Abstract

In the 1980’s new requirements were issued to make radar systems to meet criteria for
low radar cross-section characteristics. These requirements simultaneously created a need for
improvement of radar cross-section measurement techniques to validate the performance of the
designs. Thus was the advent of the modern technologies of short pulse instrumentation radars,
specially designed outdoor RCS ranges, advanced indoor compact ranges, and low RCS pylons
for mounting and positioning the test articles. In this talk I review the current state of these
technologies and the measurement systems they support.
Here we are studying the prediction radar cross section measurements for different target
shapes and here we are devolving the mat lab coding to simulate the output graphs for different
objects.
 1. Introduction
This is an introductory presentation that will acquaint the general electromagnetic community
with the critical performance parameters of test gear for making good RCS measurements: I
review compact range designs that support RCS measurement -- background subtraction,
minimization of secondary room scattering, and wideband low ringing feeds. I discuss the
performance parameters of instrumentation radars; both compare short pulse and gated CW
types. I discuss the different performance requirements for the radars dictated by outdoor and
indoor ranges. I describe pylon target mounting schemes and show how the influence of the
target support upon the RCS measurement can be reduced. I describe the features of RCS
measurement systems that differentiate them necessarily from conventional systems for standard
automated antenna measurements. And here we will show how the radar cross section depends
on the aspect angle, frequency and polarization by using matlab simulation results
 2. Survey on Radar Cross-Section

From the IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms, radar cross section is defined as follows: For a
given scattering object, upon which a plane wave is incident, that portion of the scattering cross
section corresponding to a specified polarization component of the scattered wave. See also
scattering cross section. [1] And scattering cross section is defined as follows:
For a scattering object and an incident plane wave of a given frequency, polarization, and
direction, an area that, when multiplied by the power flux density of the incident wave, would
yield sufficient power that could produce, by isotropic radiation, the same radiation intensity as
that in a given direction from the scattering object. [2] When expressed as a mathematical
equation, then the radar cross section _ may be written as

Where R is the far-field distance. [2] Radar cross section is a far-field quantity and the
illuminating and scattered waves can be taken as plane waves with complex amplitudes Einc and
Escat. It is dependent upon the direction of arrival of the incident wave (φi, θi) and the direction of
observation of the scattered wave (φs,θs) and is in general designated as the bistatic cross
section. When the two directions are coincident it is known as the monostatic cross section.
Radar cross section is the “capture area” of the object for incident radiation which is presumed to
be then re-radiated isotropically. _ has the dimensions of area. A schematic diagram of a typical
far field arrangement for making RCS measurements is shown in Fig. 1. Often the transmitter
and receiver are separated by a small angle to improve the isolation and make the measurement
more sensitive to small return signals. The target is rotated in one or two axes, azimuth and
elevation, to change the relative direction to the radar.
The radar cross section of an object is a measure of its degree of visibility to a radar. The cross
section is typically expressed in dB relative to a square meter – dBsm. It is a function of
direction, of frequency, and of the polarization of the incident wave. In general two scattered
plane waves emerge for each direction of observation each corresponding to one of two
orthogonal polarizations.

A modern radar cross section range must be able to set and control the parameters that pertain to
these quantities. An instrumentation radar typically can cover a continuous frequency range of
1.0 to 20 GHz or perhaps 0.1 to 40 GHz. It has the capability to switch among a set of antennas
that correspond to individual bands within this range. It often can transmit and receive via each
of two polarization channels on each antenna. It performs these measurements while controlling
the target to execute step-scan azimuth-elevation motion presenting all of the desired aspect
angles to the radar. All of this along with the capability to transmit and receive pulses of very
short duration – typically 10 to 100 ns – and to digitize and record the received amplitude and
phase of the scattered wave. The result of a typical measurement of a target with such a radar is a
very large quantity of data that must be further processed for analysis and display.

Radar cross section (RCS) is a measure of how detectable an object is with a radar. A larger
RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected.

When radar waves are beamed at a target, only a certain amount is reflected back. A number of
different factors determine how much electromagnetic energy returns to the source such as:
  material of which the target is made;
 absolute size of the target;
 relative size of the target (in relation to the wavelength of the illuminating radar);
 the incident angle (angle at which the RADAR beam hits a particular portion of target
which depends upon shape of target and its orientation to the RADAR source);
 reflected angle (angle at which the reflected beam leaves the part of the target hit, it
depends upon incident angle);
 strength of the radar emitter;
 Distance between emitter-target-receiver.

While important in detecting targets, strength of emitter and distance are not factors that affect
the calculation of a RCS because the RCS is (approximately) only a property of the target.

For example, a stealth aircraft (which is designed to be undetectable) will have design features
that give it a low RCS (such as absorbent paint, smooth surfaces, surfaces specifically angled to
reflect signal somewhere other than towards the source), as opposed to a passenger airliner that
will have a high RCS (bare metal, rounded surfaces effectively guaranteed to reflect some signal
back to the source, lots of bumps like the engines, antennae, &c.). RCS is integral to the
development of radar stealth technology, particularly in applications involving aircraft and
ballistic missiles. RCS data for current military aircraft are almost all classified.

2.1 Definition

Informally, the RCS of an object is the cross-sectional area of a perfectly reflecting sphere that
would produce the same strength reflection as would the object in question. (Bigger sizes of this
imaginary sphere would produce stronger reflections.) Thus, RCS is an abstraction: The radar
cross-sectional area of an object does not necessarily bear a direct relationship with the physical
cross-sectional area of that object but depends upon other factors.

Somewhat less informally, the RCS of a radar target is an effective area that intercepts the
transmitted radar power and then scatters that power isotropically back to the radar receiver.

More precisely, the RCS of a radar target is the hypothetical area required to intercept the
transmitted power density at the target such that if the total intercepted power were re-radiated
isotropically, the power density actually observed at the receiver is produced.[1] This is a complex
statement that can be understood by examining the monostatic (radar transmitter and receiver co-
located) radar equation one term at a time:

2.2 Factors that affect RCS

Size

As a rule, the larger an object, the stronger it’s RADAR reflection and thus the greater its RCS.
Also, RADAR of one band may not even detect certain size objects. For example. 10 cm (S-band
RADAR) can detect rain drops but not clouds whose droplets are too small.

Material

Materials such as metal are strongly radar reflective and tend to produce strong signals. Wood
and cloth (such as portions of planes and balloons used to be commonly made) or plastic and
fiber glass are less reflective or indeed transparent to RADAR making them suitable for
radomes. Even a very thin layer of metal can make an object strongly radar reflective.
Also, some devices are designed to be RADAR active, such as RADAR antennae and this will
increase RCS.

RADAR absorbent paint

The SR-71 Blackbird and other planes were painted with a special "iron ball paint". This
consisted of small metallic-coated balls. RADAR energy is converted to heat rather than being
reflected.

Shape, directivity and orientation

The surfaces of the F-117A are designed to be flat and very angled. This has the effect that
RADAR will be incident at a large angle (to the normal ray) that will then bounce off at a
similarly high reflected angle; it is back-scattered. The edges are sharp to prevent there being
rounded surfaces. Rounded surfaces will often have some portion of the surface normal to the
RADAR source. As any ray incident along the normal will reflect back along the normal this will
make for a strong reflected signal.

From the side, a fighter plane will present a much larger area than the same plane when viewed
from the front. All other factors being equal, the plane will have a stronger signal from the side
than from the front so the orientation between the RADAR station and the target is important.

Smooth surfaces

The relief of a surface could contain indentations that act as corner reflectors which would
increase RCS from many orientations. This could arise from open bomb-bays, engine intakes,
ordnance pylons, joints between constructed sections, &c. Also, it can be impractical to coat
these surfaces with radar-absorbent materials.
2.3 Measurement

Measurement of a target's RCS is performed at a radar reflectivity range or scattering range. The
first type of range is an outdoor range where the target is positioned on a specially shaped low
RCS pylon some distance down-range from the transmitters. Such a range eliminates the need
for placing radar absorbers behind the target, however multi-path interactions with the ground
must be mitigated.

An anechoic chamber is also commonly used. In such a room, the target is placed on a rotating
pillar in the center, and the walls, floors and ceiling are covered by stacks of radar absorbing
material. These absorbers prevent corruption of the measurement due to reflections. A compact
range is an anechoic chamber with a reflector to simulate far field conditions.

2.4 Reduction

RCS reduction is chiefly important in stealth technology for aircraft, missiles, ships, and other
military vehicles. With smaller RCS, vehicles can better evade radar detection, whether it be
from land-based installations, guided weapons or other vehicles. Reduced signature design also
improves platforms' overall survivability through the improved effectiveness of its radar counter-
measures.

Several methods exist. The distance at which a target can be detected for a given radar
configuration varies with the fourth root of its RCS. [3] Therefore, in order to cut the detection
distance to one tenth, the RCS should be reduced by a factor of 10,000. Whilst this degree of
improvement is challenging it is often possible when influencing platforms during the
concept/design stage and using experts and advanced computer code simulations to implement
the control options described below.
Purpose shaping

With purpose shaping, the shape of the target’s reflecting surfaces is designed such that they
reflect energy away from the source. The aim is usually to create a “cone-of-silence” about the
target’s direction of motion. Due to the energy reflection, this method is defeated by using
Passive (multistatic) radars.

Purpose-shaping can be seen in the design of surface faceting on the F-117A Nighthawk stealth
fighter. This aircraft, designed in the late 1970s though only revealed to the public in 1988, uses
a multitude of flat surfaces to reflect incident radar energy away from the source. Yue suggests
that limited available computing power for the design phase kept the number of surfaces to a
minimum. The B-2 Spirit stealth bomber benefited from increased computing power, enabling its
contoured shapes and further reduction in RCS. The F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II continue
the trend in purpose shaping and promise to have even smaller monostatic RCS.

Active cancellation

With active cancellation, the target generates a radar signal equal in intensity but opposite in
phase to the predicted reflection of an incident radar signal (similarly to noise canceling ear
phones). This creates destructive interference between the reflected and generated signals,
resulting in reduced RCS. To incorporate active cancellation techniques, the precise
characteristics of the waveform and angle of arrival of the illuminating radar signal must be
known, since they define the nature of generated energy required for cancellation. Except against
simple or low frequency radar systems, the implementation of active cancellation techniques is
extremely difficult due to the complex processing requirements and the difficulty of predicting
the exact nature of the reflected radar signal over a broad aspect of an aircraft, missile or other
target.

Radar absorbent material

With radar absorbent material (RAM), it can be used in the original construction, or as an
addition to highly reflective surfaces. There are at least three types of RAM: resonant, non-
resonant magnetic and non-resonant large volume. Resonant but somewhat 'lossy' materials are
applied to the reflecting surfaces of the target. The thickness of the material corresponds to one-
quarter wavelength of the expected illuminating radar-wave (a Salisbury screen). The incident
radar energy is reflected from the outside and inside surfaces of the RAM to create a destructive
wave interference pattern. This results in the cancellation of the reflected energy. Deviation from
the expected frequency will cause losses in radar absorption, so this type of RAM is only useful
against radar with a single, common, and unchanging frequency. Non-resonant magnetic RAM
uses ferrite particles suspended in epoxy or paint to reduce the reflectivity of the surface to
incident radar waves. Because the non-resonant RAM dissipates incident radar energy over a
larger surface area, it usually results in a trivial increase in surface temperature, thus reducing
RCS at the cost of an increase in infrared signature. A major advantage of non-resonant RAM is
that it can be effective over a wide range of frequencies, whereas resonant RAM is limited to a
narrow range of design frequencies. Large volume RAM is usually resistive carbon loading
added to fiberglass hexagonal cell aircraft structures or other non-conducting components. Fins
of resistive materials can also be added. Thin resistive sheets spaced by foam or aerogel may be
suitable for space craft.

Thin coatings made of only dielectrics and conductors have very limited absorbing bandwidth, so
magnetic materials are used when weight and cost permit, either in resonant RAM or as non-
resonant RAM.

Optimization methods

Thin non-resonant or broad resonance coatings can be modeled with a Leontovich impedance
boundary condition (see also electrical impedance). This is the ratio of the tangential electric
field to the tangential magnetic field on the surface, and ignores fields propagating along the
surface within the coating. This is particularly convenient when using boundary element method
calculations. The surface impedance can be calculated and tested separately. For an isotropic
surface the ideal surface impedance is equal to the 377 ohm impedance of free space. For non-
isotropic (anisotropic) coatings, the optimal coating depends on the shape of the target and the
radar direction, but duality, the symmetry of Maxwell's equations between the electric and
magnetic fields, tells one that optimal coatings have η 0 × η1 = 3772 Ω2, where η0 and η1 are
perpendicular components of the anisotropic surface impedance, aligned with edges and/or the
radar direction. A perfect electric conductor has more back scatter from a leading edge for the
linear polarization with the electric field parallel to the edge and more from a trailing edge with
the electric field perpendicular to the edge, so the high surface impedance should be parallel to
leading edges and perpendicular to trailing edges, for the greatest radar threat direction, with
some sort of smooth transition between.

To calculate the radar cross section of such a stealth body, one would typically do one
dimensional reflection calculations to calculate the surface impedance, then two dimensional
numerical calculations to calculate the diffraction coefficients of edges and small three
dimensional calculations to calculate the diffraction coefficients of corners and points. The cross
section can then be calculated, using the diffraction coefficients, with the physical theory of
diffraction or other high frequency method, combined with physical optics to include the
contributions from illuminated smooth surfaces and Fock calculations to calculate creeping
waves circling around any smooth shadowed parts.

Optimization is in the reverse order. First one does high frequency calculations to optimize the
shape and find the most important features, then small calculations to find the best surface
impedances in the problem areas, then reflection calculations to design coatings. One should
avoid large numerical calculations that run too slowly for numerical optimization or distract
workers from the physics, even when massive computing power is available.

2.5 RCS of an Antenna

For the case of an antenna the total RCS can be divided into two separate components as
Structural Mode RCS and Antenna Mode RCS. The two components of the RCS relates to the
two scattering phenomena that takes place at the antenna. When an electromagnetic signal falls
on an antenna surface, some part of the electromagnetic energy is scattered back to the space.
This is called structural mode scattering. The remaining part of the energy is absorbed due to the
antenna effect. Some part of the absorbed energy is again scattered back into the space due to the
impedance mismatches, called antenna mode scattering
 3. Classical Targets and Scattering Standards

The best known example of a radar target of known scattering properties is a conducting sphere
whose backscatter cross section in the optical regime is given by the formula

Where r is the radius of the sphere and _ is the wavelength of the radiation [2]. There are three
scattering regimes for the sphere: (1) the Rayleigh region, (2) the resonance region and (3) the
optical region. All three regions can often be used as a calibration standard for scattering
measurements when the range is free of unwanted reflections.
Another classical target used as a standard is a rectangular flat plate of area A whose monostatic
cross section is

Whereas the cross section of the sphere is independent of frequency in the optical regime and is
equal to the area of the circle formed by its projection onto a plane, the cross section of the plate
depends strongly on frequency and is much greater than its physical area by the factor, 4π A/λ 2,
when its dimension is much greater than a wavelength. For a discussion of the RCS of simple
shapes and examples of patterns, please see below Experience on outdoor ranges and recent
research and development efforts have led workers in the field to prefer short cylinders as
calibration standards. They have the advantage of better rejection of unwanted signals along with
insensitivity to directional variation. These are now available in various sizes and extensive
modeling efforts provide accurate values for the backscatter cross section.

RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS)

Radar cross section is the measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of
the radar receiver, i.e. it is a measure of the ratio of backscatter power per steradian (unit solid
angle) in the direction of the radar (from the target) to the power density that is intercepted by the
target.

The RCS of a target can be viewed as a comparison of the strength of the reflected signal from a
target to the reflected signal from a perfectly smooth sphere of cross sectional area of 1 m2 as
shown in Figure 1 .
The conceptual definition of RCS includes the fact that not all of the radiated energy falls on the
target. A target’s RCS (σ) is most easily visualized as the product of three factors:

σ = Projected cross section x Reflectivity x Directivity.

RCS(σ) is used in Section 4 for an equation representing power reradiated from the target.

Reflectivity: The percent of intercepted power reradiated (scattered) by the target.

Directivity: The ratio of the power scattered back in the radar's direction to the power that would
have been backscattered had the scattering been uniform in all directions (i.e. isotropically).
Figures 2 and 3 show that RCS does not equal geometric area. For a sphere, the RCS, σ= πr2,
where r is the radius of the sphere.

The RCS of a sphere is independent of frequency if operating at sufficiently high

frequencies where λ<<Range, and λ<< radius (r). Experimentally, radar return reflected from
a target is compared to the radar return reflected from a sphere which has a frontal or projected
area of one square meter (i.e. diameter of about 44 in). Using the spherical shape aids in field or
laboratory measurements since orientation or positioning of the sphere will not affect radar
reflection intensity measurements as a flat plate would. If calibrated, other sources (cylinder, flat
plate, or corner reflector, etc.) could be used for comparative measurements.

To reduce drag during tests, towed spheres of 6", 14" or 22" diameter may be used instead of the
larger 44" sphere, and the reference size is 0.018, 0.099 or 0.245 m2 respectively instead of 1
m2. When smaller sized spheres are used for tests you may be operating at or near where 8-
radius. If the results are then scaled to a 1 m2 reference, there may be some perturbations due to
creeping waves. See the discussion at the end of this section for further details.
In Figure 4, RCS patterns are shown as objects are rotated about their vertical axes (the arrows
indicate the direction of the radar reflections). The sphere is essentially the same in all directions.
The flat plate has almost no RCS except when aligned directly toward the radar. The corner
reflector has an RCS almost as high as the flat plate but over a wider angle, i.e., over ±60E. The
return from a corner reflector is analogous to that of a flat plate always being perpendicular to
your collocated transmitter and receiver. Targets such as ships and aircraft often have many
effective corners. Corners are sometimes used as calibration targets or as decoys, i.e. corner
reflectors. An aircraft target is very complex. It has a great many reflecting elements and shapes.
The RCS of real aircraft must be measured. It varies significantly depending upon the direction
of the illuminating radar.
Figure 5 shows a typical RCS plot of a jet aircraft. The plot is an azimuth cut made at zero
degrees elevation (on the aircraft horizon). Within the normal radar range of 3-18 GHz, the radar
return of an aircraft in a given direction will vary by a few dB as frequency and polarization vary
(the RCS may change by a factor of 2-5). It does not vary as much as the flat plate.

As shown in Figure 5, the RCS is highest at the aircraft beam due to the large physical area
observed by the radar and perpendicular aspect (increasing reflectivity). The next highest RCS
area is the nose/tail area, largely because of reflections off the engines or propellers. Most self-
protection jammers cover a field of view of +/- 60 degrees about the aircraft nose and tail, thus
the high RCS on the beam does not have coverage. Beam coverage is frequently not provided
due to inadequate power available to cover all aircraft quadrants, and the side of an aircraft is
theoretically exposed to a threat 30% of the time over the average of all scenarios. Typical radar
cross sections are as follows: Missile 0.5 sq m; Tactical Jet 5 to 100 sq m; Bomber 10 to 1000 sq
m; and ships 3,000 to 1,000,000 sq m. RCS can also be expressed in decibels referenced to a
square meter (dBsm) which equals 10 log (RCS in m2). Again, Figure 5 shows that these values
can vary dramatically. The strongest return depicted in the example is 100 m2 in the beam, and
the weakest is slightly more than 1 m2 in the 135E/225E positions. These RCS values can be
very misleading because other factors may affect the results. For example, phase differences,
polarization, surface imperfections, and material type all greatly affect the results. In the above
typical bomber example, the measured RCS may be much greater than 1000 square meters in
certain circumstances (90E, 270E).
 4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REDUCTION OF RCS

If each of the range or power equations that have an RCS (σ) term is evaluated for the
significance of decreasing RCS, Figure 6 results. Therefore, an RCS reduction can increase
aircraft survivability. The equations used in Figure 6 are as follows:

Range (radar detection): From the 2-way range equation

Therefore, R4 directly proportional to σ

Range (radar burn-through): The crossover equation

Therefore, RBT 2 directly proportional to σ

Power (jammer): Equating the received signal return (Pr) in the two way range equation to the
received jammer signal (Pr) in the one way range equation, the following relationship results:
Therefore, Pj directly proportional to σ Note: jammer transmission line loss is combined with the
jammer antenna gain to obtain Gt.
 5. RCS Measurement Systems

In Fig. is illustrated a block diagram of an automated system for making RCS measurements.
[11] It is based upon an antenna measurement receiver that is designed to operate in continuous
wave (CW) mode.

Block Diagram of an Automated RCS Measurement System

The performance parameters are summarized in Table 1 below.

This system represents a design of modest performance that would be appropriate for compact
ranges of intermediate size – 12 ft (3.66 m) focal lengths and test zone dimensions of 4 to 6 ft
(1.2 to 1.8 m). It can achieve a sensitivity of –70 dBsm at frequencies below 18 GHz. Clutter
levels of –60 to –65 dBsm are attainable in chambers of sufficient size. In some cases the target
supports based upon foam columns above a simple azimuth rotator are preferred over metal
pylons.

One technique for reducing the range clutter is “background subtraction.” The technique consists
of first measuring an empty chamber without the target mounted and saving the phase/amplitude
data file, designating the data as characteristic of the chamber background. Then the same
measurement is repeated with the target now mounted in place. This second data set is
considered to represent the phasor sum of the target plus the chamber background. The improved
data consists of the subtracted difference between the two files and is considered to represent the
scattering characteristic of the target alone. Of course the entire complement of chamber and
hardware must be stable over time and temperature for this method to work. To use it one
assumes that there is no “shadowing” of the chamber by the mounted target so that the
background is not affected by the presence of the target.

The difference between “short pulse” and gated CW RCS measurement systems is the bandwidth
of the receiving IF subsystem. Necessarily the transmitter must have a wide bandwidth to
produce narrow pulses with fast nanosecond risetimes; and the front end of the receiving
subsystem must have wide bandwidth to gate the returning signal. But the intermediate
frequency receiving subsystem may be of the narrow bandwidth type often found on antenna
ranges – or, it may be capable of preserving the rise- and fall- times of the individual pulses.
There is a large gap in complexity and cost between these two regimes. Often gated CW system
adapt microwave network analyzers to serve as the IF measurement receiver. But, only specially
designed wide bandwidth IF amplifier and A/D converter chains are capable of processing
individual pulses. For more information on short pulse instrumentation radars please see
Reference [10].
 6. Imaging of RCS Data

Automated RCS measurement systems readily acquire RCS data as functions of frequency and
aspect angle. Because the waveforms are pulsed, the pulse width and repetition rate of the
transmitted pulse is set through by computer control as well as the delay and width of the receive
gate. Typically multiple polarization states of the incident and returning waves are also
controlled. Some types of data acquisition and processing routines are listed below:

RCS vs. Aspect Angle:

Set the frequency to a fixed value and scan the azimuth and/or elevation axes of the target
rotator. This is the classical RCS pattern measurement.
RCS vs. Frequency:
Set the azimuth and elevation position angles of the target to fixed values and step or sweep
frequency through a range of values.
RCS vs. Range (Range Walk):
Set the azimuth and elevation position angles and step the gate delay through a set of values
starting at zero and ending with the range length beyond the target. This is used to identify range
artifacts and to confirm the choice of range gate delay setting in the two measurement procedures
above.

RCS vs. Cross Range:

By performing a Fourier transform on an “RCS vs Azimuth” data trace, one obtains an “RCS vs
Cross Range data trace, where the cross range coordinate is in units of distance measured
laterally across the target on a horizontal line that is perpendicular to the range axis.
RCS vs. Down Range:
By performing an inverse Fourier transform on an “RCS vs Frequency” data trace, one obtains
an “RCS vs. Radial Distance” along the range axis.
RCS Image Formation or Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) Imaging:
By performing a two-dimensional Fourier transform on a data set that is RCS vs Azimuth Angle
& Frequency, one obtains a two-dimensional data set that is RCS vs cross range distance &
down range distance. This resulting data set is termed an “Image of the Target” because of it can
be readily compared to a perspective optical view of the target.
7. SIMULATION OF RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS) USING GRAPHICAL USER
INTERFACE (GUI)

The Radar Cross Section (RCS) ‘σ’ is a function of the target size, shape, and
material and can be used by the radar as a means of discrimination. The value of a target
cross section ‘σ’ that is used in the radar equation is the equivalent cross section of a sphere
that will produce the same echo at the radar. Radar RCS usually fluctuates over a period of
time as a function of frequency and the target orientation with respect to the radar (aspect
angle).

Electromagnetic waves are normally diffracted or scattered when incident on an

object; and in order to accurately determine a target cross section, one must solve
Maxwell’s equations, with the proper set of boundary conditions. Obtaining a closed form of
Maxwell’s equations for a scattered field from a complex object is not an easy task; thus
numerical solutions are often implemented using high-speed computers. However Maxwell’s
equations can be solved to determine the RCS for simple shaped objects such as sphere,
cone, etc.
 The table below shows RCS formulas, as a function of the wavelength, for some
simple objects.

OBJECT RCS

Ellipsoid

Circular Flat
Plate

Truncated
Cone
(Frustum)

Cylinder

Rectangular
Flat Plate

Triangular Flat
Plate

Target cross sections of complex or extended targets such as aircrafts, ships and
missiles are complicated and difficult to obtain. In such cases, the best radar RCS estimates
are those obtained experimentally. However, experimentally RCS measurements may not
always be possible. In such cases, estimates of the target physical shape and dimensions
are used to compute RCS estimate using computer simulations.

Since a target cross section is very sensitive to aspect angle, unless the target is
stationary, change (fluctuate) over a period of time. Swerling has calculated the detection
probability densities for different types of target fluctuations widely known as swerling-I
through swerling-IV. Targets that do not have any fluctuations are normally referred to as
swerling-0 or swerling-V targets.

In swerling-I, the radar received pulses have constant amplitude throughout an

entire scan, but are uncorrelated from scan to scan (slow fluctuation). The probability
density function (pdf) corresponding to swerling-I targets is

Where ‘σav’ denotes the average RCS over all target fluctuation. Swerling-II target
fluctuation is more rapid than swerling-I, but the measurements are pulse to pulse
uncorrelated. Swerling I and II apply to targets consisting of many independent fluctuating
point scatterers of approximately equal physical dimensions.

Swerling III and IV have the pdfs, and it is given by

The fluctuations in swerling III are similar to swerling I, while in swerling IV they are similar
to swerling II fluctuations. Swerlings II and IV are more applicable to targets that can be
represented by one dominant scatterer and many other small reflectors.

The figure below shows the typical plot of the pdfs for swerling cases.
 RADAR CROSS SECTION

The amount of power that is reflected back to the radar depends largely on a quantity called the
radar cross section (RCS.) Although RCS is technically an area and typically expressed in square
meters (m²).

Radar cross section is usually represented by the Greek letter  (pronounced "sigma"),
and the quantity depends on three factors.

1. Geometric cross section:

The geometric cross section refers to the area the target presents to the radar, or its
projected area. This area will vary depending on the angle, or aspect, the target presents to the
radar. The geometric cross section (A) determines how much power transmitted by the radar
(Pincident) is intercepted by the target (Pintercepted) according to the following relationship:

2. Reflectivity:
Reflectivity refers to the fraction of the intercepted power that is reflected by the
target, regardless of direction. Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of power scattered by
the target (Pscatter) to the power intercepted by the target (Pintercepted).

3. Directivity:
Directivity is related to reflectivity but refers to the power scattered back in the direction
of the transmitting radar. The power that is reflected toward the radar is called the
backscattered power (Pbackscatter). We've already noted that radar energy is not reflected
evenly, but directivity is defined as the ratio of the power that is backscattered in the
direction of the radar to the power that would have been scattered in that direction if the
scattering were in fact uniform in all directions. If the power were to scatter equally, it
 would form a sphere expanding uniformly in all directions from the target. This type of
behavior is called isotropic expansion. Isotropic power (Pisotropic) is defined as the power
that is scattered in a perfect sphere over a unit solid angle of that sphere, as shown in the
following equation.

We have mentioned that the power reflected by the target can be much stronger in some
directions than in others. As a result, that reflected power will be much greater or much
smaller than the isotropic power depending on how the target is oriented to the
transmitting radar. The directivity, therefore, will be much greater than 1 when the target
returns a strong backscatter in the direction of the radar and much less than 1 when the
backscatter is small.

. These three factors can be combined to determine the complete radar

cross section () for a target

Simplifying that expression yields the following relationship for radar cross section.
 The RCS of simple shapes like spheres, cylinders, and flat plates, and shapes are
ordered based on the relative strength of the maximum RCS. The strength of the radar return is
also a function of the angle at which the radar waves impact against the surface, or the incident
angle. This angle is a function of two angles called the aspect () and azimuth () angles. The
variable  represents the wavelength of the radar beam, which is assumed to be smaller than the
dimensions of the shape.

Geometry Description Maximum RCS Comments

Square trihedral Strongest radar return due to triple

corner reflector reflection of incident wave

Right dihedral Second strongest radar return due to

corner reflector double reflection of incident wave;
decreases from maximum slowly with
changing  and rapidly with
changing 
 Flat plate Third strongest radar return due to
direct reflection of incident wave;
decreases rapidly as incidence angle
changes from perpendicular

Right circular Strong radar return as aspect ()

cylinder changes, but decreases rapidly as
azimuth () changes

Sphere Produces the same isotropic return in

all directions

As indicated throughout the above table, the radar cross section varies depending on the angle of
incidence between the surface of the shape and the transmitted radar beam.

The graph below gives some idea of just how much the RCS of a cylinder changes with the
aspect angle. The data is expressed in dBsm, or decibels referenced to one square meter. Radar
cross section in square meters can be converted to dBsm by the following equation.
Radar cross section of a cylinder

An example is shown below for the elderly T-33 trainer. The radar cross section data is
provided at all aspects at an azimuth of 0°.
T-33 jet trainer
T-33 radar cross section

The RCS measurements in the form plotted below. This type of graph is called a polar plot, and
it is used to chart the median RCS data over a range of aspect angles. In this case, the T-33
results have been plotted at 10° increments.

T-33 medianized radar cross section

The RCS varies wildly depending on aspect, radar frequency and wavelength, and the
fidelity of the receiver.
RADAR CROSS SECTION REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

1. INTRODUCTION:

For military, RCS reduction is necessary because of following reasons:

 To make ships/objects less detectable by the enemy radar.

 To increase the effectiveness of chaff.
 To make classification of Targets difficult to the radar.

2. The basic techniques of RCSR:

The following sections provide a summary of each RCSR technique. The two most
often applied ones, shaping and radar absorbing materials techniques, are examined first. In
current RCS designs, shaping techniques are primarily applied to establish a low RCS in the
main threat sections. Radar absorbing materials are then used to reduce the effects of the
creeping waves or traveling waves, or where shaping is not sufficient.

2.1 Shaping:

Traditionally, shaping is considered the first step of RCS control. The objective of
shaping is to design the platform’s surface and edges to reflect or diffract the incident RF wave
in directions away form the radar. This cannot be accomplished for all aspect angles, within the
entire sphere of solid angles, because there will always be viewing angles at which surfaces are
seen at normal incidence, and at these angles the echoes will be high. The success of shaping
depends on the existence of angular sectors over which low radar cross section is less important
than others. Shaping I high-frequency technique based on geometrical optics; it is implicit in this
method that the target is very large electrically.

2.2. Radar absorbing materials:

These materials reduce the energy reflected back to the radar by means of absorption.
Radar energy is absorbed through one or more of several mechanisms, which may involve the
dielectric or magnetic properties of materials. The loss is actually the conversion of radio
frequency energy in to heat, and although most absorbers do not dissipate enough energy to
become even detectably warm when illuminated by radar.

2.3. PASSIVE CANCELLATION:

This refers to RCS reduction by introducing a secondary scatterer to cancel with

the reflection of the primary target.
 RESULTS

RCS Vs Aspect angle:

Scattering space= 0.5m
Frequency=0.3GHz
Scattering space= 1m
Frequency=0.3GHz
RCS Vs Aspect angle for a circular object:
Radius of circular plate= 1m
Frequency=3GHz

Radius of circular plate= 0.75m

Frequency=0.3GHz
RCS Vs Aspect angle for a ellipsoid object:
Ellipsoid ‘a’ Radius = 0.2m
Ellipsoid ‘b’ Radius = 0.4m
Ellipsoid ‘c’ Radius = 0.6m
Ellipsoid phase angle(phi)= 45
Frequency=3GHz

Ellipsoid ‘a’ Radius = 1m

Ellipsoid ‘b’ Radius = 1m
Ellipsoid ‘c’ Radius = 1m
Ellipsoid phase angle(phi)= 45
Frequency=3GHz

Ellipsoid with different phase angles:

Ellipsoid ‘a’ Radius = 0.15m
Ellipsoid ‘b’ Radius = 0.2m
Ellipsoid ‘c’ Radius = 0.95m
RCS Vs Aspect angle:
Scattering space= 1m
Frequency=3GHz
Frequency Vs RCS:

Scattering space=0.1m
Frequency=1GHz
Sphere circumference Vs RCS:
Ellipsoid RCS Vs aspect angle:
Ellipsoid ‘a’ Radius = 0.15m
Ellipsoid ‘b’ Radius = 0.2m
Ellipsoid ‘c’ Radius = 0.95m
Phase=45 degrees
 CONCLUSION
Using the MATLAB programming, prediction of radar cross section of some simple
shapes of targets like sphere, ellipsoid, circular flat plates, truncated cone (frustum), cylinder,
rectangular flate plate, triangular flat plate (isosceles) and complex targets are obtained.

The RCSvariation as a function of frequency is obtained for two scatters and are
presented in fig: 1-4, when the scattering spacing is more, RCS is highly oscillatory, while RCS
is less oscillatory for lower scattering spacing.

From fig: 5-8,the RCS fluctuates as a function of frequency is evident. little frequency
change can cause serious RCS fluctuations when the scatter spacing is large.

From fig: 9 ,the backscattered RCS as a function of sphere circumference in

wavelength is obtained these variations are obtained in the three regions namely RAYLEIGH,
MIE, and OPTICAL REGIONS. In optical region, RCS oscillates as a function of frequency. For
this purpose, spheres are flown attached to balloons. In order to obtain Doppler shift, spheres of
known RCS are dropped out of an airplane and towed behind th airplane whose velocity is
known to the radar.

From fig:12-13, due to the circular symmetry, the back scattered RCS has no dependency on

From fig: 14-15, shows RCS illustrated by radar in the positive z- direction and negative z –
direction plots are obtained.

From fig :16- 23 ,if aspect angle is increased then back scattered RCS is decreased. From fig :
24 swearing targets are obtained the complex targets modeled by means of equal scattering
centre’s.

The importance of radar cross section reduction was discussed ,the major RCSR techniques
summarized. low observable platforms have extremely low RCS specifications that cannot be
achieved by shaping alone .the application of RAM is necessary, in which case the appropriate
constitutive parameters and thickness must be selected.

It is observed from the obtained results, consider the perfectly conducting sphere to be
the simplest target to examine when compared to the other shapes