PHYSICAL SCIENCE QUIZ 1 REVIEWER

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE • Physical Science: study of non-living systems

SCIENCE • Science:
o Organized body of knowledge
o Product of observation, common sense, rational
Natural Science Exact Science Applied Science Social Science thinking(cause-and-effect; basic to science), and
brilliant ideas
Biological Mathematics Economics Psychology o Way to explore nature

Physical Logic Engineering Anthropology o A tool for solving problems

Medicine Sociology • Cosmic…?

Chemistry o Science (how?): cosmic order
Physics o Art (who?): cosmic beauty
o Religion (why?): cosmic purpose
Earth Science
• Physics +…?
o Physics + chemistry = physical chemistry
Hydrology Oceanography Meteorology Astronomy Geology o Physics + earth science = geology
o Physics + geology = astronomy
Cosmology Paleontology

FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
• A force is fundamental if:
o It has a force carrier
o No other force can explain it (eg. gravity) • Fundamental particles:
o Not protons and neutrons, but electrons are
fundamental because they are a kind of lepton.
 Proton: made up of 2 upquarks and 1
down quark
the other columns aren’t observable in matter since they  Neutron: made up of 2 down quarks and
are so massive, they become unstable, and unstability 1 up quark
2/3
causes them to break down into smaller particles making o Quarks and leptons – elementary particles
-1/3
them unobservable.
0  Generation of matter (1st column: the
only ones that manifest in matter):
-1
Up Charm Top quarks
Down Strange Bottom
Electron Muon Tau neutrino
neutrino neutrino leptons
Force Force carrier Acts on Strength Electron RangeMuon tau Extra notes
rating I II III
Gravity None (graviton: All objects with mass 4 (1x 10-39 of Infinite: since all It is the phenomenon by which all
theoretical) strong force) matter has mass, massive bodies are attracted to
but as distance , one another.
gravity . Warps and curves in space and
time are caused by gravity
Gravitational force =
mass∙acceleration
Electromagnetism Photon (carrier of Charged particles 2 (1/100 of Long range: since It causes like charges to repel and
light) strong force) its force carrier is opposite charges to attract each
almost massless other.
It binds negative electrons to
positively charged nucleus
It underlies the interaction between
atoms.
It can cause friction.
Weak force W-, W+, Z0 Quarks, leptons, 3 (1/10,000 Short range: since It is responsible for different types
radioactive decay of strong its force carrier is of decay, like beta decay (type of
force) heavy radioactive decay)
Beta decay: when a nucleus has
too much protons or neutrons
• Beta minus: n0p+
• Beta plus: p+n0

Strong force Gluon: Quarks ( binds quarks to 1 Atomic range: Strong enough to override the
• Color charges make proton, binds since its force electromagnetism (like charges
• Confined only quarks to make neutron, carrier is very repel) because strong force keeps
in a small and binds protons and heavy protons glued together despite
place neutrons to form the their similar charges
nucleus)
 • Standard model –
o Crowning achievement of particle physics
o Describes all particles and particle interactions
Further Notes on Fundamental Forces o Includes
• Classical physics studies moving objects that can be seen  6 quarks
 6 leptons
• Quantum physics deals with modern physics
 4 force carriers
• The familiar forces – o All known matter is composed of composites of
o Gravity quarks and leptons which interact by exchanging
o Frictional (static & kinetic) force carriers
o Centrifugal/centripetal Newton’s Laws • How the proton had +1 charge and the neutron 0:
o Tension F=ma Since protons are made of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark:
o Normal forces Proton - +1

o Electricity maxwell’s (they explain Electromag-

u u d
o Magnetism equations same phenomenon) netism
2/3 + 2/3 + (-1/3) = +1
• Electricity and magnetism were 2 separate forces but
Since neutrons are made of 1 up quark and 2 down quarks:
Maxwell found the similarity: they both acted on opposite Neutron - 0
charges/poles = electromagnetism
• Electrical and magnetic phenomena can be described by
u d d
motion of charged particles
• Unification – combination of 2 or more forces that explain the 2/3 + (-1/3) + (-1/3) = 0
same phenomena
o Why? – to simplify and to comprehend more • Quarks – social particles by nature, they exist in groups
• All of the familiar forces are just due to gravity and o Hadrons – general classification of quarks
electromagnetism o Barions – quarks that come in trios
• At the last century most phenomena could be explained by o Mesons – quarks that come in pairs (eg protons &
gravity & electromagnetism but these things could not be: neutrons)
o X-rays
• Leptons – solitary particles (can exist alone)
o Radioactivity o Generally lighter particles and are most readily
o Electrons observed in radioactive decay
o nucleus o Eg neutron decay: neutron becomes a proton
• quanta – • Weak force –
o radiation as particles o Acts on quarks and leptons
o energy is being emitted not continuously but by o Responsible for radioactivity and different types of
batches decay
 eg: a photon carries a single batch of  Radioactive – new elements are formed
force  Neutron/beta minus – neutron to proton
• the atom – • A down quark in the neutron
o it was first thought to be a sphere decays into an up quark by
emitting a W¯ boson
o after quantum revolution it was said to be
o The heavy W¯
composed of a nucleus & electrons boson is the carrier
o the entire thing is held together by of the weak force
electromagnetism o It becomes unstable
o a monomer since atomos means “that which so it breaks down
cannot be divided” into leptons
• light – (electrons &
neutrinos)
o first manifestation of a fundamental force
o has a dual nature • Since the W boson is very
 wave heavy, it takes a long time for
quantum fluctuations to gather
 particle – light is given off by batches
the composure to support the
o classic electromagnetic interaction
decay  that’s why it’s called
 illumination from light bulb = great no. of “weak”
photons emitted from excited filament • Finally, the W boson decays
atoms into leptons
• force vs. interaction • The color charge –
o force – result of interaction o 2 quarks interact by exchanging gluon
o interaction - process o Gluons have color charges, which represent
numbers
• characteristic of fundamental forces
o Visual identifiers for interactions
o All fundamental forces involve an exchange of a o Red, green, blue
fundamental particle – force carrier
 o Quarks are bound in a particle by madly o radioactive isotope: unstable isotopes (unstable
exchanging gluons, forming a binding color field because they don’t have the right ratio of protons
o The residual strong field between protons and and neutrons; therefore, they will emit radiation)
neutrons overwhelms repulsive electromagnetic • Why do atoms become unstable?
force and holds the nucleus together o As the element gets bigger, more nuclei are
• Electroweak unification bonded thus becoming more and more unstable
o Electromagnetism + weak = electroweak (that’s why the elements with atomic number 83
o although these two forces appear very different at and up are the radioactive ones)
o A nucleus becomes unstable, or radioactive, when
everyday low energies, the theory models them as
two different aspects of the same force. Above the the strong nuclear force can no longer overcome
unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they the repulsive electric forces among protons
would merge into a single electroweak force • Types of radiation/radioactive decay
o Alpha decay
• grand unified theory – at very high energies, all interactions
merge into a single strength  Symbol: 42He or 42α
o electromagnetism  Has 2 protons and 2 neutron
o weak  Particle: Helium-4 nucleus
o strong  Has a positive charge
Force/object/particle Explained by the ff force/s: • It can attract negative
 atom (stable) All four particles (electron)
 atom (unstable) Weak, electromagnetism, strong • It can remove electrons (will
 friction Electromagnetism make something a cation
Electromagnetism (positively charged particle))
 tension
 planets (in orbits) Gravity  Ionizing radiation – capability to remove
Gravity electrons from an atom
 centripetal
 structure of atom Electromagnetism  Most ionizing, least penetrating (for it is
Strong a heavy particle (mass:4) )
 structure of nucleus
(includes sub-atomic  If the alpha particle enters the body, it is
particles) most hazardous for it is the most
ionizing (atoms can’t function properly
*nucleon – proton & neutron without electrons)
 Smoke detector – uses alpha particles
Computations because alpha particles are heavy and
F=ma can’t travel long distances
• mass is directly proportional to force and inversely • There’s an alpha source
proportional to acceleration (emits alpha radiation which is
just confined in the chamber)
• acceleration is directly proportional to force and inversely
• There is a constant flow of
proportional to mass
ions (alpha particles)
F=kq1q1 F=Gm1m2
• When smoke particles enter,
d² , d²
they go on the ions, and the
• charges/masses are both directly proportional to force ions become heavy and the
• charges/masses are inversely squared proportional to the flow therefore gets disturbed,
distance triggering the sound.
 Can be blocked by paper
RADIOACTIVITY o Beta decay
• radioactivity – property/ process of a nucleus to break down • Beta plus
spontaneously. o Particle: positron
o Radioactive decay – same as radioactivity, the o Symbol: β + or 0 e
only difference is that it is just the process while +1

radioactivity is both the process and the property. • Beta minus

• Hierarchy of harmfulness of radiation exposure o Particle: electron
o Frequent and less – BAD! (emanates from the nucleus)
o Once and a lot – WORSE!! o Symbol: β - or 0 e
• Nuclear symbol: it’s called nuclear symbol because it -1

represents the nucleus of a certain element.

 more penetrating than alpha, but less
228 atomic mass (protons + neutrons)
ionizing
Ra
88  it is more penetrating because it is
atomic number (protons)
lighter than alpha
o the ratio of protons and neutrons can determine
 particle
the stability of an atom
 can be blocked by aluminum
o if an atom is stable, it will not be acted on by the
o gamma decay
weak force; therefore, no radiation
• isotope: same element, but with different number of neutrons  symbol: γ
 particle: photon
  a ray, unlike beta and alpha which are o Needed in order to prevent meltdowns
particles o Meltdown: the core of the reactor melts and
 speed: speed of light radioactive material may be released
 most penetrating because it is massless  Ex. Chernobyl, Ukraine
and very fast • Nuclear reactor = initiates and controls a sustained nuclear
 can be blocked by 2m of concrete reaction
 ionizes by the photoelectric effect • Moderator = slows down neutrons
 almost always in every reaction
o neutron emission FUSION
• powers the sun and the stars
 symbol: 10n
• process in which the nuclei of two atoms combine to form a
 particle: neutron
larger nucleus
o proton emission
• the reaction in which two atoms of hydrogen combine
 symbol: 11p or 11H together or fuse to form an atom of Helium
 particle: proton • some mass is converted into energy (binding energy)
o electron capture • binding energy – energy needed to breakdown a particle into
its components
 Symbol: β - or 0 e
• earliest fusion reaction to make happen:
• -1
o combining deuterium with tritium to make helium
 Particle: electron and a neutron
• according to speed:  isotopes of hydrogen (H-1:
o c = gamma ray
hydrogen/protium):
o less than 90% of c = beta minus and beta plus
• H-2: deuterium (heavy
o 10 % of c = alpha and proton emission hydrogen)
o less than 10% of c = neutron emission o Plentifully available
• according to penetration in ordinary water
o very: gamma, neutron emission • H-3: tritium (heavy-heavy
o moderately: beta minus and beta plus hydrogen)
o slightly: proton emission o Produced by
• in radioactive decay, you can see the particle on the right combining the
side (products side) of the equation (except for electron fusion neutron with
capture which is on the left) lithium
• parent nucleus – starting material • Fusion has the potential to be an inexhaustible source of
• daughter products – products of reaction energy
• Thermonuclear: condition needed to sustain fusion (very
high temperatures)
FOOD IRRADIATION • Two main problems in designing a fusion reactor:
• uses gamma radiation o Achieve high temperatures
• does not after the appearance of food o How to contain the plasma
• you may only know that they are irradiated by the label of the • Atoms of hydrogen must be ionized (forming a plasma) and
redura sign have sufficient energy to fuse then be held together
• microorganisms and bacteria causes decomposition of food, o Sun and stars do this by gravity
so scientists thought that killing these particles via radiation o Ways to possibly do this on earth:
would stop the decomposition  Inertial confinement
• radiolytic products were found in the irradiated food, but • Where a tiny pellet of frozen
these products turn out not to be harmful since those hydrogen is compressed and
products are naturally occurring in food heated by an intense energy
• unique radiolytic products – harmful products resulting from beam so quickly that fusion
irradiation (but are still theoretical) occurs before the atoms can
NUCLEAR FORCES fly apart
• over very short distances, the strong nuclear force is much  Magnetic confinement
greater than the electric forces among protons. • Where a strong magnetic field
o More protons in a nucleus: electromagnetism holds the ionized atoms
overpowers strong force (since there is a together while they are heated
moderately large distance between protons) by microwaves or other
o Less protons in a nucleus: strong force energy sources
overpowers electromagnetism (since there is a o Plasma – state of matter in which atoms have
very short distance between protons) been stripped of their electrons
• while the strong nuclear force does not increase with the size  Electrons are no longer connected to the
of the nucleus, the electric forces do. nucleus due to high temperature
• Strong nucleus force doesn’t affect electrons because  Electrons aren’t totally removed, just
electrons are too far from the nucleus detached from the nucleus
• Control rod = absorbs neutrons to prevent reaction from • Environmentally friendly: producing no combustion products
going an unsafe rate or greenhouse gases
• Coolant = moderates temperature • Its products are not radioactive.
 • Mass defect: difference in mass of the combined masses of • Unlike power plants that burn fossil fuels, nuclear power
the individual particles and the mass of the nucleus plants do not emit air pollutants, but they have their own
• When we put together individual particles to make a bigger environmental issues
nucleus, we release the binding energy (taken from the mass • Why do fission chain reactions of uranium-235 not occur in
defect) underground uranium deposits:
• E=mc2 = mass-energy equivalence o There would be no neutron to bombard it
o If ever a neutron will be able to bombard it, the
o c= speed of light
neutron will not hit uranium because uranium will
• steps:
not be in the right state. The neutron might hit
o account for the number of protons and neutrons
some other element’s nucleus.
that make up the nucleus
• steps:
o find the total mass of all particles
o calculate the mass difference (mass of reactants –
o calculate the mass difference
mass of products)
o convert the mass difference (amu) to kilograms
o convert the mass difference (amu) to kilograms
(kg)
(kg)
o use Einstein’s equation (e=mc2) to solve for the
o use Einstein’s equation (e=mc2) to solve for the
energy released
energy released
o divide the binding energy by the number of
o if a certain amount of moles is given,
nucleons (number of protons and neutrons)
 multiply energy released by avogadro’s
o to get the binding energy per nucleon
number
FISSION
 then multiply by amount of amoles given
• process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller
o if a certain amount of grams is given,
nuclei
 multiply energy released by avogadro’s
• fission reactions can produce any combination of lighter
number
nuclei so long as the sum of masses of the products is equal
 then multiply molar mass
to the sum of the mass of the fissioning nucleus
 then multiply by amount of grams given
• releases a great amount of energy
HALF LIFE
• occurs because of the electrostatic repulsion created by the
• radioisotopes: unstable forms of an element that go through
large number of positively charged protons contained in a
radioactive decay
heavy nucleus.
• half-life: time required for half the amount of radioactive
• There is a tug-of-war between the strong attractive nuclear
sample to decay
force and the repulsive electrostatic force. Electrostatic
repulsion wins. • applicable to all types of decay
• Occurs when a neutron bombards a heavy nucleus. • fixed per material
o There should always be one neutron on the left • radioactive decays will never be wholly consumed because it
side of the equation (reactants side) will just keep splitting itself (that’s why it’s unsafe to just
o There may or may not be neutrons on the right leave radioactive decays unattended)
side of the equation (products side) • the longer the half-life of a material, the more stable that
• Otto Han and Fritz Strassman hoped to get more massive material is.
elements by bombarding uranium-235 with high-energy • computation:
neutrons; instead their experiments produced isotopes of a o if n is the number of half lives:
smaller element, Barium.  N = (1/2)n No
• Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch were the first scientists to o Legend:
describe nuclear fission
• Tremendous amounts of energy can be produced from very
 t½ - half-life
small amounts of mass  t - time
• The total amount of mass and energy remains constant  n – number of cycles
• Chain reaction • n = t/t½
o Neutrons released during the splitting of an initial
 No – initial or starting amount of
nucleus trigger a series of nuclear fissions
radioactive material
o Types:
 N – amount remaining undecayed
 Controlled – reactor isn’t flooded with
neutrons  N/ No = fraction of material remaining
• The heat from controlled chain  N/ No x 100% = % of material remaining
reactions can be used to
generate electrical energy  1 - N/ No = fraction of material decayed
 Uncontrolled – happens because the  (1-(N/ No )) x 100% = % of material
excess neutrons aren’t controlled, e.g. decayed
nuclear bombs
o To sustain a chain reaction, each nucleus that is
split must produce, on average, one neutron that
causes the fission of another nucleus
o Critical mass – the smallest possible mass of a
fissionable material that can sustain a chain
reaction