Chapter 5

CIRCUIT THEOREMS
 

 
 

333 
 
5.1 INTRODUCTION

In earlier chapters we discussed the solution of electric circuits using mesh current and
node voltage methods evolved over Kirchhoff’s laws. By these methods we can analyze
the circuit without tampering with its original configuration. When the circuit is large in
size and when only a part of the total solution is required, circuit theorems are very
handy to apply. In this chapter we shall discuss a few important theorems useful in
solving large complex circuits. These circuit theorems can be readily used to solve both
dc as well as ac circuits.

5.2 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property. Superposition theorem is

applicable to linear circuits having two or more independent sources.

In a linear circuit having two or more independent sources, total response in an element
(voltage across the element or current through the element) is equal to the algebraic
sum of responses in that element due to each source applied separately while the other
sources are reduced to zero.

To make a current source to zero, it must be open circuited. Similarly, if any voltage
source is to be made zero, it must be short circuited. When this theorem is used in
circuit with initial conditions, they are to be treated as sources. Further, dependent
sources if any are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

One disadvantage of analyzing a circuit using Superposition theorem is that it involves

more calculations. If the circuit has three independent sources, we need to solve three
simpler circuits each having only one independent source. However, when the circuit
has only one independent source several short-cut techniques can be readily applied to
get the solution.

334 
 
Major advantage of Superposition theorem is that it can be used to solve ac circuit
having more than one source with different frequencies. In such case, solution in time
frame is obtained corresponding to each source and added up to get the total solution.
 
Example 5.1

Calculate the current through the 1 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.1.
 
2Ω
 

 
2V 2Ω 1Ω 5A
 

 
Fig. 5.1 Circuit for Example 5.1.
 

Solution:

First calculate current I1 due to voltage source alone. The current source is open
circuited. The resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.2.
  2Ω A
 

  I1
2V 2Ω 1Ω
 

  B

  Fig. 5.2 Circuit - Example 5.1

Total circuit resistance RT = 2 + (2││1) = 2.6667 Ω.

2
Circuit current IT =  0.75 A
2.6667
2
Current I1 = x 0.75  0.5 A from B to A
21

335 
 
Now calculate current I2 due to current source alone. The voltage source is short
circuited as shown in Fig. 5.3.
2Ω A
 

  2Ω 1Ω 5A
I2
 

  B
Fig. 5.3 Circuit - Example 5.1
 

Note that two 2 Ω resistors that are in parallel is equivalent to 1 Ω. 5 A current gets
divided equally and hence current I2 = 2.5 A from A to B.

When both the sources are simultaneously present:

Current through 1 Ω resistor = 2.5 - 0.5 = 2 A from A to B.

Example 5.2

Applying Superposition theorem, find the current IAB in the (3 + j 4) Ω impedance in the
circuit shown in Fig. 5.4.

5Ω j5Ω
A

  + -
3Ω
  50 90 0 V ~  ~ 40 00 V
j4Ω
 
- +

B
Fig. 5.4 Circuit for Example 5.2.

336 
 
Example 5.3

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.6, find the voltage drop, V0 across the 2 Ω resistor using
Superposition theorem.
10 Ω 2Ω
 
+ V0 -
 
+ 5Ω
3Ω
  20 Ω
20 V   +
  - 4A   40 V
-
 

 
Fig. 5.6 Circuit for Example 5.3.
Solution:

20 V source alone present:

4 A current source is open circuited and 40 V voltage source is short circuited.

The circuit will be as shown in Fig. 5.7. Mesh currents are marked.
 
10 Ω 2Ω
 
+ V1 -
 
+ 5Ω
  3Ω
20 V   20 Ω
 
- I1
  I2
 
Fig. 5.7 Circuit - Example 5.3.
 

Mesh current equations are:

 30  20   I1  20  On solving, I2 = 0.9756 A

 20 27  I  =  0 
   2  

Thus voltage V1 = 2 x 0.9756 = 1.9512 V

338 
 
4 A source alone present:

The circuit will be as shown in Fig. 5.8

10 Ω 2Ω IX

+ V2 -

3Ω 5Ω
20 Ω
4A

Fig. 5.8 Circuit - Example 5.3.

5
2 + 10 ││20 = 8.6667 Ω; Therefore current IX = x 4  1.4634 A
5  8.6667

Thus voltage V2 = - 2 x 1.4634 = - 2.9268 V

40 V source alone present:

Resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.9

10 Ω 2Ω IY

+ V3 -

3Ω 5Ω
20 Ω +
  40 V
-

Fig. 5.9 Circuit - Example 5.3.

Resistance to the source RT = 5 + 2 + (10││20) = 13.6667 Ω

Current IY = 40 / 13.6667 = 2.9268 A.

Thus voltage V3 = - 2 x 2.9268 = - 5.8537 V

When all the three sources are simultaneously present,

voltage across 2 Ω, i.e. V0 = V1 + V2 + V3 = 1.9512 - 2.9268 - 5.8537 = - 6.8293 V

339 
 
 5
Thus phasor current IY =  (1.3576  j 0.1131)  1.2649 153.44 0 A
5  j2

Therefore, instantaneous current iY = 1.7888 cos (2t +153.440) A

When both the voltage sources are simultaneously present,

current i0 = iX + iY = [1.4142 cos (4t - 450) + 1.7888 cos (2t +153.440)] A

5.3 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

In many practical applications, we may not be interested in getting the complete

analysis of the circuit, namely finding the current through all the elements and voltages
across all the elements. Instead, we may be interested to know the details of a portion
of the circuit; as a special case it may be a single element such as load impedance. In
such a situation it is very convenient to use Thevenin’s theorem to get the solution.

Let us say that the original circuit is divided into two sub-circuits. Fig. 5.16 illustrates the
Thevenin’s equivalent of sub-circuit A. This means we are going to replace sub-circuit A
by the Thevenin’s equivalent.

a a
      ZTh   
+
    Circuit A  Circuit B  VTh ~ Circuit B 

-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.16 Thevenin’s equivalent.

In Fig. 5.16 (a) a circuit partitioned into two parts, namely circuit A and circuit B, is
shown. They are connected by a single pair of terminals. In Fig. 5.16 (b) circuit A is
replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, which consists of a voltage source VTh in
series with an impedance ZTh.

343 
 
To obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we need to find Thevenin’s voltage Vth and
Thevenin’s impedance ZTh. Unique procedure is available to find the Thevenin’s
voltage VTh. When we need the Thevenin’s voltage of circuit A, measure or calculate the
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE of circuit A. This will be the Thevenin’s voltage as shown in
Fig. 5.17. a
  +

    Circuit A  VTh

-
b
Fig. 5.17 Thevenin’s voltage.

In this case keep the circuit A open circuited. Now compute the open circuit voltage
using any method described in earlier chapters.

Example 5.6

Find the Thevenin’s voltage with respect to the load resistor RL in circuit shown in
Fig. 5.18.
3Ω

6Ω RL
9V IL

Fig. 5.18 Circuit for Example 5.6.

Solution:

The given circuit can be divided into two circuits as shown in Fig. 5.19.

3Ω

6Ω RL
9V
IL

Circuit A Circuit B
Fig. 5.19 Circuit - Example 5.6.
344 
 
Thevenin’s voltage of circuit A can be obtained from the circuit shown in Fig. 5.20.

a
3Ω +

6Ω VTh
9V
-
b
Fig. 5.20 Circuit - Example 5.6.

Using voltage division rule

6
VTh = V6Ω = x 9  6V
63

Thevenin’s impedance can be calculated in three different ways depending on the

nature of voltage and current sources in the circuit of our interest.

Case 1

The circuit for which Thevenin’s impedance is to be calculated consists of impedances

and one or more independent sources. That is, the circuit does not contain any
dependent source. To determine Thevenin’s impedance, circuit shown in Fig. 5.21 (b) is
to be used.

a a
  +  

    Circuit A  VTh    Circuit AA 

- ZTh
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.21 Determining Thevenin’s equivalents.

The circuit AA in Fig. 5.21 (b) is obtained from circuit A by replacing all the independent
voltage sources by short circuits and replacing all independent current sources by open
circuits. Thus in circuit AA, all the independent sources are set to zero. Then,

345 
 
Thevenin’s impedance is the equivalent circuit impedance of circuit AA which can be
obtained using reduction techniques.

Case 2

Some circuits contain one or more dependent sources as well as independent sources.
The presence of dependent source prevents us from directly obtaining Thevenin’s
impedance from simple circuit reduction. In such case, the following procedure shall be
followed.

If terminals a and b of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.22 (a) are short
circuited as shown in Fig. 5.22 (b), and the short circuit current is Isc, then mesh current
equation can be written as

  ZTh  a   ZTh  a
+ +
VTh ~ VTh ~
Isc
- -
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.22 Thevenin’s equivalent with short circuit current.

VTh - ZTh Isc = 0 (5.1)

Thus

VTh
ZTh = (5.2)
I sc

Therefore, Thevenin’s impedance is equal to Thevenin’s voltage divided by short circuit

current.

This procedure can also be used for circuit with one or more independent sources and
no dependent sources.

346 
 
Case 3

Another arrangement that may arise is a circuit having no independent source and one
or more dependent sources. Since there will not be any current flow, it will result in VTh
and Isc of zero value. In such case, Thevenin’s impedance can be calculated with any
one of the arrangements shown in Fig. 5.23 (b) or (c).

a a a
  Circuit + Circuit Circuit
Is +
having no having no + having no
independent VTh = 0 independent independent Vs
1V ~ 1A
source source - source -
-
b b b
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.23 Thevenin’s impedance for circuit having no independent source.

Referring to Fig. 5.23 (b), applying a voltage of 1 V, source current Is is calculated.

1
Since 1 = ZTh Is, Thevenin’s impedance Z Th 
Is

Referring to Fig. 5.23 (c), injecting a current of 1 A, source voltage Vs is calculated.

Since Vs = ZTh x 1 Thevenin’s impedance ZTh = Vs.

This procedure can be used to other types of circuits (Case 1 and Case 2) also after
setting the independent sources to zero.

The methods of finding the Thevenin’s impedance depend on the nature of the circuit
for which the Thevenin’s equivalent is sought for. These methods are summarized
below:

Circuit with independent sources only - ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING

1. Make independent sources zeros and use reduction techniques to find ZTh.

2. Short circuit terminals a and b and find the short circuit current Isc flowing from
a to b. Then ZTh = VTh / Isc

347 
 
3. Set all independent sources to zero. Apply 1 V across the open circuited
terminals a-b and determine the source current Is entering the circuit through a.
Then ZTh = 1 / Is. Alternatively, introduce a current source of 1 A from b to a and
determine the voltage Vab. Then, Thevenin’s impedance ZTh = Vab.

Circuit with independent and dependent sources - ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING

1. Short circuit terminals a and b and find the short circuit current Isc flowing from
a to b. Then ZTh = VTh / Isc

2. Set all independent sources to zero. Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals
a-b and determine the source current Is entering the circuit through a. Then ZTh = 1 / Is.
Alternatively, introduce a current source of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage
Vab. Then, Thevenin’s impedance ZTh = Vab.

Circuit with only dependent sources

(Note that Thevenin’s voltage is zero.)

Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals a-b and determine the source current Is
entering the circuit through a. Then ZTh = 1 / Is. Alternatively, introduce a current source
of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage Vab. Then, Thevenin’s impedance
ZTh = Vab.

When separating a circuit containing dependent sources into two sub-circuits to make a
Thevenin’s equivalent, care must be taken to ensure that the dependent source and its
control voltage or current must be in the same sub-circuit.

Example 5.7

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent with respect to a-b for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.24.

348 
 
 20 Ω 4Ω
a
+
10 V   30 Ω 2A
-
b

Fig. 5.24 Circuit for Example 5.7.

Solution:

Open circuit voltage Vab is the Thevenin’s voltage VTh.

To find Thevenin’s voltage:

Note that there is no current flow in resistor of 4 Ω. Therefore, voltage VTh is same as
the voltage across 30 Ω resistor. Then, the node voltage equation is

VTh  10 VTh
  2  0 On solving this, we get VTh = - 18 V
20 30

To find Thevenin’s impedance:

Reducing the sources to zero, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.25.

20 Ω 4Ω
a

30 Ω RTh

Fig. 5.25 Circuit - Example 5.7.

Thus RTh = 4 + 20││30 = 16 Ω

349 
 
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.26.
16 Ω
a
-
18 V  
+
b

Fig. 5.26 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.7.

RTh can be obtained by other two methods also.

Example 5.8

Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across a-b in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.27.

2 IX
3Ω - + 5Ω
a
+
3Ω
40 V
IX
-
b
Fig. 5.27 Circuit for Example 5.8.

Solution:

To determine VTh:

Noting that there is no current flow in 5 Ω resistor, mesh current equation is

- 40 + 3 IX - 2 IX + 3 IX = 0

Thus IX = 10 A and hence VTh = 3 IX = 30 V

To calculate the short circuit current circuit shown in Fig. 5.28 is used.

350 
 
Solution:

Circuit by which VTh and RTh can be calculated are shown in Fig. 5.34.

1Ω 3Ω 1Ω 3Ω

a +
RTh
2V VTh 3V
b -

Fig. 5.34 Circuits for VTh and RTh - Example 5.10.

Knowing the anticlockwise current as 0.25 A, using KVL

- 2 - (1 x 0.25) + VTh = 0. i.e. VTh = 2.25 V; Also RTh = 1││3 = 0.75 Ω

With these Thevenin’s equivalent circuit becomes

a

0.75 Ω

2.25 V 2Ω I0

b
Fig. 5.35 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.10.

Current I0 = 2.25 / 2.75 = 0.8182 A

Example 5.11

Use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to find current IL in circuit shown in Fig. 5.36.
-j2Ω j5Ω

5Ω 2Ω
3Ω 5Ω IL
+
10  300 V ~ -j2Ω

-
Fig. 5.36 Circuit for Example 5.11.
353 
 
5.4 NORTON’S THEOREM

Much similar to Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem is also used to obtain the
equivalent of two terminal sub-circuit.

Fig. 5.50 illustrates the Norton’s equivalent of sub-circuit A.

a a
     

    Circuit A  Circuit B  IN   ZN  Circuit B 

b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.50 Norton’s equivalent.
In Fig. 5.50 (a) a circuit partitioned into two parts, namely circuit A and circuit B, is
shown. They are connected by a single pair of terminals. In Fig. 5.50 (b), circuit A is
replaced by Norton’s equivalent circuit, which consists of a current source IN in parallel
with an impedance ZN.

Looking at the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents shown in Fig. 5.51 (a) and (b), it is
clear that one can be obtained from the other, through source transformation.

a a
  ZTh     
+
VTh ~ Circuit B  IN   ZN  Circuit B 

-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.51 Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents.

It is to be noted that

ZN = ZTh (5.3)

VTh VTh
IN =  (5.4)
Z Th ZN

360 
 
To obtain Norton’s equivalent circuit, we need to find current IN and the impedance ZN.
They can be obtained from Thevenin’s voltage and impedance.

Otherwise Norton’s current can be obtained by finding the short circuit current as
indicated in Fig. 5. 52.
a
 

    Circuit A 
ISC

b
Fig. 5.52 Getting short circuit current.

It is to be noted that the short circuit current is from terminal a to terminal b while
Norton’s current is from terminal b to terminal a.

The impedance ZN can be got exactly same way we got ZTh as discussed in previous
section except that the method indicated under Case 2 is not applicable as it requires
the value of VTh.

Example 5.15

Using Norton’s theorem, determine the current through the resistor RL when RL = 0.7,
1.2 and 1.6 Ω in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.53.
a
1Ω
3V 4Ω RL
IL
b
Fig. 5.53 Circuit for Example 5.15.
Solution:

Circuits to determine ISC and RN are shown in Fig. 5.54 (a) and (b).
a a
1Ω 1Ω
3V 4Ω ISC 4Ω RN

b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.54 Short circuit current and Norton’s resistance.

361 
 
5.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

There are some applications wherein maximum power needs to be transferred to the
load connected. Consider a linear ac circuit A, connected to a load of impedance ZL as
shown in Fig.5.65 (a). It is required to transfer maximum real power to the load. The
circuit A can be replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 5.65 (b).

a a
    ZTh 
+
    Circuit A    ZL   ZL
VTh ~
IL
-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.65 Maximum power transfer theorem - Illustration.

Let ZTh = (RTh + j XTh) and ZL = (RL + j XL)

The following maximum power transfer theorems determine the values of load
impedance ZL for which maximum real power is transferred to the load impedance.

Case 1

Load is a variable resistance RL as shown in Fig. 5.66.

RTh + j XTh

+
VTh ~ RL
-
IL

Fig. 5.66 Variable resistance

VTh
Load current IL = (5.5)
(R Th  R L )  j X Th

367 
 
 VTh
This gives │IL│ = (5.6)
2
( R Th  R L ) 2  X Th

2
2 VTh RL
Real power delivered to the load PL = │IL│ RL = 2
(5.7)
( R Th  R L )  X Th 2

2
VTh
This can be written as PL = 2 2
(5.8)
R Th X
 2 R Th  R L  Th
RL RL

2 2
R Th X
For power PL to be maximum,  2 R Th  R L + Th must be minimum. Thus power
RL RL
PL will be maximum when
2 2 2 2
d R Th X R Th X Th
(  2 R Th  R L + Th ) = 0 i.e. when  2
 1 2
0
dR L R L RL RL RL

i.e. when RL2 = RTh2 + XTh2 i.e. when

2 2
RL = R Th  X Th  Z Th (5.9)

Using this value of RL, the current IL and hence maximum power can be computed.

Case 2

In the load impedance, RL and XL are varied independently as shown in Fig. 5.67

RTh + j XTh

+ RL
VTh ~
- j XL
IL

Fig. 5.67 Variable impedance load.

368 
 
 VTh
Load current IL = (5.10)
(R Th  R L )  j (X Th  j X L )

VTh
This gives │IL│ = (5.11)
( R Th  R L ) 2  (X Th  X L ) 2

2
2 VTh RL
Real power delivered to the load PL = │IL│ RL = (5.12)
( R Th  R L ) 2  (X Th  X L ) 2

If RL in Eq. (5.12) is held fixed, the value of P will be maximum when (XTh + XL)2 is
minimum. This will occur when XTh + XL = 0 i.e. when

XL = - XTh (5.13)

Keeping XL = - XTh Eq. (5.12) becomes

2 2
VTh RL VTh
PL = = (5.14)
( R Th  R L ) 2 R Th
2

 2 R Th  R L
RL

2
R
PL , given by Eq. (5.14) to become maximum, Th  2 R Th  R L must be minimum. This
RL
2 2
d R Th R
will occur when (  2 R Th  R L ) = 0 i.e. when  Th2  1  0 i.e. when
dR L R L RL

RL = RTh (5.15)

Combining Eqs. (5.13) and (5.15), we can state that real power transferred to the load
will be maximum when

ZL = RTh - j XTh = ZTh* (5.16)

Setting RL = RTh and XL = - XTh in Eq. (5.12), maximum real power can be obtained as

2
VTh
Pmax = (5.17)
4 R Th

369 
 
Case 3

Consider the case where the load impedance consists of variable resistance and fixed
reactance as shown in Fig. 5.68.

RTh + j XTh

+ RL
VTh ~
- j XL
IL

Fig. 5.68 Variable resistance and fixed reactance load.

In this case, the fixed reactance j XL can be combined with j XTh and resistance RL can
be considered as a variable resistance. Then as discussed in Case 1, maximum real
power will be transferred to the load when

2
RL = R Th  ( X Th  XL ) 2 (5.18)

Using this value of RL, the current IL and hence maximum power can be computed.

Example 5.19

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.69. Determine the value of RL when it is dissipating
maximum power. Also find the value of maximum power dissipated.

6Ω

+
4V   2Ω RL

Fig. 5.69 Circuit for Example 5.19

370 
 
Solution:

As a first step, Thevenin’s equivalent across the load resistor is obtained.

2
VTh = x 4  1 V ; RTh = 6││2 = 1.5 Ω
26

Resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.70

1.5 Ω

+
1V   RL

Fig. 5.70 Thevenin’s equivalent - Example 5.19.

Power dissipation in RL will be maximum when RL = 1.5 Ω

Then circuit current = 1/3 = 0.3333 A

Maximum power dissipated Pmax = 0.33332 x 1.5 = 0.16667 W

Example 5.20

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.71 find the value of RL for which the real power transferred
to RL is maximum. Also determine that maximum power.

10 Ω j 20 Ω

+
RL
50  00 V ~ 
-

Fig. 5.71 Circuit for Example 5.20.

371 
 
Solution:

For maximum power transfer, RL = │10 + j 20│ = 22.3607 Ω

50
Then current I =  1.3143   31.72 0 A
(10  22.3607)  j 20

Maximum real power transferred to the load Pmax = 1.31432 x 22.3607 = 38.6255 W

Example 5.21

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.72, (R - j XC) is a variable load. Determine the load
impedance which will result in maximum real power transfer to the load. Also calculate
that maximum real power.
3Ω
A

+ RL 2Ω
50  45 V
0 ~ 
- - j XC j 10 Ω

B
Fig. 5.72 Circuit for Example 5.21.
Solution:

First Thevenin’s equivalent across A-B is obtained.

2  j10
VTh = x 5045 0  45.607 60.255 0 V ; ZTh = 3││(2 + j 10) = (2.64 + j 0.72) Ω
5  j10

With Thevenin’s equivalent we get the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.73.

2.64 Ω j 0.72 Ω
A
+ RL
45.607  60.2550 V ~ 
- -jX

Fig. 5.73 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.21.

372 
 
Consider an arbitrary lumped circuit and choose associated reference directions for the
element voltages vk and the element currents ik. We know that vk(t) ik(t) is the power
delivered to the element k at time t. If the element considered is a source, then vk(t) ik(t)
will be negative indicating that the power is supplied by the source. Total power in any
circuit, power supplied by the sources minus power dissipated by other elements, must
always be zero. This is the basis of Tellegen’s theorem.

Let us consider a circuit consisting of five elements as shown in Fig. 5.78. The
associated reference directions of the elements are marked for all the elements. It is to
be noted that associated reference directions are followed for all the passive and active
elements.
i2 i4
- v2 + +
i1 i3 v4 -
+
+ +
v1 ~  v3 v5 i5
- - -

Fig. 5.78 Tellegen’s theorem - Illustration.

Tellegen’s theorem asserts that

v1 i1 + v2 i2 + v3 i3 + v4 i4 + v5 i5 = 0 (5.19)

Elements voltages should satisfy KVL and the element currents should satisfy KCL.
Element voltages as well as the element currents shall have zero, positive or negative
values. What is stated for a specific circuit can now be generalized to any circuit.

Tellegen’s theorem states that in any lumped circuit having n elements, suppose that for
each of kth element, the element voltage vk and the element current ik are measured
with respect to associated reference directions and if the element voltages v1, v2, …, vn
satisfy all the constraints imposed by KVL and if the element currents i1, i2,…., in satisfy
all the constraints imposed by KCL, then

375 
 
 n

v
k 1
k k i 0 (5.20)

Moreover, if v1’, v2’, …., vn’ is another set of element voltages that satisfy all the
constraints imposed by KVL and if i1’, i2’, ….., in’ is another set of element currents that
satisfy all the constraints imposed by KCL for the same circuit and if these element
voltages and element currents are measured with respect to associated reference
directions taken earlier, then

v
' '
k ik  0 (5.21)
k 1

v
'
k ik  0 (5.22)
k 1

v
'
and k ik  0 (5.23)
k 1

Note that the element voltages and element currents referred in Eqn. (5.20) to (5.23),
shall be either dc voltages and dc currents or instantaneous voltages and instantaneous
currents. While considering AC circuits, if the element voltages and element currents
are the phasor voltages and phasor currents, considering the fact that the complex
power absorbed by element k is Vk Ik* element currents in Eqn. (5.20) to (5.23) are to be
replaced by the conjugate of element currents.

5.6.1 VERIFICATION OF TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.78. One set of independent meshes and
independent nodes of this circuit are marked as shown in Fig. 5.79.

i2 i4
- v2 + +
i1 i3 v4 -
+
+ +
v1 ~  v3 v5 i5
- - -

Fig. 5.79 Verification of Tellegen’s theorem.

376 
 
Application of KVL yields

v1 - v3 + v2 = 0 (5.24)

v3 - v5 - v4 = 0 (5.25)

Constraints imposed by KCL are:

i1 - i2 = 0 (5.26)

i2 + i3 + i4 = 0 (5.27)

i5 - i4 = 0 (5.28)

Let us choose

v1 = 2; v2 = - 1; v3 = 1; v4 = 4; v5 = - 3 and (5.29)

i1 = 1; i2 = 1; i3 = - 3; i4 = 2; i5 = 2 (5.30)

For these element voltages and element currents, KVL’s and KCL’s are satisfied.
Tellegen’s theorem can now be checked.

v
k 1
k k i = 2 - 1 - 3 + 8 - 6 = 0. (5.31)

Further, it is to be noted that for same associated reference directions

v1’ = 5; v2’ = - 2; v3’ = 3; v4’ = 10; v5’ = - 7 and (5.32)

i1’ = 4; i2’ = 4; i3’ = - 9; i4’ = 5; i5’ = 5 (5.33)

also KVL’s and KCL’s are satisfied. Other parts of Tellegen’s theorem can be checked
as follows:

v
' '
k ik = 20 - 8 - 27 + 50 - 35 = 0 (5.34)
k 1

v
'
k ik = 5 - 2 - 9 + 20 - 14 = 0 (5.35)
k 1

v
'
k ik = 8 - 4 - 9 + 20 - 15 = 0 (5.36)
k 1

377 
 
Thus Tellegen’s theorem is verified.

Tellegen’s theorem shows that the sum of powers taken by all the elements in a circuit
is zero. Both element currents and element voltages can be functions of time
(instantaneous values). Tellegen’s theorem can also be verified in circuit under
sinusoidal steady state condition. In such case

V
*
k Ik  0 (5.37)
k 1

Example 5.23

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.80. Solve it for E = 20 V and E = 12 V and verify
Tellegen’s theorem.
2Ω

+
E   8Ω

Fig. 5.80 Circuit for Example 5.23.

Solution:

Corresponding to the supply voltage of 20 V, the element currents and element voltages
obtained are shown in Fig. 5.81.

2Ω I1
I2 I1 = 2 A V1 = 4 V
+ + V1 -
+
V3 8Ω I2 = 2 A V2 = 16 V
20 V   V2
- I3 - I3 = - 2 A V3 = 20 V

Fig. 5.81 Circuit - Example 5.23.

3
Then v
k 1
k k i = 8 + 32 - 40 = 0

Corresponding to the supply voltage of 12 V, the element currents and element voltages
obtained are shown in Fig. 5.82.
378 
 
 2Ω I1’
I2’ I1’ = 1.2 A V1’ = 2.4 V
+ + V1’ -
+
V3’ 8Ω I2’ = 1.2 A V2’ = 9.6 V
12 V   V2’
- I3’ - I3’ = - 1.2 A V3’ = 12 V

Fig. 5.82 Circuit - Example 5.23.

3

v
' '
k ik = 2.88 + 11.52 - 14.4 = 0
k 1

v
'
k ik = 4.8 + 19.2 - 24 = 0 and
k 1

v
'
k ik = 4.8 + 19.2 - 24 = 0
k 1

Thus Tellegen’s theorem is verified.

Example 5.24

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.83. For two different source voltages, current iX is
noted as sin 2t and e-t. Verify Tellegen’s theorem taking all initial conditions as zero.

4Ω 2H

+
v1 ~  3F 1Ω
IX
-

Fig. 5.83 Circuit for Example 5.24.

379 
 
Solution:

When iX = sin 2t:

4Ω i4 2H i2
+ v4 - + v2 -
i5 i3 i1
+
+ +
v5 ~  v3 3F v1 1Ω
- - -

Fig. 5.84 Circuit - Example 5.24.

Referring to Fig. 5.84

dv 3
i1 = sin 2t v1 = sin 2t i3 = C = 6 cos 2t - 24 sin 2t
dt
di 2
i2 = sin 2t v2 = L = 4 cos 2t i4 = i2 + i3 = 6 cos 2t - 23 sin 2t
dt
v4 = 4 i4 = 24 cos 2t - 92 sin 2t
v3 = v1 + v2 =sin 2t + 4 cos 2t

i5 = - i4 = 23 sin 2t - 6 cos 2t v5 = v3 + v4 = 28 cos 2t - 91 sin 2t

Doing the multiplication, coefficients obtained are shown in Table 5.1

Table 5.1 Coefficients of different terms

Terms sin22t cos22t sin 2t cos 2t

v1 i1 1 0 0

v2 i2 0 0 4

v3 i3 - 24 24 - 90

v4 i4 2116 144 - 1104

v5 i5 - 2093 - 168 1190

Sum 0 0 0

380 
 
 3
Thus v
k 1
i =0
k k

When iX = e-t

Current and voltage markings in the second case should be same as that in first case.

i1’ = e-t v1’ = e-t

'
’ -t di
i2 = e ’
v2 = L 2 = - 2 e-t
dt
'
dv 3
v3’ = v1’ + v2’ = - e-t i3’ = C = 3 e-t
dt

i4’ = i2’ + i3’ = 4 e-t v4’ = 16 e-t

i5’ = - 4 e-t v5’ = v3’ + v4’ = 15 e-r

Thus
5

v ik = e- 2 t (1 - 2 - 3 + 64 - 60) = 0
' '
k
k 1

Forming the products vk ik’ and vk’ ik k = 1, 2, …., 5 coefficients are obtained are shown
in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Coefficients of different terms

Terms e-t sin 2t e-t cos 2t Terms e-t sin 2t e-t cos 2t

v1 i1’ 1 0 v1’ i1 1 0

v2 i2’ 0 4 v2’ i2 -2 0

v3 i3’ 3 12 v2’ i3 24 -6

v4 i4’ - 368 96 v4’ i4 - 368 96

v5 i5’ 364 - 112 v5’ i5 345 - 90

Sum 0 0 Sum 0 0

381 
 
 5 5

 v k ik = v
' '
Therefore k ik = 0
k 1 k 1

Thus Tellegen’s theorem is verified.

Example 5.25

For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.85, taking the source voltage as E = 50  00 V and
E’ = 100  450 V. Verify Tellegen’s theorem.

3Ω

+
E ~  j4Ω

Fig. 5.85 Circuit for Example 5.25.

Solution:

With E = 50  00 V, referring Fig. 5.86, element voltages and element currents are
obtained as
3Ω I2

+ V2 I1
+ - +
V3 = 50  00 V ~ V1 j4Ω

- I3 -

Fig. 5.86 Circuit - Example 5.25.

50
I1 = I2 =  10  53.13 0 A ; I3 = - I1 = 10126.87 0 A
3  j4

V1 = j 4 I1 = 4036.87 0 V ; I1 = 10  53.13 0 A

V2 = 3 I2 = 30  53.13 0 V ; I2 = 10  53.13 0 A

V3 = 500 0 V ; I3 = 10126.87 0 A

382 
 
 3

V
*
k I k = 40090 0 + 3000 0 + 500  126.87 0 = 0
k 1

With E’ = 100  450 V, element voltages and element currents are obtained as

100 45
I 1’ = I 2’ =  20  8.13 0 A ; I3’ = - I1’ = 20171.87 0 A
3  j4

V1’ = j 4 I1’ = 8081.87 0 V ; I1’ = 20  8.13 0 A

V2’ = 3 I2’ = 60  8.13 0 V ; I2’ = 20  8.13 0 A

V3’ = 10045 0 V ; I3’ = 20171.87 0 A

3 *

V
' '
Thus k I k = 160090 0 + 12000 0 + 2000  126.87 0 = 0
k 1

3 *

 Vk I k
'
= 80045 0 + 600  45 0 + 1000  171.87 0 = 0
k 1

V
' *
k I k = 800135 0 + 60045 0 + 1000  811.87 0 = 0
k 1

Hence Tellegen’s theorem is verified.

NOTE: When the circuit is in the sinusoidal steady state, if Ik ‘s are satisfying KCL, then
k
if Ik* ‘s will also satisfy KCL. Therefore, V
k 1
k I k will also be zero. In the example

considered

V1 = 4036.87 0 V; I1 = 10 - 53.13 0 A

V2 = 30 - 53.13 0 V; I2 = 10 - 53.13 0 A

V3 = 500 0 V; I3 = 10126.87 0 A

Thus
3

V
k 1
k I k = 400 - 16.26 0 + 300 - 106.26 0 + 500126.87 0 = 0

383 
 
5.7 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Millman’s theorem states that if n voltage sources having voltages of E1, E2, ….., En and
series (internal) impedances Z1, Z2, …., Zn are connected in parallel, then they may be
replaced by a single voltage source of voltage Ep with a series (internal) impedance Zp
where Ep and Zp are given by

E1 Y1  E 2 Y2  ......  E n Yn
Ep = (5.38)
Y1  Y2  .....  Yn
1
and ZP = (5.39)
Y1  Y2  .....  Yn

where Yi is the admittance corresponding to the impedance Zi.

If the circuit is a DC circuit, then the equivalent voltage and the equivalent resistance
are obtained as
E1 G1  E 2 G 2  ......  E n Gn
Ep = (5.40)
G1  G 2  .....  Gn
1
and RP = (5.41)
G1  G 2  .....  G n
where Gi is the conductance corresponding to the resistance Ri.

Example 5.26

Using Millman’s theorem, find the current IX in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.87.

5Ω 2Ω
2A IX
+ + 10 Ω 5Ω
10 V 8 V
- -

Fig. 5.87 Circuit for Example 5.26.

384 
 
Solution:

Converting the current source in parallel with a resistor to a voltage source in series with
a resistor, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 5.88.

5Ω 2Ω 10 Ω Rp
IX IX
+ + - 5Ω + 5Ω
10 V 8 V 20 V Ep
- - + -

Fig. 5.88 Circuit - Example 5.26.

Using Millman’s theorem

(10 x 0.2)  (8 x 0.5)  ( - 20 x 0.1)

Ep = 5 V
0.2  0.5  0.1

1
Rp =  1.25 Ω
0.2  0.5  0.1

5
Current IX = = 0.8 A
5  1.25

Example 5.27

Employing Millman’s theorem, determine the current I0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.89.

j 10 Ω 10 Ω j5Ω

+ I0 +
100  0 V
0
~ -j5Ω ~ 50  300 V
- -

Fig. 5.89 Circuit for Example 5.27.

385 
 
Solution:

Z1 = j 10 Ω; Y1 = - j 0.1

Z2 = j 5 Ω; Y2 = - j 0.2

E1 Y1  E 2 Y2 (- j10)  (5 - j 8.6603)
Ep = = = (62.201 + j16.6667) V
Y1  Y2 - j 0.3

1
Zp = = j 3.3333 Ω
 j 0.1  j 0.2

62.201  j16.6667
Current I0 = = (5.7817 + j 2.6303) A
j 3.3333  (10 - j 5)

5.8 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

Reciprocity theorem can be stated as follows:

In any passive linear bilateral circuit, if a single voltage source VX in branch X produces
the current response IY in branch Y, then removal of voltage source from branch X and
its insertion in branch Y will produce the current response IY in branch X.

A simple way of stating the reciprocity theorem is to say that the interchange of an ideal
voltage source and an ammeter in any linear bilateral circuit will not change the
ammeter reading.

Fig. 5.90 describes the meaning of Reciprocity theorem.

A   B A   B
  +
+        CIRCUIT         CIRCUIT  VX ~
VX IY
  ~ IY -
-
  A’ A’
B’ B’
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.90 Reciprocity theorem.

386 
 
The applied voltage VX in branch X causes a current of IY in branch Y as shown in
Fig. 5.90 (a). When this voltage source shifted to branch Y as shown in Fig. 5.90 (b), will
cause same current IY in branch X as shown in Fig. 5.90 (b).

While Fig. 5.90 adequately describes the meaning of reciprocity theorem, it can also be
presented as shown in Fig. 5.91.

A B A B
   

+        CIRCUIT         CIRCUIT 
VX IY
~ IY -
- VX ~
A’ A’ +
B’ B’
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.91 Reciprocity theorem.

Fig. 5.90 (b) and Fig. 5.91 (b) give the same meaning. As compared to Fig. 5.90 (b), in
Fig. 5.91 (b) the polarity of VX is reversed and correspondingly, the direction of current
IY is also reversed.

It is to be noticed that in Fig. 5.91 (a), there is a voltage rise from A’ to A and the
measured current flows from B to B’. Next, in Fig. 5.91 (b), there is a voltage rise from B
to B’ and the measured current flows from A’ to A.

The ratio of applied voltage across a pair of terminal to the resulting current in another
element is called Transfer Impedance between those two pairs of terminals. The
reciprocity theorem says that Transfer Impedance is Bilateral i.e. it applies in either
direction between the two pairs of terminals.

387 
 
Example 5.28

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.92, Find the current through 6 Ω resistor and verify
reciprocity theorem.
1Ω B
A

  +
90 V 6Ω 3Ω
 
-
  B’
A’
Fig. 5.92 Circuit for Example 5.28.

Solution:

Circuit resistance = 1 + 6││3 = 3 Ω; Therefore circuit current = 90 / 3 = 30 A.

3
Current in 6 Ω resistor from B to B’ = x 30 = 10 A
9

To verify reciprocity theorem, the circuit to be considered is shown in Fig. 5.93.

1Ω B
A
+
90 V
-
I 3Ω
6Ω

A’ B’
Fig. 5.93 Circuit - Example 5.28.

90
Current supplied by the battery = = 13.3333 A
6  0.75

3
Current from A to A’ = x 13.3333 = 10 A; Thus, reciprocity theorem is verified.
31

Example 5.29

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.94, voltage of 100  450 V causes current IB in the 5 Ω
branch. Find IB and then verify the reciprocity theorem for this circuit.

388 
 
 10 Ω 10 Ω

100  450 V ~ j5Ω -j5Ω 5Ω

IB
-

Fig. 5.94 Circuit for Example 5.29.

Solution:

Given circuit is changed as shown in Fig. 5.95 to apply node voltage method.

V1 0.1 V2 B

10  450 A 0.1 - j 0.2 j 0.2 0.2 IB

B’

Fig. 5.95 Circuit - Example 5.29.

Nodal voltage equations are:

0.2  j 0.2 - 0.1   V1  1045 0 

 
  0.1
 0.3  j 0.2  V2   0 

Determinant of the coefficient matrix, ∆Y = 0.09 - j 0.02

0.2  j 0.2 1045 0

∆Y2 =  145 0
- 0.1 0

Therefore node voltage V2 is

∆Y2 145 0
V2 =   10.8465 57.53 0 V
∆Y 0.09  j 0.02

Current IB = V2 / 5 = 2.1693  57.530 A

The circuit obtained after interchanging the source and response is shown in Fig. 5.96.

389 
 
 10 Ω 10 Ω B
A
+
~ 100  45 V
0

j5Ω -j5Ω -
IA
5Ω

A’
B’
Fig. 5.96 Circuit - Example 5.29.

The above circuit is changed as shown in Fig. 5.97 to apply node voltage method.

0.1 V1 0.1 V2
A

IA - j 0.2 j 0.2 0.2 20  450 A

A’

Fig. 5.97 Circuit - Example 5.29.

Nodal voltage equations are:

0.2  j 0.2 - 0.1   V1   0 

  0.1 0.3  j 0.2  V   2045 0 
  2  

Determinant of the coefficient matrix, ∆Y = 0.09 - j 0.02

0 - 0.1
∆Y1 =  245 0
2045 0 0.3  j 0.2

Therefore node voltage V1 is

∆Y1 245 0
V1 =   21.693 57.53 0 V
∆Y 0.09  j 0.02

Current IA = V1 / 10 = 2.1693  57.530 A

It is seen that current IA = current IB. Thus reciprocity theorem is verified.

390 
 
Reciprocity theorem can also be stated as follows:

In any passive linear bilateral circuit, if a single current source IX between nodes X and
X’ produces the voltage response VY between nodes Y and Y’. then the removal of the
current source from the nodes from X and X’ and its insertion between nodes Y and Y’
will produce the voltage response VY between nodes X and X’.

In other words, the interchange of ideal current source and an ideal voltmeter in any
linear passive bilateral circuit will not change the voltmeter reading.

Fig. 5.98 describes the meaning of Reciprocity theorem.

Y
Y X
  X    
+ +
       CIRCUIT         CIRCUIT 
I X VY VY I

  - -
X’
Y’ X’ Y’
 
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.98 Reciprocity theorem.
Example 5.30

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.99, find the voltage VY and verify reciprocity theorem.

2Ω
+
5Ω
5  900 A -j2Ω VY
j5Ω -

Fig. 5.99 Circuit for Example 5.30.

Solution:

5  j5
Voltage VY = - j 2 j 5 = 9.2847  21.80 V
7  j3

Fig. 5.100 shows the circuit to be considered for verification of reciprocity theorem.
391 
 
 + 2Ω
5Ω
VX -j2Ω

- j5Ω 5  900 A

Fig. 5.100 Circuit - Example 5.30

 j2
Voltage VX = (5 + j 5) j 5 = 9.2847  21.80 V
7  j3

It is seen that voltage VX = voltage VY.

Thus reciprocity theorem is verified.

5.9 COMPENSATION THEOREM

In a linear circuit, if any element impedance Z, carrying a current I, is changed to the

value (Z + ∆Z), then the currents in all the elements in the circuit change and the current
change in any element, is equal to the current caused in that element due to the voltage
source of voltage I ∆Z, placed in series with the altered impedance, keeping all other
sources zero.

Fig. 5.101 shows the details of compensation theorem.

I I + ΔI ΔI
ORIGINAL  CHANGED  CIRCUIT ‐ 
CIRCUIT  CIRCUIT  SOURCES SET  Z + ∆Z
Z Z + ∆Z TO ZERO  
  +
  ~ I ∆Z
IP
IP + ΔIP -
ΔIP

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.101 Compensation theorem.

392 
 
The following procedure can be adopted while using compensation theorem.

1. First original circuit shown in Fig. 5.101 (a) is to be solved for element currents.

2. Knowing current I and change in impedance ∆Z, calculate the voltage to be added.

3. Solve for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.101 (c) for the changes in the element currents.

4. New element currents = original element currents + changes in the element currents.

Example 5.31

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.102. An ammeter having 1 Ω internal resistance is
connected in series with the 3 Ω resistor. Using compensation theorem, determine the
current flowing in 3 Ω and 4 Ω resistors.
4Ω

+
10 V 6Ω 3Ω
-

Fig. 5.102 Circuit for Example 5.31.

Solution:

For the original circuit, current in different elements can be obtained as shown in
Fig. 5.103.

1.6667 A 4 Ω - 0.1042 A 4Ω

1.1111 A - 0.1736 A
0.5556 A
+ 3Ω
10 V 6Ω 3Ω 6Ω 1Ω
+
- 1.1111 V
-

Fig. 5.103 Current in original circuit. Fig. 5.104 Changes in currents.

393 
 
Solution:

With current source alone is present, the circuit will be as shown in Fig. 5.114.
4Ω 2Ω

20  00 A   5Ω j2Ω -j2Ω

Fig. 5.114 Circuit - Example 5.36

2││- j 2 = 1 - j 1; 5││j 2 = 0.6897 + j 1.7241. Thus circuit reduces as shown in

Fig. 5.115.
I1 4Ω

20  00 A   (0.6897 + j 1.7271) Ω (1 - j 1) Ω

Fig. 5.115 Circuit - Example 5.36.

0.6897  j1.7271
I1 = 20 x  (3.1447  j 5.6602) A
5.6897  j 0.7272

With voltage source alone is present the circuit will be as in Fig. 5.116.

4Ω 2Ω

+
~ 100  90 V
0
5Ω j2Ω -j2Ω

Fig. 5.116 Circuit - Example 5.36.

399 
 
The above circuit can be reduced as shown in Fig. 5.117.

I2 4Ω

(1 - j 1) Ω
(0.6897 + j 1.7271) Ω 50  900 A

Fig. 5.117 Circuit - Example 5.36.

1 j1
I2 = - j 50 x  (-9.7483  j 7.5472) A
5.6897  j 0.7272

Thus I0 = I1 + I2 = (- 6.6036 - j 1.8870) A = 6.8679  -164.050 A

Example 5.37

Using Thevenin’s find the current I0 in the circuit shown in Fig.5.118.

2.5 Ω 10 Ω

+ +
16 V   1Ω 32 V
I0
- -

Fig. 5.118 Circuit for Example 5.37.

Solution:
Circuits to find VTh and RTh are shown in Fig. 5.119 (a) and (b).

2.5 Ω 10 Ω 2.5 Ω 10 Ω

+ + +
  16 V VTh 32 V RTh
- - -

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.119 Circuit - Example 5.37.

400 
 
VTh = 32 - (10 x 1.28) = 19.2 V; RTh = 2.5││10 = 2 Ω

2Ω

+
19.2 V   1Ω
I0
-

Fig. 5.120 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.37.

Using the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.120, current I0 = 19.2 / (2 + 1)
= 6.4 A

Example 5.38

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across AB for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.121.

5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A
+
8Ω
5V   6Ω +
- 8V
-
B
Fig. 5.121 Circuit for Example 5.38.

Solution:

5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A
+
+
8Ω
5V   6Ω + VTh
- 8V
I1 I2
- -
B
Fig. 5.122 Circuit - Example 5.38.

401 
 
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 5.122, mesh current equations are obtained as

 11 - 6  I1   5 
  6 21  I   - 8
   2  

On solving I2 = 0.2974 A

Thus, VTh = 8 - (8 x 0.2974) = 5.6208 V

Circuit shown in Fig. 5.123 is used to determine RTh.

5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A

8Ω
6Ω RTh

B
Fig. 5.123 Circuit - Example 5.38.

5││6 = 2.7273 Ω; 2.7273 + 7 = 9.7273 Ω; 9.7273││8 = 4.3897 Ω

RTh = 5 + 4.3897 = 9.3897 Ω

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.124

9.3897 Ω
A
+
5.6208 V
-
B
Fig. 5.124 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.38.

402 
 
Example 5.39

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent across AB for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.125.   
 

  4Ω
B
  - +
  10 V   2Ω 5V  
1Ω
-
  +
5Ω
  A

  Fig. 5.125 Circuit for Example 5.39.

Solution:

Given circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.126.

5Ω 4Ω
A B

+ + VTh - +

10 V   2Ω 1Ω 5V  
-
-

Fig. 5.126 Circuit - Example 5.39.

2 1
VTh = ( x 10) - ( x 5) = 1.8571 V; RTh = (5││2) + (1││4) = 2.2286 Ω
7 5

Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in Fig. 5.127.

2.2286 Ω
A
+
1.8571 V
-
B
Fig. 5.127 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.39.

403 
 
Example 5.40

Applying Thevenin’s theorem, determine current Iab in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.128.

2Ω 4Ω

12 Ω

8Ω 3Ω

0.1 Ω + 24 V -
Fig. 5.128 Circuit for Example 5.40.

Solution:

To find VTh, the circuit shown in Fig. 5.129 is used.   

 
a
 
 
  2Ω 4Ω
  +
 
  VTh Reference

  -
8Ω 3Ω
 

  b

 
0.1 Ω + 24 V -
 
Fig. 5.129 Circuit - Example 5.40.

6││11 = 3.8824 Ω

404 
 
 24
Current supplied by the battery =  6.0265 A
0.1  3.8824

11
Current flows from a to reference = x 6.0265  3.8995 A
17

6
Current flows from b to reference = x 6.0265  2.127 A
17

VTh = Va - Vb = (4 x 3.8995) - (3 x 2.127) = 9.217 V

To find RTh, the circuit shown in Fig. 5.130 is used.

a

2Ω 4Ω
RTh
0.1 Ω
Reference

8Ω 3Ω

b
Fig. 5.130 Circuit - Example 5.40.

Converting delta 0.1 Ω, 8 Ω and 3 Ω into star, the circuit will be as shown in Fig. 5.131.
 
a
 

  2Ω 4Ω
RTh
 
Reference
 

 
0.0721 Ω 0.027 Ω
 

 
2.1622 Ω
 

 
Fig. 5.131 Circuit - Example 5.40.
405 
 
RTh = 2.1622 + (2.0721││4.027) = 1.3681 +n 2.1622 = 3.5303 Ω

9.217
Using Thevenin’s equivalent, current Iab =  0.5935 A
12  3.5303

Example 5.41

Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine current Io in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.132.

0.5 Ω

+ +
3V   VX 1Ω 2 VX 0.3 Ω
Io
- -

Fig. 5.132 Circuit for Example 5.41.

Solution

Thevenin’s voltage: Open circuit the resistor of value 0.3 Ω, Note that VTh = VX

Node equation is

VTh  3
 VTh  2 VTh  0 i.e. 2 VTh - 6 + VTh + 2 VTh = 0; VTh = 1.2 V
0.5

To find RTh:

By injecting 1 A, voltage Vs is calculated. For this the circuit shown in Fig. 5.133 is used.

0.5 Ω

+ +

VX 2 VX VS 1A
1Ω
- -

Fig. 5.133 Circuit - Example 5.41.

406 
 
Note that voltage VS = VX

Node equation is

VS
 VS  2 VS  1 i.e. 5 VS = 1; i.e. VS = 0.2 V; Therefore RTh = 0.2 Ω
0.5

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.134.

0.2 Ω

+
1.2 V 0.3 Ω
Io
-

Fig. 5.134 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.41.

1.2
Current I0 = = 2.4 A
0.2  0.3

Example 5.42

Applying Norton’s theorem, determine current IX marked in the circuit shown in

Fig.5.135.
10 Ω 3Ω
 
+
  6Ω
50 V   + 3.25 Ω IX
  - 10 V
  -

Fig. 5.135 Circuit for Example 5.42.

407 
 
Solution:

To find IN: Circuit shown in Fig. 5.136 is used.

10 Ω 3Ω

+
6Ω
50 V   + IN
- 10 V
I1 I2
-

Fig. 5.136 Circuit - Example 5.42.

Mesh current equations are:

 16 - 6  I1  40
  6 9  I   10  Current IN = I2 = 3.7037 A
   2  

To find RN: Circuit shown in Fig. 5.137 is used.

10 Ω 3Ω

6Ω
RN = 3 + (6 ││10) = 6.75 Ω
RN

Fig. 5.137 Circuit - Example 5.42.

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.138.

6.75
Current I x  x 3.7037  2.5 A  
3.7037 A 6.75 Ω 3.25 Ω IX 6.75  3.25

Fig. 5.138 Norton’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.42.

408 
 
Example 5.43

Using Norton’s theorem, determine current Iab in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.139.

5Ω 10 Ω
+
2.5 Ω
25 V   a b

-
20 Ω 15 Ω

Fig. 5.139 Circuit for Example 5.43.

Solution:

Circuit by which Norton’s current and RN can be obtained are shown in Fig. 5.140 (a)
and (b)

5Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 10 Ω
+ I2

a IN
25 V   b a b

- I1 I3
20 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω 15 Ω

RN

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.140 Circuit - Example 5.43.
Mesh currents equations

 25  5 - 20  I1  25
  5 15 0  I 2  =  0 
   On solving I2 = 0.7 A and I3 = 1.2 A

- 20 0 35   I 3   0 

Current IN = I3 - I2 = 0.5 A; RN = (5││20) + (10││15) = 10 Ω

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.141.

409 
 
 10
0.5 A 10 Ω 2.5 Ω Iab Current Iab = x 0.5 A = 0.4 A
12.5

Fig. 5.141 Norton’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.43.

Example 5.44

Find the current IX in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.142 obtaining Norton’s equivalent.

15 Ω

5Ω 5V
+ -

IX

10 A   15 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω

15 Ω
5Ω

Fig. 5.142 Circuit for Example 5.44.

Solution:

To find the current IN circuit shown in Fig. 4.143 is used.

15 Ω

5Ω 5V 0.3333 A
+ -

I1

10 A   15 Ω 15 Ω

10 A IN
15 Ω I2
5Ω

Fig. 5.143 Circuit - Example 5.44.

410 
 
Mesh current equations are:

15 (I1 - I2) + 15 (I1 - 10) + 5 = 0; i.e. 30 I1 - 15 I2 = 145

15 (I2 - 10) + 15 (I2 - I1) + 5 I2 = 0; i.e. - 15 I1 + 35 I2 = 150

On solving, IN = I2 = 8.0909 A

Circuit shown in Fig. 5.144 is used to calculate RN:

15 Ω

5Ω

RN = 5 + 15 + (15││15) = 27.5 Ω
15 Ω 15 Ω
RN
15 Ω
5Ω

Fig. 5.144 Circuit - Example 5.44.

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.145.

27.5
8.0909 A 10 Ω
Current I0 = x 8.0909 = 5.9333 A
27.5 Ω I0 37.5

Fig. 5.145 Norton’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.44.

411 
 
Example 5.45

What should be the value of load resistor R in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.146, to
dissipate maximum power?

5Ω j 12 Ω

+
VS ~ 
R
-

Fig. 5.146 Circuit for Example 5.45.

Solution:

R = │5 + j 12│ = 13 Ω

Example 5.46

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.147, find the value of R for which the power absorbed by it
is maximum. Also calculate the maximum value of power.
  2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 4Ω

 
+ +
  2Ω R 4Ω
10 V 20 V
  - -
 
Fig. 5.147 Circuit for Example 5.46.
Solution:

Doing source transformation given circuit reduces as in Fig. 5.149.

2Ω A 2Ω

5A 2Ω 2Ω R 4Ω 4Ω 5A

Fig. 5.148 Circuit - Example 5.46.

412 
 
 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω

+ A + +
0.7143 A
5V ETh 10 V
- B - -

Fig. 5.149 Circuit - Example 5.46.

Circuit current = (10 - 5) / (2 + 2 + 2 +1) = 0.7143 A

ETh = 10 - (4 x 0.7143) = 7.1428 V and RTh = 3││4 = 1.7143 Ω

Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in Fig. 5.150.

1.7143 Ω
A
+
7.1428 V   R
I
-
B
Fig. 5.150 Circuit - Example 5.46.

For the power absorbed by the resistor R to be maximum, R = RTh = 1.7143 Ω

Current I = 2.0833 A; Maximum power absorbed Pmax = 2.08332 x 1.7143 = 7.4403 W

Example 5.47

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.151 determine the maximum real power delivered to the
load impedance.

2.1 Ω 5Ω
+ ZL
200  00 V ~  a b

1.2 Ω 3Ω
-
j 2.4 Ω j6Ω

Fig. 5.151 Circuit for Example 5.47.

413 
 
Solution:

Thevenin’s equivalent will be the same as that obtained in the Example 5.13. Thus

ETh = 3.2880  170.540 V and ZTh = (4.2259 + j 2.1357) Ω

For maximum real power transfer, ZL = (4.2259 + j 2.1357)* = (4.2259 - j 2.1357) Ω

3.2880
Magnitude of load current =  0.389 A
4.2259  4.2259

Power Pmax = 0.3892 x 4.2259 = 0.6395 W

Example 5.48

Solve the circuit shown in Fig. 5.152 with E = 20 V and 12 V and verify all the aspects of
Tellegen’s theorem.
5Ω

+
E   2Ω 10 Ω   10 A
-

Solution: Fig. 5.152 Circuit for Example 5.48.

Take the voltage across 2 Ω as V1.

V1  20 V1 V1
Using the node equation    10 V1 = 17.5 V
5 2 10

Current through and voltage across different elements are marked in Fig. 5.153.
5Ω 0.5 A V1

+ + 2.5 V - 8.75 A 1.75 A -

+ +
20 V   2Ω 10 Ω 17.5 V   10 A 17.5 V
17.5 V
- -
-
- 0.5 A +

Fig. 5.153 Circuit - Example 5.48.

Element voltages, currents and their products are tabulated in Table 5.3.

414 
 
Table 5.3 Voltages, currents and their products of different elements

Element 20 V 5Ω 2Ω 10 Ω 10 A
Voltage 20 V 2.5 V 17.5 V 17.5 V - 17.5 V
Current - 0.5 A 0.5 A 8.75 A 1.75 A 10 A
Product - 10 1.25 153.125 30.625 -175

v
k 1
k k i   10  1.25  153.125  30.625  175  0

Same calculations are repeated with E = 12 V

V1  12 V1 V1
   10 On solving V2 = 15.5 V
5 2 10

Associated reference directions in the second case should be same as that in first case.
5Ω -0.7 A V2

+ - 7.75 A
+ - 3.5 V 1.55 A -
+ +
12 V   2Ω 10 Ω 15.5 V   10 A 15.5 V
15.5 V
- -
-
0.7 A +

Fig. 5.154 Circuit - Example 5.48.

Table 5.4 Voltages, currents and their products of different elements

Element 12 V 5Ω 2Ω 10 Ω 10 A
Voltage 12 V - 3.5 V 15.5 V 15.5 V - 15.5 V
Current 0.7 A - 0.7 A 7.75 A 1.55 A 10 A
Product 8.4 2.45 120.125 24.025 -155

v
' '
k ik  8.4  2.45  120.125  24.025  155  0
k 1

v
'
To check i 0
k k
k 1

element voltages of case 1 and element currents of case 2 are used.

Table 5.5 Voltages, currents and their products of different elements

415 
 
 Element 20 V 5Ω 2Ω 10 Ω 10 A
Voltage 20 V 2.5 V 17.5 V 17.5 V - 17.5 V
Current 0.7 A - 0.7 A 7.75 A 1.55 A 10 A
Product 14 - 1.75 135.625 27.125 -175

v
'
k k i  14  1.75  135.625  27.125  175  0
k 1

v
'
To check k ik  0
k 1

element voltages of case 2 and element currents of case 1 are used.

Table 5.6 Voltages, currents and their products of different elements

Element 12 V 5Ω 2Ω 10 Ω 10 A
Voltage 12 V - 3.5 V 15.5 V 15.5 V - 15.5 V
Current - 0.5 A 0.5 A 8.75 A 1.75 A 10 A
Product - 6 - 1.75 135.625 27.125 -155

v
'
k ik   6  1.75  134.625  27.125  155  0
k 1

Thus all the aspects of Tellegen’s theorem are verified.

Example 5.49

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.155, find the current IY using Millman’s theorem.

2Ω 3Ω 2.5 Ω

+ 1Ω +
1.5 Ω
10 V   + 3.25 Ω +   40 V
IY
- 20 V 12 V -
- -

Fig. 5.155 Circuit for Example 5.49.

416 
 
Solution:

10 20

2 1.5  15.7135 V ; 1
Ep1 = Rp1 =  0.8571 Ω ;
1 1 1 1
 
2 1.5 2 1.5

12 40

1 2.5  20 V ; 1
Ep2 = Rp2 =  0.7143 Ω ;
1 1 1 1
 
1 2.5 1 2.5

Given circuit reduces as shown in Fig. 5.156.

3Ω

0.8571 Ω 0.7143 Ω
+ 3.25 Ω +
IY
15.7135 V 20 V
- -

Fig. 5.156 Circuit - Example 5.49.

Again applying Millman’s theorem to simplify circuit in Fig. 5.156

15.7135 20

1
Ep = 3.8571 0.7143  19.3306 V ; Rp =  0.6027 Ω ;
1 1 1 1
 
3.8571 0.7143 3.8571 0.7143

Thus the circuit reduces as in Fig. 5.157.

0.6027 Ω
A
+
19.3306 V   IY 3.25 Ω

-
B
Fig. 5.157 Circuit - Example 5.49.

19.3306
Current IY =  5.0174 A
0.6027  3.25

417 
 
Example 5.50

In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.158, determine current IX and verify reciprocity theorem.
 
-j2Ω j5Ω
 

  5Ω
+
  3Ω 5Ω IX
10  300 V ~ 
  -

 
Fig. 5.158 Circuit for Example 5.50.

Solution:

Assuming clockwise mesh currents equations are obtained as

8  j 2 - 3   I1  1030 0 
=  
 -3
 8  j 5 I 2   0 

0 0
∆ = 65 + j 24; ∆2 = 30  30           IX = I2 = 0.4267 + j 0.0732 = 0.433  9.734 A 

Interchanging the source and response, circuit will be as in Fig. 5.159.

  -j2Ω j5Ω

  IY 5Ω
5Ω 3Ω -
  10  30 V ~
0

+
 

  Fig. 5.159 Circuit - Example 5.50.

Again assuming clockwise mesh currents equations are obtained as

8  j 2 - 3   I1   0  0
= ∆ = 65 + j 24; ∆1 = 30  30
 -3
 8  j 5 I 2  1030 0 

418 
 
IY = I1 = 0.4267 + j 0.0732 = 0.433  9.7340 A; Therefore , IX = IY 

Thus reciprocity theorem is verified. 

Example 5.51

In the circuit in Fig.5 160, calculate the current IX. If the value of the resistance is
changed from 8 Ω to 7 Ω, find the new current IX’ using compensation theorem.

8Ω
IX
2.5  0 A
0
  -j4Ω +
j 20 Ω
~  10  900 V

16 Ω -j4Ω

Fig. 5.160 Circuit for Example 5.51.

Solution:

Introducing mesh currents the circuit obtained is shown in Fig. 5.161.

8Ω

IX

-j4Ω
1.25  00 A   1.25 A
+
j 20 Ω
~ 10  90 V
0

-
I2

16 Ω -j4Ω
I1

Fig. 5.161 Circuit - Example 5.51.

419 
 
Mesh current equations are:
16 I1 + j 20 (I1 - 1.25) - j 4 (I1 - I2) = 0
8 I2 - j 4 (I2 - I1) - j 4 (I2 - 1.25) = - j 10

16  j16 j 4   I1   j 25 
Matrix form of above equations is  =
 j4 8  j 8 I 2  - j 15 

∆ = 272; ∆2 = 340 - j 240 On solving IX = I2 = 1.25 - 0.8824 = 1.53  -35.2180 A

Old current = 1.53  -35.2180 A; ∆Z = - 1 Ω;
Voltage to be inserted = 1.53  144.7810 V

Corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 5.162.

1.53  144.7810 V
7Ω

+ -
∆IX

-j4Ω

j 20 Ω

16 Ω
-j4Ω

Fig. 5.162 Circuit - Example 5.51.

(  j 4) (16  j 20)
Total impedance faced by voltage source = (7 - j 4) + = (7.5 - j 8.5) Ω
16  j16

1.53 144.781
Current ∆IX = -  (0.1313  j 0.0312) A
7.5  j 8.5

New current IX’ = 1.53  -35.2180 + (0.1313 + j 0.0312)

= (1.3812 - j 0.8512) A = 1.6224  -31.6420 A

420 
 
5.11 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which theorem can be used when a circuit has sources with different
frequencies?

(a) Thevenin’s theorem.

(b) Norton’s theorem

(c) Superposition theorem

(d) Tellegen’s theorem

2. While finding Thevenin’s impedance of a circuit containing a few independent

voltage and current sources, we have to

(a) Open circuit all the sources

(b) Short circuit all the sources

(c) Open circuit voltage sources and short circuit current sources.

(d) Open circuit current sources and short circuit voltage sources.

3. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of

(a) voltage source in series with an impedance.

(b) voltage source in parallel with an impedance.

(c) current source in series with an impedance.

(d) current source in parallel with an impedance.

4. Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of

(a) voltage source in series with an impedance.

(b) voltage source in parallel with an impedance.

421 
 
 (c) current source in series with an impedance.

(d) current source in parallel with an impedance.

5. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.163.

3Ω 6Ω
6A   0.9 i0
i0

Fig. 5.163 Circuit for Question 5,6 and 7.

Thevenin’s voltage with respect to 6 Ω resistor is

(a) 90 V (b) 180 V (c) 9.47 V (d) 20 V

6. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.163. Norton’s current is

(a) 6 A (b) 3 A (c) 2 A (d) 4 A

7. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.163. Thevenin’s resistance is

(a) 30 Ω (b) 3 Ω (c) 2 Ω (d) 6 Ω

8. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.164. Determine the Thevenin’s impedance
with respect to terminals a-b.

1Ω 1F
a
+
10 cos t V ~  1H

-
b
Fig. 5.164 Circuit for Question 8.

(a) (1 + j1) Ω (b) (1 - j 1) Ω (c) (0.5 - j 0.5) Ω (d) (0.5 + j 0.5) Ω

9. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.165, Norton’s current with respect to terminals a-b is

422 
 
 3Ω a

+ + -
+ v0 -
2 v0
18 V   2Ω 2Ω
-
b
Fig. 5.165 Circuit for Question 9.

(a) 6 A (b) 2 A (c) 3 A (d) 4.5 A

10. The maximum real power that could be transmitted to the complex variable
load impedance ZL in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.166 is

3Ω j4Ω

+
60  00 V ~  ZL

Fig. 5.166 Circuit for Question 10.

(a) 50 W (b) 100 W (c) 150 W (d) 300 W

11. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.167, the value of RL for which the real power
transferred to it is maximum is

4Ω j 12 Ω

+
RL
~ 
-

Fig. 5.167 Circuit for Question11.

(a) 4 Ω (b) 16 Ω (c) 3 Ω (d) 12.6491 Ω

423 
 
12. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.168, the Millman’s voltage across a-b is

2Ω 4Ω
+ -
20 V   20 V
- +
b

Fig. 5.168 Circuit for Question12 and 13.

(a) 6.6667 V (b) 0.8333 V (c) 3.3333 V (d) 20 V

13. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.168, the Millman’s resistance across a-b is

(a) 6 Ω (b) 1.3333 Ω (c) 0.75 Ω (d) 0.1666 Ω

14. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.169, the Millman’s voltage across a-b is

j2Ω j4Ω
+ -
0
20  0 V ~  20  00 V
- +
b

Fig. 5.169 Circuit for Question14 and 15.

(a) 40  00 V (b) 20  00 V (c) 6.6667 V (d) 0

15. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.169, the Millman’s impedance across a-b is

a) j 6 Ω (b) 1.3333 Ω (c) j 1.333 Ω (d) - j 1.3333 Ω

424 
 
Answers

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c)

5.12 PROBLEM SET 5

1. Using Superposition theorem, find the voltage V0 across the load resistor
RL = 4 Ω in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.170.

+
4Ω
4Ω 3A RL V0

6V -

Fig. 5.170 Circuit for Problem 1.

2. Use Superposition theorem to determine the voltage V0 in the circuit shown in

Fig. 5.171.

2Ω 2Ω 4Ω

6A +
+
36 V
V0 1Ω
-
-

Fig. 5.171 Circuit for Problem 2.

3. Use Superposition theorem and find I0 and V0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.172.

425 
 
6. Using Thevenin’s equivalent find the current I0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.175.
8Ω 12 V
+ -

5Ω
+ 2Ω 10 Ω I0
20 V  
-

Fig. 5.175 Circuit for Problem 6.

7. Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine current Iab in the circuit shown in

Fig. 5.176.

10 Ω 20 Ω
+
5Ω
25 V   a b

-
40 Ω 30 Ω

Fig. 5.176 Circuit for Problem 7.

8. Applying Thevenin’s theorem, determine current IC in the circuit shown in Fig.

5.177.

1.5 Ω 1.5 Ω j2Ω

24  00 V ~  3Ω 6  00 A -j2Ω
IC
-

Fig. 5.177 Circuit for Problem 8.

427 
 
9. Using Norton’s theorem find the current I0 in the circuit shown in Fig.5.178.

2.5 Ω 10 Ω

+ +
16 V   4Ω 32 V
I0
- -

Fig. 5.178 Circuit for Problem 9.

10. With respect to terminals A-B, find Norton’s current and Norton’s impedance for
the circuit shown in Fig. 5.179.
- j 2.5 Ω
A

8  00 A 4Ω j5Ω

B
Fig. 5.179 Circuit for Problem 10.

11. Using Norton’s equivalent find the current IX in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.180.
-j2Ω j5Ω

5Ω 2Ω
+
3Ω 5Ω
10  300 V ~  -j2Ω
IX
-

Fig. 5.180 Circuit for Problem 11.

12. Using Norton’s theorem, find the current I0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.181.

0.5 Ω 2.5 Ω

IX
+
2Ω I0
10 V 1.5 IX 1Ω

Fig. 5.181 Circuit for Problem 12.

428 
 
13. What is the maximum real power that could be transferred to the complex
impedance load in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.182?

5Ω j 16 Ω

+
50  00 V ~  ZL
-

Fig. 5.182 Circuit for Problem 13.

14. Find the value of RL in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.183 when the power absorbed
by it is maximum. Also compute that maximum power.
1.2 Ω 1Ω

0.4 Ω 0.6 Ω
+ RL +
123 V   117 V
- -

1.4 Ω 1.4 Ω
Fig. 5.183 Circuit for Problem 14.

15. Prove the validity of Tellegen’s theorem for the circuit shown in Fig.5.184.

0.8 Ω

+
20 V   4Ω 16 Ω
-

Fig. 5.184 Circuit for Problem 15.

429 
 
16. Using Millman’s theorem, find the current IX in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.185.

10 Ω 3Ω

+
6Ω
50 V   - 3.25 Ω IX
- 10 V
+

Fig. 5.185 Circuit for Problem 16.

17. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.186, find the current through 12 Ω resistor. Also
verify the reciprocity theorem.

2Ω 4Ω

12 Ω

8Ω 3Ω

  A C
0.1 Ω + -
 
40.438 V
 
Fig. 5.186 Circuit for Problem 17.

18. In the circuit in Fig.5 187, determine the current I0. The resistance 3.75 Ω is
changed to 3.5 Ω. Find the new current using compensation theorem.

430 
 
  

  1Ω 3Ω

  2V I0 3.75 Ω 3V

   

Fig. 5.187 Circuit for Problem 18.

Answers

1. 6V
2. 2V
3. 2 A; 10 V
4. 8 + 39.0432 cos (10 t - 38.660) V

5. 6.75 Ω
A
+
25 V  
-
B
6. - 0.3236 A

7. 0.2 A

8. 4  00 A

9. 3.2 A

10. 6.784  320 A; 5  25.990 Ω

11. 0.4754  13.80 A

12. 1.1428 A

13. 125 W

431 
 
14. 1.5 Ω; 2400 W

16. 1.25 A

17 1A

18. 0.5 A; 0.5294 A

432