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I want to read the works of great philosophers. In What's the best order to read Plato's books in
what order should I read them? order to build up the best understanding of them?

This question previously had details. They are now in a comment. Can you be a philosopher without reading
philosophy?
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Why is Nietzsche considered a great philosopher?

Which works of Western Philosophy are "must

50 Answers reads"?

Why are primary sources so important to

Toni Kannisto, Ph.D. Philosophy, University of Oslo
philosophers? You don’t see scientists reading
Answered Jan 24, 2018 · Upvoted by Ian Heckman, PhD student in philosophy. and Maria-
Newton’s original works, so why do philosophers
Elisa Giovanardi, M.Phil. Philosophy, University of Oslo (2016)
read th...
Most answers here suggest reading some introductions to philosophy. While
Who is the easiest, and least complex philosopher
that’s all fine and dandy, as the question seems to be about the works of great to read?
philosophers, i.e. primary works, I thought I would chip in with a fairly
Which philosophers should I read?
substantial list of important works from great philosophers. I order them
Which philosophers works do you recommend?
according to some hazy principle that takes into account how easy they are to What order should I read them?
read and how they might build upon each other or have important synergy – or
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something. At the end of the day, it will be just my personal list that happens to
make sense for me. More Related Questions

Caveat: I leave out non-Western philosophy because I have little expertise on it, In Other Languages
and I lean towards theoretical philosophy (metaphysics, epistemology, etc.)
Dalam bahasa Indonesia: Saya ingin membaca karya-
rather than practical (ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics) simply because of
karya para filsuf besar. Dari mana saya harus mulai
my own (lack of) knowledge. Ok, enough hedging, let’s do this! dan bagaimana urutan setelahnya?

1. There can be only one first choice: start with Plato. In many ways the father of
all Western philosophy, Plato’s thought set the stage for the more than two
millennia of philosophy to follow. I recommend:

Republic, an undisputed classic of philosophy and fairly easy to read.

Includes the famous cave allegory!

Apology, because it contains such awesome philosophy on what

philosophy is – and what it is good for.

Theaetetus, if you are interested in the fundamental epistemological

question: What is knowledge?

Phaedo, for Plato’s take on the mind and soul.

Meno, for Plato’s take on virtue and intrinsic ideas.

Parmenides, a bonus book on Plato’s metaphysics. Tougher than

others though.

2. After Plato, there was Aristotle, and since the two together constitute the
pillars of all philosophy, I recommend moving onto him next. Now, the problem
is that Aristotle is the polar opposite of Plato: whereas Plato is easy to read but
philosophically, perhaps, a bit wishy-washy, Aristotle is almost unparalleled
with his philosophical acuity and precision, yet reading him can feel like
chewing on a 2000 years old piece of parchment. Except for one work:
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Nicomachean Ethics. An immensely influential yet easy to read work

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on Aristotelian virtue ethics. (We will return to Aristotle later.) If you get
pumped up enough, do continue to its sequel Politics.

3. The third philosopher you should read is without a doubt René Descartes.
There may be two millennia of philosophy between him and the previous dudes,
but we must move on, for now, to the next great revolution in philosophy. Three
works from Descartes suggest themselves:

Meditations on First Philosophy, one of the true classics of all time,

this work takes a sceptical approach to everything that philosophy has
hitherto accomplished and sets down the ideal of certain knowledge,
and the method to gain it, for which philosophy is known.

Discourse on the Method, while less approachable than Meditations,

this work connects Descartes more tightly to the scientific revolution
that was taking place in his lifetime.

Passions of the Soul, a bonus book, if Descartes rocks your boat.

Discusses, among others, the famous mind–body problem that has
captivated and frustrated philosophers ever since.

4. Let us now look at the rise of democracy and new social and political
philosophy. It is time, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for your:

Social Contract. The book that influenced such much of

enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the development of
republicanism. Begins with the words: “Man is born free, and
everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of
others are indeed greater slaves than they.” Yeah!

Emilé, or On Education. Bonus book for those interested in education

and philosophy of pedagogics. The book is famous for making Kant
himself forget his daily afternoon walk. (Well, that’s a myth of course,
but it says something!)

5. Ok, boys and girls, let’s deconstruct philosophy: enter Ludwig Wittgenstein!
Now the argument could be made that we should first take on empiricists and
rationalists and Kant, but since historical progression of philosophy is not
necessarily the best progression, and since Kant especially has a bit of a
reputation for being a tough nut to crack, I think this is as good a time as any to
see where philosophy ended up after the dust settled on those issues. Since we
have the benefit of hindsight, let us use it!

Philosophical Investigations. In a sense this work represents a return

to a Socratic ideal of philosophy, common to some other deconstructive
works of 19th and 20th century – a string of questions in search of
wisdom more than a system of answers.

Tractatus Logico-philosophicus. If Philosophical Investigations is a

journey into the philosophical confusion of a mature thinker, Tractatus
is the final-sorry-not-final string of answers of young Wittgenstein that
eventually threw him into that confusion. It is an impressive work of
logical hubris that arose after modern logic was invented, presenting
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answers to everything – and yet with the very last sentence, destroying
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it all. Points for irony!

6. While Wittgenstein presents the logician’s journey into philosophical

deconstruction and modern rootlessness, the quintessential emotional journey
is brought to you by Søren Kierkegaard, the father of existentialism and a great
inspiration of Wittgenstein. Want to be lifted up by the beauty of his prose and
hurled into the pits of desperation by the profundity of his analysis of the
human condition? Then take a leap of faith with these works:

Fear and Trembling. If any work ever has laid bare the absurdity,
beauty, and terror of human existence in its purity, it is this.
Kierkegaard deconstructs the story of Abraham and Isaac with amazing
acuity, setting ethics and religion, knowledge and faith, on a collision
course that makes madness seem like wisdom and wisdom – madness.

Either/Or. Pits aesthetic life against ethical life, desires against duties,
and by doing so goes deep indeed into this fundamental conflict within
humans.

Concluding Scientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments. Can’t

get enough of Kierkegaard? Kierkegaard’s ode to subjectivity –
“Subjectivity is Truth” – and one of his more direct engagements with
philosophical traditions, especially with Hegelianism and its all-
devouring objectivism.

7. Now that we have cherry-picked our way through the history of western
philosophy, it is time to return to the roots: I summon you again, Aristotle, for
we still have much to discuss:

Metaphysics. This, alongside Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, is

probably the most momentous work in the history of western
philosophy, and as dry as it may appear, it should be read by anyone
serious about philosophy, contain as it does the foundations for all the
metaphysics that came after.

Organon. A collection of works that laid down the foundations of logic

and conceptual analysis – I especially recommend Categories and the
Prior and Posterior Analytics.

Poetics. The first work in literary theory ever written and an

indispensable work for anyone interested in aesthetics.

Bonus books: Physics and On the Soul. Bonus only because a) Physics
is more obsolete in many ways than most important works of
philosophy, and b) On the Soul is required reading only for those with
particular interest in the topic.

8. While Aristotelian philosophy was originally sidelined for almost a

millennium, thanks to Arabic philosophers it made a remarkable comeback
around the turn of the second millennium AD. Nowhere is the pre-eminent
status of Aristotle as clear and nowhere has it been as systematically developed
to what many consider its perfect final form than in St. Thomas Aquinas:

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Summa theologica. Medieval philosophy has been anything but in

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vogue for the longest time now, considered boring, arcane, and useless
by many – the term scholastic that refers to this period of philosophy is
synonymous for dry. Yet it would be folly to ignore the wonderful
fireworks of reason that can be found in the pages of Summa theologica.

9. Next up, David Hume, the champion of empiricism. He not only wrote
beautiful philosophy but also took empiricism to its famous conclusion (?) of
scepticism. I recommend above all the following book, or two books if Hume
sings to your soul:

A Treatise of Human Nature. This defining work of Hume spells out

the scientific method of empiricism, the famous problem of induction,
and Hume’s fork: there can be no is from ought.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Develops the

themes found in the Treatise.

10. Where there is empiricism, rationalism is close behind, and so I choose you
Benedictus de Spinoza, the awesomest rationalist that has ever blessed us with
his presence:

Ethics. This book may be difficult, but it beautifully distils the

rationalistic method into its very essence, starting from certain
fundamental premises and proceeding like a logical steamroller from
one indisputable logical move to another. Did I say indisputable? Oops –
that will return to haunt me.

If Spinoza is, at the end, too much to handle at this point, you might
consider Leibniz instead, specifically his Monadology if you like to
chew your metaphysics in aphoristic little snacks or New Essays if you
want the whole nine course meal.

11. No list of works of great philosophers could pretend to have the right to exist
without Immanuel Kant, and so we finally come to possibly the greatest
philosophical work ever written:

Critique of Pure Reason. This massive and profound (and, yeah, sure,
difficult) work forever changed the landscape of philosophy, tearing
down the battlements of age-old enemies, empiricism and rationalism,
realism and idealism, and showing that there can be a peaceful
coexistence of them all – if you are willing to pay the price. The First
Critique (for there were others) turned the focus of philosophy inward
by engaging reason in the quest of self-reflection and self-
understanding. This turn can be seen in every single piece of
philosophy that came after. It’s cool, is all I’m saying – but it is also
tough. But cool.

Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. An easier read and in

general a more accessible presentation of Kant’s revolutionary theory of
ethics: deontological or duty ethics. Read this, and if you are up for
more (and if you are already missing the awesomeness that is the First
Critique), also read the Second Critique: Critique of Practical Reason.

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Critique of the Power of Judgment. The third and final Critique, this
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works presents not only Kant’s aesthetic theory but also his views on
teleology of nature and the role he assigns to faith and religion.

What is Enlightenment? Proof that Kant can actually write accessible

and uplifting prose, this prize-winning essay presented what became
the rallying cry of enlightenment: sapere aude! – Dare to know!

12. The era of pure Kantian philosophy was short indeed, and a mere 20 years
after the publication of the First Critique, when Kant was still clinging onto life,
new winds blew German philosophy to a very different direction. Enter the
champion of post-Kantian German philosophy, G. W. F. Hegel:

The Phenomenology of Spirit. It is this work that best encapsulates

the Hegelian (or Fichtean, see below!) dialectical method of three
(published three years after Kant’s death – coincidence? I think not!):
thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Follow Hegel on a journey of human
reason from the original fact of being through consciousness all the way
to absolute knowledge. Sounds good? Just don’t expect an easy read.

Science of Logic. The official sequel to the critically acclaimed

Phenomenology, this work follows its de facto protagonist, dialectics,
through its exciting life. We meet wacky characters like nothingness and
concept – but make no mistake about it, nothing is exactly what it
seems! But concept is a bit out of your mind, maybe. (It’s a pun!)

13. Not all post-Kantian German philosophy was like Hegel’s, however, and it is
here that we come to one of the most thought-provoking philosophers of all time
(which is, I guess, a welcome trait in a philosopher), the bad-boy of philosophy
and the daydream of teenage emos all across the world: Friedrich Nietzsche.
Not Nieztsche, nor Nitzsche, nor Nietshe – N-i-e-t-z-s-c-h-e:

On the Genealogy of Morality. The definitive presentation of

Nietzsche’s ethical thinking, it tracks the history and development of
the idea of morality, complete with its deconstruction.

Thus Spake Zarathustra. The perennial work of individualism,

commonly misunderstood and tragically misused by the fascist Nazi
movement (thanks, Nietzsche’s sister!), this work is perhaps at the end
of the day a greater feat in literature than in philosophy – but don’t let
that hold you back.

Ecce homo. A peculiar work of a peculiar philosopher, Ecce homo

presents Nietzsche’s own not-entirely-non-ironic self-assessment as the
harbinger of a new philosophy.

14. Time to take a break and see what is new on the other side of the English
canal. While the developments of philosophy there might have not been as deep,
they were markedly more… practical. So let us take a look at great British
philosopher John Stuart Mill:

On Liberty. This classic work lays down the foundations of the so-
called harm principle, a libertarian concept that grants people freedom
to do what they want as long as they don’t harm themselves or others
(too much).
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Utilitarianism. Speaking of consequentialist ethics, this work is easily

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the classic presentation utilitarianism that takes the moral value of an
action to consist in the utility it produces for the society. While you are
at it, you might also consider Jeremy Bentham’s The Principles of
Morals and Legislation, the originator of utilitarianism.

15. Ok, done breathing? As I come now to the final must-read great works of the
history of philosophy, I present you also with one of the most difficult as well as
contested philosophers in this list, Martin Heidegger:

Being and Time. Despite having never finished his two-part book
series on, well, being and time, this work stands at the epicentre of 20th
century philosophy, rivalled in influence and philosophical prowess
only by the works of Wittgenstein. Being and Time is the quintessential
work of modern existentialism and phenomenology – though
Heidegger of course denied that it was either. It presents an analysis of
human existence through its temporality, thrown as we are in the ever
elusive now between birth and death. Heidegger weaves masterful
philosophy on such central aspects of human existence as care and fear,
both arising form our temporal nature, and develops the idea of a
hermeneutical circle through which we gain ever deeper understanding
of ourselves and our place in the world.

“What Is Called Thinking?”. An lecture often thought as the most

representative of his later philosophy, and as far as the title goes, an
obvious choice for any fan of philosophy.

“The Question Concerning Technology”. Technology has not stood

in the core of philosophy, though maybe it should have. Through an
analysis of technology and our relationship to it, Heidegger ultimately
finds that technology, like many a thing in Heidegger, is a fundamental
expression of truth and its unhiddenness: the way the world unfolds to
us through our inquiry. Yep.

Further Reading

While I should think there is enough of material above for years of philosophy,
we have but scratched the surface. So I wanted to present, in a temporal but
otherwise in no particular order, works that – while they may not be absolutely
essential for understanding philosophy – should be read by those who wish to
focus or gain a deeper understanding of certain philosophical traditions.

1. Antiquity

Heracleitus: Fragments. Perhaps no other pre-Socratic philosopher has

influenced and impressed philosophers more than the eminent
Heracleitus. Only fragments survive, but they are worth reading.

Sextos Empiricus: Outlines of Pyrrhonism. Perhaps the greatest

(surviving) work of sceptical philosophy of all time. A must read for
those looking for certainty – or the certainty that there is no certainty.

Marcus Aurelius: Meditations. The stoic school was and still is

influential in philosophy, but much of the original works of stoics have
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been lost. Perhaps the best work of stoicism comes, then, from this
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Roman emperor and stoic of a later period.

2. Early Middle Ages

Plotinus: Enneads. The One and true Plotinus, often shunned for his
mystical and arcane philosophical system, the Enneads present a
fantastic, wild, and rationalistic development of the (Neo-)Platonic
ideas. The influence of Plotinus on early Christianity was immense, and
some consider Plotinus one of the greatest philosophers of all time – go
see what the fuss is about!

St. Augustine of Hippo: Confessions. A beautiful book from a beautiful

mind, St. Augustine is perhaps the most approachable and touching of
all medieval philosophers. Apart from the life wisdom this work
imparts, it also is the actual origin of Descartes’s famous quip: I think,
therefore I am.

Boëthius: Consolation of Philosophy. If you ever wonder whether

philosophy is making you happy or miserable (probably both), this is
the work for you. Written by Boëthius while waiting to die (no kidding),
it is a beautiful journey through self-understanding, wisdom, and
philosophical topics like metaphysics and ethics.

3. Late Middle Ages

Ibn Rushd, a.k.a. Averroës: The Incoherence of Incoherence. A

defence of Aristotelianism against what Ibn Rushd considered to be a
corruption of Aristotle by Al-Ghazali and Ibn Sina (a.k.a. Avicenna). A
hugely influential work in Catholic medieval philosophy and in the re-
establishment of Aristotelian philosophy.

William of Ockham: Sum of Logic. Ockham wrote a massive amount of

treatises, and it is not easy to find his central philosophical ideas – such
as his famous razor. The Sum of Logic, however, at least comes close by
containing his influential idea of nominalism. It is also as good a book
as any to get to know one of the more impressive feats of medieval
philosophers: their developments in logic.

Duns Scotus: Ordinatio of the Oxford Lectures (see the Critical Edition
by Peter Simpson). Not the easiest of the medieval philosophers – I like
to call him the medieval Kant – this thinker is worth the time of a
patient reader. A great synthesiser of positions, he sought a middle
ground in the prevailing medieval disputes.

4. Renaissance

Francis Bacon: Novum Organum. Bacon’s famous work that presents

induction as the titular new instrument for scientific investigation.

Niccolò Machiavelli: The Prince. The quintessential work for those

craving for power, this work presents what is nowadays known as
Machiavellian rules and principles for wannabe-tyrants. Your cup of
tea, perhaps?

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Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan. As exciting as the name may be, this must
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be the antithesis of Machiavelli’s The Prince when it comes to
excitement of its content. Yes, it’s dry, but it is also one of the more
influential political treaties of all time.

Blaise Pascal: Pensées. Pascal’s grand theological work, presenting

among others the famous Pascal’s Wager.

5. Early Modern

John Locke: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. One of

the three great empiricists, it is very much this work that originated
modern empiricism to begin with. It also presents novel analyses of the
human mind and cognitive capacities, propelling it to the status of a
classic work in epistemology.

Bishop George Berkeley: Treatise Concerning the Principles of

Human Knowledge. The second of the three great empiricists,
Berkeley is certainly the most peculiar one and least relatable to
contemporary empiricists – with his express idealism and philosophical
reliance on God (he’s not called Bishop for nothing). Berkeley is
nonetheless an ingenious philosopher, and this book makes that
obvious to anyone with half a brain.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Monadology and New Essays. I did

mention these as alternatives to Spinoza above, but it bears repeating
that these works are, indeed, worth reading.

Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. While

not well-received by her contemporaries (I wonder why…), this is a true
classic of early (18th century) feminism. You know, back in the days
when it actually needed arguing that women are not inferior to men by
nature. Wollstonecraft’s prose is beautiful, and a must read for
everyone.

6. 19th Century

Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Foundations of the Science of Knowledge.

Oh, Fichte – the true but snubbed hero of German Idealism, the
originator of the thesis–antithesis–synthesis scheme, snatched and
better marketed by Hegel. Fichte struggled throughout his life to
present his idea to overcome Kantian limitations, with several
iterations of more or less the same work. Given that he never succeeded
in lucidity, I think it is best to just bite the bullet and read this first
attempt of his.

Friedrich Schelling: System of Transcendental Philosophy. The only

philosopher on this whole list that I personally do not get at all,
Schelling may have some more representative works (perhaps
Naturphilosophie) but as it is my right as the author of this post to do so,
I choose this one that makes most sense to me – bound up as it is with
Kant’s philosophy.

Arthur Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Representation.

Schopie my man, the Original Pessimist voted first in high school for
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the best philosophy hairdo. (Look it up!) This work, while lacking in
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that famous pessimism of his, presents his attempt to overcome
Kantian limitations (join the club) with an ingenious appeal to to our
free will – the only noumenal idea that Kant himself to an extent
accepted as a fact, indeed the fact of reason.

Gottlob Frege: Basic Laws of Arithmetic. While Frege may not be the
most accessible of philosophers, the father of modern logic certainly
deserves a shout-out. For those more interested in his influential and
ground breaking works on semantics, his later essays like “Function
and Concept” or “Concept and Object” are recommendable.

Edmund Husserl: Logical Investigations. Speaking of fathers, here we

have yet another one, of phenomenology this time. If you are interested
more in the philosophy of science of this versatile philosopher, I can
also recommend his later The Crisis of European Sciences and
Transcendental Philosophy.

C. S. Peirce: “The Fixation of Belief”. A pragmatist essay on the

methods of replacing doubt with belief, i.e. for gaining and solidifying
knowledge. Consider also “How to Make Our Ideas Clear”.

William James: Pragmatism: A New Name for some Old Ways of

Thinking. Peirce not enough pragmatism for you? Then consider the
go-to book for an overview of pragmatism.

7. Contemporary

Alfred J. Ayer: Language, Truth, and Logic. The reason why so many
20th century works in analytic philosophy are a conjunction of three
deep-sounding words, this influential book popularised logical
positivism in the English speaking world.

Bertrand Russell and Alfred Whitehead: Principia Mathematica.

Perhaps the most famous failed book of all time, the Principia is a wild
and bold attempt to ground all mathematics on logic. While I would
only recommend this to aficionados, it is certainly the great
contribution of Russell’s to philosophy, warts and all. If it is too much,
after all, then you might want to consider Russell’s considerably more
approachable essay “On Denoting”.

Simone de Beauvoir: The Second Sex. Second only in getting its due,
that is. De Beauvoir’s feminist classic might not have started feminism
but it became such an influential work that it started a second wave of
it.

Emmanuel Levinas: Totality and Infinity. As hard as they come, this

work is an ingenious attempt to develop and break free, as it were, from
what Levinas calls Heidegger’s totalitarian philosophy. Set in the
tradition of transcendental–phenomenological philosophy, this book
develops an original ethical theory where ethics is understood through
coming face-to-face with the Other. A pro-tip: if you find this work too
much, read his early essay “On Escape”, it’s awesome and
approachable.
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Michel Foucault: The Archaeology of Knowledge. The main

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methodological work in Foucault’s structuralism. Presents the idea of
how subconscious structures of society determine what we consider
possible at a given time and age.

W. V. Quine: “Two Dogmas of Empiricism”. Quick and dirty, this little

essay packs a bigger punch than most books. Brought down logical
empiricism and defined the course of analytic philosophy for decades.

Jean-Paul Sartre: Being and Nothingness. Because nothing beats

being like Being and Nothingness! Well, Existentialism is a Humanism
just might, so keep that in mind too.

Phew! That should keep you occupied for a little while!

EDIT: Streamlined and expanded the Aristotle section.

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John Roberson
What a great answer, Toni! Glad to read it....

3 more comments from Jan Špenko, Roopesh Ranjan, Donna Kennedy

Joe Smith
Answered Dec 20, 2017

I strongly recommend against starting with the histories of philosophy written

by Bertrand Russell and William Durant. They are popular and entertaining, but
they are also grossly inaccurate. There are still good reasons to read Russell’s
history, but don’t start with it. I cannot recommend Anthony Kenny’s four
volume History of Western Philosophy highly enough. You can also get it in one
huge volume. Amazon.com: A New History of Western Philosophy
(9780199656493): Anthony Kenny: Books

If you’re reading on your own and not taking a class then it might be best to start
there, since even the m... (more)

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Add a comment... Recommended All

Shyam Sundar Sridhar, I love Ethics, Political Philosophy and the

Philosophy of Biology
Answered Jan 27, 2017

Well, the book that really drew me into philosophy was Nietzsche’s Beyond Good
and Evil. I read it as part of my introductory course. At that level, the book was
way too advanced for me, but I managed to read it because I read it along with a
beginner’s guide to the book.

What you’d need to do at first is watch some YouTube lecture series that can
provide a good introduction to philosophy. One of the best that I have come
across is A History of Western Philosophy by Arthur Holmes in Wheaton College:
Arthur Holmes: A History of Philosophy - YouTube
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Gregory B. Sadler, President at ReasonIO (2011-present)

Answered Feb 1, 2018

This is a question I get asked a lot, by people of all walks of life who want to start
studying philosophy, and I always say: start with Plato.

You can always go back and study the pre-Socratic philosophers. Reading
Platonic dialogues will get you into important and very interesting primary texts
by one of the greatest philosophers of all time. Where you go from there depends
considerably on where your interests lie

1. Here’s the usual set of Platonic dialogues I recommend to begin with:

The Ion - shortest of the dialogues, about poetry, crafts, and knowledge -
also a model of poetic inspiration

T...

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