BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
ME-2010
Credits [3-0-0]
Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th Semester,
B.Tech, 2019
No of Cumulative
Modules Topic/Course Content
Classes (Hrs) Classes (Hrs)
Pattern making, pattern materials, allowances , types of
2 1-2
pattern,
Sand casting types, sand cast, moulding procedure, types
2 3,4
of sand, gates and riser (basic design considerations)
Essential properties of moulding sand, core making, types
Module-1 of cores, Essential qualities, core mixtures and binder sand
Foundry Process testing, Mould and core hardness test, fineness test, clay 4 5-8
content test, permeability test, moisture content test, sand
conditioning.
Cleaning of casting and defects in casting 3 9-11

Die casting, precision investment casting, shell moulds,

3 12,13,14
centrifugal casting processes, permanent moulds casting.

Preparation of powder, properties of powder, 2 15,16

Module-3
Powder Metallurgy Fabrication methods & procedure, applications,
2 17,18
advantages.
 Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th
Semester, B.Tech, 2019, cont.
MID SEMESTER 2019
Hot and cold working of Metals: Basic Principles of hot and cold working of metals. 1 19
Rolling: Types of Rolling, Rolling equipments hot and cold rolling, General deformation
pattern, Pressure and forces in rolling, Distribution of roll pressure, angle of bite, effect of
rolling on microstructure, Rolling defects, Numericals on rolling load and power
4 20-23
Module-2 required for reduction.
Metal Working Process Forgings: Smith forging, Drop forging, press forging & Machine forging, Description of 2 24,25
Presses and hammers,forging defects.
Extrusion: Direct, Indirect and impact extrusion and their applications, Extrusion
defects, Determination of extrusion force.
1 26
Drawing: Wire and rod drawing, Tube drawing, Process variables in drawing process,
Deep drawing, Determination of drawing force.
1 27
Fabrication Processes: Classification, types of welding joints, 1 28
Gas welding principles, types of flames, quipment,techniques of gas cutting. 2 29,30

Electric Arc Welding: Principles of electric welding equipments and electrodes (in brief),
1 31
Module-4 Principles of Inert Gas Welding. TIG, MIG, sub-merged arc welding. Atomic hydrogen
Fabrication Processes: welding, plasma are welding. 2 32,33
Resistance Welding: Principle of forge welding, spot-seam, Projection, Upset-butt
welding, flash welding. Thermit -Welding
2 34,35
Electro-slag welding, friction welding Brazing, Soldering., Welding defects and
inspection
1 36
END SEMESTER 2019-20
Text Book:
1: Manufacturing Technology, P.N.Rao (Tata Mc-Graw Hill, Publication, Co. Ltd.)
2: Manufacturing Processes, J.Kausish, PHI (2nd Edition)

Reference Books:
1: Manufacturing Technology: Materials, Processes and Equipment: Helmi A. Youssef, Hassan A. El. Hofy and M.H.
Ahmed, CRC Press, 2015
2: Principles of Manufacturing materials and Processes, J.S Campbell, TMH
3: Welding and Welding Technology, R.Little, TMH, 43rd reprint, 2014
4: Manufacturing Science, A. Ghosh & A.K.Mallick, EWP
5: Elements of Manufacturing Processes, B.S.N. Parasar, R.K. Mittal, PHI
Foundry Process
 Foundry process
What is foundry process?

The term ‘Foundry’ is derived from Latin word “ fundere” meaning

melting and pouring.
Foundry process is also known as ‘casting process’.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a refractory mould with a
cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify; when
solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the refractory
mould either by breaking the mould or by taking the mould apart –
this solidified object is called casting.

Metal casting processes are the primary manufacturing processes that

are used to make complex parts utilizing liquid metals.
Metal casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes invented
and practiced over the last 5000 years; though, the major
developments have taken place in the last 100 years in adopting it as
a major primary manufacturing process.
The history of casting process
– Probably discovered around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. During that
period in many parts of the world copper axes and flat objects were turned out in open
moulds made of stone or baked clay. Later on round objects were also cast in split
moulds.
– The Bronze age (2000 BC) brought far more refinement; core was used
to make hollow objects, and, the cire perdue or lost wax process was used to make
ornaments and fine works.
– Around 1500 BC, casting was greatly improved in China with multi-
piece mould for intricate jobs, sometimes, the pieces numbering 30 or more.
– Indus valley civilization was also having castings of copper, bronze for
ornaments, weapons, tools, utensils etc
– Though India could be credited with the invention of crucible steel, iron
casting was first developed in Syria and Persia around 1000 BC. It was in use
in India around 300 BC.

The iron pillar near Qutb minar in Delhi (7.2 m long and made of malleable
iron) is assumed to be made during the period of Chandragupta II (375-413
AD), must have been first cast and then hammered to the final shape.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
– Flow of molten metal is smooth, hence, objects with very intricate shapes
can be conveniently cast.
– It is possible to cast practically any material, be it ferrous or non-ferrous.
– The tools required for casting are very simple and inexpensive, as a
result, for trial production or production of a small lot, it is an ideal method.
– Weight reduction in design can be achieved, since, it is possible to place
the amount of material exactly required.
– Castings are generally uniformly cooled from all sides, therefore, uniform
properties in all directions.
- There are certain metals and alloys which can be processed only by
casting, not by other methods, because of metallurgical considerations.
– Castings of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons can be made.
Advantages and disadvantages cont.
Disadvantages:
– The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal sand-
casting process may not be adequate for final application in many cases. To take care
of this some special casting processes such as die-casting have been developed.
– The sand-casting process is labor intensive to some extent, and hence,
machine moulding and foundry mechanization are attempted.
– With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects arising out of
the moisture present in sand casting.

Typical applications of the sand-casting process are cylinder blocks, liners,

machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water
supply pipes and specials, and bells.
 Casting terminologies
Pouring basin(cup)
Open riser Vent

Core
Sand

Flask

Cope Blind Sand

Riser

Parting
line

choke
Mold
Drag Sand
Cavity
Runner
 Casting terminologies cont.

• A core is made up sand that is

inserted into the mold to produce
internal features of a casting, such
as holes
Casting terminologies cont.
Casting terminologies cont.
Casting terminologies cont.
Flow chart for sand casting process
1. Make the pattern ( Pattern may be metal/wood/plastic)
2. Prepare the mould and necessary core
3. Clamp the core properly with proper placing of cores
4. Melt the metal/alloys
5. Pour the molten metal into the molud
6. Allow the molten metal to cool and solidify
(Typically ½ to 1 Hr).
7. Remove the casting from the mould is called “shake out”
8. Clean and finish the casting ( Fettling)
9. Test and inspect the casting
10. Remove the defects if any and possible
( Salvaging the Casting)
11. Stress relieve the casting by heat-tratment
12. Again inspect the Casting
13. Now the Casting is ready to use
 Flow chart for sand casting process cont.
Core Making
Pattern Making
(if Needed)

MELTING AND
Sand
Preparation of
Mold making
POURING PROCEDURE
sand

Raw
Melting Pouring
Material

Solidification
and cooling

Removal of Sand Cleaning and

Finished Casting
Mold Inspection
MELTING FURNACES
Classification of casting process Casting processes can be classified
into following FOUR categories:
1. Conventional Moulding Processes
Green Sand Moulding
Sand mould making Dry Sand Moulding
procedure Flask less Moulding
2. Chemical Sand Moulding Processes
Shell Moulding
Sodium Silicate Moulding
No-Bake Moulding
3. Permanent Mould Processes
Gravity Die casting
Low and High Pressure Die-
-Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
Lost Wax
Ceramics Shell Moulding
Evaporative Pattern Casting
Vacuum Sealed Moulding
Centrifugal Casting
Sand mould making
procedure cont.

There are six steps in this

process:
1: Place a pattern in sand to
create a mould.
2: Incorporate the pattern and
sand in a gating system.
3: Remove the pattern.
4: Fill the mould cavity with
molten metal.
5: Allow the metal to cool.
6: Break away the sand
mould and remove
the casting.
Patterns
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting
process, with some modifications. The main modifications are:
1. The addition of pattern allowances: The dimensions of the pattern
are different from the final dimensions of the casting required. This is
required because of various reasons. These are detailed as follows:
Allowance for shrinkage
Finish, or, machining allowance
Allowance for draft
Shake allowance
Distortion allowance
2. The provision of core prints: Wherever coring is required, provision
must be made to support the core inside the mould cavity. One of
the methods that is universally followed is to provide core prints
where possible; the size of the core prints to be provided is to be
estimated based on the specific casting.
3. Elimination of fine details, which can not be obtained by casting and
hence are to be obtained by further processing.
Pattern allowances
Allowance for shrinkage: All metals shrink during cooling except
perhaps bismuth; which is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which
is amplified with increase in temperature. Shrinkage may be:
(a) liquid shrinkage (reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid to solid at solidus temperature – risers take care of this
shrinkage), and
(b) solid shrinkage (reduction in volume in solid state with decrease in
temperature – shrinkage allowance must be provided).
Shrinkage is dependent on:
(a) material – steel contracts to a greater degree than aluminum,
(b) metallurgical transformation taking place during solidification:
(i) white cast iron shrinks by about 21.0 mm/m during casting,
however, regains about 10.5 mm/m during heat-treatment – net
shrinkage is 10.5 mm/m,
(ii) similarly in grey cast iron and spheroidal cast iron, the amount of
graphitization controls shrinkage; when graphitization is more, the
shrinkage will be less, and vice versa.
Pattern allowances
Allowance for shrinkage: Shrinkage may be: (a) liquid shrinkage
(b) solid shrinkage.
Shrinkage is dependent on: (a) material, (b) metallurgical transformation

Volume change during the cooling of a 0.35 percent carbon steel.

 Pattern allowances cont.
Shrinkage allowance for various metals:
Material Pattern dimension, mm Section thickness, mm Shr. Allowance, mm/m
Grey cast iron Up to 600 - 10.5
-do- 600 to 1200 - 8.5
-do- Over 1200 - 7.0
White cast iron - - 16.0 to 23.0
Ductile iron - - 8.3 to 10.4
Malleable iron - 6 11.8
-do- - 9 10.5
-do- - 12 9.2
-do- - 15 7.9
-do- - 18 6.6
-do- - 22 4.0
-do- - 25 2.6
Plain carbon steel Up to 600 - 21.0
-do- 600 to 1800 - 16.0
-do- Over 1800 - 13.0
Pattern allowances cont.
Shrinkage allowance for various metals cont.:
Material Shr. Allowance, mm/m Material Shr. Allowance, mm/m

Chromium steel 20.0 Silicon bronze 10.4

Manganese steel 25.0 to 38.0 Tin bronze 10.4

Aluminum 13.0 Chromium Cu 20.8

Aluminum bronze 20.0 to 23.0 Lead 26.0

Copper 16.0 Monel 20.0

Brass 15.5 Magnesium 13.0

Bronze 15.5 to 22.0 Mg alloys 16.0

Gun metal 10.0 to 16.0 White metal 6.0

Mn. bronze 15.6 Zinc 10.0 to 15.0

Pattern allowances cont.
Allowance for shrinkage: As a rule, all the dimensions are going to be
altered uniformly unless they are restrained in some way; for example,
a dry sand core at the centre of the casting may restrain the casting from
contracting but the edges are not contracted.
The actual value of shrinkage depends on various factors specific to a
particular casting:
(a) actual composition of the alloy cast, (b) mould materials used, (c)
mould design, complexity of the pattern and (d) the component size.
It is also possible to obtain shrink rulers (nothing but special scales where
dimensions shown are actually longer taking care of the shrinkage
allowance) for specific metals such as steel.

Problem: A casting of size lxwxh : 200x150x100 (mm each) with a

cylindrical core of 80 mm diameter at the centre is to be made in plain
carbon steel. Assuming only shrinkage allowance calculate the
dimensions of the pattern.
Problem
A casting of size lxwxh : 200x150x100 (mm each) with a cylindrical core of
80 mm diameter at the centre is to be made in plain carbon steel.
Assuming only shrinkage allowance calculate the dimensions of the
pattern.

Solution: Shrinkage allowance for steel is 21.0 mm/m

For dimension 200, allowance is 200 x 21.0 / 1000 = 4.20 mm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 21.0 / 1000 = 3.15 ~ 3.20 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 21.0 / 1000 = 2.10 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 21.0 / 1000 = 1.68 ~ 1.70 mm

When metallic pattern is used (for large number of castings), one wooden
master pattern is used to cast the metal pattern. In that case double
allowance is provided in the master wooden pattern.
Problem

Steel casting are to be poured from which a brass pattern

which is to be made from wooden pattern. If one dimension of
the component part as taken from its drawing is 75 mm,
calculate the correct dimension on wood pattern consider the
shrinkage only.

Allownace for brass= (15.3/1000)*75= 1.147mm

Allownace for steel =(20.8/1000)*75=1.56mm
Total shrinkage=1.147+1.56+2.7075=2.7mm
Dimension on the wooden pattern will be=75+2.7=77.2mm
Finish, or, machining allowance: The finish and accuracy achieved in
sand casting generally fall short of that is required functionally; thus final
machining is necessary. Further, ferrous materials will have scales on the
skin which is removed by machining. Hence extra material (allowance) is
needed which depends on:
dimensions type of casting materials the finish required
Machining allowances on patterns for sand castings
Dimension, mm Allowance, mm: Bore : Surface : Cope side
Cast iron: up to 300 3.0 3.0 5.5
301 to 500 5.0 4.0 6.0
501 to 900 6.0 5.0 6.0
Cast steel: up to 150 3.0 3.0 6.0
151 to 500 6.0 5.5 7.0
501 to 900 7.0 6.0 9.0
Non ferrous: up to 200 2.0 1.5 2.0
201 to 300 2.5 1.5 3.0
301 to 900 3.0 2.5 3.0
Problem

A casting of size lxwxh : 200x150x100 (mm each) with a

cylindrical core of 80 mm diameter at the centre is to be made
in plain carbon steel. Assuming only shrinkage allowance
calculate the dimensions of the pattern.
.
Machine Allownace for bores=3mm

Machine Allownace for all surafce =3mm

Machine Allownace for cope side=6mm
Dimension 80, 80+3+3=86mm
Dimension 100, 100+3+6=109mm
Dimension 150, 150+3+3=156 mm
Dimension 200, 200+5.5+5.5+211mm
 Pattern allowances cont.
Draft allowance: At the time of withdrawal of the pattern from the sand
mould cavity, the vertical faces which are in continuous contact with the
sand, may cause damage to the mould cavity. Hence tapering of the pattern
is provided which is called draft allowance and depends on complexity of
the job.
Inner details of the patterns need higher draft than the outer surfaces, and
hand moulding requires more draft than machine moulding.

Mould broken due to a lack of taper. Clean pattern draw with correct taper.
 Pattern allowances cont.: Suggested draft values for patterns:
Pattern material Ht. of the surface, mm Draft angle, 0,: ext. surface : int. surface
Wood: 20 3.00 3.00
21 to 50 1.50 2.50
51 to 100 1.00 1.50
101 to 200 0.75 1,00
201 to 300 0.50 1.00
301 to 800 0.50 0.75
801 to 2000 0.35 0.50
Over 2000 - 0.25
Metal and plastic 20 1.50 3.00
21 to 50 1.00 2.00
51 to 100 0.75 1.00
101 to 200 0.50 0.75
201 to 300 0.50 0.75
301 to 800 0.35 0.50
Pattern allowances cont.

Pattern draft.

Shake allowance: To facilitate withdrawal of the pattern, the pattern is

rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly.
This enlarges the final casting for which (negative) allowance is to be
provided which is known as shake allowance.
Distortion allowance: Weaker sections such as long flat portions, V, U
sections, or long thin sections in a complicated casting are prone to
distortion since the metal just after solidification may be very weak and
may not hold to the dimensions. An allowance may be given by trial and
error basis.
Patterns cont.
2. The provision of core prints: Wherever coring is required, provision
must be made to support the core inside the mould cavity. One of
the methods that is universally followed is to provide core prints
where possible; the size of the core prints to be provided is to be
estimated based on the specific casting.
Patterns materials
Patterns should be made of materials which should be:
1. Able to make the desired shape of the casting
2. Cheap and readily available
3. Simple in design for ease manufacturing
4. Light weight
5. High strength and durability
6. Definite service life ( Dimension should not change with use)
7. Good wear resistance and surface finish
8. Able to withstand rough handling
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastic.
Wood: pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and deodar. Wood is cheap, easily available,
light weight, can be easily shaped, suitable for large castings. The main
disadvantage is absorption of water.
Metal: Cast iron, steel, brass, aluminum, white metal etc. Durable – so suitable for
large scale castings, smooth surface finish and good dimension control. Some of
these metals are prone to corrosion.
Plastics: Cold-setting epoxy resins, polyurethane. Light, durable, dimensionally
stable (does not absorb water), can be used in sand or Plaster of Paris.
Patterns materials
Comparative characteristics of metallic pattern materials:
Pattern metal Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminum alloys Good machinability Low strength
High corrosion resistance High cost
Low density. Good surface
finish
Grey cast iron Good machinability Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Low cost
Steel Good surface finish Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Brass and bronze Good surface finish High cost
High strength High density
High corrosion resistance
Lead Good machinability High cost
High density
Low strength
Patterns materials
Pattern materials based on expected life: (Number of castings
produced before pattern equipment repair

Pattern Core Pattern material

Small castings (under 600 mm): 2000 2000 Hard wood

: 6000 6000 Aluminum,

plastic
: 100000 100000 Cast iron

Medium castings (600 – 1800 mm): 1000 750 Hard wood

: 3000 3000 Aluminum,

plastic
Large castings (above 1800 mm): 200 150 Soft wood

: 500 500 Hard wood metal

reinforced
 Type of patterns
There are various types of pattern depending upon (a) the complexity of the job,
(b) the number of castings required and (c) the moulding procedure adopted.
A Typical One Piece Pattern
 Type of patterns cont.

The Details of a The Split Piece or Two Piece

Cast Iron Wheel Pattern of a Cast Iron Wheel
Type of patterns cont.
 Spru
e

In gates
Pattern colour code
The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that
the mould maker would be able to understand the functions
clearly. The colour code used is as follows:
1. Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for un-machined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings
5. Green on sheets of and for loose pieces and loose core prints
6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak
patterns or to shorten a casting
 Moulding materials
A large number of moulding materials are used in foundries for
manufacturing moulds and cores. They are:
1. Moulding sand, 2. System sand (black sand), 3. Re-bonded sand,
4. Facing sand, 5. Parting sand and, 6. Core sand.
The choice of moulding materials is based on their processing properties. The
properties that are generally required in moulding materials are the following:
A: Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding material to withstand the
high temperatures of the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion.
Properties of Some Refractory Materials
Material MP, Coeff. Lin. Material MP, Coeff. Lin.
0C Expn, x 106/0C 0C Expn, x 106/0C
Silica (SiO2) 1710 16.2 Zirconia (ZrO2) 2700 6.5
Alumina (Al2O3) 2020 8.0 Zircon (ZrO2.SiO2) 2650 4.5
Magnesia (MgO) 2800 13.5 Silicon Carbide (SiC) ~ 2700 3.5
Thoria (ThO2) 3050 9.5 Graphite ~ 4200 -
Moulding materials cont.
B: Green Strngth: The moulding sand that contains moisture is termed as
green sand; the green sand should have enough strength so that the
constructed mould retains its shape.
C: Dry Strength: When the moisture in the moulding sand is completely
expelled, it is called dry sand. When the molten metal is poured into the
mould, the sand gets dried very quickly and at this stage, it should retain the
mould cavity and also withstand the metallostatic forces.
D: Hot Strength: After all the moisture is expelled, the mould, being in
contact with hot metal, will attain very high temperature; it should retain its
shape and this strength is known as hot strength.
E: Permeability: During casting a lot of gases (absorbed by metal in the
furnace, air absorbed from the atmosphere, and steam and other gases generated from
the sand) are escaped from mould through the pores of the sand mould. This
gas evolution capability of the moulding sand is termed as permeability.
Besides, the moulding sand should also have good collapsibility, re-usability,
and thermal conductivity characters.
Moulding sand composition
The main ingredients of any moulding sand are the (a) silica grains (SiO2), (b)
the clay as binder, and (c) moisture to activate the clay and provide plasticity.
Besides, some other additives are also added to provide specific properties.
Silica sand
The sand which forms the major portion of the moulding sand (up to 96%)
is essentially silica grains, the rest being other oxides (Na2O, K2O, MgO +
CaO), should be limited to 2%. The main source is the river sand, which is
used with or without washing.
The shape of the grains are in granular form and grain size vary in size from
few micrometers to millimeters.
It has very good refractoriness (should be ~ 14500C for cast irons and ~
15500C for steels), chemical resistivity and permeability.
Types of moulding sand
Types of moulding sand cont.
Types of moulding sand cont.
Types of moulding sand cont.
Types of moulding sand cont.
Types of moulding sand cont.

Sand mould binders

1. Fire clay – It is a refractory clay usually found in the coal measures
2. Kaolinite - (Al2O3.2 SiO2.2H2O) - decaying of granites
Melting point is 1750-1785 oC
3. Illite - (K2O.Al2O3.SiO2.H2O) – decaying of mica rocks
4. Bentonite - MgO.Al2O3.SiO2.H2O melting point – 1250-1300 oC
5. Portland Cement and Sodium Silicate.
There are basically two types of bentonite: (a) sodium as adsorbed ion called
western bentonite) which has better swelling properties (10-20 times volume
increase), high dry strength, better tolerance to variation of water content, low green
strength, and high resistance to burnout, (b) calcium as adsorbed ion (southern
bentonite) with low dry strength and high green strength. Properties can be
improved by treating with soda ash (sodium carbonate).
Moulding sand composition cont.
Moulding sand composition cont.
Characterization of sand mould
1. Permeability or Porosity
2. Plasticity and flow ability
3. Adhesiveness
4. Cohesiveness
5. Green strength
6. Dry Strength
7. Hot strength
8. Refractoriness
9. Collapsibility
10. Co-efficient of thermal expansion
11. Fineness
12. Bench life
13. Chemical Reactivity
Properties of moulding sand cont.
Properties of moulding sand cont.
 Comparison of foundry base sand properties
Property Silica Olivin Chromite Zircon
Colour White-light brown Greenish grey Black White-brown
Hardness 6.0 – 7.0 6.5 – 7.0 5.5 – 7.0 7.0 – 7.5
Dry bulk density (lb/ft3) 85 - 100 100 - 125 155 - 165 160 - 185
Specific gravity 2.2 – 2.6 3.2 – 3.6 4.3 – 4.5 4.4 – 4.7
Grain-shape Angular/Rounded Angular Angular Rounded/Angular

Thermal Expn (mm/mm/0C) 0.018 0.0083 0.005 0.003

Apparent heat transfer Average Low Very high High
Fusion Point (0C) 1427 - 1760 1538 - 1760 1760-1982 2038 - 2204
High Temperature reaction Acid Basic Basic Acid
Wettability with molten metal Easily Not generally Resistant Resistant
Grain distribution 2 – 5 screen 3 -4 screen 4-5 screen 2 -3 screen
AFS grain fineness no 25 - 180 40 - 160 50 - 90 95 - 160
 Comparison of foundry sand properties with various clays
Property Sodium bentonite Fire clay Calcium bentonite
Silica sand, AFS GFN 60 (wt%) 95 88 95
Clay bond (wt%) 5 12 5
Moisture (wt%) 2.5 3 2.5
Permeability 110 60 108
Green compression strength (kPa) 76.53 63.43 97.22
Dry compression strength (kPa) 675.70 468.84 372.32
Testing sand properties
The moulding sand after it is prepared, should be properly tested to see that the
requisite properties are achieved. There are standard tests, specified by relevant
Indian Standards and other foundry societies are to be used.
Sample Preparation: The moulding sand should be prepared exactly as is done in the
shop on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a closed container to
safeguard its moisture content.
Test for moisture content:
Test I: Take a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g
and dry it in an oven at 105 – 1100C for 2 hours. The sample is then cooled and
weighed; the weight difference in grams when multiplied with 2 gives the % of
moisture contained by the moulding sand.
Test II: Alternately, a ‘moisture teller’ can also be used for measuring the
moisture content. Here, the sand is dried by suspending the sand sample on a fine
metallic screen allowing hot air to flow through the sample. Drying takes some
minutes in place of 2 hours in Test I.
Testing sand properties cont.
Test for moisture content cont.:
Test III: Alternately, another ‘moisture teller’
which uses ‘calcium carbide’ to dry the sand, is utilized. Here, a measured
amount (little more than that required for the reaction) of ‘calcium carbide’ in
a container along with a separate cap consisting of measured quantities of
moulding sand, is kept in the moisture teller. Care has to be taken before
closing the apparatus that carbide and sand do not come into contact. The
apparatus is then shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes
place:
CaC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
The acetylene (C2H2) coming out will be collected in the space above the sand
raising the pressure, which can be measured by a calibrated pressure gauge
(or, manometer) to directly read as the amount of moisture.
Testing sand properties cont.
Test for clay content:
The clay content of moulding sand is determined by dissolving or washing it off
the sand. For doing this, take a 50 g sample, dry it at 105 – 1100C, put the
dried sample in a 1 liter glass flask, add 475 ml of distilled water and 25 ml of
a 1% solution of caustic soda (NaOH 25 g/l), stir it thoroughly for 5 minutes,
dilute with fresh water up to 150 mm graduation and then leave it fro 10
minutes to settle.
The sand, free of the clay material, settles down at the bottom with the clay
particles floating with water. 125 mm of this water is siphoned out and same
amount of fresh water is added, stirred and allowed to settle for 5 minutes.
The water is siphoned out and fresh water added again. This process is
repeated till supernatant water becomes totally clear.

Now, the sand is taken out, dried by heating and weighed. The weight loss
multiplied with 2 gives the clay% present in moulding sand.
Testing sand properties cont. - Grain fineness or grain size
Testing sand properties cont. - Grain fineness or grain size
 Specimen preparation: Since the permeability of sand is dependent to a great
extent, on the degree of ramming, it is necessary that the specimen be prepared
under standard conditions.
For this purpose, a laboratory sand rammer is used along with a specimen tube.
The measured amount of sand is filled in the specimen tube, and a fixed weight
of 6.35 to 7.25 kg is allowed to fall on the sand three times from a height of 50.8
+ 0.125 mm. The specimen thus produced should have a height of 50.8 + 0.8 mm.
To produce this size of specimen, usually sand of 145 to 175 g would be
required.

V = Volume of Air = 2000cc, h= Height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm

P = Air Pressure = gm/cm2 a = Cross- sectional area of the specimen = 20.268 cm2
t = Time taken to pass the 2000cc air in minutes

Permeability Number, p = 501.28/(Pxt)

74
75
Problem: Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min 25 sec to
pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of 5 g/cm2 through the standard sample.

Solution: Here, p = 5.0 g/cm2,

t = 1 min 25 sec = 1 + 25/60 = 1.417 min

Permeability number, p = [501.28/(5X1.417)] = 70.75

The permeability test is conducted for two types of sands:

(a) Green permeability is the permeability of the green sand.

(b) Dry permeability is the permeability of the moulding sand, dried at 105 to
1100C to remove the moisture completely.
Typical moulding sand composition ( by wt.) for steel casting
Constituent Green sand Backing Dry sand moulding Light section
moulding sand facing sand (heavy casting
facing sand section casting)
Silica sand (%) 95 - 70 70
Floor sand (FS) / Silica - FS: 95 SF: 23 SF: 20
floor (SF) (%)
Bentonite 4 5 5.5 4
Cereal type binder (%) 1 - - -
Molases (%) - - 1.5 1
Water (%) 3-4 2.5 - 4 6-7 6-7
Sand conditioning / sand preparation: Sand mixer / Mueller
Factors affecting moulding sand properties
The properties of moulding sand are dependent to a great extent on
a number of variables. The important among them are:
1. Sand grain shape and size: The shape and size of the sand grain
would greatly affect the various moulding sand properties.
Grain size could be coarse (coarse grain means more void and
higher permeability) and fine (lower permeability, but provide better
surface finish). Further, distribution of grain size plays an important
role; ‘widely distributed sand would result in higher permeability in
comparison to the sand with the same fineness number’.
Grain shape could be round (lower permeability) or angular
(higher permeability and require higher amount of binder).
Grain size also affects the refractoriness; the higher the grain size,
the higher would be the refractoriness. The purity of sand grains also
improve refractoriness (impurity having adverse effect are: iron oxide,
feldspar and limestone).
The strength of the moulding sand is also affected by the grain
size and shape; the green compression strength increase with decrease in
size because the fine grain size provide higher surface area for the binder
to act.
Factors affecting moulding sand properties cont.
The properties of moulding sand are dependent to a great extent on
a number of variables. The important among them are:
2. The Clay type and amount and 3. Moisture content: Clay and
water have large influence on major properties of the moulding sand.
There is an optimum amount of water to be used for a given clay
content to obtain maximum green compression strength. A linkage like
‘silica-water-clay-water-silica’ forms throughout the moulding sand.
For this, a specific amount of water is needed; any additional water in
creases the plasticity and dry strength, but reduces the green
compression strength.
4. Method of preparing sand mould (Moulding Procedure): The
moulding procedure also affects the properties of the moulding sand.
The degree of ramming increases the bulk density or the mould
hardness of the sand, i.e., increased ramming increases the strength
and the permeability of green sand decreases with the degree of
ramming.
Factors affecting moulding sand properties cont.

The effect of sand grain shape, fineness and

moisture on strength and permeability.
Factors affecting moulding sand properties cont.

The effect of clay content, bentonite and moisture on strength.

Factors affecting moulding sand properties cont.

Relationship between moisture content, bentonite content, green compressive

strength, and permeability for an all-purpose sand of 63 AFS fineness number.
Indian sands
The normal practice in Indian Foundries is to use local sands (natural) listed:

Location Moistu GPN GCS, Clay GFN Sint. T, 0C Grain Usage

re kPa Type
Londha 3-6 25-48 140-240 16-26 80-130 1100-1300 SA CI

Bhavanagar 2.5-6 6-35 100-250 13-30 90-140 1050-1150 SA NF

Goriali 1-4 70-85 40-120 6-11 90 1050-1100 SA CI

Rajkot 2-6 20-125 100-160 19 75 1150-1200 A,SA NF

Jabalpur 4.5-6 165-205 60-80 6-8 40-70 1250-1350 A,R Steel

Kanpur 4.8-8 4-6 50-60 40 247 1050-1100 SA NF

Guntur 5.5-6.8 30-32 70 13 80 1150-1200 SA CI,NF

Oyaria 3.8-5.6 210-220 70-90 11.6 47 1250-1300 SA,R CI

GPN: Green Permeability No, GCS: Green Compression Strength, GFN: Grain Fineness No, Sint.
T: Sintering Temperature, A: Angular, SA: Sub-angular, R: Round, CI: Cast Iron, NF: Non-ferrous
 Indian sands cont.
High silica Indian sands (synthetic)
Location Moist GPN GCS, Clay GFN Sint. T, 0C Grain Usage
ure kPa Type
Rajkot 1.5-3.4 160-190 40-60 3 53 1350 - CI,St.

Hardwar 3-6 85 30-50 1 57 1250-1300 SA,R Steels

Brahmani 2.5-4.5 150-500 20-50 0.4-3 28-78 1250-1350 SA,R CI

Gidni 2.4-3.4 175-335 80-120 5.7 27 1150-1200 A,SA Steels

Adjoy river 2.2-4 155 30-40 1.4 48.6 1200-1250 SA,R CI

Yadgiri 1.3-3.3 130-180 40-70 3.2 78 1100-1150 SA NF

Rajmahal 3.4 200 60 1.02 52 - SA Steels

Durgapur 3 250 30 0.55 34.69 ›1400 SA,RS Steels

GPN: Green Permeability No, GCS: Green Compression Strength, GFN: Grain Fineness No, Sint.
T: Sintering Temperature, A: Angular, SA: Sub-angular, R: Round, CI: Cast Iron, NF: Non-ferrous
Fluid Flow / Fluidity
• Capability of molten metal to fill mould cavities
• Factors influencing fluidity
Characteristics of molten metal
o Viscosity and heat content of the melt
(Lower is the viscosity coefficient, higher will be the fluidity)
o Surface tension (Lower surface tension promotes wetting and
hence, the mould will be filled quickly)
o Inclusions
o Freezing range and specific weight of the liquid metal (in
wide freezing-range alloys dendrites form)
o Solidification pattern of alloy
Casting parameters
o Mould design
o Mould material and its surface characteristics
o Degree of superheat
o Rate of pouring
o Heat transfer
Test method for fluidity using spiral mould
Fluidity index is the length of solidified metal in spiral passage (greater the length of
solidified metal, greater is its fluidity). Grey cast iron is the most fluid of all the
ferrous alloys. The fluidity of grey cast iron is affected by the composition factor,
(CF) which can be expressed as:
CF = %C + 0.25 X %Si + 0.5 X %P

Then the fluidity spiral length in cm can be estimated by means of the following
empirical relation:
Fluidity, cm = 37.846 X CF + 0.228 X T – 389.6
Metal pouring temperature
Since the fluidity is affected by the pouring temperature, and to effect the completion
of the mould filling in a reasonable time, the pouring temperature of the moulds
are accordingly controlled. The pouring temperature should be a little above the
melting temperature of the alloy along with a sufficient enough superheat to account
for the cooling between tapping and pouring time.
METAL POURING TEMPERATURE IN 0C
Metal/Alloy Casting wall thickness, mm Pouring temperature, 0C
Grey and high-strength iron ‹4 1450 – 1360
4 – 10 1430 – 1340
10 – 20 1400 – 1320
20 – 50 1380 – 1300
50 – 100 1340 – 1250
100 – 150 1300 – 1230
› 150 1280 – 1220
Malleable iron ‹4 1480 – 1450
4 – 10 1450 – 1380
10 – 20 1430 - 1360
Types of sand moulds
In order to produce sound castings, moulds are required to have some specific
properties:
-It must be strong enough to withstand the temperature and weight of the
molten metal.
-It must resist the erosive action of the flowing hot metal.
-It should generate minimum amount of gases due to the T of molten metal.
-It should have good venting capacity to allow the generated gas escape.

Sand moulds are broadly classified as:

1. Green Sand Mould
[Silica Sand( SiO2), Clay(Binder), Water- because of its wetness]
2. Dry Sand Mould
[Green sand + Additives (1-2% cereal floor and 1-2%pitch)+ baked in an
oven at 110 to 260 oC for 5-6 hrs) It has better strength than green sand mold
and used for larger casting]
3. Skin-Dry Sand Mould Casting
(Surface of the mould is dry sand mold and rest of the mold is green sand)
Types of sand moulds cont.
Sand moulds are broadly classified as:
4. Loam Sand Mould Casting
[ Fine Sand + Finely ground clay ( 50 %)+ Graphite + reinforcement)- Gives
very good strength and used for very heavy and large parts like Engine
bodies, machine tool beds]
5. Cemented –bonded Moulds
Sand + cement (10-15%) as binder- It is also called pit moulding and used
for large steel casting.
6. CO2 Moulding
( Sodium silicate ( Na2O.xSiO2) as binder instead of clay. CO2 has passed
through the mould to achive the strength of the mold)
Na2O.xSiO2 + n H2O + CO2 = Na2CO3 + x SiO2.n(H2O)
This reaction is very rapid even within 2 minutes the sand mold gets
proper strength
7. Resin- Bonded Sand Mould
[ Green Sand Mold + Thermosetting Resin(Polymers) or oils( Soybean)]
Cores
Cores are the materials used for making cavities and hollow projections, which cannot
normally be produced by pattern alone.
Any complicated contour or cavity can be made by means of cores so that really
intricate shapes can be easily obtained.
Cores are generally made of sand and are even used in permanent moulds.
In general, cores are surrounded on all sides by the molten metal and are
therefore subjected to much more severe thermal and mechanical conditions, and
as a result, the core sand should be of higher strength than the moulding sand
and confirm to the following characteristics:
Cores cont.
Cores must confirm to the following characteristics: (cont.)

Friability: After the casting is completely cooled, the core should be removed
from the casting before it is processed further. Hence, the friability (the
ability to crumble) should also be a very important consideration.
Low gas emission: Because of the high temperatures to which a core is
subjected to, it should allow only a minimal amount of gas to be evolved
such that voids in the castings can be eliminated.
Cores cont.
Cores cont.
Sand for cores requires better properties and for this purpose, special binders are used.
Types of cores
The cores are essentially of two types, based on the sand used:
Green sand core: These cores are obtained by the pattern itself during moulding.
Though this is the most economic way of preparing a core, the green sand being
low in strength cannot be used for fairly deep holes. Also a large amount of draft
is to be provided so that the pattern can be withdrawn.
Dry sand cores: These are made by means of special core sands in a separate core
box, baked and then placed in the mould before pouring.
Types of cores
Dry sand cores: These are made by means of special core sands in a separate core
box, baked and then placed in the mould before pouring – shown below:
Carbon dioxide moulding
Carbon dioxide moulding is widely used in making cores.
Procedure: (a) a mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and sand.
(b) treated with carbon dioxide for 2-3 minutes – results in ›1.4 MPa
compressive strength.
Mechanism: (i) Carbon dioxide forms weak acid, which hydrolyzes the sodium
silicate resulting in amorphous silica, which forms the bond.
(ii) The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming hydrated
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O). This gelling reaction increases the
viscosity of the binder till it becomes solid.
(iii) The compressive strength of the bonding increases with standing
time due to dehydration.
Advantages: (i) It is a quick process, (ii) no other reinforcement is needed, since
the bond is strong, (iii) equipments needed are simple, (iv) does not
involve distortions due to baking.
Disadvantages: (i) slightly expensive, (ii) shelf life is not so good – should be
used immediately, (iii) shake-out properties are also poor, (iv) core sand
should be completely free from clay and moisture, otherwise more
binder would be needed.
Core print design
The design of core print is such as to take care of the weight of the core before
pouring and the upward metallostatic pressure of the metal after pouring. The core
print should also ensure that the core is not shifted during the entry of the metal
into the mould cavity.
The main force acting on the core when metal is poured into the mould cavity, is
due to buoyancy; the buoyant force can be calculated as the difference in the weight of
the liquid metal to that of the core material of the same volume as that of the exposed core:
P = V(ρ – d) (where, P = buoyant force, N; V = volume of the
core in the mould cavity, cm ; ρ = weight density of the liquid metal, N/cm3; d = weight
3

density of the core material, 0.0165 N/cm3).

For a horizontal core of horizontal length, H, and diameter, D, V is given by:
V = 0.25 D2H
The volume for vertical cores can be formulated according to dimensions.
However, in order to keep the core in position, it is empirically suggested that the
core print will be able to support a load of 3.5 N/cm2 of surface area. Hence, to
fully support the buoyant force, it is necessary that the following condition is
satisfied: P ≤ 350A (where, A = core print area, mm2).
From the core print area, necessary core print sizes can be calculated.
Chaplets
To fully support the buoyant force, it is necessary that the following condition is
satisfied: P ≤ 350A (where, A = core print area, mm2).
If the above condition is not satisfied, then it would be necessary to provide additional
support by way of chaplets. Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the
mould cavity to support the cores; it’s a is to be calculated from the unsupported
load, i.e., P – 350A.
These are of the same composition as that of the pouring metal so that the
molten metal would provide enough heat to completely melt them and thus fuse
with it during solidification.
Problems with chaplets:
(a) Chaplets may not melt completely and may form a weak link.
(b) The other problem with chaplets is the condensation of moisture,
which finally ends up as blow holes.
Generally, the chaplets before they are placed in the mould, should be thoroughly
cleaned of any dirt, oil or grease. Because of the problems associated with
chaplets, it is desirable to redesign the castings as far as possible.
If the unsupported load is ≤ 0, no chaplet is required; but if it is greater › 0, then
the chaplet area required is 29 mm2 for every Newton of unsupported load.
Chaplets – placed in the mould alongwith the core

Chaplet location with pads.

 Molten Metal Flow
• Bernoulli’s Theorem – the sum of energies (head, pressure, kinetic, and
friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal
v12
p1 p2 v22
h1    F1  h2    F2
 2g  2g
where, h = head (cm); p = pressure (N/cm2);
ρ = density(g/cm3); v = velocity (cm/s);
g = gravity (981 cm/s2); F = head loss due to friction (cm)

• Ignoring friction and assuming no applied pressure.

v12 v22
h1   h2 
2g 2g
 Molten Metal Flow cont.
• Solving for velocity at base of sprue assuming the velocity is negligible:
in the pouring cup

v  2 gh
where, h = height of the sprue

• Continuity of Flow Law – volume rate of flow is constant:

where Q = volumetric flow rate (cm3/s)

Q  v1 A1  v2 A2
• Time to fill a mold cavity: V
TMF 
Q
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating systems for casting
Gating systems refer to all those elements, which are connected with the flow of
molten metal from the ladle to the mould cavity.
Those are: (a) pouring basin, (b) sprue, (c) sprue base well,
(d) runner, (e) runner extension, (f) in-gate, and (g) riser.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating systems for casting cont.
Those are: (a) pouring basin, (b) sprue, (c) sprue base well,
(d) runner, (e) runner extension, (f) in-gate, and (g) riser.
Heating & Pouring cont.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Pouring basin
Pouring molten metal directly into the mould may cause erosion; therefore, it is
poured into a pouring basin which (a) acts as a reservoir from which it flows
smoothly to the sprue, (b) holds back the slag and dirt which floats at the top and
retained to allow only the clean metal into the mould.
The pouring basin may be (a) cut into the cope portion directly, or (b) a separate dry
sand pouring basin may be prepared.
The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full during the pouring operation to
avoid funnel-like flow (carrying atmospheric air and slag into the mould cavity).
One of the walls of the basin is made inclined at ~ 450C to the horizontal; the metal is
poured on this face so that the metal momentum is absorbed and vertex formation is
avoided.
In order to (a) reduce the momentum of liquid flow, (b) allow smooth metal flow
without vertex or turbulence, the following steps may be taken:
(i) the pouring basin should be deep enough (2.5 x D), (ii) sprue radius (D/2)
should be at least 25 mm, (iii) the pouring basin may be kept full.
Further, special provisions like (i) partitions, (ii) strainer core (ceramic coated screen
with many holes), (iii) ceramic foam filter may be provided to avoid entry of slag into
the mould cavity.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Pouring basin cont.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Sprue
Sprue is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting
plane where it enters the runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity.

Why the Sprue is Taper ?

• The molten metal when moving from top to down gains in velocity so
that, in case of vertical sprue wall, the molten metal requires smaller
volume at the bottom. Thus, there will be void at the bottom which
will be of low pressure zone attracting aspirated air through the
mould which is permeable. To prevent air bubbles from becoming
entrapped (aspirated) into the molten metal stream, the sprue
diameter is tapered such that the volumetric flow rate remains
constant throughout the length of the sprue.

Q pour  vtop Atop  vbottom Abottom

where, vbottom > vtop thus, Atop > Abottom
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Sprue cont.

Q pour  vtop Atop  vbottom Abottom

The bottom portion is also known as choke

portion.
Since the velocities are proportional to the square of the
potential heads, as can be derived from Bernoulli's
equation,
A top √(h top) = A bottom √(h bottom)
The square root suggests that the profile of the
sprue should be parabolic which is inconvenient in
practice. Therefore, a straight taper is preferred
which has been found, in practice, to be adequate to
effectively reduce the air aspiration as well as increase
the flow rate compared to a cylindrical sprue.
 Pouring Example
The height of a downsprue is 10cm, cross-sectional area at
the bottom is 2cm2 (dia.= 1.6cm), at the top 4cm2 (dia.=
2.25cm), and the area of pouring cup is 38.5cm2 (dia.= 7cm)

What is the velocity at the bottom of the downsprue?

What is the volume flow rate?
What is the velocity at the top of the downsprue?
What is the vertical flow velocity within the pouring cup?
 Pouring Example cont.

What is the velocity at the bottom of the downsprue?

v = 2 gh  2(981cm / s )(10cm) = 140 cm/s
2

What is the volume flow rate?

Q = v2A2 = (140 cm/s)(2cm2) = 280 cm3/s
What is the velocity at the top of the downsprue?
Q = v1A1 → v1 = (Q/A1) = (280cm3/s)/4cm2 = 70 cm/s
What is the vertical flow velocity within the pouring cup?
Q = v A → v = (Q/A) = (280/38.5) = 7.3 cm/s
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Sprue Base Well
Sprue Base Well (SBW) is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to
reduce the momentum of the molten metal: (a) some of the velocity gained by the
molten metal is lost, as a result, mould erosion is reduced, and (b) the molten metal
changes its direction and flows into the runners in a more uniform way.
A general guide-line for the SBW proportions are:
(a) SBW area = 5 X (sprue choke area)
(b) SBW depth = ~ depth of the runner
(c) for a narrow and deep runner, the SBW diameter should be
(i) 2.5 times the width of the runner in a two-runner system, and
(ii) twice its width in a one-runner system
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Runner
Runner is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane), which connects
the sprue to its in-gates, thus allowing the metal enter the mould cavity. The
general practice is: (a) The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross-section
(b) for ferrous metals, the runners are cut in the cope and the in-gate in the
drag; thus, the slag and dross are trapped in the upper portion.
(c) For effective trapping of slag, runners should flow full.(amount of molten
metal flowing flowing the down sprue › the amount flowing through the in-gate).
Runner Extension is made a little further the in-gate so as to trap the slag.
Whirl gate: another method to trap the slag utilizing the principle of centrifugal
action.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating
System:
Gates or In-gates

Gates or In-gates are the

openings through which
molten metal enters the
mould cavity. The shape
and the cross-section
should be such that it
can be easily broken
after casting process is
complete.

Based on application,
various gates are used in
casting design. Those
are: (a) Top Gate, (b)
Bottom Gate, (c) Parting
Gate, (d) Step Gate etc. Gating nomenclature.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Gates or In-gates cont.
Top Gate: Molten metal enters the mould from the top.
Features and advantages are: (a) hotter metal at the top, so a favourable
temperature gradient towards the gate, (b) the mould is filled very quickly, (c)
requires minimum of additional runners, therefore provides higher casting yield,
(d) uses direct pour etc.
Disadvantages: metal falls directly into the mould cavity from height, so (i)
mould erosion, (ii) turbulence, (iii) formation of dross occurs.
Suitable for (a) ferrous metals (not suggested for non-ferrous), and (b) for
simple casting shapes, which are essentially shallow in nature.
To reduce erosion, pencil gates are provided in the pouring cup.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Gates or In-gates cont.
Bottom Gate: Molten metal enters the mould from the bottom.
Features and disadvantages are: (a) hotter metal at the bottom, so un-
favourable temperature gradient, hence, (b) requires additional/side runners,
therefore provides lower casting yield, (d) uses direct pour etc.
advantages (a) molten metal entry is slow and hence, no mould erosion, (ii) no
turbulence, (iii) no formation of dross.
Suitable for (a) very deep moulds, and (b) preferable with side risers since metal
enters directly to the riser, not through the mould cavity.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Gates or In-gates cont.
Parting Gate: Molten metal enters the mould at the parting plane (part of
casting in the cope and part in the drag).
Features and advantages are: (a) For the mould cavity in the drag, it is top gate,
for the cavity in the drag, it is bottom gate, thus derives the best of both the
types of gates, (b) easiest and most economical in preparation.
Disadvantages (a) When the drag portion of the mould is deep mould erosion
and dross formation occurs, so not suitable for non-ferrous castings. (this can
be avoided by making the gate area large so that metal flow velocity is
minimized).
Most widely used gate in sand castings.

Step Gate: Molten metal enters the mould through a number of in-gates,
arranged in vertical steps.
Features and advantages are: The size of in-gates are normally increased from
top to bottom such that the material enters the mould cavity from the bottom-
most gate and then progressively moves to the higher gates; this ensures a
gradual filling of the mould without any mould erosion.
Such gates are used for heavy and large castings.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Gates or In-gates cont.
Parting Gate and Step Gate:
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Riser
Risers: Most of the foundry alloys shrink during solidification, as a result voids
form in the castings. To avoid this, a reservoir of additional hot metal, called
riser, is maintained from which hot metal flows when need arises. These are also
called hot spots since they remain hot till the end.
Risers are designed keeping the following points in mind:
(a) The metal in the riser should solidify at the end.
(b) The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage
in the casting.
The risers are normally the following types:
(1) Top Risers: These are open to the atmosphere, hence heat loss due to
radiation and convection, which can be reduced by insulation through
Plaster of Paris or asbestos sheet. These are most conventional and
convenient to make, but their positioning is limited.
(2) Blind Risers: These are completely concealed inside the mould cavity
itself; would lose heat slowly, and hence more effective. Also it can be
located more conveniently in comparison to the top risers.
(3) Internal Risers: These are enclosed on all sides by the casting,
therefore, heat from the casting keeps the metal in the riser hot for a
longer time. Cylindrical or hollow cylindrical in shape, these are the best
and mostly used.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Riser cont.
The risers are normally the following types:
(1) Top Risers: These are open to the atmosphere, hence heat loss due to
radiation and convection, which can be reduced by insulation through
Plaster of Paris or asbestos sheet. These are most conventional and
convenient to make, but their positioning is limited.
(2) Blind Risers: These are completely concealed inside the mould cavity
itself; would lose heat slowly, and hence more effective. Also it can be
located more conveniently in comparison to the top risers.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Elements of Gating System: Chill
Chills: Chills are essentially large heat sinks. Whenever it is not possible to
provide a riser, a part of the casting which is heavy, a chill is placed close to it so
as to absorb heat quickly from the larger mass making the cooling rate equal to
that of the thinner sections. This does not permit formation of a shrinkage cavity,
however, hard spots may form at the contact area due to faster cooling rate.

Chills: Chills are metallic objects having a higher heat absorbing capability than
the sand mould. The chills can be of two types – external, and internal.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Casting yield
All the metal that is used while pouring does not end up as a casting; hence, the
casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass, W, to the mass of metal
poured into the mould, w, expressed as a percentage as follows:
Casting yield = (W/w) X 100
Typical components in the casting system are:
New material + Scrap metal = Metal melted
Metal melted = Metal cast + Melting losses
Metal cast = Scrap castings + Fettling losses + Actual casting + Runners & Risers
Casting yield depends on:
(a) Casting material (materials shrinking heavily result in lower casting yield).
(b) Complexity of shape (massive and simple shapes have higher yield).

Casting description Yield range, % Casting description Yield range, %

Simple shape and massive 85 - 95 Steel small pieces 35 – 45
Steel simple shape 75 - 85 CI heavy / small pieces 65 – 75 / 45 – 55
Steel heavy machinery parts 55 - 65 Aluminium 25 - 45

The higher the casting yield, the higher is the economics of the foundry practice.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design
One of the objectives of the gating system design is to fill the mould in smallest
possible time; the time for complete filling of the mould is termed ‘pouring time’
and is a very important criterion for design. Too long a time needs higher pouring
temperature; too fast means turbulent flow.
The pouring time depends on:
(a) Casting material (looses heat faster/slower),
(b) Complexity of the casting,
(c) Section thickness and casting size.
Since the thickness of casting is effected to a great extent by the ratio of surface
area to volume, it is an important variable to calculate the optimum pouring time,
besides the mass of the casting itself. Chvorinov's Rule uses this criteria.
Cooling curve provides an idea for ‘solidification time’.
There are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time for different
casting materials.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design cont.
There are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time for different
casting materials.
Material Pouring time, t (s)
Grey CI, ‹ 450 kg (Typical for 20/100 kg) K [1.41 + (T/14.59)]√W (6-10/15-30)
Grey CI, › 450 kg (Typical for 100 000 kg) K [1.236 + (T/16.65)] 3√W (60-180)
Steel (2.4335 – 0.3953 logW) √W
Shell moulded ductile iron (vertl. pouring) K1 √W
Copper alloy castings K2 3√W

Here, K = (Fluidity of iron in inches)/40, T= average section thickness, mm,

W = mass of the casting, kg, K1 = 2.080 for thinner sections, = 2.670 for
sections 20 – 25 mm thick, = 2.970 for heavier sections, K2 is a constant
given by : top gating: 1.30, bottom gating: 1.80, brass: 1.90, Tin bronze: 2.80
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design cont.
Choke area: Once the pouring time is optimized, the next objective is to
optimize the choke area. Choke happens to be either (i) at the bottom of the
sprue, or (b) in the runner itself (in case of straight sprue).
Choke area is the main control area which meters the metal flow into the mould
cavity so that the mould is completely filled within the calculated time.
Thus, the first element to be designed in gating system is sprue size and its
proportions, and then the choke area.
The choke area can be calculated using Bernouli’s equation as:
A = [W/{ d t C √(2gH)}]
Where, A: choke area, mm2; W: casting mass, kg; t: pouring time, s; d: mass density of the
molten metal, kg/mm3; g: acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2; H: effective metal head
(sprue height), mm; C: efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used.
The effective sprue height, H, depends on the (i) casting dimensions, and (ii)
types of gating used; and can be calculated:
(a) Top gate: H = h; (b) Bottom gate: H = h – c/2; (c) Parting gate: H = h – p2/2c.
Where, h: height of sprue; p: height of mould cavity in cope; c: total height of mould cavity
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design cont.
The efficiency coefficient of the gating system depends on the various sections
that are normally used in a gating system.
The elements of gating system should be circular in cross section so as to result
in lower surface area to volume ratio which reduces heat loss and friction.
Streamlining the various gating elements would greatly increase volumetric
efficiency.
Whenever a runner changes direction or joins another runner or gate, there is
some loss in metal head.
Overall, the efficiency of gating system is:
C = 1/[√{ 1 + K1(A2/A12) + K2(A2/A22) + …}]
Where, K1, K2,…: loss coefficients occurring at changes in direction or area; A1, A2, ..:
areas under down stream from changes; A: the choke area.

All the times, C need not be calculated, rather, the average values of the efficiency
factor are provided in tabular form for various typical gating systems.
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design cont.
Values of loss coefficients for various gate elements.

Gate element Sharp Round

Sprue entry from pouring cup 0.75 0.20
Bend of sprue into runner 2.00 1.00
Right angle bend in runner: square cross section 2.00 1.50
-do-: round cross section 1.50 1.00
Junction at right angles to runners 4.0-6.0 -
Junction with 25% or more area reduction from runner into in- 0.50
gates
Runner choke when choke area ~ one third runner area + sprue 2.00
into runner
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating system design cont.
Efficiency coefficient, C, for various gating systems, (choke is provided in the runners)

Type of system Papered choked sprue Straight sprue runner choke

Single runner entering runner 0.90 0.73
Two runners with multiple in- 0.90 0.73
gates, no bends in runner
Two runners with multiple in- 0.85 0.70
gates, 900 bends in runner
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating ratios
The gating ratio refers to the cross sectional areas between the sprue, runner
and in-gates and is generally denoted as:
sprue area: runner area: in-gate area
Depending on the choke area, there can be two types of gating system:
(1) Non-pressurized: (a) choke at the bottom of sprue base, (b) total runner area
and in-gate area higher than the sprue area, (c) no pressure on metal flow, so
no turbulence, (d) suitable for drossy alloys like Al-, Mg- alloys, (e) have
tapered sprue, sprue base wells, and pouring basins.
Typical example: sprue area: runner area: in-gate area :: 1:4:4
Disadvantages: May fill partially (allowing air aspiration) unless proper care is
taken (tapered sprue, runners are maintained in drag and in-gate in cope).
(2) Pressurized: (a) in-gate area is the smallest (maintains back pressure, results
turbulence, flows fully, minimizes aspiration, can allow use of straight sprue),
(b) When multiple gates are used, this system allows all the gates to flow full,
(c) provides higher casting yield, (d) advantageous for ferrous casting (not for
non-ferrous alloys because of dross formation).
Typical example: sprue area: runner area: in-gate area :: 1:2:1
 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating ratios cont.

Illustration of gating ratio.

 Heating & Pouring cont.
Gating ratios cont.
For a runner design: (a) no sharp corners or sudden change of sections to avoid
turbulence, (b) traditionally, trapezoidal runner is used (even though circular is the
best for heat-loss factor) to reduce turbulence, (c) for rectangular runner, width is twice
as that of depth.
SOME GATING RATIOS USED IN PRACTICE

Metal/alloy Gating ratio

Aluminium 1:2;1 / 1:3:3 / 1:4:4
Aluminium bronze 1:2.88:4.8
Brass 1;1:1 / 1:1:3 / 1.6:1.3:1
Copper 2:8:1 / 3:9:1
Grey cast iron 2:1.5:1 / 2:3:1
Magnesium 1:2;2 / 1:4:4
Malleable iron 1;2:9.5 / 1.5:1:2.5 / 2:1:4.9
Steel 1:1;7 / 1:2:1 / 1:2:1.5
 Heating & Pouring cont.
In-gate design
In-gate design: The in-gates are generally made wider compared to the depth,
up to a ratio of 4; this facilitates in the severing of gating from the casting after
solidification.
It may sometimes be preferable to reduce the actual connection between the in-
gate and the casting by means of a neck down, wash burn or dry sand core so
that the removal of the gating is simplified.
The following points should be kept in mind while choosing the positioning of
the in-gates:
(a) Should be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould wall,
(b) Should not be placed (i) near a protruding part (to avoid striking of the
mould wall by molten metal stream), (ii) near a core print or chill,
(c) In-gate cross-sectional area should be smaller than the smallest thickness
of the casting (in-gate solidifies first and isolates the casting from the gating
system).
Small castings may have a single in-gate; large or complex casting need
multiple in-gates.
 Solidification Time
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal
 Solidification of Alloys
• Most alloys freeze over a temperature range
rather than at a single temperature

Phase diagram and cooling curve for 50%Ni-50%Cu

Comparison
 Solidification Time
TTS depends on size and shape of casting by relationship
known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TTS  Cm  
 A
where TTS = total solidification time;
V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent with typical value = 2;
Cm = mould constant (determined experimentally)
depends on (a) pouring temperature, (b) casting and mould
thermal characteristics.
 Example: solidification time

• Given: Disk diameter D = 500

mm thickness t = 20 mm.
• Material: Al, Cm = 2.0 sec/mm2
in Chvorinov's Rule, n=2
• Find: solidification time
n
V 
TTS  Cm  
 A
 Solidification Shrinkage
• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase
– Solidification Shrinkage %, α, and Thermal Contraction %, β
– Final metal volume, Vfinal = Vo(1-α)(1-β)
– Linear dimension change Lfinal = Lo
• Exception: cast iron with high carbon content
– Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes expansion that
counteracts volumetric decrease associated with phase change.

Shrinkage Allowance
• Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and thermal
contraction by making mould cavity oversized
• Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final casting size is
called pattern shrinkage allowance
Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are applied accordingly
 Directional Solidification
• To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for regions of
the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and
for solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the
riser(s)
– Thus, to prevent shrinkage voids molten metal is continually
available from the risers.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
• Since the riser is also similar to the casting in its solidification behavior,
the riser characteristic can also be specified by the ratio of its surface
area to volume.
• Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's Rule.
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us ?
• A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio cools and
solidifies: --- ?
– To feed molten metal to the main cavity, TTS for the riser must be -
-? than TTS for the main casting
• Since mould constants of the riser and casting will be equal, design the
riser to solidify last by having its volume-to-area ratio as compared to
the main casting: ----?
– This minimizes the effects of: shrinkage .
– Sphere may provide the lowest A/V
ratio, however, the hottest metal being
at the centre, it is not taken. Rather, a
Cylindrical type is prefered.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method
• The ‘freezing ratio’, X, of a mould, is defined as the ratio of cooling
characteristics of casting to riser, and, based on Chvorinov's Rule, is:
X = (Acasting/Vcasting)/(Ariser/Vriser)
• Again based on the Chvorinov's Rule, Caine developed a relationship
empirically for the ‘freezing ratio’ as (known as Caine’s equation):
X = (a/Y-b) - c
where, Y: riser V/casting V, a, b, and c are constants (values in table):

Metal/alloy a b c
Steel 0.10 0.030 1.00
Aluminium 0.10 0.060 1.08
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
Grey cast iron 0.33 0.030 1.00
Aluminium bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
Silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method cont.
The following equations are used for calculating the riser requirements

Metal/alloy Equation
LM4, height/diameter = 1 X = [33.45/(23.98 – Y)]
LM4, height/diameter = 1.5 X = [32.09/(23.98 – Y)]
LM11, height/diameter = 1 X = [17.11/(12.58 – Y)]
LM4, height/diameter = 1.5 X = [16.75/(12.58 – Y)]
Nodular iron in CO2 mould X = [39.44/(27.78 – Y)]

LM4: (Cu2-4%; Si4-6%) and LM11: )Cu4-5%)

When plotted (volume of riser versus X), the plot line shows the locus of the
points that separate the sound casting and castings with shrinkages.
Caine’s method provides a simple procedure to size the risers in sand castings.

Problem: calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter equal) to
feed a steel slab casting of dimensions 25 x 15 x 5 cm with a side riser, casting
poured horizontally into the mould.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method cont.
Problem: calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter equal) to
feed a steel slab casting of dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm with a side riser, casting
poured horizontally into the mould.

Solution: V of casting: 25 x 25 x 5 = 3125 cm3

A of casting: (2 x 25 x 25) + (4 x 25 x 5) = 1750 cm2
volume of the riser = ( D3)/4 here, D: riser diameter
Surface area of the riser = D2 + ( D2)/4 = 1.25 D2
freezing ratio, X = (1750/3125)/(1.25 D2 / 0.25 D3) = 0.112 D
Y = (Vriser/Vcasting) = (0.25 D3)/3125 = 0.000251 D3
Substituting this in Caine’s equation, we get:
0.112 D = {0.10 / (0.000251 D3 – 0.03)} - 1.0
or, D4 – 8.9286 D3 – 119.52 D = 2490
By trial and error, we get
D = 11.44 cm = ~ 12 cm
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Modulus method
Another method for finding the optimum riser size is the ‘modulus method’
which is more elaborate and provides a better design.
‘Modulus’ is defined as the inverse of the cooling characteristic: (surface area /
volume). It has been empirically established that if the modulus of the riser (MR)
exceeds the modulus of the casting (MC) by a factor of 1.2, i.e., MR = 1.2 MC, the
feeding during solidification would be satisfactory.
In steel castings, it is preferable to choose a riser with a height to diameter (= D)
ratio of 1; then the volume (V) and the surface area (A) (the bottom end of the
riser is in contact with the casting and thus is not added to A) are:
V = ( D3)/4 and, A: D2 + ( D2)/4
The modulus of such a cylindrical riser, MR would be:
MR = (V/A) = [{( D3)/4} / { D2 + ( D2)/4}] = [{( D3)/4} / {5( D2)/4}] = 0.2D
Since MR = 1.2 MC D = 6 MC
Thus, in this method, the calculation of the riser size is simplified to the
calculation of the casting itself, and no trial and error solution is needed.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Modulus method cont.
Though this method takes into account the cooling effect of the riser, it does not
consider exactly the amount of feeding metal required to compensate for the
shrinking of the casting. If the allowance is made for the volume of metal to be
fed to counteract the contraction of the casting, the equation would change to:
D3 – 5.46 MC D2 – 0.050 93 VC = 0 (VC: volume of casting)
This is valid when height-to-diameter ratio of the riser is one. When the third
term in the equation relating to feed volume is neglected, the previous simplified
equation (D = 6 MC) would be arrived at.
With ‘chunky’ castings (cubes where the volume component may be negligible),
but for those ‘rangy’ castings (similar to plate-like casting), the influence of the
volume component becomes increasingly significant. A parameter called
‘ranginess factor, R’, to define the casting type may be used:
R = (Modulus of a cube of the same V of casting) / (Modulus of casting)
Modulus varies with geometric shape of the castings.
For a cube (side D), cylinder (length D), or sphere (diameter D), it is D/6;
for a long bar (cross section: axb) : ab/2(a+b); hollow cylinder (thickness r and
height H): rH/2(r+H); for a plate (axbxt): 0.5t (a‹5t).
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Naval Research Laboratory Method
This method, which is essentially a simplification of Caine’s method, defines a
shape factor to replace the freezing ratio, X. The shape factor is defined as:
(Length + Width) / (Thickness)
It is presumed that computation of length, width and thickness from the
maximum dimensions of the casting is simpler than the calculation of V and A.
Charts in form of graphs are available to compute riser volume from [(L+W)/T].

Riser Design
• Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting and re-melted to
make more castings
• To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable for the volume of
metal in the riser to be a minimum
• Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A
ratio, this allows riser volume to be reduced to the minimum possible
value
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Feeding aids
For a riser to be effective two conditions must be taken into consideration:
1. Solidification of the riser should last longer than or at least as long
as that of the casting.
2. The riser should provide adequate feed metal to compensate for the
solidification shrinkage of the casting
To increase the efficiency of the risers, feeding aids are provided.
Feeding aids can be either exothermic material (graphite or charcoal powder, rice
hulls, or thermit mixtures), insulation in the form of insulating material (cellulose
material such as rice husk), or riser sleeves (fire-clay, saw dust, plaster of Paris).
In presence of aids, modulus of the riser may be reduced through introduction
of a factor f, called modulus extension factor (MEF):
Reduced Modulus, Mr = [(1.2/f)MC]
 Sleeves
• Use of sleeves
• Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios
away from riser, so freezing occurs first in these
regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the
casting remains open

Sleeves will delay the solidification

time of the riser. Hence it will
reduce the riser volume compared
to without sleeves
Sleeves cont.

Use of Sleeves
Sleeves cont.
Problem-1
A 100-mm (4-in.) thick square plate and a right circular
cylinder with a radius of 100 mm (4 in.) and a height of 25
mm have the same volume. If each is to be cast with the
use of a cylindrical riser, will each part require the same-
size riser to ensure proper feeding? Explain.

Problem-2
A hollow cylinder casting design
is shown in right, express the r2
solidification time (assume the
constant n = 2 is known)
h
n
V 
TTS  Cm   r1
 A
Solution-1
First note that it is important for the riser to solidify after the
casting has solidified.
A casting that solidifies rapidly would be expected to require a
smaller riser than one that solidifies over a longer period of time.
Let’s now calculate the relative solidification times.
For the cylindrical part, we have V = πr2h = π(4)2(1) = 50.3 in3
And A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2π(4)2 + 2π(4)(1) = 125.7 in2
Thus time to solidify for the cylinder = C(50.3/125.7)2 = 0.160C
For a square plate with sides L and height h, we have
V = 50.3 = L2h = L2(4), or L = 3.55 in.
And A = 2L2 + 4Lh = 2(3.55 in)2 + 4(3.55 in)(4 in) = 82.0 in2
Thus time to solidify for the plate = C(50.3/82.0)2 = 0.376C
Therefore, the cylindrical casting will take less time to solidify
and hence will require a smaller riser compare to square one.
Problem-3

A certain mold has a sprue whose length is 20 cm and the

cross-sectional area at the base of the sprue is 2.5 cm2. The
sprue feeds a horizontal runner leading into a mold cavity
whose volume is 1560 cm3. Determine:
(a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of the
sprue,
(b) volume rate of flow, and
(c) time to fill the mold.
Solution-3:
(a) The velocity of the flowing metal at the base of the sprue is given by
v= 2 gh
(b) The volumetric flow rate is
Q = (2.5 cm2) (198.1 cm/s) = 495 cm3/s
(c) Time required to fill a mold cavity of 1560 in.3 at this flow rate is
MFT = 1560/495 = 3.2 s.
 Mould filling

Some examples
Cooling of sand mould
Cooling of sand mould cont.
 Solidification of casting

A. A thin layer cools and solidifies

where the metal touches the
mould surface.
B. Heat is sucked out of the metal
anywhere it is touching the
mould, and crystal dendrites
form along the surface layer.
C. As heat continues to leave via the
metal/mould interface, the
dendrites grow.
D. Metal in the center finally cools
enough to start to crystallize.
Small seed crystals form.
E. These seed crystals multiply and
grow until the casting is solid.
 Solidification of casting cont.

Schematic illustration of the solidification of metal in a mould.

 Casting cleaning
The casting should be allowed to cool and solidify inside the mould itself. The
time of cooling and the temperature to which it should be cooled depends on (a)
casting material, (b) casting size and shape.
The cooling time may vary from less than an hour for simple green sand mould
of less than 20 kg to up to 20-30 hours for dry sand mould of complex shapes.
The temperature should be that when no transformation occurs; for ferrous
alloys, it should be below 7000C. For thin and fragile castings it should be as
low as 4000C, and for heavy castings a little higher than 5000C may be suitable.
Then the mould is to be broken and cleaned.
Fettling: The complete process of the cleaning of castings is called fettling:
(a) Removal of cores: depending on the size, complexity, and core material it
may be achieved by (i) knocking off by an iron bar, (ii) using a core vibrator, or
(iii) by means of hydro-blasting.
(b) Removal of gates and risers: Depending on size, complexity, and core
material it may be achieved by hammering, chipping, hack-sawing, abrasive
cut-off, or by flame or arc cutting.
(c) Cleaning of the casting surface: fins and other small projections are to be
chipped off using tools, surface to be polished using grinders, and sand particles
to be sand-blasted, or tumbling.
 Casting defects
Any irregularity in the moulding process causes defects in castings which
sometimes may be tolerated, sometimes eliminated with proper moulding practice
or repaired using methods such as welding and metallization. The following are
the major defects which are likely to occur in sand casting:
(a) Gas defects: (i) Blow holes and open blows, (ii) air inclusions, (iii) pin-hole
porosity, and (iv) shrinkage cavities.
(b) Moulding material defects: (i) Cuts and washes, (ii) metal penetration, (iii)
fusion, (iv) run-out, (v) rat tails and buckles, (vi) swell, and (vii) drop.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold shuts, and (ii) slag inclusions.
(d) Metallurgical defects: (i) Hot tears, and (ii) hot spots.
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (i) Blow holes and open blows,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (ii) air inclusions,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (iii) pin-hole porosity,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (iv) shrinkage cavities.
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (i) Cuts and washes,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (ii) metal penetration,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (iii) fusion, (iv) run-out,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (vii) drop.
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (vi) swell,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold shuts,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold shuts,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (ii) slag inclusions.
 Casting defects cont.
(d) Metallurgical defects: (i) Hot tears, and (ii) hot spots.
 Casting defects cont.
(e) Mould preparation defects
Cast structure
Grain Structure for Pure Metals
– Fine equiaxed grains
– Columnar
• Rapid cooling at the walls produces fine
equiaxed grains
• Columnar grains grow opposite of the heat
transfer throughout the mold following the
chill zone.

D. Metal in the center finally cools

enough to start to crystallize.
Small seed crystals form.
E. These seed crystals multiply and
grow until the casting is solid.
 Cast structure cont.

Cast structures of metals

solidified in square mold
(a) pure metal,
(b) solid-solution
alloy &
(c) heterogeneous
nucleation of grains
Special casting processes
 Special casting processes
Sand casting processes may not be suitable and economical in many
applications; in such situations special casting processes would be more
appropriate. Some such special casting processes are:
(a) Shell moulding: A process for higher quality castings with thin surface details.
(b) Precision investment casting: Suitable for complex shapes.
(c) Permanent mould casting: Suitable for mass production of simple shapes.
(d) Die-casting process: Suitable for complex parts.
(i) Hot-chamber process, (ii) cold chamber process.
(e) Centrifugal casting process:
(i) True centrifugal casting, (ii) Semi-centrifugal casting, (iii) centrifuging.
(f) Other special casting processes:
(i) Continuous casting,
(ii) Squeeze casting: Solidification of the casting in this process is under
heavy pressure (so, shrinkage defects are prevented and dissolved gases are
retained until freezing is complete); almost a combination of casting and
forging .
 Shell moulding
Shell molding is a process for producing simple or complex near net
shape castings, maintaining tight tolerances and a high degree of
dimensional stability.
1. High quality castings.
2. Can be manufactured for wider range of alloys.
3. At a lower cost than investment casting.
Raw Materials, Equipments for shell Mould Casting:
• Resin coated sand.
•Chromel Alumel Thermocouple, digital panel meter.
• Muffle Furnace.
•2 Kg Aluminium Silicon Alloy (LM6) scrap.
• Clay Graphite crucible.
•Fireclay.
•Asbestos Gloves, Tongs, safety goggles.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Precision investment casting
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
 Permanent mould casting
Usually one mould is used for one casting. For large scale production, instead of
making one mould for each casting, a permanent mould, called die, is
prepared and large number (100 to 250 000) of castings can be produced,
depending on the alloy used and complexity of the casting. This process is
called ‘permanent mould casting’, or ‘gravity die casting’. Usually metallic
mould is used which helps in producing castings of good surface finish and
fine-grained structure.
Advantages:
1. Because of metallic mould, product has fine-grained structure with
superior mechanical properties.
2. Very good surface finish (of the order of 4 microns or better appearance).
3. Close dimensional tolerance. 4. Economical for large scale production.
4. Small-cored holes may be produced in comparison to sand casting.
5. Inserts can be readily cast in place.
Disadvantages:
1. Has limitations for maximum size and complicated shape of the casting.
2. Cost of die is high. 3. Not suitable for all materials.
Applications: automobile pistons, stators, gear blanks, connecting rods etc.
Pressure casting
Die casting
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Centrifugal casting
True centrifugal casting
True centrifugal casting cont.
True centrifugal casting cont.
 Semi centrifugal casting

Semi-centrifugal casting is used for jobs which are more complicated than those
made in true centrifugal castings, but are axi-symmetric in nature. It is necessary
that these should have a central hole, which is to be obtained with the help of
a core. The moulds made of sand or metal are rotated about a vertical axis
and the metal enters the mould through the central pouring basin. For larger
production rates, the moulds can be stacked one over the other, all feeding
from the same central pouring basin. The rotating speeds used in this process
are not as high as in the case of true centrifugal casting.
 Centrifuging casting

The centrifuging process is used in order to obtain higher metal pressures

during solidification when casting shapes are not axi-symmetrical. This is
suitable only for small jobs of any shape. A number of such small jobs are
joined together by means of radial runners with a central sprue on a revolving
table. The process is similar to semi-centrifugal casting.
 Continuous casting

The Principle:
Continuous casting is teeming of
liquid metal in a short mould with a
false mould with a false bottom
through which partially solidified
ingot is continuously withdrawn at
the same rate at which the metal is
poured in the mould.
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