KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE

The kingdom of bacteria

Presentation by Muhammad Bilal
EasyLearningHome.com
KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE
(MONERA)
▪ Organisms with prokaryotic cells
▪ Greek Pro: before; karyon: nucleus
▪ Two categories of bacteria
• Eubacteria
• Archaeobacteria
▪ Slow progress in study
• Depends of microscope
• Special techniques
DISCOVERY OF CELL
▪ Antonie Von Leewenhoek (1673)
▪ Developed powerful microscope
▪ Found microbes in water, infusions, etc.
• Called them animalcules
• Thought they were small animals
• That grew to become large animals
• Actually protists and bacteria
▪ Found similar “globules”
• In blood, semen, etc.
▪ Made accurate drawings
▪ First living cells
CONTRIBUTION OF LOUIS PASTEUR
▪ Major discoveries in microbiology
▪ Disproved abiogenesis decisively
▪ Showed that microbes caused disease
▪ Developed vaccines
• Anthrax
• Rabies
• Fowl cholera
▪ Pasteurization
ROBERT KOCH
▪ Germ theory of disease
▪ Isolated bacilli from infected sheep
▪ Microbes of other diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Cholera
▪ Four postulates of Germ Theory
• Specific organism in specific disease
• Can be isolated and studied in lab
• Can cause disease in experimental animals
• Can be isolated again from experimental animals
▪ Developed techniques for study of microbes
• Inoculate, isolation, media preparation, pure cultures, microscopy
OCCURRENCE OF BACTERIA
▪ Widespread in nature
▪ Found everywhere
• Air, land, water, oil deposits
• Food, decaying organic matter
• Plants, humans, animals
▪ Type and number is variable
▪ Some bacteria are present everywhere
• Make up natural “flora”
▪ Some are found in specific environments
• Hot springs, glaciers, alkaline / acidic soil,
• saline environment, toxic / polluted environments
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA
▪ Some components are always present
• All have cell membrane
• All have cytoplasm
• All have ribosomes
• All have chromatin body
▪ Most have cell wall
• Maintains shape
▪ Some have extra structures
• Capsule, slime, flagella
• Pili, fimbrae, granules
SIZE OF BACTERIA
▪ Highly variable in size
• 0.1 to 600μm
▪ Smallest is Mycoplasma
• 100-200nm diameter
• Almost equal to largest (pox) viruses
▪ Escherichia coli is average size
• 1.1 to 1.5 μm wide
• 2.0 to 6.0 μm long
▪ Some spirochetes are long
• 500 μm long
▪ Staphylococci and Streptococci
• 0.75 to 1.25 μm
▪ Epulopiscium fishelsoni is largest
• Found in gut of surgeonfish (Acanthurus nigrofuscus)
• 600μm x 80μm (almost equal in size to printed hyphen (-)
SHAPE OF BACTERIA
▪ Three main categories
• Cocci, Bacilli, Spiral
• Also Trichome forming, sheathed, stalked, square,
star-shaped, spindle shaped, lobed, filamentous
▪ Most have fixed shape
▪ Some are pleomorphic
• Same species can exist in different shapes
SHAPE OF BACTERIA
▪ Cocci
• Spherical or oval
▪ Can have different arrangements
▪ Diplococcus – two cocci together
▪ Streptococcus – long chains
▪ Tetrad – four cells
▪ Sarcina – cube of eight
▪ Staphylococcus – grape-like irregular clusters
▪ E.g. Diplococcis pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus
SHAPE OF BACTERIA
▪ Bacilli
• Rod-shaped bacteria
▪ Always divide in one plain
▪ Diplobacillus – two bacilli
▪ Streptobacillus – chain of bacilli
▪ Examples
• Escherichia coli
• Bacillus subtilis
• Pseudomonas
SHAPE OF BACTERIA
▪ Spiral
• Spirally coiled or curved
• Three forms
▪ Vibrio
• Curved or comma shaped
▪ Spirillum
• Thick, rigid spiral
▪ Spirochete
• Thin flexible spiral
▪ E.g. Vibrio cholera, Hyphomicrobium
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL CELL
FLAGELLA
▪ Thin, hair like appendages
▪ Come out through cell wall
▪ Originate from basal body
• Present under cell membrane
▪ Made up of flagellin protein
▪ Help in motility
• Chemotaxis – movement in response to chemicals
▪ Number and pattern is variable
• Cocci usually do not have flagella
• Bacilli and spiral bacteria have flagella
FLAGELLA
▪ Number and pattern is variable
• Helps in classification of bacteria
▪ Atrichous – no flagellum
▪ Monotrichous – single polar flagellum
▪ Lophotrichous – tuft of flagella at one pole
▪ Amphitrichous – two tufts at two poles
▪ Peritrichous – flagella surround whole cell
PILI
▪ Hollow, non-helical, filamentous appendages
▪ Smaller than flagella
▪ Not involved in motility
▪ Present in gram negative bacteria
▪ Made of protein “pilin”
▪ Involved in mating
• Special process called conjugation
• Help transfer genetic material
▪ Help in attachment with cell / surfaces
CELL ENVELOPE
▪ Extra covers outside membrane
▪ Diverse surface
• Capsule
• Slime
• Cell wall
CAPSULE
▪ Some bacteria have capsule
▪ Made up of
• Repeating polysaccharides
• Protein
• or both
▪ Tightly bound to cell
▪ Thick, gummy
▪ Colonies appear sticky
SLIME
▪ Loose, soluble shield
▪ Made of macromolecules
▪ Helps in pathogenicity
▪ Protects from phagocytosis
CELL WALL
▪ Below capsule and slime
▪ External to plasma membrane
▪ Rigid structure
▪ Determines shape of cell
▪ Protects from osmotic lysis
▪ Made of peptidoglycan
• Amount is variable
• Long glycan chains
• Cross-linked with peptide chains
CELL WALL
▪ Also contain
• Sugar, teichoic acid, lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides
• Linked to peptidoglycan
▪ Staining technique
• Developed by Hans Christian Gram
• Two types of bacteria
▪ Gram positive
• Stained purple
• Retain primary dye (crystal violet)
▪ Gram negative
• Stained pink
• Retain secondary dye (safranin)
CELL WALL
Gram Positive Gram Negative
Number of layers 1 2
Chemical composition Peptidoglycan (50% of Peptidoglycan (10% of
dry weight in some) dry weight in some)
Teichoic acid Lipopolysaccharides
Lipoteichoic acid Lipoproteins
Lipids 1-4% Lipids 11-12%
Overall thickness 20-80nm 8-11nm
Outer membrane No present Present
Periplasmic space Present in some Present in all
Permeability More permeable Less permeable
Staining Purple Pink
Retain dye Crystal violet Safranin
CELL WALL
▪ Some bacteria have different cell wall
• Neither gram negative nor gram positive
▪ Cell wall of archeobacteria
• Very different from eubacteria
• No peptidoglycan
• Made of protein, glycoprotein, polysaccharides
▪ Absent in Mycoplasma
CELL MEMBRANE
▪ Present below cell wall
▪ Thin, flexible structure
▪ Completely surrounds cytoplasm
▪ Delicate – any damage can kill cell
▪ Differs from eukaryotic membrane
• No sterols (like cholersterol)
▪ Main function is regulation of transport
• Proteins, nutrients, sugars, electrons etc.
▪ Enzymes for respiration
CYTOPLASMIC MATRIX
▪ Present between membrane and nucleoid
▪ No membrane bound organelles
▪ No cytoskeleton (microtubules etc)
▪ Gel like consistency
▪ Small molecules move freely
▪ Plasma membrane + cytoplasm = protoplast
▪ Contains
• Chromatin, ribosomes, mesosomes, granules etc.
NUCLEOID
▪ No nuclear membrane
▪ No discrete chromosomes
▪ DNA is present near center
• Specific region of cytoplasm
• Single circular chromosome
• Double stranded DNA
• Very long, tightly folded
• Dense area called nucleoid
▪ Only single chromosome – haploid
▪ Chromosome of E. coli is about 14,000μm
▪ Can be visualized by Feulgen stain
PLASMID
▪ Additional molecules of DNA
▪ Small, circular, double stranded DNA
▪ Self replicating
▪ Not essential for growth & metabolism
▪ Genes for emergency situation
• Antibiotic resistance
• Heavy metal resistance
▪ Important “vectors” in genetic engineering
RIBOSOMES
▪ RNA + Protein
▪ Some attached to plasma membrane
▪ Some dispersed in cytoplasm
▪ Smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
• 50S + 30S = 70S
▪ Protein factories
MESOSOMES
▪ Invaginations of Plasma membrane
• Formed like vesicles, tubules, or lamellae
▪ Help in DNA replication, cell division
▪ Some are involved in export of enzymes
▪ Some contain respiratory enzymes
GRANULES AND
STORAGE BODIES
▪ Bacteria live in harsh environments
• Nutrients are in short supply
▪ Store nutrients whenever possible
• Glycogen, Sulphur, fats, phosphates
▪ Wastes are stored till disposal
• Alcohol, lactic acid, acetic acid
SPORES
▪ Produced by some species
▪ Two types
• Exospores – produced outside cell
• Endospores – produced inside cell
▪ Metabolically dormant bodies
▪ Produced when death is imminent
▪ Resistant to adverse conditions
• E.g. light, high temperature, desiccation, pH, chemicals
▪ Can germinate in favorable conditions
• Form new vegetative cell
CYSTS
▪ Also metabolically dormant
▪ Thick walled, desiccation resistant
▪ Develop during differentiation of vegetative cells
▪ Can germinate under suitable conditions
▪ Are not heat resistant
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
▪ Require energy like other organisms
• For growth, maintenance, reproduction
▪ Two main categories
• Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs Autotrophs
• Autotrophs
▪ Further divided into sub-categories
Saprotrophic Photosynthetic

Parasitic Chemosynthetic
HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA
▪ Cannot synthesize their own food
▪ Depend on others for nutrition
▪ Two types
▪ Saprotrophs
• Nutrition from dead organic matter
• From Humus (partially decayed matter) in soil
• Enzyme systems for breakdown
• Absorbs simple substance
▪ Parasites
• Obtain nutrition from host, cause disease
AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
▪ Can synthesize organic compounds
• From simple inorganic substances
▪ Photosynthetic autotrophs
• Have chlorophyll for photosynthesis
• Differs from green plants
• Not present within chloroplasts
• Dispersed in cytoplasm
• Utilize H2S instead of H2O, release S
▪ Chemosynthetic autotrophs
• Oxidize inorganic substances
• Like ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, Sulphur, ferrous ions
• Trap released energy for own reactions
RESPIRATION IN BACTERIA
RESPIRATION IN BACTERIA
▪ Breakdown of food to release energy
▪ Aerobic bacteria
• Cannot grow without oxygen
• E.g. Pseudomonas
▪ Anaerobic bacteria
• Can grow in absence of oxygen
• E.g. Spirochete
▪ Facultative bacteria
• Can grow in presence and absence of oxygen
• E.g. E. coli
▪ Microaerophilic
• Require low amount of oxygen
• E.g. Campylobacter
GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION
BACTERIAL GROWTH
▪ Increase in number of cells
▪ Binary fission
• Asexual reproduction
• Bacterium grows in size
• Chromosome duplicates
• Plasma membrane pinches inwards
• Cell separated into two
▪ Repeated after fix time
• If conditions are favorable
• Increase in population
▪ Generation time
• Interval from one division till next
BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE
▪ A graph of population growth with time
• Four distinct phases
▪ Lag phase
• No increase in number
• Bacteria prepare for division
▪ Log phase
• Very rapid growth
• Divide at exponential rate
▪ Stationary phase
• Reproduction rate = death rate
▪ Decline phase
• Death rate more than reproduction
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
▪ Traditional sexual reproduction is absent
▪ Special type of genetic mixing
▪ Transfer of genetic material
▪ From donor to recipient
▪ Through sex pili
▪ Called conjugation
▪ Produces new genetic combinations
▪ Help in survival
IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
▪ Very important
▪ Adaptable in different environments
▪ Found everywhere
▪ Decompose organic matter
▪ Recycle nutrients
• C, N, S, P, O
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
▪ Used in industries
▪ Preparation of food
• yogurt, vinegar, alcohol
▪ Production of drugs
• Antibiotics, vaccines
▪ Biotechnology
• Production of proteins etc.
▪ Also spoil food and vegetables
▪ Plant pathogens destroy crops
MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
▪ Pathogens in humans
• 200 species cause disease
▪ Some are part of natural flora
• Live in and on body
CONTROL OF BACTERIA
CONTROL OF BACTERIA
▪ Essential in certain conditions
• Home, industry, medical fields
▪ Prevention and treatment of disease
▪ Prevention of spoilage of food
▪ Various methods of control
• Physical methods
• Chemical methods
PHYSICAL CONTROL
▪ Sterilization
• Use of physical agents
• Destruction of all life forms
▪ Dry heat
• Causes oxidation of chemical components
• kills all bacteria
▪ Moist heat
• Heat with steam
• Coagulation of proteins
• Kills all bacteria
PHYSICAL CONTROL
▪ Electromagnetic radiation
• UV radiation (<300 nm)
• Used in operation theatres, laboratories
• Gamma radiation (<100pm)
• for canned foods
▪ Filtration
• For heat sensitive substances
• proteins, drugs etc.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
▪ Chemical agents for bacterial control
▪ Antiseptics
• Used on living tissue
• Stop bacterial growth
• Not complete sterilization
• E.g. ethanol / spirit
▪ Disinfectants
• Used on non-living surfaces
• Harsh chemicals
• Halogens, phenols, H2O2
• Potassium permanganate,
• alcohols, formaldehyde
CHEMICAL CONTROL
▪ Chemotherapeutic agents
• Chemicals that are used inside body
• Work with immune system, Stop growth
• Sulfonamides, tetracycline, penicillin
▪ Microbicidal chemicals
• Kill bacteria immediately
▪ Microbistatic chemicals
• Stop the growth of bacteria
• Do not kill them
▪ Different mechanisms
• Preventing cell wall synthesis, damaging cell membranes,
inhibiting enzymes
IMMUNIZATION & VACCINATION
IMMUNIZATION & VACCINATION
▪ Immunization
• Boosting immune system
• To fight disease
▪ Vaccination
• Introduction of dead / weak bacteria
• To activate immune response
▪ Antisepsis
• Eliminating possibility of infection
▪ Chemotherapy & Public health measures
• Water purification,
• Sewage disposal,
• Food preservation
VACCINATION
▪ Edward Jenner 1796
• Developed vaccine against small pox
• By inoculation of cow-pox virus
• Two viruses are related
• Immune system considers them same
▪ Louis Pasteur (1880s)
• causative agent of chicken cholera
• Grew in pure culture
• Inoculation causes disease
• Used old cultures accidentally
• Developed vaccination
• Also vaccines for rabies
USE & MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS
▪ Chemotherapeutic chemical agents
• Help treat bacterial infections
• Synthesized by certain microbes
• Kill / stop other microbes
▪ Many synthesized in laboratory
▪ Complete knowledge is necessary
• Before using for treatment
▪ Overuse / misuse is common
• Results in antibiotic resistance
▪ Sometimes interfere with metabolism – side effects
• Streptomycin – auditory nerve damage / deafness
• Tetracycline – permanent discoloration of teeth
• Penicillin – allergy in some people
CYANOBACTERIA
Blue-green algae
CYANOBACTERIA
▪ Largest group of bacteria
▪ Most diverse group of photosynthetic bacteria
▪ Previously called blue-green algae
▪ Prokaryotes (not algae)
▪ Variable in size, shape, appearance
▪ Diameter 1 – 10 μm
▪ May be Unicellular / colonial / filaments
• Filaments are made of trichomes (chains of cells)
• Surrounded by mucilaginous sheath
CYANOBACTERIA
▪ Photosynthesis resembles plants
• Have chlorophyll a and PS II
• Oxygenic photosynthesis – release oxygen
• Accessory pigments – phycobilins
• Present on thylakoid membranes
• Also have electron transport chain
• Structures called phycobilosomes
▪ Phycocyanin pigment (blue)
• Predominant phycobilin
▪ CO2 fixation by Calvin cycle
CYANOBACTERIA
▪ Gram negative cell wall
▪ Use gas vesicles for swimming
• Some can glide
▪ Reserve food is glycogen
▪ Reproduce by binary fission
• Filaments by fragmentation
▪ Special structures
• Hormogonia, akinetes, heterocysts
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
▪ Reclamation of alkaline soil
▪ Heterocysts
• Fix atmospheric nitrogen
▪ Oxygenic photosynthesis
• Release oxygen
▪ Pollution indicators
• Oscillatoria and others
▪ Symbiotic relationships
• With protozoa, fungi
• With angiosperms (root nodules)
▪ Partners in lichens
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
▪ Super Blue-Green Algae
• Single celled cyanobacteria
• Produce food through photosynthesis
• Complete whole food
• 60% protein with essential amino acids
• Perfect balance
▪ Water blooms
• Unpleasant smell and taste
• Unfit for consumption
• Sometimes has toxins
• Can kill animals and livestock
NOSTOC
▪ Terrestrial and subterrestrial
▪ Common in alkaline soil
▪ On moist rocks and cliffs
▪ Forms jelly like mass
• Filaments are embedded in it
▪ Unbranched trichomes
• Appear beaded
• Cells are spherical
• Sometimes barrel shaped / cylindrical
NOSTOC
▪ Cells are similar in structure
▪ Heterocysts
• Slightly large, round, light yellowish
• Thick walled cell
• Carries out nitrogen fixation
▪ Hormogonia
• Trichome breaks near heterocyst
• Forms new colonies
• Called fragmentation
NOSTOC
▪ No sexual reproduction
▪ Reproduces asexually
• Through hormogonia formation
• Due to breakage of filaments
• Sometimes due to death of cells
• Or near heterocyst
▪ Akinete formation
• Thick walled, enlarged vegetative cells
• Accumulate food, become resting cells
• Germinate again in favorable cells