Botany Laboratory Midterms

Exercise 3: Plant Mitosis anaphase Synthesis of new cell membrane

Cell – discovered by Robert Hooke; seen tiny is initiated in cytoplasm between
compartments in dead outer bark of oak tree. two spindle poles.
Matthias Scheiden and Theodor Shwann – cell as Telophase Daughter chromosomes are
the fundamental unit of life (1838). redistributed into chromatin.
Plant Cells Cytokinesis.
Non-living structures Nuclear membrane reforms.
 Cell wall – chiefly composed of cellulose
and minor component are lignin, cutin and
suberin.
 Middle lamella – non-living intercellular
layer that cements together the cell walls
of neighboring cells; composed of pectin.
 Plasmodesmata – fine holes Exercise 4: Plant Tissues
 Vacuole – filled with fluid called cell sap. Tissue – an aggregation of cells of common
Living structures source and function.
 Cytoplasm – viscous colloidal substance  Vascular plant tissues are from products of
bounded by plasma membrane. fertilized egg (zygote) that undergone
 Organelles repeated cell division.
Plant Mitosis – mechanism that allows the nuclei  The initial apical cell mass of identical cells
of cells to split and provide each daughter cell formed at the tip of growing region
with a complete set of chromosomes during cell constitutes the primordial meristem.
division. Simple Permanent Tissues
Cytokinesis – division of cytoplasm. Epidermis – outermost layer of cells or any plant
Interphase Chromatin is undifferentiated in organ with primary growth.
heavily-stained nucleus.  Cells may be irregular, isodiametric, and
Chromosome is duplicated and distinctly elongated in shape with outer
consists of two sister chromatids cell wall impregnated not within cutin
joined together by centromere* (S (cuticle).
phase).  Guard cells, stomata, bulliform cells, silica
*crucial to segregation of cells, trichomes.
daughter chromatids in mitosis. Parenchyma – most abundant cells found in
Early Chromatin starts to condense in higher plants; spherical in shape; big and thin
prophase thick strands  chromosome . walled with large vacuole and air spaces.
Cytoskeleton disassembles and  Least specialized permanent tissue
mitosis spindle begins to form composed of living thin-walled cells.
outside the nucleus. a. Chlorenchyma – elongated cylindrical cells
Late (Prometaphase) Disruption of with their long axis at the right angle to
prophase nuclear envelope. the surface of the organ.
Chromosomes continue to - Contains chloroplasts for
condense; shorten. photosynthesis.
Mitotic spindle is free to enter the b. Aerenchyma – irregular cells surrounded
nuclear region because nucleolus with large air spaces; found in stems of
disappears. aquatic plants.
Kinetochores at centromere Collenchyma – living cells with uneven thickness
forms. found beneath the epidermis. It is smaller than
Metaphase Aligning of chromosomes in one
the parenchyma.
plane.
 Cells may be short and prismatic,
Early Chromosome separation; pulled
elongated and tapering, or polygonal in
anaphase apart by spindle apparatus and
transverse section.
migrate to opposite poles.
Late Kinetochore dispappears.
Sclerenchyma – cells possess thick lignified a. Primary root (or radicle) – first root that
secondary walls and may or may not be living comes out from germinating seed.
(deadt). b. Secondary root – root arising from primary
a. Fibers – elongated cells with pointed end root.
walls. c. Tertiary root – root arising from secondary
b. Sclereids or stone cells – roundish or root.
polygonal cells with walls varying in d. Adventitious root – roots arising from parts
thickness. other than the radicle.
e.g.: pear and chico Internal morphology
Cork tissue – outer impermeable protective layer Epidermal region – outermost layer of cells which
of a secondary plant body (stem or root).. is only one cell thick. Most of the cells here have
 The layer is composed of compactly extensions and forms root hairs.
arranged dead, lignified, and suberized Cortex region – consists of many layers of thin-
cells without intercellular spaces. walled parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces.
 Dicots The cortex functions primarily for food storage.
Complex Tissues Endodermis – the innermost layer of cortex,
Phloem – principal water; composed of tracheids, consisting of a single layer of barrel-shaped cells
vessels, fiber, and parenchyma. that are closely-packed and having no
Xylem – principal food; composed of fibers, intercellular spaces. The rest of cells are
parenchyma, sieve cells or tubes, and companion impregnated with suberin. The suberin bands are
cells. called Casparian strips.
Stele (vascular cylinder) – occupies
the central portion of the root and
consists of pericycle and vascular
tissues. The pericycle lies internal
to the endodermis and generally
consists of a single layer of thin-
walled parenchyma cells. Lateral
Exercise 5: Roots root originate from the pericycle
Three major types of root system because it displays its meristematic
1. Taproot system – originates from seed characteristics. The pericycle in its inner surface
radicle and consists of one main root, is directly in contact with xylem and phloem.
generally growing straightforward, with Transverse Section
smaller lateral or branch roots. Xylem Star-shaped with “arms or
 Dicot plants wedges” extending to pericycle.
Protoxyle The cells closer to
2. Fibrous root system – consists of
m pericycle are smaller in
numerous fine roots similar in diameter. It
size
also originates from seed radicle. Metaxyle The cells towards the
 Monocot plants m outer and bigger in size
3. Adventitious root system – the roots which Phloem Less easy to observe, but occurs in
grow from any part of plant other than the distinct strands between xylem
radicle. They may develop from the base arms.
of stems, nodes and internodes, and
leaves. Monocot Dicot
e.g.: grass The number of The number of protoxylem
is from 2-5 (diarchs,
protoxylem is > 10
triarchs, tetrarchs,
(polyarch). pentarchs).
A parenchymatous No pith; the
pith is at the center. metaxylem occupies
the center of root.
Roots exhibit Roots exhibit
siphonostele. protostele.
 Support Buttress – big roots that look like it arise
from base of trunk
The stele is composed of:
Prop/stilt – aerial roots arising from
Pericycle – has a structure branches
similar to young dicot e.g.: rubber tree, sugarcane, pandan
roots. Brace – aerial roots from main stem that
penetrates the ground
Xylem – polyarch and has
Clinging – aerial that cling to support
a center occupied by a Aerial
parenchyma and not e.g.: orchid (absorb moisture)
tracheary elements. Protection Spines or thorns 🌹
Phloem – occupies the spaces between radial Photosynthesi Green aerial roots
arms of xylem. s
Pith – composed of parenchymatous cells at the
Exercise 6: Stems
center.
Stem – organ of plant that holds structures –
leaves, flowers, and fruits.
Three regions in young roots:
Cell division or meristematic  Carry water and minerals from roots to
region – the growing apex of leaves for photosynthesis
root. It is covered by thimble- Parts of Stem
Node Area where leaves are attached,
shaped root cap.
Internode Area between nodes.
 The cells are small, Petiole Attaches the leaf blade to stem.
cube-shaped, thin- Bud Occurs in the angle between petiole
walled, and have large centrally- and stem.
located nuclei.  Axillary bud – located in axil;
may become branches or
 The cells are actively dividing.
Elongation region – found above the meristematic develop into ✿
 Terminal bud – often present
region. The cells elongate several times their
at tip of each twig; normally
original length and push the root tip through the
produces tissues that extend
soil. the length of twig
 Responsible for the increase in length of Stipule Paired leaf-like appendages at base
root. of petiole.
Maturation region – lies above the region of Leaf scar Scar left by a fallen leaf.
Bundle scar Scars that mark the location of H 2O
elongation and extends upward. The cells are
conducting tissues located within the
elongated.
leaf scars.
 Responsible for increase in length of root Lenticels Dark spots or elevations that allow
into various distinctively cell types. gas exchange in stem.
 Also called the region of differentiation or  Most monocot plants do not attain big
root hair zone. sizes; the stem doesn’t produce cork.
 Can be seen clearly in a young root  Surfaces are covered by epidermis.
because of the presence of numerous root  Stems elongate rapidly during growing
hairs that increase the absorptive area of seasons but with little difference between
the cell. the diameter of top and bottom.
 Cells are already mature and perform  Dicot stems are usually having distinct
functions: protective covering, transport, nodes and internodes. It usually exhibit
and support among others. different types of leaf arrangement.
Lenticels are prominent.
Specialized roots
Food storage Enlarged roots with large quantities of
starch and carbohydrates.
e.g.: ube, camote, carrot 🥕, sugar beet
Water storage Fascicled roots; enlarged fleshy and
succulent roots
Reproduction Formation of adventitious root bud
or propagation e.g.: creeping ivy (adventitious)
Gas exchange Presence of pneumatophores
e.g.: rhizophora/mangrove
 suberized layer that protect the underlying
tissues.
 Cork cambium gives rise to cork – cork
cells are dead, suberized, and thick-walled
impervious to water and slough off upon
maturity.
 The bark consists of all dead tissues
outside the cork cambium – composed of
epidermis, lenticels, cork, and hypodermis.
Monocot Stems
 Lack secondary
growth.
 Possess primary
permanent
tissues.
Young Dicot Stems Epidermis
(Herbaceous and woody) Cortex – consists of
Epidermal region – the large, thin-walled undifferentiated parenchyma
outer wall of cells exposed cells. Just below the epidermis, a few layers of
to air is covered with waxy collenchyma/sclerenchyma cells forming the
substance called cutin. hypodermis may be found.
 Made up of Vascular cylinder – vascular bundles are
epidermal cells, scattered – found in large numbers in the ground
guard cells, and epidermal hairs or tissue and are in greater number towards the
trichomes. periphery than center. The vascular bundles
Cortex – complex region derived from ground called closed bundles have one xylem and
meristem; next in epidermis. phloem with the cambium layer absent.
 Consists of large, thin-walled parenchyma
or collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and Specialized or Metamorphosed Stems
secretory cells. Storage Stems
 Ground tissue is made up of cortex and Rhizome Horizontal stem which grows near the
pith. surface of soil (e.g.: ginger)
Tubers Enlarged ends of special underground
Vascular cylinder or stele – innermost region;
branches. Each tubers have several
composed of primary vascular tissues, primary
eyes that are actually nodes organized
xylemphloem. in spiral arrangement around the stem
consisting of an axillary bud in axil in a
Old Woody Dicot Stem scale-like leaf (can develop into new
 Secondary xylem – wood plant) (e.g.: Solanum tuberosum 🥔)
 Heartwood – in old trees, the central Bulbs The shoot sysyem of onions; have
region of secondary wood is filled with short compact stem that bears a
cluster of broad, fleshy leaves.
tannin and other substances.
Corm Undergorund stem which is short,
- Physiologically inactive in most plants. stout, solid, rounded in shape. It is
- Dark in color because of tannin, oil, filled with stored food and grows in |
gum, resin, etc. direction. Nodes are indicated by scale
- For mechanical support. leaves. Small buds occur in the axil of
 Sapwood – outer region of secondary dome papery scale-like leaves. (e.g.:
wood that is lighter in color. gabi)
Stems for asexual reproduction
- Physiologically active.
Runner A slender prostate branch with long or
- Transport water and minerals from short internodes, creeping on the
roots to leaves. ground and rooting at the nodes. Sub-
 Radial expansion ruptures the epidermis aerial. (e.g.: strawberry 🍓)
thus replaced by periderm which is a Stolon A slender lateral branch originating
from an underground stem and
growing – outwards. Subterranean.
 (e.g.: araru and gabi)
Offset Like runners, it originates in the axil of
leaf as a short, thickened, horizontal
branch. It elongates only to a certain
extent and produces at the apex a tuft
of leaves and a cluster of small roots
below. (e.g.: water lettuce, water
hyacinth)
Sucker Like stolon, it is a lateral branch
developing from underground part of
stem. It grows upwards and directly
gives rice to a leafy root or new plant.
(e.g.: chrysanthemum, banana 🍌,
bamboo)
Various Functions
Tendrils Thin, leafless, spirally curved branch
by which climbers attach themselves
to other objects (e.g.: upo, squash,
ampalaya)
Spines and Some stems may be modified into
thorns hard, straight, pointed structures
called spines and thorns. The axillary
bud in lemons 🍋, roses🌹, and pomelos)
Cladophylls Flattened and leaf-like appearance.
(e.g.: asparagus)
Phylloclade Flattened, stout, and fleshy modified
for H2O and food storage. (e.g.:
opuntia and cacti 🌵)

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