ROMAN PRINCIPATE

The idea of Roman principate came into being only at the time of
Augustus Caesar. It was the coming of the principate that led to the end of
republic in Rome. Soon after the assassination of Caesar and destruction of
first triumvirate, the Second  Civil War (44-42 BCE) broke out with Caesar’s
trusted lieutenant Marc Antony and his grandnephew Octavian forming an
alliance with M. Aemilius Lepidus. These three formed the Second Triumvirate
to combat the armies of the conspirators. The civil war ended with the battle
of Phillipi in 42 BC. The ‘last republican leaders’, Cassius and Brutus both
committed suicide after this defeat and many other young Roman aristocrats
were slain. Octavian returned to Italy while Antony stayed back in the east.
The Roman World was thus divided among the triumvirs –Octavian getting
Italy, Spain and Gaul while Antony received the eastern provinces and Lepidus
held Africa.

However cracks erupted and Lepidus was exiled and war broke out between
Antony and Octavian, leading to the Third Civil War. Octavian was assisted by
his trusted General Marcus Vispanius Agrippa and Diplomat Gaius Maecenas.
Antony was helped by his mistress, Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt. The
two forces met in the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Antony was defeated
decisively and fled to Egypt with Cleopatra VII where they both committed
suicide, thus paving the way for Octavian supremacy, hereafter until his death
Octavian retained all the powers of state. The year 27 BCE, marks the start of
Octavian Rule with the Senate honouring him with the title of “Augustus”,
which held religious connotations indicative of his all powerful status.
Thereafter he is referred to as Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-17 CE). He began an
extensive series of reform in all spheres of Roman Life. This effectively ended
the Roman Republic and started a new era in Roman Polity called the
“Principate” or the early Roman Empire.

          
  Augustus’ situation was precarious in the empire ravaged by incessant
warfare which had drained the treasury. He had to restore the confidence and
order in a shattered world. It was therefore essential that the political life and
organization of empire be stabilized. The people were longing for peace. The
roman world was ready to support the man who would bring peace and
stability. When he started reorganizing government machinery he proved
himself as one of the most gifted administrators which world was ever seen.
He got a special position in history due to his great achievement in restoring
the peace and order in Rome and its areas. This was the period of Pax
Romana-- the Roman Peace.

Pax Romana was a wise arrangement of Augustus which safeguarded the

stability and prosperity of the Mediterranean and permitted the extension of
civilization far inland. It lasted for over two centuries from his reign. One of
his major intentions was to establish order at Rome and to ensure that
plebeians did not engaging in rioting. His imperium over the province was
defined as superior to that of other magistrate. The boundaries of the empire
were insecure; the provinces were sullen and discontent. There were a large
number of war veterans who had to be settled in Italy these were among a
host of problem confronting Augustus. He started off settling the veterans in
Italy and its neighbouring provinces and whatever remained was formed into
a permanent army and navy. In 27 BCE the senate granted him proconsular
imperium over Spain, Gaul and Syria for a 10 year period and granted him the
title Augustus. He proclaimed the restoration of the Republic but however
behind the veneer of the Republic was the strong hand of Augustus. He was
the “princeps” or first citizen of Rome. Technically the Republican Government
continued in the same old fashion. The senatorial provinces to which senate
assigned proconsuls were subject to Augustus overriding power (maius
imperium). The Roman Army which had bloated to 50 legions during the civil
war was cut to 28 legions. It was no longer a conscripted army instead a group
of professionals serving for period of 20 years. Along with the Legions which
were all citizen body a new provincial army called the Auxilia was formed.
These consisted of provincials who after 25 years of service were granted
Roman citizenship. These were then posted to areas which suffered frequent
outbreaks of rebellion.

Augustus raised a new force to guard himself, which was called the Praetorian
Guard. There were nine cohorts of these based in Italy with three being on the
outskirts of Rome. One cohort consisted of six hundred solidiers. This served
as Augustus’ personal guard and helped maintain law and order. To this he
added another group called the Urban Cohorts -- the police force of Rome.
These were the only military forces permanently stationed in Italy. But the
overall responsibility for keeping peace was given to a magistrate known as
praefectus urbi. He was king’s deputy. But he had all powers except
jurisdiction over the praectorian guards. He was the intermediator between
kings and magistrates. Augustus had seven cohorts and four night watchmen.

There was supplying of free ration to poor citizens. The vast empire provided
the roman state with the resources for obtaining large quantity of grain to
feed the capital. Africa was being a main supplier of grains to Rome. At the
time of Augustus, three censuses were taken and the eligibility for free grain
was determined through these censuses. He reduced the number of senators
to 600. Egypt was like a personal belonging to the king. The army was now
sent to conquer Germania and secure the northern boundaries of the Empire.
Thus, in 15 BCE Switzerland and Austria fell into Roman hands. Attacks by
Agrippa and Tiberius bought Roman power to the middle of the Danube and
further campaigns led to the conquest of Moesia (Bulgaria). Thus by the 9 BCE
Roman army had reached the banks of the Elbe. No Roman Leader had ever
added so much territory as did Augustus. Conquest however, was easier than
consolidation and soon revolts were breaking out in these areas. In 9 CE
Governor of Germania, Inferior P. Quinctilius Varus was sucked into a trap in
the Teutoburger Forest by Arminius. Three legions were wiped out, Varus
committed suicide and Germany was lost. In Spain, a revolt was going on that
time under Seritorius. So Augustus initiated a policy of settling Romans in
north and western Spain. Latifundias came up in Spain and Gaul. He promoted
latinizaion of western provinces of the empire. Morocco was Latinized due to
the influence of Rome. Ageing Augustus didn’t have the military strength or
energy to launch a reconquest and thus the Roman frontier remained on the
Rhine. Thus began a period of frontier defense when the legions were
stationed at the borders. These legions became the source of Romanization.
Near its posts rose colonies which often developed into cities. The entire
Mediterranean was under Roman control .So long distance trade and
commerce flourished. It was by exploiting the intense desire for peace and
stability; he transformed the republic to monarchy. People considered him as
a semi divine person. The name of Julius Caesar was crucial for justifying the
absolute authority of Augustus.

Augustus was followed by a series of Julo- Claudian Rulers till 68 CE. These
were Tiberius (14-37 CE) and Gaius Gracchus (37-41 CE), Claudius (41-54 CE)
and Nero (54-68 CE). Nero eliminated all his rivals and killed the prominent
senators even his mother and aunt. He was the last ruler from Augustus
family. Following the overthrow of Nero by the revolt of the provincial
armies, the military became the kingmaker. Already in 41 CE the Praetorian
Guard had installed Claudius in opposition to the Senate. The major armies
engaged in a quick but violent civil war which threw up the General T. Flavius
Vespasianus (69-79 CE) as the Emperor. Vespasian’s two sons Titus (79-81
CE) and Domitian (81-96 CE) ruled in succession, until the safety valve of
assassination again came into play and removed Domitian. Nerva (96-98)
became the emperor and he started adopting successors during the life time
of the emperor with the support of Senate and the army. Therefore, at the end
of the 1st Century AD Rome was still growing strong under the successful
working of the Roman Administration under the Principate founded by
Augustus. 96- 180 AD was known as the golden age or roman empire which
saw the rise of 4 important rulers. After Nerva, Trajan (98-117) became the
emperor. He had the policy of empire expansion. He annexed the land across
the Danube. He was dide in AD 117 and Hadrian (117-138) became the ruler.
He continued with the policy of defence. After him, in 138 AD Antonius Pius
became the emperor. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius (161-180). They
together known as ‘The Antonines’. After him, his son Commodus, then
Pertinax, and later septimius servus became the emperors. He was the first
emperor of African origin. So he made the recruiting of solidiers from all parts
of the empire. He reduced the role of senate in the government. He was
succeeded by his son Caracalla. He extended citizenship rights to all citizens in
212 AD. But by this time socio, economical and political problems started in
Rome. He was not able to cop up with the financial burden of the state. This
led to the debasement of coins and taxes were increased. He was murdered.
After Caracalla, many rulers came and ruled Rome. But all of them were either
murdered or they didn’t rule for a long time. So in 235 AD, the idea Principate
came to an end and a triangular conflict between the emperor, senate and
army began.

Thus, the story of Roman Empire has woven into itself vivid hues of human
nature—passion, conspiracy, compromise and of course, betrayal. However, in
an empire riding high on ambitions, treachery was but just a tool to fulfil the
innate desire to savour the fruit of power and position. For centuries stand
witness to the fact that trust and betrayal go hand in hand in making empires
as well as ruining them, and, the legacy still continues.