearson Education, Inc. Stylight apprendimento, Erickson, Gardolo
8. Feurerstein, R., et al., (2005), La 18. Todor Otilia,(2014) “Feuerstein
teoria di Feurerstein i suoi sisteme Method”, Editura Universităţii
applicativi una raccolta di contributi, Transilvania, Braşov.
Milano, trad. it. a cura di Associazione 19. Todor Otilia,(2014) “Feuerstein
Connessioni program, experimental research
9. Feurerstein, R., Falik, L., Rand, Y., design”, Editura Universităţii
Feurerstein, R.S., (2002), The dynamic Transilvania, Braşov .
assessment of cognitive modifiability,
ICELP, Jerusalem

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COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND R. FEUERSTEIN’S CONCEPT ON

MEDIATED LEARNING

Authors: Otilia TODOR

Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Institution: Spiru Haret University, Braşov, Romania

         
Abstract To avoid the exclusion of vulnerable children from the education system and to provide
them opportunities for social adaptation, Professor Feuerstein has developed the theory of "mediated
learning" and operationalized it in order to be used in the educational practice. Feuerstein’s
Instrumental Enrichment method (IE) is part of cognitive education category and focuses on that part of
education which is highly capable of change: the child and the child’s teacher. This method is
successfully used in over 30 countries around the world, developing independent living skills and
personal autonomy skills for thousands of students.
   

In order to ensure progress on the repeated school years, absenteeism and

rising curve of civilization, any postmodern dropout. These events are identified by the
society needs high level social and concepts of "school difficulties" and "school
professional skills. Also, the democratization failure".
of social life formulates the desire of The concept of school failure has
education for all those called to participate, no unified definition as it targets a fact that
with equal rights, to the social life decisions. depends on the organization of the
This social background requires an educational system, on the objectives of
education that prepares children and teenagers education and evaluation procedures. In
to confront their own limits and conditioning terms of scope, this concept embodies
the satisfaction of personal needs in the learning difficulties and students’ status at
context of social reciprocity relations. For the the end of a schooling level. In terms of
children and young persons in difficulty, "intensity", failure can be massive or partial.
integration ways and methods are planned into In terms of duration, the failure may be
the social flow. transient or permanent. In terms of direction
The reality is that in any educational the failure may be reversible or ireversible.
system there are students who do not adapt to Organizing the underlying causes of school
the standard curriculum. In Romania, the failure the frequently invoked causes to
phenomenon is emphasized by low school justify the phenomenon can be determined,
grades, low test scores, examination resits and

665
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

namely institutional and individual learning, all behavioral acts should become
determinants. intellectual operations.
In an educational system focused The theoretical premises,
on the contents of study disciplines, the objectives and methods of a program
teachers showed increasingly reduced oriented toward this direction materialized in
availability to the particular needs of the the content of this study. This study is
children. In such conditions the enlisted in the cognitive current that has
representative classes of the school been expanding for the last two decades, its
population showed learning or habituation core being an advanced psycho-educational
difficulties to the program imposed by the intervention tool.
school system, difficulties that led to the According to I. Manolache,
dissatisfaction of the teachers, of the parents cognitiave education programs came into
and of the students. The search of the factors practice about two decades ago,
that led to this situation and the accusation substantiated by older and newer orientatios.
of the teachers for the failures of the The precursors of these programs are Jean
children was born out of the use of medical Piaget and Lev Vigotki. A third author of a
buffer to monitor the issue of school learning theory, Reuven Feuerstein, has
difficulties, with the idea that those who do capitalized his concepts in a worldwide
not respond adequately to school known intervention system under the label
requirements cannot be consideres as normal "Instrumental Enrichment" with the logo I.E.
and deviate from the rule of statistical This program was implemented in about 30
majority. For mass education, most countries and owes its success to the fact
problems are created by the students with that it promotes a pedagogy of success of a
limited intelectual performances and by the large number of people, given the increased
students with exceptional performance level. demands imposed by insertion media.
These categories can hardly be included
within the limits imposed by the standard COGNITIVE EDUCATION
curriculm and show specific school
As tolerant as the society may be
difficulties.
towards people with learning difficulties, it
The significant proportion of
shall always value the intelligence and
students with school difficulties require the
cognitive performance. Any modern form of
reassessment of the issue and finding new
education that takes into account the
solutions to prevent school failure in
individual genetics, promotes reaching the
underprivileged children in the relationship
highest possible level of cognitive
between institutional environment and their
performance. Identification, assessment,
individual and family characteristics.
development and education of cognitive
Individual determinants of school
functions question the nature of human
difficulties are often backed up by the
capacity, the value of parenting and the
institutional ones and cause for some
opportunities to influence child development
children their enrollement on the descending
as well as the relationship between the
curve of failure or partial achievement of the
concepts of potential and mental functions.
learning potential. This raises a legitimate
These broad topics can hardly be limited to the
question: "Why is the risk of school failure
notion of stimulation or education of
emphasized throughout schooling for some
intelligence. However, we must note the
students?"
growing recognition in the literature of the
New educational systems try to
importance of cognitive, motivational and
answer this question by optimizing child
personality factors stimulation – factors such
development through education that
as the ability to pursue a goal, cognitive
organizes "inputs", so that "outputs" of the
learning strategies, courage, cooperation,
cognitive system to be richer. To ensure
involvement in the task, curiosity, motivation -
children an internal benefit through school

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

which together influence cognitive children, in their own social context, the
performance. cognitive tools needed to solve problems
Confidence in intellectual processes (primarily of the problems related to school).
capacities changeability does not mean Thus, higher process cognitive development is
underestimating genetic influences on based on mediated collaboration by verbal
intelligence. On the contrary, we start from interaction. Based on these concepts, we can
considering genetics as a factual situation. assert that cognitive education is a facilitating
Theoretical explanations of the cognitive intervention, intentional, from the learning
activation phenomenon are provided environment, intervention that leads to
traditionally in terms of the relationship intellectual development and cognitive
between genetics and the environment. The changeability in the child. Cognitive education
eternal issue of the relationship innate- is led by a teacher interested in improving
acquired, important for both the human, social some aspects of cognitive functioning
and health sciences, was resumed at the end of systematically, by virtue of a methodology
the last millennium and now, at the beginning based on the learning psychology.
of the new millennium, in the hope that the
place of general principles will be taken by R. Feuerstein’s mediated learning theory
specific data and methods. The genetics,
however important it may be, and however Feuerstein said that: „the person who
relevant are genetic research data on twins, mediates the learning process enriches the
adoption or otherwise, does not explain the interaction between the child and the
great variability of human nature. environment with elements that do not belong
Psychological research of to the actual situation, but are part of a world
environmental influences and their relevance of meanings and intentions derived from a
to the field of education tries to respond variety of attitudes, values, goals and means
increasingly more to the challenge launched transmitted through culture."
by Piaget, to avoid generalizations on Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment
valuation of family and environmental method (IE), is part of the category of
influences and finding concrete ways to cognitive education and focuses on that part of
change the cognitive development progress of the education that is highly capable of change:
a child. the child and the child’s teacher. The main
objectives of this method are:
The concept of cognitive education • To increase the skills of teachers that
can provide children life experiences
From the theoretical perspective, significant for their cognitive growth.
cognitive education is linked to the concepts • The development of main cognitive
of intellectual potential and of the proximal skills by: promoting notional language
development area (Vygotski, 1971), plasticity development of children and
and adaptability of the brain (Luria, 1961, adolescents with learning difficulties;
Cohen, 1982, Changeux, 1983), mediation and provision and acquisition by children
changeability (Vygotsky, 1978, Feuerstein, of the instrumental conceptual systems
1980, Nyborg, 1983). In Vygotsky's view, with which they can understand the
cognitive mediation means the acquisition by world and can adapt to it better, can

667
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

acquire and operate new knowledge White Paper, target inter alia, the
and can show creativity in their entire development of children learning capacity,
activity. through development of the learning to learn
Teacher awareness of its power to skills. As a result, some governments like
drive the learning capacity of students. Spain and Belgium have introduced explicitly
The specificity of Feuerstein’s concept the "learning to learn skills" and the "learning
and method is the emphasis on the adult role social skills" in their educational programs.
in the emergence of progress in children Reuven Feuerstein believes that there
thinking and learning abilities. The parent, the are two main learning ways: the first by direct
teacher or other intervening person thus approach and the second by mediated
becomes the organizer of such life experiences experiences. The differences in cognitive
that lead to cognitive training and its structural development cannot be explained only by
changes. Mediated learning experiences genetics differences, nor by environmental
explain the diversity of human nature and its influences by factors such as socioeconomic
ability to change. status of parents, cultural differences or family
Although he emphasizes rather quite origin. Without denying the existence and
enough the cognitive aspects of changeability, relevance of the mentioned factors, Feuerstein
Feuerstein does not ignore at all the affective- refers to these conditions as “distal” factors of
motivational and social aspects. Cognition and differential cognitive development. What
emotion are two sides of the same coin, says really produces a difference is the “proximate”
Piaget. Feuerstein considers cognition as the factor which Feuerstein called the Mediated
"royal road" of changing the function of the learning experience. This is defined as the
individual. Once the individual has been quality of interaction between the person who
provided with an adequate vocabulary, with learns and develops and the persons tat
accuracy and comparative behavior, with good provide support in development (Fig. 1), such
hypothetical thinking and correct ways to as teachers, parents, caretakers that interpose
draw conclusions, it shall be able to gain more between a stimulus from the environment and
emotional insight and other experiences. the individual, to ensure that the stimulus is
Cognition must reach motivation. Due to perceived, mastered and integrated accurately.
mediation and acquisition of mediated Changeability is a natural feature of the
learning experience "difficult children" often body: "the connections network (nerve) is
completely change their behavior. The constantly changed internally by hormonal
Instrumental Enrichment Program (namely IE) changes and other physiological changes that
is a set of instruments systemically composed occur during growth, and externally, by
that create mediated learning experiences. learning experiences. This feature of the
The application of the Instrumental human psyche is not only a prerequisite for
enrichment method may be an answer to development, but also a result of external
issues raised by the necessary changes in the influences on the individual. According to
content and aims of education. As the Feuerstein (1998), changeability depends on
European Commission asserts in "Towards a the quality of interac tions between children
cognitive society" (1995) – the White Paper of and adults that surround them and educate
education for European societies in transition them, quality that can be characterized by
now, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium - a intentionality, transcendence, meaning
deep transformation of the education system, mediation, reciprocity, responsibility etc.
of the teachers’ way of thinking and working Led by their own intentions and based
is required, but also a concern for improving on their own cultural background, mediators
the learning ability of children. These changes filter and select specific mediation stimuli,
are necessary given that a significant number organize and classify the selected stimuli
of children are not provided with the within a particular context, adjust the reactions
educational needs in the existing system of of the mediated person, interpret stimuli and
education. The recommendations of the said give them meaning and get motivation and

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interest - all in a way to increase efficiency of availability, of time, of energy, many adults
learning. fail to convey values, cultural meanings,
Children learn much through direct history and tradition to their children. They no
exposure to the stimuli. They learn much by longer explain their children what they know
imitation and identification. But mediated about the world, they do not transmit them
learning is a different way of learning than their own experiences, they tell them fewer
direct exposure to stimuli. Basic cognitive stories, but let the TV to fulfill this mission;
functions are created through mediated they no longer sing enough, they don’t answer
learning experiences that manifest as a means their children questions. Several factors are
of adapting to a changing world. involved: socio-economic poverty, single-
The European Commission has made parent families, and the domination of
some important suggestions in its White electronic media. In addition, the alienation of
Paper, called "Towards a cognitive society" extended family members in large cities due to
(1995). This charter states that: in order to mobility and migration, or the temporary or
avoid exclusion and provide optimal permanent abandonment of children in
opportunities for all students, especially to childcare institutions. The result is that many
those who are on the verge of elimination children are left to learn directly from
from mainstream schools as they were not environmental stimuli, in the absence of adult
able to meet the demands of the curriculum, mediation. According to Feuerstein, this lack
schools should not be limited to teaching skills of mediation endangers the cognitive
and knowledge, but should invest more in the development of children. Thus the most
development of general cognitive learning common cause of learning deficits is,
skills. This involves changing the goals of according to R. Feuerstein, poor mediation
education. For adaptation, children must learn experience received by the children from the
how to learn. This requires the development of adults.
appropriate cognitive skills, for example
information identification and development Mediated learning experience and learning
and for communication own solutions must be processes (Mediational Learning
found. Children must also learn how to work Experience - EML)
together.
Child's independent learning ability
Cultural deprivation and cognitive depends on adequate experience for mediated
functions learning. Only "those best equipped children"
learn on their own. These “well equipped”
Mediation is the main method by children benefited from mediated learning
which culture is transmitted from one experience and therefore they have developed
generation to another. The natural trend of all cognitive functions required for
each generation of all ethnic groups is autonomous production of information. This is
mediating the cultural wealth of the younger not the case for most children; they must learn
generation, a fundamental necessity and a how to think and analyze problems. Therefore
generally valid phenomenon. This tradition is the teacher must become a mediator rather
threatened by the current technological, than an instructor skilled at teaching specific
industrial and urban culture. By lack of content and skills training.

669
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

It’s never too late to change the 4. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman,
teaching method. All human beings can M. (1979). The dynamic assessment of
benefit from the forms of mediated learning retarded performers: The learning
experiences, experiences adapted to each potential assessment device (LPAD).
individual.   Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
  5. Lidz, C (2000). Dynamic assessment,
Guilford Publications, New York.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 6. Miclea, M. (2003). Psihologie
Cognitivă. Editura Polirom, Ed. a II-a.
1. R. Feuerstein (Ed.), Instrumental Bucureşti
enrichment. Baltimore: University 7. Skuy, M. (2002)- „Experienţa
Park Press, 1980; J. M. Martinez învăţării mediate în clasă şi în afara
Beltrán, J. Lebeer, R. Garbo (Eds.), Is acesteia”, ASCR, Cluj, România.
Intelligence Modifiable. Madrid: 8. Veronica Bâlbâie – „Dezvoltarea
Bruno, 1998. psihică a copilului normal şi
2. Feuerstein, R. & Jensen, M. (1980). patologic- „ Ed.PIM – Iaşi, 2006
Instrumental Enrichment: Theoretical 9. Todor Otilia,(2014) “Feuerstein
basis, goals, and instruments. The Method”, Editura Universităţii
Educational Forum, 44:401-423. Transilvania, Braşov.
3. Feuerstein, R., Klein, P., & 10. Todor Otilia,(2014) “Feuerstein
Tannenbaum, A. (Eds.)(1991). program, experimental research
Mediated learning experience: design”, Editura Universităţii
Theoretical, psychosocial, and Transilvania, Braşov .
learning implications. Tel Aviv and
London: Freund.

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PERSONALITY, IDENTITY AND PSYCHIC MATURITY

Florin VANCEA

University Lecturer PhD, Spiru Haret University, Brasov.

ABSTRACT: This paper aims to study the connection between the identity construction and psychic
maturity as fundamental elements of personality. In addition to the clarification and description of some
important terms like “identity”, “maturity”, “Self”, “Ego”, the paper demonstrates the relations between
the statuses of identity and the obtained levels of maturity, by means of scientific research. The identity
and the psychic maturity describe in their correlation the archetypal phenomena: “Who am I?” and “The
Great Journey”. “The Great Journey” (individuation, self-becoming, actualization, Self-accomplishment)
is still present among human beings, just as it was in ancient times.
The research demonstrated the essential connection between the identity construction process and the
psychic maturation process. The psychic maturity level reached by an individual depends on the way in
which he succeeds in accepting and going through identity crises, eventually assuming a clear, precise
and authentic personal identity. We cannot talk about psychic maturity as long as the person in question
is not concerned with his/her own identity and either blocks his/her differentiation process in relation to
the identities of the parents, or he/she absorbs some of their identity, consciously or less consciously.

KEY-WORDS: personality, identity construction, identity status, psychic maturity.

1. INTRODUCTION one’s own identity and of accession to a

This paper aims to study the connection certain degree of psychic maturity. These
between the identity construction and psychic phenomena should rather be cultivated when
maturity as fundamental elements of studying personality, instead of being ignored.
personality. In addition to the clarification and G. Allport reinforces the same idea in the
description of some important terms like following statement “psychology should not
“identity”, “maturity”, “Self”, “Ego”, the be satisfied with studying an artificial human,
paper demonstrates the relations between the it should also describe and explain the real
statuses of identity and the obtained levels of man, whose main trait is his individuality” [2]
maturity, by means of scientific research. The
identity and the psychic maturity describe in 2. IDENTITY FORMATION
their correlation the archetypal phenomena: Erik Erikson [3] presented the Ego
“Who am I?” and “The Great Journey”. “The development theory in order to justify the
Great Journey” (individuation, self-becoming, interaction between historical, social,
actualization, Self-accomplishment) is still psychological factors and the developmental
present among human beings, just as it was in factors in personality formation. Erikson
ancient times. described the major factors that contribute to
Modern psychology is required to lay a the identity formation during adolescence. He
special emphasis on this process of finding argued the fact that every society provided a

671
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

set and programmed period of time for the self-defined commitments. These young
identity completion. While he admitted there people are considered to be in the
were many variations in the duration, intensity “moratorium”.
and ritualization of adolescence (its Finally, the young people who went
rhythmicity), he also proposed the idea that through a psychological moratorium and had
societies offered a “psychosocial moratorium” performed substantial explorations regarding
according to which the teenager is expected to the unique and intimate ideological
commit for life and to establish a relative self- commitment identification are placed in the
definition. Every moratorium comes along “identity achievement” category.
with crises. A crisis is a normative life event By taking over Erikson’s ideas, Marcia
defining a crucial moment when development shows that identity is an evolving
has to change one way or another, thus configuration which tends to enter one or four
generating resources of growth, recovery and situations of identity at any time. However,
major differentiation. It seems these crises are over time, the individual may change and may
benefic, in the sense that they determine the belong to another category.
individual to explore the alternatives offered
by life and achievable through a serious 3. PSYCHIC MATURITY
commitment. In this paper, psychic maturity is
Based on the two dimensions from understood in the humanistic psychology
Erikson’s theory about the identity formation, terms of self-actualization and self-
James Marcia (1966) [4] conceptualized four achievement. By studying sane and, at the
types of identity formation. The two same time, “exemplary” subjects, Abraham
dimensions include the presence and the Maslow [5] outlined the psychology of
absence of a crisis period and the presence or becoming which is based on understanding the
the absence of well-defined and stable motivation that guides the human to the final
commitment to values, beliefs and standards. stage of personality development: fulfilling all
Society expects the teenagers’ crisis period at potentials. Maslow prefers the term Self-
youth. Before entering in the psycho and social actualization. He defines this concept as “an
moratorium, the young ones do not go through ongoing process of actualizing potentials,
a motivational identity. Thus, he or she may abilities and talents, of fulfilling a mission
not feel the need to explore alternatives and at (given by fate, destiny or vocation), the
the same time they may fail to establish some knowledge of full acceptance of the intrinsic
ideological commitments. These young people nature, a permanent tendency towards unity,
belongto the“identity diffusion” category. integration or synergy.” [5] Every human has
The second category is represented by this tendency of actualization which leads him
young people who report stable commitments, to his own path in life.
but have not gone through a personalized When it is not blocked, the actualization
period of crises. They adopt commitments process leads to an integrated, self-achieved
from others (especially from the parents) and and mature personality with the following
they did not test the commitments they state to characteristics: a superior perception of reality,
be appropriate for themselves. They easily a greater acceptance of others, nature and
accept others’ commitments and then they oneself, spontaneity, affinity and naturalness,
possess them without adjusting or modifying focus on problems instead of oneself, need for
them. This process seems to be similar to the intimacy and independence, rich variety of
precocious identifications from the childhood. emotional reactions, going through some
These young people are tagged in the “identity “peak” or mystical experiences, high
foreclosure” category. “identification” with humanity, social
The third category includes young people interests, improving interpersonal
who currently express their identity, relationships, balanced interpersonal
preoccupation for identity crises and active relationships, democratic structure of
exploration, but who did not reach to their own

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character, increased creativity, resistance to Work hypotheses

enculturation. 1. There is a significant difference from
Carl Rogers [7] shows in his theory that the psychic maturity standpointbetween
every human being has a tendency towards subjects withidentity diffusion and those with
self-actualization. The actualization or Self- identity moratorium.
achievement is a process, a tendency and not a 2. There is a significant difference from
finite product. Rogers uses the term “self- the psychic maturity standpointbetween
actualizing person”. Personality development subjects with identity diffusion and those
is an ongoing process, a perpetual change that withidentity achievement.
ends with the person living plenary: “the fully 3. There is a significant difference from
functioning person”. According to Rogers, the the psychic maturity standpointbetween
person with the plenary functioning has the subjects with identity foreclosure and those
following traits: with identity moratorium.
a. Awareness of all experiences, acceptance 4. There is a significant difference from
of experiences and emotions (positive or the psychic maturity standpoint between
negative), inexistence of self-defense subjects with identity foreclosure and those
mechanisms; with identity achievement.
b. Capacity of fully living each moment; Study sample
c. Self-confidence; The research was conducted on a sample
d. Possibility to manifest freely, of 40 persons, aged 20-40, from different work
experiencing a feeling of personal power; fields. No subject selection criterion was
e. Increased creativity, spontaneity. applied. They manifested their desire to
participate in the research and they gave their
4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND consent to participation. The data obtained
METHOD from the research are confidential and only
The purpose of this research is to study the used in this study. The gender repartition of
correlation between identity formation and the the sample was: 39% males and 61% females.
levels of psychic maturity. It is a quantitative,
statistical type of research. The w ork ins truments o f the
Objectives quantitative-statistical study were:
O.1. To identify instruments measuring the 1. The objective measure of ego identity
identity statuses on the one hand, and the level status – OMEIS, Adams, Gerald, R. (1998). It
of psychic maturity on the other hand. measures the identity statuses. The test
O.2. To determine the existing relation consists of 64 items and was developed
between the identity statuses and the level of according to Marcia’s theory.
psychic maturityin the investigated sample. 2. The SLP (Styles of Living Preferences)
General hypothesis personality inventory was elaborated in 1983
In this research, we started from the by psychologists Gail Maul from the Riverside
hypothesis according to which there is a City College and Terry Maul from San
correlation between identity and psychic Bernadino Valley College in order to capture
maturity. the traits mentioned above and established by
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow for an

673
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

optimal, integrated person. The scale can

reflect the self-actualization and integration
process of the ego, by studying the way in
which persons react to different life situations.
To this end, it presents a series of 50
situations, each of them with two extremes.
Results regarding identity statuses
The OMEIS test measured the two identity
groups: the ideological identity and the
interpersonal identity, as well as four identity
statuses: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium
and achievement.
a. Ideological identity. Fig. 2. The frequency of the interpersonal
As it can be noticed in fig. 1, 15 subjects, identity statuses
namely 37.5% of the sample, revealedthe
ideological identity diffusion; 4 subjects, Identity statuses and maturity levels
namely 10% of the sample, revealed Figures 3 and 4 present the means of the
ideological identity foreclosure; 13 subjects, scores obtained on psychological maturity
namely 32.5% of the sample, revealed according to identity statuses.
ideological identity moratorium and 8 subjects,
namely 20% of the sample, revealed
ideological identity achievement.

Fig. 3. The mean of the maturity scores

according to the statuses of ideological identity

Fig. 1. The frequency of the ideological

identity statuses

b. Interpersonal identity
As it can be noticed in fig. 2: 17 subjects,
namely 42.5% of the sample,
revealedinterpersonal identity diffusion; 3
subjects, namely 7.5% of the sample, revealed
interpersonal identity foreclosure; 5 subjects,
namely 12.5% of the sample, revealed
interpersonal identity moratorium and 15
subjects, namely 37.5% of the sample revealed
interpersonal identity achievement. Fig. 4. The mean of the maturity scores
according to the statuses of interpersonal identity

674
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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

The results of the research regarding the subjects with identity foreclosure and those
correlations between variables with identity moratorium.
The t test for individual samples was used The statistical processing in SPSS showed
when comparing the means of the maturity that the differences were significant at the
scores of the subjects with different identity p=0.033 threshold for the ideological identity
statuses. After applying it, the results for the status and also significant at the p=0.001
work hypotheses are the following: threshold for the interpersonal identity status.
1. There is a significant difference from Hypothesis 3 is confirmed both for the
the psychic maturity standpointbetween ideological and interpersonal identity status. In
subjects with identity diffusion and those with both cases, the subjects with identity
identity moratorium. moratorium are more mature than those with
The statistical processing in SPSS showed identity foreclosure.
that the differences were significant at the 4. There is a significant difference from
p=0.013 threshold for the ideological identity the psychic maturity standpointbetween
status and insignificant at the p=0.166 subjects with identity foreclosure and those
threshold for the interpersonal status. with identity achievement.
Hypothesis 1 is confirmed for the ideological The statistical processing in SPSS showed
status and infirmed for the interpersonal one. that the differences were significant at the
As far as the ideological identity status is p=0.018 threshold for the interpersonal
concerned, the maturity level is higher in identity status and insignificant at the p=0.167
identity moratorium than in identity diffusion. threshold for the ideological identity status.
Therefore, the subjects with identity Hypothesis 4 is confirmed for the interpersonal
moratorium are more mature than those with identity status and infirmed for the ideological
identity diffusion. When it comes to the one. As far as the interpersonal identity status
interpersonal identity status, identity diffusion is concerned, the subjects with identity
and identity moratorium do not influence the achievement are more mature than those with
maturity level. identity foreclosure. When it comes to the
2. There is a significant difference from ideological identity status, identity
the psychic maturity standpointbetween achievement or identity foreclosure do not
subjects with identity diffusion and those with influence the maturity level.
identity achievement. Taking into account the confirmed
The statistical processing in SPSS showed hypotheses, the general hypothesis according
that the differences were insignificant at the to which there is a correlation between identity
p=0.104 threshold for the ideological identity and psychic maturity is also confirmed.
status. For the interpersonal identity status, the
differences were also insignificant at the 5. CONCLUSIONS AND
p=0.307 threshold. Therefore, hypothesis 2 is DISCUSSIONS
infirmed, as there are no significant
differences in any of the statuses and identity The research demonstrated the essential
types that could influence the maturity level. connection between the identity construction
3. There is a significant difference from process and the psychic maturation process.
the psychic maturity standpointbetween The psychic maturity level reached by an

675
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

individual depends on the way in which he 2. Allport, Gordon, W. Structure and

succeeds in accepting and going through personality development. Bucureşti: Editura
identity crises, eventually assuming a clear, Didactică şi pedagogică (1991).
precise and authentic personal identity. We 3. Erik, Erikson, H. Childhood and
cannot talk about psychic maturity as long as Society. New York: Editura W.W. Norton &
the person in question is not concerned with Company (1963).
his/her own identity and either blocks his/her 4. Marcia, E, James. Development and
differentiation process in relation to the validation of ego identity status. Journal of
identities of the parents, or he/she absorbs Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 3, Nr.
some of their identity, consciously or less 5, p. 551-558. State University of New York
consciously. at Buffalo. http://www.learning-
Consciously assuming the “Who am I?” theories.com/identity-status-theory-
topic and going through the sometimes painful marcia.html (1966). Available: 28 April 2013.
process of differentiation from parents, as well 5. Maslow, A. Motivation and
as seeking for one’s own path are component Personality, Ed. Trei, Bucureşti (2007).
parts of psychic maturity. 6. Mânzat, I., coord. Psychology of Self,
Ed. Eminescu, Bucureşti (2000).
REFERENCES 7. Rogers. C. R. On becoming a person,
Ed. Trei, Bucureşti (2008).
1. Adams, Gerald, R. The Objective 8. Vancea, F., The valences of a personal
Measure of Ego Identity Status. A Reference development module focused on unification,
Manual (1998). PhD Thesis, coord. Univ. Prof. PhD Iolanda
Mitrofan, University of Bucharest (2012).

676
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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INMATES’ PERCEPTION, MOTIVATION AND FEELINGS TOWARDS

SCHOOL ON EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED IN GIURGIU
PRISON

Petronela Sorina VÎRBAN*, Florin Marian ANTONESCU**

*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania,

** Faculty of Social Sciences, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romamia

Abstract: This study is based on the legislative framework that regulates the educational and
psychosocial activities in Romanian prisons, specifically the Law 254/2013 of penal execution and the
Law 1/2011 of national education. The study has as starting point certain researches in the field of
education regarding the way in which is perceived the professor (Fraser, 1996; Wubbels and Levy,
1993), but also the learning activity (Waugh, 2001) and the individuals’ feelings towards school (Essex,
1997; Wulfsohn, 2000; Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). The study intends to approach another
category of persons – the inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, who attends educational activities. For this
study, we selected three types of activities: school, training activities, and educational activities
conducted by the educator of each prison ward in order to identify the way in which the inmates,
according to their age, criminal record and relationships with their families, have different perceptions,
motivations and feelings towards school/educational activities conducted by the Educational Bureau of
Giurgiu Prison. The European Council approved on 13 October 1989 the following: “All inmates should
have the right to education; this should include basic education, vocational training, creative and
cultural activities, physical education and sports, social education and library facilities”.

Keywords: inmates, perception, motivation, feelings towards school

1.1 Educational activ ities in being extended beyond childhood. Even the strong
adulthood development of university education in the last
century and the beginning of twentieth century,
The term “education of adults” is relatively recent, shows that it was necessary to continue training
although historically, since 1919, in the UK was and education in adulthood.
established the Adult Education Committee.
The learning process is defined this days from
For centuries persisted the belief that education is many perspectives: “transformation of individual
achieved in the first period of human life, i.e. in psychological consciousness” (Piaget, 1987); “to
childhood. In fact, it was believed that there are complete and promote changes of human
three major sequences of human life: childhood, behavioral organization” (Osterrieth, 1986);
characterized by education; maturity, when “changing the positive value of human rational
predominates work; and old age, which is thought behavior” (Cerghit, 1994); “process of assimilation
to be a period of peace and relaxation after so and practice of information, values and human
many years of work. Gradually, the industrial labor actions” (Vintau, 1984) etc.
changed the entire content of human life, education

677
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

In fact, the learning process is the continuous individuals, the following question arises: How can
construction and reconstruction of an inner pattern we form a perception of other that will reflect as
of knowledge, appreciation and action in relation much as possible the objective reality?
to the world in which we live. It is also a
humanization process through which individuals One answer will be the following: the achievement
acquire new human qualities with which they can of awareness of individual, promotion of openness
establish a relatively stable balance with social, to others, rising the interest in observing
cultural, professional and natural environment. individuals; all these can only be achieved through
Psychologists have highlighted some particularities education.
of adults involved in learning process. Adults feel
the need to be actively involved in determining 1.3 Motivation of adult learning
what and how they will learn, preferring active and
1. The motivation of learning in adulthood is a
not passive learning situation. They rely on their
generalizing notion that includes psychological
own forces and therefore, prefer to work
formations (interests – attitudes) and personality
independently. Adults have also concrete and
needs (performance/success), which are subject to
immediate necessities. They become impatient and
lifetime structural and content changes.
nervous when teachers give long speeches on
theory, preferring to see the practical application of 2. Motivating adults to learn is a psycho-
that theory. They are rather task-centered or pedagogical and socio-economical process
problem-centered than topic-centered. This does achieved at the level of interference of personality
not mean that they are not interested in theory: for identities (professional, social-civic, parental, and
them it is important to see also the application of marital), work and learning activities, and habitual
theory. Adults have an extensive life experience dimensions of motivation.
gained over the years which must be “exploited”.
1.4 Adults’ feelings to wards learning
When we refer to education in prison, we actually process
are referring to education of adults.
Level of development, which refers to physical,
1.2 How does the adult perceive the cognitive and personality development and of roles
teacher? through the entire existence, is considered the first
indicator of analysis of adult learning. The starting
It is very difficult to get an accurate picture of the point is the approaches taken to provide
people with whom we develop relationships. In opportunities for learning and development, taking
fact, it is impossible to obtain such a picture, we into account the differences between the two
can only tend toward the formation of a correct and notions as they are defined by Pedler et al. (1989):
more complex image. The difficulty of outlining learning means the increasing knowledge or
the other image arises not only from the obtaining a higher level of already existing skills,
complexity of the perceived “object”, but also from and development means moving into another stage
the characteristics of the subject who perceives and of being or function.
the process of perception of other itself (Chelcea,
1994). Feelings towards these two process are related to
the persons that need to learn, their desire to
Different persons perceive the same person develop, their extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
differently because of the importance they attach to The feelings of persons are also related to their
a different trait and, the different evaluation of that experience with learning.
trait as positive or negative. A teacher can consider
ambition as a quality, while other may consider it a
flaw. Therefore, differences may occur in the other
perception because of the value system of the
perceiver. It was also found that when it comes to
2. Objectives and hypotheses
the perception of others, people tend to give more
importance to negative information than to positive 2.1 The objectives of the research:
information. The general objective of this study is to
investigate the differences in perception of
Given how important the accurate perception of a
professor-student interaction, feelings towards
person is, both in order to optimize the
school and academic/learning motivation of
communication in educational context and in
inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, according to their
general, in all social interaction between

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
age, criminal records and contact with their I.2.2: We expect to find differences in
families. academic/learning motivation according to the
inmates’ criminal record.
O.1: To investigate the differences in
perception of professor-student interaction and I.3: We assume that there are differences in
feelings towards school according to the inmates’ academic/learning motivation according to the
age. inmates’ contact with their families.

O.2: To investigate the differences in I.3.1: We expect to find differences in

perception of professor-student interaction and academic/learning motivation according to  the 
academic/learning motivation according to the inmates’ contact with their families.
inmates’ criminal record.
3. The method:
O.3: To investigate the differences in 3.1 The participants:
academic/learning motivation according to the The study has 100 male participants, inmates held
inmates’ contact with their families. at Giurgiu Maximum Security Prison, with ages
between 21 and 65 (M=35.16; SD=10.62), which
2.2 The hypotheses of the research: were the direct beneficiaries of educational
The general hypothesis of this study is to assume activities designed and implemented by the
that there are differences in perception of Education Bureau of Giurgiu Prison. In the graphs
professor-student interaction, feelings towards below we can see the characteristics of our group
school and academic/learning motivation of as defined by the following variables: age, years
inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, according to their served in prison, criminal record, and types of
age, criminal records and contact with their educational activities attended.
families.

I.1. We assume that there are differences in

perception of professor-student interaction and
feelings towards school according to the inmates’
age.

I.1.1: We expect to find differences in

perception of professor-student interaction
according to the inmates’ age.

I.1.2: We expect to find differences in feelings

towards school according to the inmates’ age.

I.2: We assume that there are differences in

perception of professor-student interaction and Graph no.1: distribution of inmates by the
academic/learning motivation according to the educational activities and criminal record.
inmates’ criminal record.
Chart no. 1 shows three groups of activities that
I.2.1: We expect to find differences in are designed and conducted by the Education
perception of professor-student interaction Bureau of Giurgiu Maximum Security Prison,
according to the inmates’ criminal record. attended both by first-time imprisoned offenders
and recidivists. Thus, we see that: in the group of

679
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

inmates attending school, 9 are incarcerated for Graph no.3: distribution of inmates by age and
the first-time and 10 are recidivist; in the group of criminal record.
inmates attending vocational training courses, 23
are incarcerated for the first-time and 20 are Graph no.3 shows three age groups, obtained by
recidivists; in the group of inmates participating percentile division of age variable: group of
at educational activities designed and conducted inmates of 21 to 28 years old (M=24.94; SD=1.80),
by the educator of prison ward, 25 are of which:16 are imprisoned for the first time and
incarcerated for the first-time and 13 are 18 are recidivists; group of 29-38 years old
recidivists. (M=33.38; SD=3.03), of which: 17 are for the first-
time in prison, and 15 are recidivists; group of 39-
65 years old (M=47.06; SD=8.38), of which: 24
are incarcerated for the first-time and 10 are
recidivists.

3.2. The instruments:

Data were collected by means of the scale:

Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction, Feelings
about School and Academic intrinsic-extrinsic
motivation scale.

Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) was

developed to assess the nature and quality of the
interaction between teachers and students and
(Fraser, 1996; Wubbels and Levy, 1993). The QTI
Graph no.2: distribution of inmates by age and
was developed to assess student perceptions of the
number of years served in prison.
four behavior aspects.
Graph no.2 shows three age groups, obtained
Feelings about School is a 24-item measure of
by percentile division of age variable: group of
positive and negative affect regarding school. It
inmates of 21 to 28 years old (M=24.94;
was developed by Essex (1997) based on the
SD=1.80), of which: 9 have served between 1
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et
and 2 years of imprisonment, 21 have served
al., 1988) as a questionnaire. Each item is rated on
between 3 and 5 years and 4 have served
a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = a
between 6 and 20 years of imprisonment;
lot to indicate the extent to which the child
group of 29-38 years old (M=33.38; SD=3.03),
expresses the indicated affect.
of which: 12 have executed between 1 and 2
years in prison, 14 have executed between 3 Academic intrinsic-extrinsic motivation scale
and 5 years and 6 have executed between 6 and (Waugh, 2001), with two subscales: intrinsic/
20 years of imprisonment; group of 39-65 extrinsic motivation.
years old (M=47.06; SD=8.38), of which: 4
have executed between 1 and 2 years in prison, Table 1. The Descriptive statistics of the measured
10 have executed between 3 and 5 years and variables
20 have served between 6 and 20 years of
imprisonment. Variable Mean Std. Cronbach
deviation alpha
Democratic interaction 4.13 1.26 .77
Supportive interaction 4.05 .77 .66
Permissive interaction 2.31 .66 .65
Unpredictable 2.08 .46 .63
interaction
Feelings about School 3.76 .58 .69
Academic intrinsic 3.78 .83 .59
motivation
Academic extrinsic 4.20 .84 .63
motivation

In Table 1 are: means, standard deviation and

Alpha coefficient, for the scores obtained by the
participants at the scale: Questionnaire on Teacher

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Interaction, Feelings about School and Academic Permissive interaction (p = 0.766 0.05). There is
intrinsic-extrinsic motivation scale. As shown in a big difference between the two mean squares
the table below: the highest value was obtained at (2.160 and .121) and the other subscale means
the scale about conceptions of academic extrinsic squares as: teacher’s supportive interaction,
motivation. The lowest value was obtained at scale teacher’s unpredictable interaction, academic
unpredictable interaction with the teacher. intrinsic motivation and Feelings about School,
which is a significant statistical difference, and
4. The results: because are large samples it can be calculate
Bonferoni test (table 4).
Collected data were computed using program
SPSS 13. The results can be observed in tables 2, Table 3. ANOVA results for the measured
3, 4, 5 and 6. teacher’s Interaction, inmate’s motivation and
feelings about school
To test the hypotheses of this study were used:
ANOVA statistical procedure and t test for Mean
Sum of Squar
independent samples. Squares df e F Sig.
Democr Betwee
Levene test (table 2) shows an equal dispersion 1.35
atic n 4,324 2 2.162 .262
between groups only for variable - Democratic 9
interact Groups
interaction (p =0.507 0.05), Permissive ion Within
154.300 97 1.591
interaction (p =0.397 0.05), Academic extrinsic Groups
Total 158.625 99
motivation (p =0.930 0.05), Academic intrinsic
motivation (p =0.885 0.05), and Feelings about Support Betwee
18.17 75.3
ive n 36.342 2 .000
School (p =0.937 0.05) but not for other interact Groups
1 24
variables as Supportive interaction (p = 0.04 ion Within
23.400 97 .241
0.05) and Unpredictable interaction (p 0.001 Groups
0.05), which the account was taken in subsequent Total 59.742 99
interpretation of results. Permiss Betwee
ive n .242 2 .121 .268 .766
Table 2. Test of Homogeneity of Variances interact Groups
ion Within
43.860 97 .452
Groups
Levene
Total 44.102 99
Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
Democratic Unpred Betwee
.687 2 97 .506 5.74
interaction ictable n 2.227 2 1.113 .004
9
Supportive interact Groups
5.828 2 97 .004 ion Within
interaction 18.786 97 .194
Permissive Groups
.933 2 97 .397 Total
interaction 21.012 99
Unpredictable Feeling Betwee
37.992 2 97 .000 9.12
interaction s about n 5.423 2 2.711 .000
Feelings about 0
.065 2 97 .937 School Groups
School Within
28.837 97 .297
Groups
Total 34.260 99
Anova table was analyzed (table 2) and showed
that there is no significant statistical difference
between groups for the variable - teacher’s As can be seen in Table 4, there are statistically
democratic interaction (p = 0.262 0.05) and significant differences in the perception of teacher

681
 SOCIO and HUMANITIES

as supportive, unpredictable, in the intrinsic mistrust in education system can be seen as

academic motivation and also, in the feelings pathways favorable to the development of
towards school. Thus, data show that older inmates recidivism. Regarding the activities carried out
perceive the teacher as more supportive than the during detention, the majority states that these
younger inmates. Also, younger inmates perceive activities will not be of much help for them after
the teacher as unpredictable. We can interpret this release from prison. Indeed, ex-prisoners
result by saying that in prison, older inmates who reintegration on the labor market represents a real
participate in educational activities are intrinsically problem, since in times of economic crisis some
motivated than younger inmates, as shown in firms have restructured and closed their business,
Table 4. Older inmates have stronger feelings on the one hand and on the other hand, former
towards school than younger ones. Life experience, prisoners are rejected when they declare that they
longer periods of time spent in prison, participation are former convicts. To all these is added poverty,
at several activities conducted by the Education alcoholism, unemployment, drug trafficking, the
Bureau succeeded to create a sense of trust in promotion of violence, abuses and discrimination
teachers/educators. On contrary, the youngsters, in the media, which are major scourges of
having fewer years spent in prison and fewer and Romania and also, parts of criminality risk factors.
poorer educational experiences, weren’t able to
clearly define their expectations from teachers, Table 5. Mean, standard deviations and T-
having a high level of distrust in them. coefficients for relapse status of inmates in
teacher’s Interaction, and Academic motivation
Table 4. Class differences in teacher’s Interaction, scale
inmates’ motivation and feelings about school
(Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni test) Scale relapse Mean Std. T
status of Deviat
inmates ion
Democratic No 4.01 1.34 -1.082
interaction Yes 4.29 1.15

Supportive No 4.14 .81 1.288

interaction Yes 3.94 .71
Permissive No 2.39 .64 1.440
interaction Yes 2.20 .68

Unpredictable No 1.99 .46 -

interaction Yes 2.21 .42 2.372*

Academic No 4.45 .82 3.641*

extrinsic Yes 3.86 .77 *
motivation
Academic No 4.01 .75 3.326*
intrinsic Yes 3.48 .85
motivation
* p 0.05, **p 0.001 males (n=57); females (n=43)

In order to test the third hypothesis we used T test

for independent samples. According to Table 6, it
resulted statistically significant differences. Thus,
inmates who keep contact with their families have
a stronger intrinsic motivation than those who do
not maintain contact with their families. This result
In order to test the second hypothesis we used T
can be explain by the fact that the family is the
test for independent samples. According to Table
fulcrum of all of us, especially in difficult times.
5, it resulted statistically significant differences.
Thus, recidivist inmates perceive the teacher-
Prison is a pathogenic environment, characterized
student relationship with apprehension and
by the limitation of rights, dramatic lifestyle
mistrust. Their relapse status also highlights their
changes, major difficulties in preserving
mistrust in education system of which most of
relationships, all of which requiring the inmates to
them didn’t attend it, having, as shown in Table 4,
maximize their coping skills. Internalization of
a lower intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
tasks and shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
compared with inmates with no criminal record.
motivation can define a path of rehabilitation as
Data points out that the lack of education and

682
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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long as the inmate recognize his guilt. In this way, extrinsic motivation compared with inmates with
educational activities become enjoyable and the no criminal record.
perception of teachers/ educators turns into one of
support. Thus, the inmates will accept and take Inmates who keep contact with their families have
advantage of these activities as long as they will a stronger intrinsic motivation than those who do
perceive them as beneficial. This perception come not maintain contact with their families. This result
from the intrinsic desire of individuals to evolve, can be explain by the fact that family is the
but also from their family support. fulcrum of all of us, especially in difficult times.

Table 6. Mean, standard deviations and T- These results are congruent with the studies of
coefficients for: Contact with inmate's family for gender and educational level differences in
teacher’s Interaction, and Academic motivation conceptions of learning undertaken by Reinaldo J.
scale Martínez-Fernández (2009), Tynjälä (1999),
Entwistle & McCune, (2004), Paul C. Burnett,
Scale Contact Mean Std. T Hitendra Pillay & Barry C Dart (2008). The most
with Deviat important results of the study are evidence about
family ion the role of gender and educational level on the
Academic No 4.28 .80 .935
extrinsic
students’ conception of learning. Therefore, the
Yes 4.12 .88
motivation findings are limited by their assessments, and
Academic No 3.57 .84 - further efforts with the use of different scales and
intrinsic Yes 4.00 .77 2.649* methods may expand these findings. The study is
motivation based on the legislative framework that regulates
* p 0.05, **p 0.001 males (n=57); females (n=43)
the educational and psycho-social activities
conducted in Romanian prisons. Thus, according
5. Conclusions: the Law 254/2013 of penal execution and the Law
The general objective of this study was to 1/2011 of national education, article 13
investigate the differences in perception of
professor-student interaction, feelings towards Aligned (1) Lifelong learning is a right guaranteed
school and academic/learning motivation of by the law.
inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, according to their
Also, the study has as starting point certain
age, criminal records and contact with their
researches in the field of education regarding the
families.
way in which is perceived the professor (Fraser,
We appreciate that the objectives of this study have 1996; Wubbels and Levy, 1993), but also the
been successfully met as the above presented learning activity through the quality of motivating
results confirmed the hypotheses. the student (Waugh, 2001) and his/her feelings
Compared with younger inmates, the older ones about school (Essex, 1997; Wulfsohn, 2000;
perceive the teacher as more supportive. Also, the Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988).
older inmates have stronger feelings towards As further lines of research, we can consider
school than younger inmates. On contrary, the several types of activities and we can create on the
younger inmates perceive the teacher as basis of the obtained results a project based on
unpredictable. The recidivists perceive the teacher- career counseling sessions or support groups for
student relationship with apprehension and inmates who are no longer supported by their
mistrust. Their relapse status also highlights their families. This study could form the basis of the
mistrust in education system of which most of project as a feasibility study.
them didn’t attend it, having a lower intrinsic and
References:

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2. Brok, P. den, Levy, J., Brekelmans, M., & (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Wubbels, T. (2005). The effect ofteacher Wisconsin-Madison, 2000). Dissertation
interpersonal behaviour on Abstracts International, 61, 2800.
students’subject-specific motivation. 7. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A.
Journal of Classroom Interaction, 40 (2), (1988). Development and validation of
20-33. brief measures of positive and negative
3. Brown, M., J., I., (2000). Ph.D. thesis, affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of
Univ. Melbourne. Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6),
4. Essex, M. (1997). Children’s feelings 1063-1070.
about school questionnaire. Unpublished 8. Brown, M., J., I., (2000). Ph.D. thesis,
questionnaire, Wisconsin Study of Univ. Melbourne.
Families and Work, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
5. Butoi, T. şi I.T. – Tratat universitar de
psihologie judiciară – teorie şi practică,
Ed. PHOBOS, Bucharest, 2003;
6. Wulfsohn, S. (2000). Children’s
adjustment to first grade: Contributions of
children’s temperament, positive
mothering, and positive fathering

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

BECOMING A PSYCHOTHERAPIST

Loredana VÎŞCU*

*Faculty of Social Sciences, “Eftimie Murgu” University of Resita, Resita, Romania

Abstract: Professional development in psychotherapy represents a major impact theory in every

psychotherapist’s life. For a period of at least four year his professional life will be directed towards
training meetings and his life will change. For a practitioner life goes on according to clients schedules.
This material proposes an approach of a few of the most important aspects of professional development
in psychotherapy, but also the perspective of the future psychotherapist. The aspects underlined represent
the consequence of the trainer’s activity in an association of integrative psychotherapy training.

Keywords: professional development, psychotherapy, trainee.

1. INTRODUCTION A superposition of meanings is observed

when there is a talk about competency,
Training in psychotherapy represents for aptitude and capability. Sperry L [4] realizes
many colleagues a desire that can become delimitation between the concepts mentioned.
reality; still it demands a profound analysis of a. Competency
numerous factors. In a country in which The competency refers to the potential or
psychotherapy has found its way with the capacity to perform and to implicate a
difficulty, during the last 24years, a paradox large spectrum of professional capacities given
has appeared: the Psychologists’ College from by an external standard. Among the capacities
Romania (C.O.P.S.I.) over 30 professional needed for a competency the following can be
associations demanded an authorization to mentioned: the capacity of a critical thinking,
become suppliers of professional development. the capacity to analysis, a professional
Regardless all these, accredited associations of judgement in a clinical evaluation, decisions
the forum mentioned represent only a small taken on the basis of an evaluation etc.
number of associations that can start courses Moreover, the competency represents the
of professional development in different forms capacity to evaluate and to modify a decision
of psychotherapy with a duration of at least by reflexive judgement. [2]
four years. Kaslow [1] states that through a
The Psychologists’ College from Romania competency we refer to aptitudes, attitudes and
trusts these associations and recognizes their the manner in which these are integrated.
right to become suppliers of professional Competencies represent interactive of an
development in a form of psychotherapy, if integrative knowledge, “aptitudes, abilities,
these hold at least four accredited trainers as behaviours and strategies, believes, values,
main psychotherapists in the therapeutic personal dispositions and characteristics,
training they promote. perceptions of the self and the person’s

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motivation that make him/her able to fulfil the attitudes in order to perform professional
objectives proposed”. activity at a high level. Becoming a
Clinical practice reflects competencies that professional supposes the acquisition of a
can be evaluated according to professional content of competencies. The profess demands
standards and which can be developed through the following of five stages [3]:
professional trainings. [2] In an ideal manner, a. beginner – the psychotherapist has a
a professional development can offer an limited knowledge and understanding of how
experience of integrated learning where to analyse problems; he holds a set of
knowledge, aptitudes and attitudes interact and principles and techniques that he applies
become clinical competencies. From the without expertise;
definitions offered to the term competency five b. advanced beginner psychotherapist - he
themes can be generated [4]: has a limited capacity for pattern knowledge
• capacity; and in the application of intervention
• integration of knowledge, aptitudes and techniques. Moreover, in this stage the
attitudes; therapists have difficulties in generating
• competencies that are exercised for the acquisitions for new situations and new
benefit of others; clients. The rules and principles previously
• the evaluation of competencies is learnt become guidelines;
realized on the basis of a standard; c. minimally competent psychotherapist -
• the competency enhancement and he works independently, he has learnt a
development is made on the basis of minimum level of competencies necessary for
professional development and through the practicing of an independent business.
reflection. Psychotherapist in this stage can conceive
a. Competency vs. aptitudes plans of psychotherapeutic intervention
In most cases the terms competency and adapted to the clients’ needs;
aptitudes are considered synonyms: d. proficient - the psychotherapist has a
• a clinical competency is composed of greater integrative understanding of the client
knowledge, aptitudes, attitudes and behaviours and his performance and activity is guided by
necessary for professional practice; flexibility and understanding all therapy
conditions. During this stage, the therapist is
• the aptitude is a simple capacity gained
capable to organize professional development
through training but which doesn’t hold the
trainings and to supervise other colleagues;
components of attitude or an exterior standard
e. expert - the psychotherapist has a great
of evaluation.
intuition and rapidly evaluates cases,
b. Capability
recognizes is interventions must be changed.
The capability represents the person’s
The expert therapist’s professional and private
conviction that he/she can overcome the
lives are integrated, being efficient as
minimum standard of acquisition of a
consultants and supervisors. He is often
competency and also expresses the capacity to
admired by his clients and considered master
change circumstances when knowledge is
therapist.
extended and performance is improved. In
Competency elements represent key
psychotherapy capability refers to the
activities, subdivisions of the activities
endeavour of becoming an expert or a master
described in the competency unity from the
in therapy. [5]
standard of professional development as a
The psychotherapy domain is determined
relevant and evaluable result.
by three factors:
The realization criteria represent
• the therapist’s vocation for psychotherapy;
qualitative landmarks associated to the results
• strategies of developing an expertise; of activities from competency elements and
• the manner of exercise of therapeutic are considered to be fulfilled when the
practice. competency elements are correctly and
Becoming a competent professional independently realized by the trainee.
supposes the capacity to properly and
efficiently use knowledge, aptitudes and

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014

 
2. TRAINING FROM THE PERSPECTIVE knowledge. The trainer’s task is difficult and
OF THE ASSOCIATION OF TRAINING IN maybe his most important quality is relational
PSYCHOTHERAPY flexibility. With every trainee a unique
professional connection is established and the
The image of a professional association of trainee being part of a group the connection made
training in psychotherapy is realized in time and it by the trainer with the trainee group is also unique.
is created by verticality, by a continuous The trainer needs updated theoretical training,
professional development, by the trainers’ being the main person that opens for the trainer an
professional experience, on one side, and on the epistemic knowledge door. The substantiation of
other side by the clients’ content, professional theoretical knowledge transmitted is meaningless
training and the trust that they will become what without examples offered by the trainer’s clinical
they have proposed to. practice. The future psychotherapists are adult
Maintaining a positive image objectively based persons and leaning for adults is different from
on the market of suppliers of professional leaning for students. Here an intervention of trainer
development in psychotherapy is one of the main therapist’s ability is observed, to make himself
objectives of a training association. understood, to transmit the information on the
Another objective of the association of most appropriate communication channel to the
formation in psychotherapy is to create from trainee. The mastery needed to realize the objective
trainees, future psychotherapists, an ethos of the of transmitting information is called pedagogic
great family of therapist to which these belong to. tact.
In this process of creation of the ethos, the trainees Trainees have the tendency to “copy” the
are explained that the respect manifested towards trainer, fact which is explained in the beginning of
their formation colleagues is also extended to becoming a therapist, because the external
colleagues from other therapeutic orientations. reference is represented by the trainer and the
Colleagues are remembered that “All roads supervisor. Still, the external supervisor will be
lead to Rome”, that the respect for other internalized and the trainee is explained that he
therapeutic orientations express for a future will “grow” inside his own internal supervisor,
therapist the respect offered to him. The same created by his style of therapeutic intervention.
respect is reflected in the relation with the client. This is the final purpose of the psychotherapist’s
The therapeutic relation is a mutual one, in which development, to create his own psychotherapeutic
the client’s needs are respected and the therapist’s style.
qualities (empathy, authenticity, respect, Ethic and professional codes intervene is there
congruence etc.) represent the main ingredients of are serious deviations from therapeutic practice
the therapeutic success. and from professional development ethics from the
The key to success of an association of training trainer’s side.
in psychotherapy is to maintain a standard of
professional and personal development, to offer 3. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
clients the maximum possible of trainers’ ACCORDING TO THE TRAINEE, THE
competency. The trainers’ competency is the FUTURE PSYCHOTHERAPIST
consequence of continuous professional
development, of a solid personal development. In The process of becoming a psychotherapist
the same manner as clients are unique, future trainee is not an easy one. The decision to start a
therapists found in training are also unique, they professional development in psychotherapy
have their own needs for development, and they supposes the intervention of more factors: costs,
are found in different stages of personal time and delegations.
development and have different levels of

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Training in integrative psychotherapy is a new national psychology conferences and the

field in Romania. During each module the student elaboration of papers. In the same manner, all
tries to find answers to the most frequent colleagues are encouraged to attend weekly
questions: “what is integrative psychotherapy?” meetings in psychological offices head by them, in
and “what have we learned in order to become a which they can talk about different themes selected
psychotherapist?”. The first question receives an from their work field.
answer during each module in a direct and indirect
manner, thus: integrative psychotherapy represent 4. CONCLUSIONS
a form of psychotherapy which has at its basis a
theoretical model, it uses intervention techniques Satisfactions are greater for the trainer, the
from different forms of psychotherapy and it is
supervisor and the trainee or the becoming
also based on a therapeutic relation co-created
between the therapist and the client. Training in
psychotherapist at the end of the training
psychotherapy and personal development need to programme. Regardless all this not all colleagues
be realized according to a certain standard of will practice psychotherapy. Some of them will
training, which contains the necessary give up after the first modules of training and
competencies for professional development and in others continue their training and supervision in
order to become a psychotherapist that knows all psychotherapy for a personal development and
types of psychotherapy. most of them have two jobs. Little of them will
Each professional and personal development make a career in psychotherapy. Remaining a
module desires to develop more competencies psychotherapist supposes being at an intersection
from the training standard, an ideal to be realized between theory, practice and research. A
by impossible to realize entirely. Beginner psychotherapist is treated with respect and he is
therapists need “recipes” of intervention or are in permanently preoccupied with interviews,
a hurry to reach objectives with their clients. They supervision and maintaining a state of mental
feel that these don’t follow this plan they have a hygiene. An association of professional
feeling of insufficiency. The therapist patience and development in psychotherapy may easily gain
his respect for the client’s rhythm are essential in room on the “market”, but it can lose it in the same
finalizing a case. The therapist’s patience is an easy manner. Trainers have a great responsibility
aptitude that is formed and cultivated. in the training and the becoming of
Competencies are formed, practices and psychotherapist, and the trainees represents the
refined with each client in therapy. One of the most mirror of development, maintaining and
important competencies in therapy is the research recognizing the supplier of professional
competency and it insists on the sensitised and development.
encouragement of students to start a quantitative
and a qualitative research. During the training REFERENCES
programme the putting down of thoughts is
practiced, in a reflexive research journal, and 1. Kaslow, N., Psychotherapy Bulletin,
during the personal development modules, students President*s Column (2009).
write down their observations in personal 2. Kaslow, N., Competencies in professional
development journals. Trainees are used to writing psychology, American Psychologist, (2004).
down observations in journals (observation is 3. Sperry, L., Highly effective therapy:
refined as the main instrument in therapy) together
Developing essential clinical competencies
with the reflection on the internal environment
(subjective) and the external environment
in counselling and psychotherapy. New
(objective). York: Routledge (2010).
One of the future psychotherapist’s greatest 4. Sperry. L., Competencies in Counselling
fears is not having patients, the reason being that and Psychotherapy: Becoming a Highly
“people are not prepared for psychotherapy”. The competent and Effective Therapist,
solving of this problem is an increase of self- Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group (2010).
esteem in the trainee. Colleagues that have started 5. Skovholt, T., &Jennings, L., Master
their own individual practices of psychology are therapists. Exploring expertise in therapy
encouraged to start courses for short periods of and counselling. Boston: Alleyn & Bacon.
time, weekly with the implication of parents, the (2004).
implication in voluntary activities, participation in

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

BioSpecter PSYCHOMETRIC SYSTEM OR EXPERT SYSTEM OF

PERSONALITY EVALUATION

Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA, Grigore DUMITRU

Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA Phone +40746119700, e-mail: cmz1959@gmail.com

DUMITRU Grigore, Phone +40722639323, e-mail: dumitru_grigore@biospecter.com,

The expert system of energetic evaluation of

one’s personality has as foundation an
electronic equipment (biosensor) and a set of
programs installed on a PC computer.

As the medical thermometer (to measure the

body’s temperature) or tensiometer (to
measure the blood pressure),
BioSpecter Psychometric System directly The biodata acquisition program provides
measures on the palm levels a set of physical quick taking over of the information that
parameters (temperature and electric compacts in a proper file, preparing it for
conductibility of epidermis), that by advanced advanced processing.
processing can provide the personality profile
of the measured person; The program of data analysis and advanced
processing, conceived in multiple modules,
The Bioscanner is an electronic equipment of easy to access, uses a data basis on which
small sizes made in a compact form, in a PC structure the algorithm of evaluation of the
device structure (peripheral equipment for PC preliminary data taken over with the scanning
computers), with the possibility to connect to unit is implemented. The advanced processing
any PC computer on USB 2 interface, fact that of these data leads to a set of parameters
does no longer imply a personal power supply, convertible in indicators with psychological
being very reliable and offering the possibility significance. The dimension of these
of a long time utilisation. The scanning unit is indicators is scaled on a system of graphical
installed and can work on any PC (Windows visualisation and under the form of table
XP, Vista, Windows 7, etc) using a data report. The psychological significations of
acquisition specialised software . This each determined indicator are being compared
equipment is used to take over biodata through to a set of behavioural patterns based on which
the scanning procedure of the electric potential the temperamental structural, respectively the
on the palms level. type of vocation and behavioural style. The
final determinations have a personality profile

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very closed to the real one, taking notice both indicating for example, the stress level, the
of the solid aspects and both the most fragile intensity of emotions, certain disorders
ones of the personality of the investigated appeared in the body.
person.
The second criterion, the measurement of the
The principle which represents the foundation electrodermal activity (EDA) has in view the
of the operation of this equipment is the fact that to any external electrical stimulus, the
biofeedback (bio-reaction), based on the skin responds with a specific galvanic reply.
correlation between the activity of the cerebral This response consists of a measurement of
cortex, the temperature of the palm’s the phasic activity (acute points and low
extremities and the electrodermal activity points) of the eccrine gland.
(EDA).
The eccrine glad is a type of sweat gland that
Generally, the biofeedback is assigned to a flows its secretion through an excretory
procedure by which certain physical-chemical channel, which directly opens on the skin
processes that take place in the organism are surface through a duct. The eccrine glands are
being “interrogated” with a specialised tool small glands found virtually in all skin but
that has in view the evolution of a parameter predominantly in the palm and plant, being
or a set of parameters with significance for the more numbered that the apocrine ones. Their
investigator, in view to diagnose and secretion product- the eccrine transpiration is
normalise such processes. The most rich of water and NaCl– (being a good
commonplace example of this principle could electrically conductive solution participation
be the measurement of the human body to the regulation of the body temperature.
temperature using a thermometer.
Most of the persons are familiarised to the
Criteria used by BioSpecter Psychometric existence of cold, sticky hands, in stressful
System: situations, such as meeting new persons or
before a new audience. The coldness comes
The first criterion: In case of BioSpecter from the contraction of the smooth muscles
Psychometric System, the measurement of around the blood vessels (measured by
temperature as parameter correlative to the temperature) meanwhile the humidity is
activity of the cerebral cortex has in view the caused by the activity of the eccrine gland
fact that by its structure the human brain is which secretion is a reply to the emotional and
organised in such manner that the right stress stimuli.
hemisphere is associated to the activity of the
left side of the body, and the left hemisphere is The third criterion is based on the projective
associated to the activity of the right side of analysis of the cerebral functions on specific
the body. The hands as terminations of the two action areas by their correlation to the
parts of the body, are an exceptional source of temperature and electro-conductibility of the
information on all the physical –chemical epidermis on the level of the palm extremities,
processes that take place in the body, simultaneously measured and established in
respectively, by the correlation with the information of bioelectric potential.
activity of the two cerebral hemispheres, and
the information on temperature, any its In the context, the projective analysis is a
variation, indicates the contraction or the working method in which the information of
relaxation of the smooth muscles around the bioelectric potential measured in a certain
blood vessels, that determines how much point on the palm extremity, considered as
blood arrives up to the tiptoes, along which input data, is quantitatively correlated to the
the measurement sensors are placed. This level of activity of a certain cerebral function,
phenomenon is correlated to the whole (to which this potential is put in
psychophysiological activity of the person, correspondence, making abstraction of the

690
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

whole causal chain determining the action of unique arguments in the decisions regarding
those cerebral function), considered as output the evaluated person and based on them, no
data. one can limit certain legal rights of such
person.
Final considerations
BioSpecter Psychometric System is:
All the experience achieved by the utilisation
of the described technology enhances the  extremely safe and non
confidence that our research has the novelty of invasive measurement
a method of knowledge of the human  very quick measurement: because the
personality, offering to the future users a very set of interest parameters are directly
skilful instrument of investigation and to the measured by the application of the
beneficiaries of such evaluation manner, the palms on the biosensor for a very short
possibility of self-knowledge, the prospective period of time,
of correct understanding of the multiple the BioSpecter Psychometric System
aspects related on the person, in the practice of does not use classical evaluation tests,
individual development and correct integration sometimes long and tiresome, difficult
in the society by holding a proper work place, to cross and with a big dose of
the cultivation of skills and their subjectivity with the possibility to
beneficial using, the achievement of the inner memorise the responses to repeated
equilibrium. tests or more unpleasant, by limiting
the possibility of evaluation of the
We have also say that the presented system cognitive intelligence on the level of
does not substitute the classical methods of intelligence of the test author;
evaluation of personality, does not substitute
in any way the experience of the psychologist,
but, on the contrary, we hope it comes to
support the psychologist, offering the benefit
of a complementary evaluation by the
possibility of a view of the energy
potential background of the investigated
person, which, getting to know it, can built the
other strategies of evaluation,
counselling, development, therapy etc,
reporting it also to such potential.

So, we understand that the technology of  very accurate measurement: because

complementary evaluation of personality that the resulted profile of personality is
we suggest, is not conferring exclusivity to our configured based on the personal
method in the evaluation act, the results of the physical parameters, directly
investigations with the presented evaluation measured, in objective manner, the
system not being taken into consideration as measurement results placed the

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identified type of personality on an

intelligent scale, and the determined
form is the one resulting from this
personal set of parameters without the
possibility to elude the physical –
chemical reality of the evaluated
person, out of which this profile is
being deducted;
The limitations of the
BioSpecter Psychometric System or
Expert System of Personality Evaluation
according to the mental health criterion,
BioSpecter Psychometric System does not
perform clinical tests, being dedicated only
for evaluation of normality:

 in psychological testing, the system

can not be substituted [1] to other
 compatible measurement by scale testing methods and to the
correlation, of the classical evaluation psychologist experience, therefore
methods: because the measurement of being a complementary tool for the
the set of physical parameters offers classical investigation methods. So, if
the possibility of their scaling (namely the applicant thinks appropriate, in
reporting their values to a calibrated order to register in an individual
scale), the distribution of the values of development program, we recommend
the resulted psychological indicators that the interpretation of the evaluation
shall also follow a calibrated scale. reports provided by
The correlations that can be done BioSpecter Psychometric System to
between the international indicators be done under the surveillance of a
and the BioSpecter Psychometric psychologist;
System method have as conversion  the evaluations of the minor persons
base this calibrated scale on which the can be done only with the written
specialist in psychology may interpret assent of the parents of legal guardian;
correctly in the identification system in  testing children is done only for the
which it is, by proper conversion of the purpose to determine values of
working scale; indicators had in view by the
psychology specialist related to their
 integral evaluation of the level of development, knowing that the
activity of the cerebral functions, with personality test does not apply to
the possibility of selection of their sub- children;
functions. So, in other worlds,  the evaluator has the obligation to keep
BioSpecter Psychometric System does the privacy on the content of the
not measure the experience of the evaluation reports, pursuant to the law;
person but the person’s cerebral  the relevant values from the tables of
functionality, providing correct clues these reports can not represent a
on the psychophysiological potential, medical diagnosis and can not be
besides the other aspects that define considered unique arguments in
the personality. placing the work force or in other
decisions related to the investigated
person! For the special evaluations,

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Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
 

these values have to be used only investigated persons, fo r the purpose to

together to other sources of limit certain legal rights!
information related to the aspects had
in view. The special evaluations can be [1] Author note- “Holistique investigation” :
done only by psychology specialists.
In the purpose that it can not be exclusively used for
The evaluation repo rts genera ted the purpose to determine a psychological profile. The
by BioSpecter Psychometric System can psychological testing can have in view, with regard to
not be used to classify w ith bad faith the the mental health criterion, not only the normality, but
also the pathological manifestations.

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