Power Transformer

HANDBOOK

Copyright © 2009
International Copper Association Southeast Asia Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Foreword|

I t is hard to expect that energy prices will not continue to

increase in the next few decades. Climate change mitigation
will play an increasingly important role in the development of
power sector favouring renewable energy systems, energy
conservation and energy efficiency. Thus more and more
attention should be paid to energy losses.

According to our studies (“Global energy savings potential from high efficiency
distribution transformers”, ECI 2004) technical energy losses in all of the world’s
electrical distribution networks are at the level of one thousand TWh. About 30% of
these losses occur in distribution transformers which are one of the two largest loss
making components in electricity networks.

Although typical distribution transformers seem very efficient, the reduction of

losses in transformers may have almost no limits. However there is a certain
technological and economical optimum at which existing losses in distribution
transformers may be roughly halved reaching life cycle cost minimum at the same
time.

Replacing distribution transformers is relatively easy compared to lines or cables

and in the event, of highly inefficient units it is worthwhile to do it even before they
reach their technical lifetime. In the purchase decision process relating to newer
equipment, it is imperative to include the cost of losses in the investment
calculation.

As already stated, distribution transformers can bring economic benefits to users but
also environmental benefits for the society. The economic benefits will not always
remain in the investors’ hands as energy regulators may try to interfere in the
balance of capital and operating cost of distribution companies in order to protect
customers against rapid price increases. The customers will pay the cost of losses
for the entire transformer life, but will not see any rapid change in their electricity
bill.
A good practice, in the purchase decision criteria, is to perform a lifetime cost
analysis based on the capitalization formula. The relative data for this formula is:
energy prices projections, interest rates, transformer lifetime, transformer loading
and anticipated change in future loading. The other side of the equation presents the
transformer price and its dependence on the level of rated losses.

The analysis is not extremely difficult but may be sensitive to a number of

parameters, the most relevant of which may be interest rates, and lifetime but also
changes in commodity prices. Planning on a broad scale is a key component to
optimization. Large distribution companies quite often use procurement efficiency
standards to specify transformers. Such practices help manufacturers so that they
have prior knowledge of requirements and thus they know what they can expect
from buyers. In this case, a well prepared procurement procedure may prove useful
and will help to avoid misunderstandings between a buyer and a seller and should
lead to optimum purchasing decision with losses kept sufficiently in focus. We
think the rationale of this Handbook was to facilitate such a process.

Hans de Keulenaer Roman Targosz

Electrical Programme Manager Project Manager
European Copper Institute European Copper Institute
Introduction|
The Lower Mekong Subregion (LMS)
Harmonisation Programme

C ambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR),

Thailand and Vietnam have achieved different levels of
economic development. These countries in the Lower Mekong
Subregion (LMS) have strong economic inter-dependence.

Being developing countries, their power distribution systems, an

essential infrastructure, play a significant role in the economic
development. Energy end-users are dependent on the availability,
reliability, and quality of electricity from the power distribution
systems. The level of development and advancement of power
distribution systems has direct impact on the developmental
potential and economic growth, especially in urban cities.

The power distribution systems in the urban areas of these LMS countries, however,
do not have the same level of development. It is widely acknowledged that
harmonisation in the development of power distribution systems can benefit these
countries and accelerate their economic growth.

In 2005, six power partners entered into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)

to share the intent of working together towards harmonisation of power distribution
systems in the following four LMS countries: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and
Vietnam. The founding partners are:

• Electricité du Cambodge (EDC), Cambodia

• Electricité du Laos (EDL), Lao PDR
• Ho Chi Minh City Power Company (HCMC PC), Vietnam
• Hanoi Power Company (HNPC), Vietnam
• Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), Thailand
• International Copper Association Southeast Asia (ICASEA) [formerly known
as Copper Development Centre • Southeast Asia]

This led to a study of power distribution systems of the power partners in

Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam; and the preparation of a regional cooperation
roadmap and action plan.

Building on the success of the first MOU, ICASEA and MEA inked a second MOU
to continue their strategic partnership in conducting further studies and facilitating
programmes as outlined in phase 2 of the road map and action plan. This impetus is
to enable the LMS countries to make further progress towards harmonisation and
the realisation of the objectives as set out in the MOU with all the power partners.

The study of power distribution systems in the LMS countries under the first MOU
had revealed that there are many differences in the power distribution systems in
this region. The objective of this second MOU was to narrow down the differences
in six key areas and enable the LMS countries to move towards greater
harmonization of their power distribution systems.
Preface|
Loss in the Power Distribution System is a common and
pressing concern expressed by Utilities in the LMS. Reducing
loss is the priority given the energy shortage arising from rapid
economic growth and high oil prices.

A Regional Loss Reduction Workshop for LMS Utilities was held in Phnom Penh,
Cambodia on 18 & 19 March 2008. It concluded with a consensus to, amongst
other areas of collaboration, reduce losses in the Power Distribution Systems of
EDC, EDL, HCMC PC and HNPC by harmonising technical specifications and
developing a best practices handbook for energy efficient equipment based on
international standards.

The views of and input from participating Utilities were crucial in the development
of technical specifications for the harmonisation of power equipment in the LMS.
Only with acceptance and implementation of the technical specifications can LMS
Utilities reduce losses associated with inefficient power equipment. Hence, a 6-
member Technical Working Group (TWG) comprising a senior technical
representative from each Utility and ICASEA was formed to participate and
contribute in discussions and meetings.

The objective of the TWG was to start with the development of technical
specifications to harmonise low loss power transformers in the LMS. This step-by-
step approach was to enable the participating Utilities to review and evaluate the
result of this Technical Working Group before collectively moving to the next step
of harmonising other equipment.

This handbook was developed to help LMS Utilities implement low loss
transformers. Reduction will only come when the minimum performance
guidelines are followed and implemented by all associated with the design of the
electricity grid, specifying the standards of equipment for procurement and
subsequently operating or maintaining them.

Members of the Technical Working Group:

Chairman
Mr.Surapon Soponkanaporn
Director of Research and Development Department, MEA
Electricite Du Cambodge (EDC), Cambodia
Mr. Lim Sisophuon
Deputy Chief, Dispatching Control Centre

Electricite Du Laos (EDL), Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Mr. Xanaphone Phonekeo
Deputy Manager, Technical Standards Office

Ho Chi Minh City Power Company (HCMC PC), Vietnam

Mr. Nguyen Duy Hoang
Electrical Engineer, Technical Department

Hanoi Power Company (HNPC), Vietnam

Mr. Vu Quang Hung / Mr Trinh Xuan Nguyen
Vice Director, Technical / Manager, Technical Department

Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), Thailand

Mr. Werawat Buathong
Deputy Director, Power System Planning Division
Mr. Somchai Homklinkaew
Senior Electrical Engineer
Mr. Sompong Sittichaiyanan
Electrical Engineer

International Copper Association Southeast Asia (ICASEA)

Mr. Louis Koh
Project Leader, Power Distribution
Mr. Piyadith Lamaisathien
Country Manager, Thailand

MEA Project Support Team

Ms. Sutida Sindhvananda, Director of Int’l Services, Business Div.
Ms. Sasianong Vacharasikorn, Electrical Engineer
Ms. Suthiluck Wannadit, Executive Secretary
Acknowledgements|

T he harmonisation of power distribution systems in the

LMS will contribute to the expansion of the ASEAN
Power Grid. However, harmonisation requires a robust
partnership and sustained effort over many years.
The harmonisation of technical specifications together with the development of this
handbook is taking the process a step closer towards the realisation of the objectives
as set out in the strategic roadmap for the harmonisation of power distribution
systems in the LMS.

Strengthening regional cooperation to build the capacity of both technical and

functional staff would not have been possible without the endorsement and support
of:

Electricité du Cambodge, Cambodia

Mr. Keo Rottanak, Managing Director
Mr. Chan Sodavath, Deputy Managing Director

Electricité du Laos, Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Mr. Khammany Inthirath, Managing Director
Mr. Sisavath Thiravong, Deputy Managing Director
Mr. Boun Oum Syvanpheng, Deputy Managing Director

Ho Chi Minh City Power Company, Vietnam

Mr. Le Van Phuoc, Director
Mr. Tran Khiem Tuan, Deputy Director

Hanoi Power Company, Vietnam

Mr. Tran Duc Hung, Director
Mr. Vu Quang Hung, Vice Director, Technical
Mr. Nguyen Anh Tuan, Vice Director, Business

Metropolitan Electricity Authority, Thailand

Mr. Pornthape Thunyapongchai, Governor
Mr. Surapon Soponkanaporn, Director, Research & Development
Department

International Copper Association Southeast Asia

Mr. Steven Sim, Chief Executive Officer
Contents|
Chapter 1
Preparation of National Normative Technical Specification of Power
Transformer

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
2. Objective ........................................................................................................ 1
3. Principle Specification ................................................................................... 2
4. Additional Specification for Power Utility Companies .................................. 8
5. References ...................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 2
Bidding Evaluation

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 9
2. Objective ........................................................................................................ 9
3. Formula Analysis ........................................................................................... 9
4. Value of Formulae ......................................................................................... 10
5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 3
Transformer Production Inspection

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 15
2. Objective ........................................................................................................ 15
3. Design Review ............................................................................................... 15
4. Materials Inspection ....................................................................................... 16
5. Final Inspection .............................................................................................. 17
6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 18
7. References ...................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 4
Contract Acceptance

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 19
2. Objective ........................................................................................................ 19
3. Acceptance Committee Management ............................................................. 19
4. Acceptance Process ........................................................................................ 20
5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 5
Installation and Operation

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 26
2. Objective ........................................................................................................ 26
3. Transportation of Transformer ....................................................................... 26
4. Power Transformer Installation ...................................................................... 27
5. Operation of Transformer .............................................................................. 35
6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 36
7. References ...................................................................................................... 36

Chapter 6
Maintenance and Asset Management

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 37
2. Transformer Failures and Recommended Remedies ...................................... 37
3. Transformer Maintenance .............................................................................. 38
4. Condition-based Maintenance ........................................................................ 42
5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 43
6. Reference ....................................................................................................... 44

ANNEX - Concept of Life Expectancy .................................................................. 45

Figures and Tables

Fig 1: Sample of table for transformer specification and equipment ................................... 22

Fig 2: Sample of table for transformer accessories ................................................................ 23
Fig 3: Example of transportation arrangement for 3-phase, 115 kV, 50 MVA transformer. 27
Fig 4: Conservator tank construction ..................................................................................... 31
Fig 5: Transformer monitoring (TM) system ......................................................................... 43

Table 1: Recommended remedies to minimize transformer failures. .................................... 38

Chapter 1
Preparation of National Normative Technical
Specification of Power Transformer

1. Introduction

T he normative specification for power transformers are prepared individually for

the Lower Mekong Sub-region (LMS) utilities which are; Electricité Du
Cambodge (EDC) Cambodia, Electricité Du Laos (EDL) Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, Hanoi Power Company (HNPC) and Ho Chi Minh City Power Company
(HCMCPC) Vietnam and Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), Thailand. All
of the above utilities delegated experts to join the Technical Working Group and
joined in by hosting the meetings.

The requirement will refer to the latest edition of international standards and
domestic national standards and cover 115kV three phase power transformers, oil-
immersed type, on load tap changing, frequency of 50Hz, having the neutral solidly
grounded at the distribution substation and outdoor application.

The special requirement for this specification is to try to encourage all utilities to
start or keep using low loss transformers which will benefit them in the long term
due to unforeseen crises such as oil shocks, fluctuations in oil prices, cost of living
increases, environmental impact, etc.

2. Objective
The ultimate goals are to help to reduce technical losses caused by the ineffective
use of transformers, to lower new investment costs, educate the utilities' about loss
reduction programs and minimize negative impacts on our tomorrow.

Secondly, we wish to encourage greater energy efficiency in low loss energy

consuming transformers, create new national standards, initiate cost effective
savings in both the utilities and customers, reduce losses from utility-owned
transformers and minimize life cycle costs. The transformers, then will certainly
provide not only more power to sell and reduce investment costs in the construction
of new distribution substations, but still meet the customer’s demand in the end.

  1 
 
   
3. Principle Specification
Scope: This specification is created to apply to the Lower Mekong Sub-region
electricity utility (here after referred to as LMS),

Site and Service Condition: LMS utilities are located in a tropical climate area.
The altitude is from 0 to 1,800 meters above sea level, ambient temperature is
between 30 to 45°C, and relative humidity is around 100%.

Reference Standard: International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the

common reference standards for all LMS utilities and also applied to the majority of
the countries in the world. Some utilities also refer to their national standards which
correspond to IEC standard except special requirement such as temperature,
installation, etc.

Test, Inspection and Test Report: There will be two main test reports which are;
Type Test and Routine Test reports. A transformer is a very important and
expensive piece of equipment so the utility has to ask for the latest type test report.
Type Tests are crucial to prove that the design, raw materials, workmanship and
quality control during the manufacturing process of the factory is within certain
limits and in order to pass the standards tests.

It is recommended as an additional requirement that the Short Circuit Test shall be

one of the type tests specified in the normative specification of LMS’s utilities.

KEMA’s experience from testing between the years of 1996-2007 is that 30% of
power transformers do not pass the initial short circuit testing. Having a variation of
more than 1% of short-circuit reactance measurement in power transformers
indicates a large deformation in one or more winding coils. Also a gradually
increasing variation during the short-circuit tests, although in total not more than
0.5% to 1.0%, indicates a progressive movement of winding conductors. Variations
of the reactance values between the short-circuit tests in an uncharacteristic manner,
form an indication of large flexibility of the windings.

On a statistical basis, large power transformers have to encounter several full and
many small short-circuits during their lifetime, more precisely: the 90th percentile
was estimated to be 4 full short-circuits in 25 years as surveyed by CIGRE WG
13.08. Because of the expected future increase in short-circuit power, the actual
short-circuit current in service is normally (much) smaller than the rated short-
circuit current for which the transformer is designed.

The Routine test is taken and certified for all units to assure that they pass limited
tests of limited values according to the reference standards before installation. The
utility has the right to send its representatives to witness all required testing of the
transformers at the factory. The sampling of the transformers from the first
shipment batch for such tests is solely the responsibility of the utility’s
representatives.

Requirements of testing for LMS’ utilities have been prepared in the same way.

  2 
 
   
Drawings and Instructions: The supplier shall furnish SIX (6) copies of all
significant details of the transformer to the utility for approval and send them back
within a suitable period to the supplier. In the event of a delay or late submission, it
is permissible to penalize at some value as previously mentioned in the contract.
Prior to the first shipment, special installation instructions, characteristics curves,
installation instructions and instruction manual having the contract number marked
thereon, shall be provided and machine printed or typed. All measurements must be
supplied in the metric system.

Ratings and Features: The major characteristics of the transformer must be

specified to ensure the quality. In order to be binding and ensure that the utility has
to pay to the supplier; the following items should be specified by each utility:

Type Outdoor Type, Three Phase, Mineral Oil-Filled

Frequency 50 Hz

Cooling Method Several cooling types

Capacity Ratings Range from 20 MVA to 63 MVA

Temperature Rise Either 60°C or 65°C for average winding
(Winding, Top Oil) Range from 55°C to 60°C for top oil
High-Voltage Rating 115 kV

Low-Voltage Rating Several voltage levels (15.75 kV, 22 kV, 23 kV)

Tap On-Load-Tap-Changing

Vector Group YNd11, YNyn0+d, YNyn0d11

Insulation Level

Voltage Rating 115 kV 22 kV or 23 kV

Impulse
550 kV 125 kV
Withstand Voltage
Power Frequency
230 kV 50 kV
Withstand Voltage
Impedance Voltage Range from 10% - 14%

Requirement of the life expectancy of power transformers is specified as 35 years

for all LMS’s utilities. An average load factor of 50% is assumed as a condition for
the determination of the relative life expectancy. This assumption is reasonable due
to the fact of power system N-1 criteria planning.

  3 
 
   
The transformer life is assumed to be understood as the insulation life of the
transformer, not the total operational life. “Loss-of-life” means loss of the total life
of the insulation material of the transformer.

The insulation material life depends on heating and internal losses of the
transformer.

No-load losses and load losses are the two significant sources of heat considered in
thermal modelling of power transformers. No-load losses are made up of hysteresis
and eddy losses in the transformer core. These losses are present whenever the
transformer is energized. Hysteresis loss is due to the elementary magnets in the
material aligning with the alternating magnetic field. Eddy currents are induced in
the core by the alternating magnetic field. The amount of hysteresis and eddy loss is
dependent upon the exciting voltage of the transformer.

Load losses are the most significant source of transformer heating, consisting of
copper loss due to the winding resistance and stray load loss due to eddy currents in
other structural parts of the transformer. The copper loss consists of both DC
resistance loss, and winding eddy current loss. The amount of loss is dependent on
transformer load current, as well as oil temperature. DC resistance loss increases
with increasing temperature, while other load losses decrease with increasing oil
temperature. All of these factors are considered in calculations of thermal
transformer performance.

As different temperature rises are specified by each utility, the transformer

manufacturer shall submit design calculations to prove the life expectancy of the
proposed transformer.

However, it is essential to note that power transformer life expectancy is a function

of its design and components, manufacturing techniques, operating conditions
(including loading patterns, ambient temperatures and network events) and
maintenance practices. It is also a complex function of many other more or less
influential factors. These factors are usually an estimate only and cannot be
expressed explicitly and/or accurately (e.g. exact performances of the insulation
system). Although most electrical utilities expect that an average design life for a
modern oil-immersed power transformer should be in excess of 35 years, this fact
does not constitute any expressed nor implied warranty by the manufacturers.

General Requirements

The transformer, at any tapping, shall have overloading capabilities in accordance

with IEC 60076-7 and shall be capable of withstanding at least 2 seconds, without
deformation injury, the thermal and mechanical effects of external short circuit
conditions in accordance with IEC. Such fault currents may arise from any type of
fault, with full voltage maintained on all other windings (zero source impedance)
unless otherwise specified. Taps from the transformer winding for connection to the
on load tap changer shall be provided at the middle range of each winding only.
The sound pressure level limitation is specified and may be different for each utility
and location.

  4 
 
   
Tank and Cover

The material for fabricating the tank side walls and bottom should be of a corrosion-
resistant type, the process for the tank finishing that prevents rust, should be
specified to last for more than 35 years of service life.

The completely assembled tank including radiators, conservators, and associated oil
piping shall be fully vacuum proof.

Tap-changer compartments and insulating barriers shall have adequate strength to

resist, without suffering significant permanent distortion or damage of any sort, the
forces resulting from the application of a full internal vacuum at sea level.
In the case of insulating barriers, the vacuum is unequalized (i.e. applied from one
side only, against atmospheric and oil pressure on the other side), and applied
internally from the either side.

Core

The core construction should be rigidly held in the tank and designed to avoid the
loosening of the core strips due to vibration during transportation as well as
operation, oil ducts should ensure adequate cooling,

The magnetic circuit shall be grounded in accordance with some of the practices
mentioned in the specification. The different maximum flux density is designed to
meet 1.55 to 1.65 Tesla in order to prevent harmonic behaviour

Windings

The winding or coil shall be made of copper due to better performance based on
technical and economic comparisons. To meet the physical characteristic, the
winding shall be designed to withstand the thermal and mechanical effects caused
by external short circuits. The coil clamping arrangement and clamping rings shall
be designed to withstand force due to short circuiting. To meet the electrical
characteristic, the winding shall be designed and assembled to meet the temperature
rise specified in the tender specification. The insulation of winding and connections
shall not be liable to soften, loose, shrink or collapse during service

Insulating Oil

The oil is classified as uninhibited insulating oil according to IEC 60296

"Specification for New Insulating Oils for Transformers and Switchgear". Mineral
oil is used in the insulation and cooling mechanism, it should be well filtered and
tested to meet the dielectric strength before being placed in the transformer tank
which is not less than 30 kV. The insulating oil dielectric taken from a new
transformer shall not be less than 26 kV.

  5 
 
   
Bushings and Terminals

The transformer bushings shall be provided in accordance with IEC 60137 (2008):
Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1000 V. The creepage distance
shall be provided to meet the requirement of IEC 60815: Guide for the Selection of
Insulators in Respect of Polluted Conditions.

To maintain the flow of the current for the life of the transformer, the size of both
high voltage and low voltage terminals and connectors shall be subject to the
transformer capacity.

Surge Arrester

To protect the transformer from surges, insulation coordination studies shall be

performed by the manufacturer. The suitable size of class III (station class) surge
arrester, gapless type, shall be provided in accordance with IEC 60099-4 (2009),
one is connected to each phase of transformer’s bushing.

On Load Tap Changer

In addition to the requirements in 8.3 of IEC 60214 for on-load tap-changers, tap-
changing equipment shall be capable of carrying the same currents, due to external
short-circuit, as well as overvoltage as the transformer windings with which they are
associated.

The contact life of the moving and fixed contacts of the on-load tap selector switch
at the rated through current shall be 300,000 operations at a minimum. The
mechanical life shall be more than 800,000 operations. The number of operations
between each maintenance period shall be greater than 50,000 operations.

Stationary oil filter units are specified in order to extend the maintenance period of
the tap changer.

Oil Preservation System

The suitable capacity of the conservator tank shall be provided to accommodate the
change in oil volume which will occur between ambient temperatures of 0°C and
45°C with the transformer operating at full load. The leakage detector for the
diaphragm shall be provided.

Cooling Equipment

The cooling system used by each LMS utility is different. Such cooling equipment
shall always conform to the original specification of each utility.

  6 
 
   
Remote Control

In addition to a local control system at the power transformer location, there shall be
a remote control cubicle furnished with all requisite devices required to properly
control, operate as well as accommodate the protective relay. This will be housed in
the control room.

Accessory Equipment

The transformers will be equipped with all required accessories: at a minimum, a

nameplate and other designation plates showing diagrams, functions, loading plan,
control, monitoring circuit diagrams, etc., groundings pads, lifting, pulling and
jacking devices, protective devices (pressure relief, oil and gas relay, temperature
and level indicators, climbing facilities, oil sampling valves, etc.

3.1. Transformer Evaluated Cost

Typically a transformer’s price depends on core and winding loss i.e. high loss
transformers have a lower price and low loss transformers a higher one. Thus, many
utilities have to create an evaluation formula which consists of many factors such as
transformer service life, load factor, operation and maintenance cost, interest rate
and inflation rate, etc. Each utility should apply the formula, based on their real
costs and updated data to use in them in the bid comparison to evaluate the
transformer unit cost and losses. The following is the sample of transformer cost
evaluation.
A = B + XC + YD + G

Where
A = Evaluated cost of transformer in any currency
B = Unit cost of transformer converted in US$ according to the
evaluation clause specified in the bid condition
C = No load loss at room temperature not more than 30°C in kW
D = Load loss in kW
G = Cooling loss in kW.
X = Constant value for No load condition
Y = Constant value for Loading condition

3.2. Excess Losses and Penalty

The excess loss and penalty will concentrate on transformer losses which are higher
than guaranteed no-load and load loss including allowable tolerances in the
reference standards. It will be divided into two cases as follows:

The individual transformer loss is over tolerance: Individual transformer with

losses beyond the limits will be rejected unless the supplier agrees to increase the
guaranteed value of average losses of all transformers, compensated at 1.5 times
(arbitrary value) of the evaluation formula.

The total number of transformers: In the event that the report from the supplier
shows that the no-load and load loss values conform to the guaranteed values within

  7 
 
   
the tolerance limit, then the utility has to sample the transformers (number of
transformers contingent upon the utilities’ facility, but normally 5% of the contract
quantity or at least one unit for small quantity order) for their individual loss
measurement. If the average values of no-load loss and load losses are higher than
average losses from the manufacturer test report by 2.5% (arbitrary value) , the
manufacturer measured value will be adjusted by the ratio of the difference of the
measurement between the utility and manufacturer and use the adjusted losses for
the calculation of loss compensation. Otherwise the losses from manufacturer’s
report will be used.

Additional Requirements for Marking and Packing

As the transformer is expensive and important equipment, the utility should specify
additional information to facilitate its convenient clearing at customs and ports. The
transformers shall be shipped oil-filled with the serial number declared in the
invoice.

All spare parts should be delivered with the first shipment. This is a prophylactic
measure, in the event that some accidents which damage the transformers occur.
Any other equipment or instrument, where applicable, packed in the cartons for
containerized shipment should be packed on a pallet for easy handling.

Additional for Responsibilities

If any transformer is damaged within the guarantee period, the manufacturer shall
promptly investigate, repair or replace it. The replacement shall be accomplished
within 60 days after being first informed otherwise the performance security shall
be forfeited.

4. Additional Specifications for Power Utility

Companies
The normative specifications for EDC, EDL, HCMCPC and HNPC has been
prepared with some additional requirements considering items required for
production, control and operation, as well as maintenance for long service life. For
detailed information, refer to the footnotes on the relevant pages of the normative
specification.

5. References:
R.P.P. Smeets, L.H. te Paske, T. Fogelberg, “Short-circuit withstand capability of
large power transformers” KEMA T&D Testing Services, Netherlands, ABB
Transformers, Sweden

  8 
 
   
Chapter 2
Bidding Evaluation

1. Introduction

T his Chapter shall be read in conjunction with “Chapter 2 - Bidding Evaluation

of Handbook for 3 Phase Distribution Transformer in the Urban Area of Lower
Mekong Sub-Region (LMS)”

2. Objective
As with all other power system assets, once a transformer has been purchased
according to the LMS’ specifications and installed on the system, it enters the long
operational phase of it life-cycle. Losses and purchase price of power transformer
shall be considered when deciding which transformer to purchase.

3. Formula Analysis
Especially for the large transformer, the guideline given in RUS Bulletin 1724E-301
is very useful. The cost of losses for each transformer will be calculated by
multiplying the appropriate dollars per kilowatt values above, by the guaranteed
load loss at 75°C rating and no-load losses at 100% voltages. This cost will be
added to bid price for evaluation.

In addition to providing loss evaluation values, the bid documents should also have
penalty values that the manufacturer is to be charged for every kilowatt by which
the actual tested transformer losses exceed the guaranteed losses upon which the
bids are evaluated. It is important to have such penalty values in order to give an
incentive to the manufacturers to provide the most accurate guaranteed loss values
possible. The penalty values should be expressed in the same dollars per kilowatt
manner as the bid evaluation values but should be somewhat higher. An increment
of approximately 20% is recommended.

  9 
 
   
The formulae below yield the total costs of the losses that should be added to the
purchase price of the transformer as shown:

Equation 1:
8760 (EC)
Cost of No-Load Losses in dollars = SI + TNLL
FCR

Equation 2:
2 8760 (EC)(LFT)(G)
Cost of Load Losses in dollars = SI(K )(G) + TLL
FCR

Equation 3:
2 8760 (EC)(LFA)
Cost of Auxiliary Losses in dollars = SI(K ) + TAL
FCR

Where

G Peak ratio
K Peak responsibility factor
SI System capital investment in dollars per kilowatt required to supply the
power losses of the transformer;
8760 Number of hours in a year;
EC Cost of energy in dollars per kilowatt-hour;
FCR Fixed charge rate for capital investment expressed as a decimal in
dollars per dollar of investment;

LFA Loss factor for auxiliary equipment

LFT Transformer loss factor which is the ratio of average transformer
losses to peak transformer losses;

TNLL Transformer’s guaranteed no-load losses in kilowatts;

TLL Transformer’s guaranteed load losses in kilowatts;
TAL Losses due to transformer auxiliary equipment in kilowatts

4. Value of Formulae
4.1. SI: The System Investment (SI) charge is the cost of the generation and
transmission facilities per kilowatt necessary to supply the additional demand
resulting from the transformer losses at the system peak. Since a transformer
located directly at a generating station does not require an investment in
transmission facilities, the SI value used to evaluate the losses in the
generating station transformer should be less than the SI of a transformer to be
located at the receiving end of a transmission line.

One method for determining the SI value, involves adding the construction
cost (dollars per kilowatt) of a recently completed or soon to be completed

  10 
 
   
 generating station to the cost of the transmission facilities (dollars per kilowatt)
required to connect the transformer to the plant. If power is purchased rather
than self-generated, the SI value can be determined by dividing the demand
charge in dollars per kilowatt per year by the fixed charge rate (FCR). Since
there is more than one method of evaluating the SI value, the method that is
judged to yield the most realistic results should be used.

4.2. FCR: The Fixed Charge Rate (FCR) represents the yearly income necessary to
pay for a capital investment. FCR is expressed as a percentage of capital
investment. The rate covers all costs that are fixed and do not vary with the
amount of energy produced. The rate includes interest, depreciation, taxes,
insurance, and those operations and maintenance expenses that do not depend
on system kilowatt-hours sold.

The interest rate used should be the same as the interest rate of the loan
acquired to purchase the transformers. If loan funds are not used, a blended
rate of the interest earned on deposited funds should be used.

The practice of including some operations and maintenance expenses in the

fixed charge rate is a matter of judgement. Some typical values for the
components of the carrying charge rate are as follows:
Interest 7.50%
Depreciation 2.75%
Insurance 0.60%
Taxes 1.00%
Operations and Maintenance 2.76%
Carrying Charge Rate 14.61%

4.3. EC: The Energy Charge (EC) is the cost per kilowatt-hour for fuel and other
expenses that are directly related to the production of electrical energy. If
power is purchased, EC will be the kWh (or energy) cost of power. Although
the costs per kilowatt-hour will vary with the level of demand, a single energy
charge representing an average cost per kilowatt-hour throughout the load
cycle should be used for the sake of simplicity.

Since Equation 1, 2, and 3 do not have any provisions for costs that increase
over the years, an equivalent level cost that takes into account future cost
increases should be used. Therefore, EC shall be adjusted by the effects of
inflation and increasing costs on the energy charge. One method of handling
such effects is to increase future variable costs, such as the costs of losses, by
the percentage represented by the general inflation rate. Equation 4 will yield
such a value and can be used to adjust for inflation.

  11 
 
   
 Equation 4:
n n
1-X i(1+i)
A' = A • X • • n
1-X (1+i) - 1
Where,
1+r
X =
1+i
A′= the cost adjusted for inflation
A= the base cost before inflation
n= the number of years in the inflation period. It is recommended that
“n” be taken as 35 years, which is the assumed transformer life. By
assuming an “n” equal to the life of the transformer, an implicit
assumption is being made that inflation will continue throughout the
life of the transformer.

i = money interest rate per year expresses as a decimal, e.g. for 7%, i =
0.07)
r = the rate of inflation per year expressed as decimal; e.g., for 3%
inflation, r = 0.03)

4.4. K: The Peak Responsibility Factor (K) is intended to compensate for the
transformer peak load losses not occurring at the system peak losses. This
means that only a fraction of the peak transformer losses will contribute to the
system peak demand. The value of K can be determined from:

Equation 5:
Transformer Load at time of System Peak
Peak Responsibility Factor (K) =
Transformer Peak Load

It should be pointed out that K is squared in Equations 2 and 3 because K is a

ratio of loads while losses are proportional to the load squared. Any value of K
that seems appropriate can be used. The following are recommended values
that appear to be reasonable.

Transformer Type K K2
Generation 1.0 1.00
Transmission substation 0.9 0.81
Distribution substation 0.8 0.64

4.5. LFT: The transformer loss factor is defined as the ratio of the average
transformer losses to the peak transformer losses during a specific period of
time. For the sake of simplicity, the equations assume that the transformer loss
factor is a constant and that it does not change significantly over the life of the
transformer.

The transformer loss factor can be determined directly using this equation.

  12 
 
   
 Equation 6:
kW - Hours of Loss during a specified time period
Transformer Loss Factor (LFT) =
(Hours)(Peak Loss in kW in this period)

LFT can also be approximated from the load factor (the average load divided
by the peak load for a specified time period) using the following empirical
equation.

Equation 7:
2
Transformer Loss Factor (LFT) = 0.8 • (Load Factor) + 0.2 • (Load Factor)

Where:
kWh per year
Load Factor = 8760 • peak kW

Load factor is the ratio of the average load over a period of time to the
peak load occurring in that period. The load factor is a commonly
available system parameter. The one-hour integrated peak value should
be used.

4.6. G: The Peak Ratio is defined by the equation:

Equation 8:
2
Peak Annual Transformer Load
Peak Ratio G =
Rated Capacity of Transformer

For the peak annual transformer load, the one hour integrated peak value
should be used.

The purpose of the peak ratio is to relate the value of Equation 2 to the rated
capacity of transformer and not to the peak transformer load that would
otherwise result if G were not in the equation.

4.7. LFA: The Auxiliary Loss Factor compensates for the transformer auxiliary
equipment that operates during only part of the transformer’s load cycle. For a
transformer with two stages of cooling:

Equation 9:

Auxiliary Loss Factor (LFA)

=
0.5 • (probability first stage of cooling will be on at any given time)
+
0.5 • (probability second stage of cooling will be on at any given time)

The choice of the proper probabilities in the above equation is a matter of

judgement based on historical system loading patterns. It is expected that the

  13 
 
   
 above probabilities under normal loading patterns will be extremely low. Since
energy use and losses associated with transformer auxiliaries are extremely
small over the life of the transformer, they could be ignored.

5. Conclusion
A spreadsheet has been prepared to facilitate using the formulae of the suggested
method for evaluating transformers for purchase. In addition, it will aid in making
the most economically viable long-term, purchasing decision. However, because of
the many variables involved, such as inflation rates, peak loading times, investment
costs, etc., each utility shall exercise their own discretion when using the formulae.

  14 
 
   
Chapter 3
Transformer Production Inspection

1. Introduction

T his Chapter shall be read in conjunction with “Chapter 3 - Transformer

Inspection Process Handbook for 3 Phase Distribution Transformer in the
Urban Area of Lower Mekong Sub-Region (LMS)”

This Chapter intends to provide additional information on Production Inspection of

the Power transformers, in addition to that given on Chapter 3 Transformer
Production Inspection of Manual of 3 Phase Distribution Transformer in the Urban
Area of Lower Mekong Sub-Region (LMS)

2. Objective
Unlike other electrical equipment (for example, HV switchgear and Instrument
Transformers), power transformers are still virtually tailor made, little or no mass
production is employed in manufacturing them, and each is produced very much as
a one-off. This means that the utility cannot rely only on extensive type testing of
pre-production prototypes to satisfy them that the design and manufacture renders
the transformer in compliance to the specification.

The utility, therefore takes measures to ensure its compliance, and this is carried out
on the transformer itself. The tests which are to ascertain that the transformer will
be suitable for 35 years or more in service typically are spread over a few days.
Many factors which will have a strong bearing on the service life of a large high-
voltage transformer are very dependent on attention to detail in the design and
manufacture and the need for a high standard of quality assurance. Thus, a culture
of quality consciousness on the part of the manufacturer cannot be emphasized too
strongly.

3. Design Review
Design reviews will be conducted by the utility at different stages of the
procurement process for transformers.

  15 
 
   
The first stage will be during the bid evaluation and prior to awarding the contract.
The information supplied in the bidding documents will be reviewed. Visits to the
manufacturer's plants to inspect design, manufacture and test facilities may also take
place. During this stage the bidder will have the opportunity to ensure that the
specification has been interpreted correctly.

The second stage will commence after order placement, but before manufacture
commences. The manufacturer shall conduct design reviews at all critical stages of
the design, and submit findings of these reviews to the utility. These reviews will be
more detailed and related to the specific design of the transformer on order. For this
stage the design control element of ISO 9001 shall apply.

The scope of such a review shall include the following:

• Core Design
• Winding and Tapping Design
• Thermal Design
• Insulation Co-ordination
• Tank and Auxiliaries
o Bushings
o Tap-Changers
o Protective Devices
o Oil Preservation System
• Corrosion Protection
• Processing and Assembly
• Testing
• Sensitivity of Specified Parameters
• Short-Circuit Withstand Capability
• Transient Voltage Withstand Capability
• Noise
• Overload Capability
• Operation Capability beyond Nameplate Specification
• Life Time Design

4. Materials Inspection
Some material inspection needs to be carried out during the manufacturing process,
and it is appropriate to consider the most important of these in some detail. These
are:

4.1. Core-plate Checks. The core plate shall be checked for thickness and quality
of insulation coating. A sample of the material is cut and built up into a small
loop known as an Epstein Square from which a measurement of specific loss is
made. Such a procedure is described in IEC 60404, Part 2 Methods of
measurement of magnetic, electrical and physical properties of magnetic sheet
and strip. Core-plate insulation resistance should be checked to ensure that the
transformer manufacturer’s specified values are achieved. Certificate from

  16 
 
   
 manufacturer shall be verified.

4.2. Core-frame Insulation Resistance. This is checked by Megger and by

application of a 2 kV r.m.s. or 3 kV DC test voltage on completion of erection
of the core. These checks are repeated following replacement of the top yoke
after fitting the windings. A similar test is applied to any electrostatic shield
and across any insulated breaks in the core frames.

4.3. Core-loss Measurement. If there are any novel features associated with a core
design or if the manufacturer has any other reason to doubt whether the
guaranteed core loss will be achieved, then this can be measured by the
application of temporary turns to allow the core to be excited at normal flux
density before the windings are fitted.

4.4. Winding Copper Checks. If continuously transposed conductor is to be used

for any of the windings, strand-to-strand checks of the enamel insulation
should be carried out.

4.5. Tank Tests. The tank should be checked for stiffness and vacuum-withstand
capability. For LMS’s transformers, a vacuum equivalent to 330 mbar absolute
pressure should be applied. This need only be held long enough to take the
necessary readings and verify that the vacuum is indeed being held. After
release of the vacuum, the permanent deflection of the tank sides should be
measured and should not exceed specified limits, depending on length.
Following this test, a further test for the purpose of checking mechanical-
withstand capability should be carried out. Typically a pressure equivalent to 3
mbar absolute should be applied for 8 hours.

Wherever practical, all tanks should be checked for leak tightness by filling
with a fluid of lower viscosity than the transformer oil, and applying a pressure
of 700 mbar, or the normal pressure plus 350 mbar, whichever is the greater,
for 24 hours. All welds are painted for this test with a flat white paint which
aids in the detection of any leaks.

5. Final Inspection
Final works tests for a transformer fall into three categories:

• Tests to prove that the transformer has been built correctly. These include
ratio, polarity, resistance, and tap change operation.
• Tests to prove guarantees. These are losses, impedance, temperature rise,
noise level.
• Tests to prove that the transformer will be satisfactory in service for at
least 30 years. The tests in this category are the most important and the most
difficult to frame: they include all the dielectric or overvoltage tests, and load
current runs.

All the tests can be found in IEC 60076 Standard.

  17 
 
   
These tests should be witnessed by utilities or their representatives and documented
as per the applicable standards. The type tests like short circuit test should be
performed prior to manufacturing the prototype design. It is important to point out
the purpose of some essential test items as follows:

No Type of Test Purpose of tests

1 Temperature Rise Test To verify rating
Power Frequency Inter winding and inter term insulation
2
Dielectric Test condition
Insulation Resistance & PI
3 Benchmark for insulation deterioration
Test
Insulation Power Factor
4 Monitor Moisture content
Test
Lighting & Switching To check lightning and switching surge
5
Surge Impulse Test withstand
Mechanical integrity of the assembly and
6 Audible Sound Test
induction dependant
7 Short Circuit Test To check short circuit withstand capacity
To have initial data and show if any initial
8 Dissolved Gas Analysis
problem
9 Oil Tests To check initial oil quality

6. Conclusion
The transformer inspection process starts at the design review level and included
many essential elements. These have all been articulated, and their importance
explained. Their importance in terms of testing cannot be overstated.

7. References
• IEC 60404, Part 2 Methods of measurement of magnetic, electrical and
physical properties of magnetic sheet and strip.

• IEC 60076 : Power Transformers

• “Testing of Power Transformers, Routine tests, Type Tests and Special Tests”
1st Edition, published by ABB Business Area Power Transformers

• Martin J. Heathcote, C.Eng, FIEE, “A Practical Technology of the Power

Transformer” The J & P Transformer Book, 12th Edition.

  18 
 
   
Chapter 4
Contract Acceptance

1. Introduction

T he commercial and technical conditions are all specified in the purchase

contract. Often times, utilities may have special requests in order to assure the
quality of the transformers fulfils the contract requirements. This step is also
important, as the utility needs to manage the transformers delivered from the
supplier. A problem in this stage of the process can delay the installation plan or
cause the utility to be unwilling to accept the transformers.

The contract acceptance is difficult when the delivered transformers do not conform
to the contract specification which can be classified in many categories such as
physical characteristic, exceed guaranteed loss, etc. It is the intention of this chapter
to guide the utilities to learn and share experiences in solving these problems by
sample analysis and conclusion.

2. Objective
Experience shows that there are three main factors to discuss in the process of
transformer contract acceptance, one is a detailed specification with approval
drawings, the second is routine test report with guaranteed loss verification and the
third is the final sampling test of the transformers before energizing in service.

Some scenarios are explained and can be used as guidelines in solving problems
created from the contract acceptance. This material offered is given with an eye to
receiving approval from upper management. It should be viewed as the practical
standards in the procurement system.

3. Acceptance Committee Management

It is the same procedure as mentioned in the production inspection committee. Each
utility may apply to modify these practices and regulations according to the
government policy and the country’s economic situation. The acceptance
committees should be approved by the top management after the contract is signed.

  19 
 
   
The acceptance committee members who review the technical knowledge will be
selected from the relevant departments which are accustomed to the transformer
specification and testing at a minimum as follows:

3.1. Research and development department which performs the transformer failure
analysis

3.2. Distribution equipment department which maintains records of the

transformer’s data characteristics and performance evaluation.

3.3. Testing division which has experience in transformer testing procedures.

3.4. Purchasing or contract department which controls the appropriate

documentation, starting from with the quotation, technical and commercial
conditions agreement and the approval drawings.

All engineers and technicians who are represented in the contract acceptance
committee will be given the approval drawings as shown in Fig. 1: Sample of table
for transformer specification and equipment and Fig. 2: Sample of table for
transformer accessories as well as all related correspondence for their reference
during sampling of the delivered transformers for testing. The supplier shall submit
the routine test report of all the transformers together with the transformers apart
from the commercial document.

In the event of a dispute; the contract’s details are not clear or the supplier would
like an exception, for example, to the value of the guaranteed loss, these issues
should be presented to the upper management for arrangement to be rectified in a
meeting. The meeting will consider the disadvantages and advantages to the utility
as the focal point. In addition, use of this practice solution should be taken as the
standard practice in dealing with other suppliers.

4. Acceptance Process
The acceptance committee will make a visual inspection of the quantity of the
delivered transformers according to the invoice of the supplier, after scrutinizing all
transformers and the documentation such as the instruction manual, spare parts, etc.
the acceptance committee will then randomly test a number of the transformers as
stipulated in the contract. The quantity is usually one set, due to the expense and
time consuming nature of the operation.

It is recommended that even though the supplier already has performed the entire
routine test for all transformers as shown in supplier’s routine test report, the utility
should perform tests to serve as their own quality recheck before installation at the
site. The utility should implement a step-by-step pre-checking laboratory in order to
assure that the transformers conform to the specification especially the guaranteed
losses; otherwise, the risk of low product quality and losses cannot be minimized.

In the event that the utility has budgetary constraints, it is strongly recommended

  20 
 
   
that a third party be employed to witness the tests and approve all contract
documents at the factory. This may require a monetary investment, but the value
outweighs the cost due to the high cost of equipment.

At a minimum, the following acceptance tests should be carried out and witnessed
by the utility’s representative:

A) Routine Test
• Insulation Resistance Test
• Winding Resistance Measurement
• Oil Dielectric Test
• Applied Voltage Test
• Induced Voltage Test
• Ratio and Vector Group Test
• No-Load Loss Test
• Load Loss Test

B) Type Test
• Temperature Rise Test

If the utility’s acceptance test report is shown that the no-load loss and load loss are
measured and calculated to verify that the sampled transformers’ losses conform to
the guarantee values as in the contract, the payment will be processed and file
closed with the performance guarantee taking effect one year after delivery.

  21 
 
   
 Fig. 1: Sample of table for transformer specification and equipment

  22 
 
   
 Fig. 2: Sample of Table for Transformer Accessories

4.1. Excess Loss Management

Case Number 1

The utility randomly selects some transformers to compare with the supplier’s
report.
a) If the utility’s values are greater than the supplier’s report by 2.5%, the
utility will increase the supplier’s values of all transformers with the
following consecutive procedures.
b) The utility has to investigate which transformer’s values exceed the
guaranteed values including the tolerance limits, the transformer(s) should
be rejected and the rest are considered for penalty by calculating the
average values of the total number of transformers
c) The compensation penalty is calculated by using penalty values which are
2.0 times of the formula constants x values of loss exceeding x Total
number of transformers
d) Some suppliers may ask the utility to make an exception and to accept the
rejected transformer(s) considered from clause 3 above,

Consider a case where the purchasing contract mentioned 5 units of power

  23 
 
   
 transformers and the average value of those transformers from the supplier’s
report are 20 kW but only one unit has 25 kW for the no-load loss, then the
new guarantee no-load loss value have to be calculated in order to accept this
power transformer as shown below:

• Guarantee no load loss = 20 kW

• Tolerance = 15%
• Measure no load loss = 25 kW which is greater 20+15% kW
• Raised no-load loss guarantee = 25/1.15 = 21.74 kW
• New guarantee no load loss is raised to = 21.74 kW
• Suppose the average supplier’s report value of 5 units = 20 kW
• The penalty is calculated to = (21.74 – 20) x penalty values (normally is
2.0 times of the formula constant) x 5 (Total number of transformers)

Consider a case where the total loss value is greater than tolerance limit but the
no-load loss is still in the limit, the utility has to raise the load loss guarantee
by applying (total loss)/( 1 + % tolerance / 100) – no-load as shown below:

• Guarantee no load loss = 20 kW

• Guarantee load loss = 100 kW
• Tolerance for the no load = 15%
• Tolerance for the total loss = 10%
• Supplier’s report shows no load loss value = 18 kW which is less than 20
kW (guarantee value)
• Supplier’s report shows load loss value = 120 kW which is greater than
100 kW (guarantee value)
• Supplier’s report shows total loss value = 120 + 18 = 138 kW which is
greater than guarantee value plus tolerance = (100+20) + 10% = 132 kW
• Raised load loss guarantee = (138/1.10)-18 = 107.45 kW
• Consider a case where the average supplier’s report value of 5 units = 107
kW which is in the new guaranteed value plus tolerance limit
• The penalty is calculated to = (107.45 – 100)x penalty values (normally is
2.0 times of the formula constant) x 5 (Total number of transformers)

Case Number 2

The Utility does not have the appropriate facilities for performing acceptance
test by itself and has to rely on the routine test report of all transformers, using
the measuring values of losses from the supplier for excess losses calculation.
The process will be the same as mentioned in the Case above.

By using the tolerance limit instead of the different values between the utility
and supplier. The loss penalty will be calculated as mentioned above.
However, it is recommended that the third party inspector witness the
production line and the testing methodology with measuring values in the
report

  24 
 
   
5. Conclusion
As mentioned earlier, this chapter explained the practical acceptance test process
and exceeding transformer loss management which has been utilized for more than
40 years, and has been approved by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and World
Bank.

In reality, there may be different opinions due to varying political or customary

practices, but the afore-mentioned does solve the problems based on the mutual
benefits between the utility and the suppliers. The penalty values may be high in
terms of figures, but are fair to both parties.

  25 
 
   
Chapter 5
Installation and Operation

1. Introduction

I t is essential to mention again that the power transformer is unlike other electrical
equipment which is transported to a site in the completed form or a few parts and
is quickly put in use after a short process of assembly and erection work.

Power transformers will be disassembled at the factory and delivered to the site in
parts. Special care is required for each step in the delivery and set up process,
starting from transportation planning. Site preparation is required as well.

2. Objective
The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance on the installation, test and
operation of oil-filled transformers. This guide is necessarily general in nature. The
instruction manual from the transformer manufacturers must be thoroughly read
before commencing the work.

The loading guide will be discussed to ensure the long life of transformers.

3. Transportation of Transformer
The large power transformer is normally transported on a special vehicle, due to the
tremendous weight of the unit. It is also necessary to check that when mounted on
the transport vehicle the height is within the transportation limitation for each
LMS’s utility. The transportation weights including vehicle weight shall be
confirmed with the transportation route, road conditions and bridge capacity. Figure
3 illustrates an example of transportation arrangement for the 3-phase, 115 kV, 50
MVA transformers.

  26 
 
   
 Fig. 3: Example of transportation arrangement for the 3-phase,
115 kV, 50 MVA transformers

If the tank has been drained for transport, it is necessary for the oil to be replaced
either by dry air or nitrogen, which must then be maintained at a slight positive
pressure above the outside atmosphere to ensure that the windings remain as dry as
possible while the oil is absent. This is usually arranged by fitting a high-pressure
gas cylinder with a reducing valve to one of the tank filter valves and setting this to
produce a slow gas flow sufficient to reduce the leakage from the tank flange. A
spare cylinder is usually carried to ensure continuity of supply should the first
cylinder become exhausted. Shock recorder shall be furnished for checking if there
are no excessive shocks to transformer during transportation.

4. Power Transformer Installation

4.1. Location and Site Preparation

• No special foundation is necessary to install a transformer except a

levelled floor base of sufficient strength to support the weight and prevent
the accumulation of water.

• A foundation including special oil drainage/collection facilities in case of

fire and emergency is strongly recommended for large transformers.

• The transformer should be positioned on the foundation so that easy

access is available all around the unit, so that one can access the diagram
plates, thermometers, valves, oil gauges, etc., and that they can be easily
reached or read.

• The required position of the tank on the foundation must be accurately

marked.

  27 
 
   
 • Adequate electrical clearances are also to be provided from various
exposed live parts of the unit to any earth point.

• Any transformer should always be separated from other transformers,

reactors and any other such heat generating equipment. Transformers
should be placed sufficiently far away from all walls / partitions to permit
free circulation of air / ventilation. Recommendations in the IEC standard
[R1] shall be followed.

• Rollers, if fitted, shall be suitably clamped / locked to prevent any

movement of transformer from its designated position in relation with HV
/ LV Side terminations.

• External power conductors, power cables, control cables, earthing

conductors, etc., shall be so positioned / supported such that no pressure is
exerted on the transformer bushing terminals / cable box.

• Naturally cooled transformers depend entirely upon the circulation of air

to assist in removal of all heat generated due to internal losses. For indoor
installation, therefore, the room must be well ventilated so that heated air
can escape and be replaced by fresh cool air. Air inlets/outlets should be
sufficient to allow adequate air to cool the unit. The inlets shall be near
the floor and outlets shall be near the ceiling. If necessary, exhaust fans
can be installed to assist the process.

• If rollers are not fitted, a level concrete foundation with bearing plates /
mounting channels of sufficient size/strength can be used for outdoor
transformers. To prevent rust formation, it is essential to avoid air/water
between foundation and the transformer base. If required, bitumen or a
similar such substance shall be used on the transformer base for weather-
proof protection.

• Suitable provisions shall be made for all non-current carrying metal parts
used for the transformer support / base such that they can be earthed,
preferably at two points.

4.2. Receiving Inspection

Prior to unloading a transformer and the accessories, a complete inspection is

necessary. Verify the recorded three dimensional graph of the shock recorder.
If it shows recordings that are excessive, or any damage or problems in transit,
contact the transformer manufacturer before unloading. Freight damage should
be resolved, as it may be required to return the damaged transformer or the
damaged accessories. Photographs of the damage should be sent to the
manufacturer. Good receiving records and photographs are important, should
there be any legal problems.

Three important inspections checks are

1) Loss of pressure on the transformer,
2) Above zone 3 on the shock recorder, and

  28 
 
   
 3) Signs of movement by the transformer or its accessories.

If any of the three inspection checks indicate a problem, an internal inspection

is recommended.

A shorted core reading could also mean a bad transit ride. Low core insulation
resistance readings (200 MΩ) could be an indication of moisture in the unit
and require additional money to remove.

Entering a unit requires good confined entry procedures and can be done after
contacting the manufacturer, as they may want to have a representative present
to do the inspection. Units shipped full of oil require a storage tanker and the
costs should be agreed upon before starting.

The following items are essential for assembly:

• First ground the transformer before starting the assembly. Static electricity
can build up in the transformer and cause a problem for the assembly
crew. A static discharge could cause a crew member to jump or move and
lose their balance while assembling parts.

• Another item is to have all accessories to be assembled set close to the

unit, as this eliminates lost time moving parts closer or from a storage
yard. With the contractor setting the accessories close to the unit, you can
usually save a day of assembly time. Keep in mind that some transformer
manufactures “match-mark” each item. This means that each part has a
specific location on the unit. Do not try to interchange the parts. Some
manufacturers do not have this requirement, which allows bushings,
radiators, and other parts to be assembled at the contractor or customer’s
discretion.

• Weather is a major factor during the assembly of any transformer. Always

have an ample supply of dry air flowing through the unit during the
assembly. Be ready to seal the unit on positive pressure at the end of the
day or if the weather turns bad. If the weather is questionable, keep the
openings to a minimum and have everything ready to seal the unit.

• There are many types of contaminants that can cause a transformer to fail.
Foreign objects dropped into the windings, dirt brought into the unit on
the assemblers’ shoes, moisture left in the assembled parts, and misplaced
or forgotten tools left inside are just a few items that could cause a failure.
Take time to warn the assemblers about these precautions and to follow
good safety procedures. Again, an experienced contractor should have
experienced assemblers and good assembly procedures in place.

Caution: Do not supply power to the control cabinet as it could back-

feed into the inside current transformers, which could energize the
primary and secondary bushings. A shock from the bushings could
cause serious injury.

  29 
 
   
4.3. Handling of Transformer Components

a) Bushings

The installation manual shall be carefully read to understand the correct

lifting and assembly methods. There are a variety of bushings so it will
save time to have read this information.

Some test items may be required per the manufacturer’s instructions such
as insulation resistance, shall be carried out.

All bushing surfaces should be cleaned again with denatured alcohol. This
also includes the inside tube (draw-through type bushing). During
shipment, even though the bushings may be protected, contaminants, such
as moisture, can be found inside the bushing tube. The draw-through
bushings have a conductive cable, or a rod, that has to be pulled through
the bushing while it is being installed. In some cases, the corona shield (if
any) on HV bushings should be removed and cleaned. There are also
bottom connected bushings that require copper bus, a terminal, and
hardware to secure the connection to the bushing and winding.

All connections should be cleaned and free of oxidation or corrosion and

then wiped down with denatured alcohol.

After the installation of all bushings and all internal connections are made,
another inspection should be made for the following:

• Lead clearances. During the internal assembly work, some leads may
have been moved. Check the manufacturer’s installation book for the
necessary clearances. The information should include the basic
installation level (BIL) rating along with the clearances needed.
• Bolted connections, done by the assemblers, should be inspected for
proper clearances. Wipe down and vacuum clean the inside of the
unit around the assembly area to remove any dirt or oil smudges.
• Check for items, such as tools, that may have been left inside during
the assembly.
• Replace man-hole gaskets, if required.

b) Oil Conservators

Conservators are usually mounted on one end of the transformer and well
above the cover and bushings. Conservators normally have a rubber air
bag/diaphragm inside. This air bag /diaphragm expands or contracts due
to the temperature of the oil vs. the ambient temperature. The inside of the
air bag/diaphragm is connected to external piping, and then to a silica gel
breather. All exposure of the oil to the air is eliminated, yet the bladders
can expand.

  30 
 
   
 The conservators require gas piping and oil piping connected to the
transformer, after the man-hole covers are installed on the transformer and
before pressure or vacuum cycles are started.

The oil supply piping, from the conservator to the transformer, should
have at least one valve. The valve(s) must be closed during the vacuum
cycle as the vacuum pressure will tend to try to pull the rubber air bag
through the piping. The oil piping should have been cleaned prior to
installation and the valves inspected. The conservator should have an
inspection cover and the inside air bag inspected. While making this
inspection, also check the operation of the oil float and leak detector. (See
Fig. 4.)

1. Conservator, 2. Air Bag, 3. Silica Gel Breather, 4. Liquid Level Gauge, 5. Buchholz Relay, 6. Shut-off Valve,
7. Drain Valve, 8. Vent Valve, 9. Manhole Cover for Air Inspection, 10. Lifting Lugs & 11. Leak Detector

Fig. 4: Conservator Tank Construction

c) Radiators

All radiators should be free of moisture and contaminants such as rust. If

anything is found, the radiators should be cleaned and oil flushed with
new transformer oil. The radiators may have to be replaced with new
ones. Take time to inspect each radiator for bent fins or welding defects.
If a problem is found, the manufacturer should be contacted. The repair
should be made before installation. Touch-up painting, if needed, should
be done, as it is difficult to reach all areas after the radiators are installed.
During the radiator installation, all of the radiator valves need to be tested
on at least 1 kg (2 lb) of pressure, or under oil, for a good seal.

Some gaskets for mounting the radiator/valve mounting flange may have
to be replaced. Coating the outside of the gasket with petroleum jelly
protects the surface of the gasket during the radiator assembly. Be careful
not to pollute the oil. The radiator surface will then slide without
damaging the gasket.

  31 
 
   
 d) Cooling Equipment

All fans or pumps, and piping shall be inspected for contaminants before
assembly. The correct fan/pump rotation is an important checkpoint.

e) On-Load Tap Changers (OLTC)

Some OLTCs mounted external to the main tank are shipped full of oil. If
necessary to make an internal inspection, check the manufacturer’s
installation book for information concerning vacuum oil filling of the unit.
As specified in the specification, it does not require a vacuum line to main
tank for equalizing the pressure.

• Do not operate the LTC mechanism while the unit is on vacuum, as

severe damage could occur to the mounting board.

• The process of adding oil to the external OLTC tank will put
pressure inside the tank. This added positive pressure along with the
negative gage pressure of the main tank could cause the OLTC
barrier boards to rupture. No additional work should be attempted
while the main transformer tank is under vacuum.

• Look for loose hardware or any misalignment of the contacts.

Operate the LTC through all positions and check each contact for
alignment. Refer to the supplier’s instruction manual for the
allowable variance. Perfect “centre line” alignment during the
complete range of operation from the highest tap to the lowest tap
will be difficult to achieve.

f) Control Cabinet

All control equipment must be inspected for loose wiring or problems

caused by the shipping. The fan, gauges, LTC controls, and monitoring
equipment must be tested or calibrated. Information for the installation
and/or the calibration should be supplied by the manufacturer.

g) Accessories

There are many items that may be required for particular transformer.
Refer to the instruction book of the individual item.

h) Vacuum Cycle

After completion of site erection, a vacuum pump is applied to the tank

and the air exhausted until a vacuum equivalent to between 5 and 10 mbar
can be maintained.

  32 
 
   
 Caution: All oil handling equipment, transformer bushings, and the
transformer should be grounded before starting the vacuum oil cycle.
Special requirements are needed for vacuum oil filling in cold
weather. Check the manufacturer’s manual.

Pulling vacuum on a transformer is usually done through the mechanical

relief flange or a special vacuum valve located on the cover of the
transformer. A vacuum sensor, to send a signal to the vacuum recording
gauge, should be at the highest location on the transformer’s cover. This
position reduces the risk of the sensor being contaminated with oil, which
would let the vacuum gauge give a false reading. All readings from this
gauge should be recorded at least every hour.

Note: All radiator and cooling equipment valves should be open prior to
starting the vacuum cycle.

i) Vacuum Filling System

Manufacturers differ on the duration of vacuum required and the method

to add oil to the unit. It is important that the vacuum crew performing this
process, to follow the correct procedure as stated by the manufacturer.
Failure to do so can void the warranty. Good record-keeping during this
process is just as important for your information as it is for supplying the
manufacturer with information that validates the warranty.

The length of time (pulling vacuum) will vary as to the exposure time to
atmospheric air, the transformer rating, and the dew point/moisture
calculations. Most of the necessary information as to the vacuum cycle
time should be furnished in the installation book.

Due to the fact that the vacuum equipment may have been used on older
and/or failed transformers, the vacuum equipment needs to be thoroughly
cleaned with new transformer oil and a new filter medium added to the oil
filtering equipment. The vacuum oil pump should have new vacuum oil
installed and it should be able to “pull-down” against a closed valve to
below 1mm of pressure.

j) Transformer Oil

The oil supplied should be secured from an approved source and meet the
IEC 60296 Standard.

k) Adding the Oil

All oil from tankers should be field tested for acceptable dielectric levels
prior to pumping oil through the oil handling equipment. A superior
method that will assist in the removal of moisture involves heating the oil
to 50 to 70°C and passing the oil through a filter. Oil filling a conservator
transformer takes more time as the piping and the conservator have to be
slowly filled while air is “bled” out of the piping, bushings, and gas

  33 
 
   
 monitor. Methods vary for adding oil to the conservator because of the
risk to the air bag. Weeks later, the air should be “bled” again. If this is
not done, you could receive a false signal that may take the transformer
out of service.

l) Site Test

Site test shall be carried out for the items specified in Clause 4 of LMS’s
Specification as follows:
• Measurement of the excitation current with low voltage (AC 3-
phase) when the transformer is completely de-magnetized
• Oil tightness test on tank at 0.3 bar over oil level, 24 hours
• Measurement of voltage ratio at all tap positions
• Check of vector group by voltmeter method
• Measurement of winding resistances at all tap positions
• Measurement of the winding insulation resistances (R15, R60, R180,
R600) at 5000VDC
• Measurement of the insulation resistance (R60) between the core and
tank at 2000VDC
• Measurement of the insulation resistance on auxiliary wiring at
1000V,DC
• Measurement of the dielectric strength of the insulation oil
• Measurement of tan δ value of oil
• Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis
• Check of water content in ppmw. for oil
• Functional test on cooling plant, including check of rotation direction
of motors
• Functional tests on control and supervisory equipment
• Functional tests on OLTC equipment
• Visual checks

m) Energizing the transformer

The modern protective relay is available and used by LMS’s utility

nowadays, the disturbance recording is one feature of such relay which
can be used to record the inrush current of the transformer for the first
time it is energized.

The transformer shall be checked after energizing to ensure that it is in

normal operating condition before loading as follows:

• Check the voltage level.

• Check the phase sequence
• Check the transformer noise

  34 
 
   
5. Operation of Transformer
5.1. Loading Guide

By definition, according to IEC 60076-7, “normal” service conditions for a

power transformer are at an altitude of not greater than 1000 m above sea level,
within an ambient temperature range of 25°C to 40°C, subjected to a wave
shape which is approximately sinusoidal, a three-phase supply which is
approximately symmetrical and within an environment which does not require
special provision on account of pollution and is not exposed to seismic
disturbance.

As explained in ANNEX 1, rated temperature rise is based on a hot-spot

temperature of 98°C with a 20°C ambient. This hot-spot temperature is
considered to result in a rate of normal ageing which will provide a satisfactory
life expectancy.

The value of 98°C has been selected as a result of testing in laboratory

conditions and any attempt to draw significant conclusion as to true life
expectancy from such laboratory testing must be avoided because of the many
other factors which also ultimately affect service life. Consequently other
values of hot-spot temperature must be equally tenable and other ratings
besides the IEC rating must be equally permissible, particularly if it is
anticipated that these ratings will not be required to be delivered continuously
and if it is recognized that 20°C is not representative of LMS’ region in which
IEC rated transformers are required to operate.

However, transformers are suitable for full-load operation at rated temperature

rise without loss of life, providing the following conditions are met:

• Ambient temperature does not exceed 40°C; or average more than 30°C;
in one 24 hour period, the transformer may be used in over 40°C ambient
for very short intervals. Unless it is a specially designed unit with the
properly upgraded insulation level which can be operated at a higher
temperature rating.

• Installed elevation does not exceed 1,000 meters above sea level,
otherwise the transformer capacity will be de-rating due to the air density
the cooling efficiency of the transformer is reduced, the factors that can be
calculated refer to IEC standard.

• Limiting the peak load to the transformer nameplate rating would result in
an uneconomical use of the transformer overload capability. Short-time
peak overloads, without significantly decreasing the life expectancy, are
permitted. Overloading should be in accordance with IEC 60076-7
standards.

• A schedule should be made for periodic checks of the load applied to the
transformer to verify excessive load is not being applied to the unit.

  35 
 
   
6. Conclusion
The complexity of activities starting from transportation, site preparation, process of
assembling, site test and further long operation time, make the power transformer
one of the most important pieces of equipment. The lifetime of a substation
sometimes is referred to as the lifetime of the transformer. The LMS’s utilities shall
pay attention to all such complex activities.

7. References
• IEC 61936-1 (2002) : Power Installations exceeding 1 kV A.C. – Common
Rules

• IEC 60076-7 (2005) : Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformer

  36 
 
   
Chapter 6
Maintenance and Asset Management

1. Introduction

A s with all other power system assets, once a transformer has been
manufactured to the LMS specifications and installed on the system, it enters
the long operational phase of its life-cycle. Over 30 years of service, periodic
monitoring and maintenance activities will be carried out to manage the life of the
asset. With the dual aims of maximizing the useful life and determining when such
asset should be refurbished.

The traditional approach to transformer maintenance involves periodically carrying

out a series of tests to check the transformer integrity.

The methodology considers the condition of a transformer as a function of the

condition of several components including fluid as a separate component: A
relevant test scope is specified as one that suggests the limits and critical values for
each tested parameter, and looking for a deviance against nameplate/previous test
data. Maintaining proper condition is essential to meet the goals of maximizing the
return on investment and lowering the total cost associated with transformer
operation.

The present maintenance trend is to reduce cost, which in some cases means
lengthening the intervals of time to perform maintenance or eliminating
maintenance completely. The utility, or company, realizes some savings in
manpower and material by lengthening the maintenances cycle, but by doing this,
the risk factor is increased. Another trend is to move from the traditional time-based
maintenance policy to condition-based maintenance (Predictive maintenance)
policies.

2. Transformer Failures and Recommended

Remedies
Table 1 below provides the reason for transformer failure and recommended
remedies. These are provided to show the importance of transformer maintenance.

  37 
 
   
 No Reason for Failure Recommended Remedies
1 Cellulose Paper - Test and monitor oil and interpret DGA
Insulation Failure - Check acidity by reconditioning
- Apply vacuum drying to remove moisture
- Clean cooling paths in coils and radiator
2 Failure due to Insulation - Testing of oil periodically
Oil - Perform oil reclamation / regeneration
3 Failure due to External - Make external system healthy
Short Circuits - Test and calibrate relays
4 Lightning Faults - Install surge arresters. Maintain in good
condition
- Provide lightning conductors on poles and
structures
5 Manufacturing Defects - Third party inspection during manufacturing
- Testing at manufacturer premises
- Quality of material, testing of raw material
- Oil testing (all parameters) at initial stage
6 Failure of Core Insulation - Check harmonics & install harmonics filters
and Grounding of Core - Check the insulation resistance of core
7 Design Defects and - Specify exact requirements given sensitive
Inadequate Specification conditions and power disturbances.
8 Installation and - Inspection for damage during transportation
Commissioning Defects - Check installation thoroughly
- Follow commissioning procedure and tests
- Increase DGA test frequency for first year.
9 Operation and - Training of staff
Maintenance Problems - Implement long term maintenance

Table 1- Recommended remedies to minimize transformer failures.

3. Transformer Maintenance
3.1. Periodical Maintenance and Inspection

During the entire period of the transformer in service, the transformer shall be
properly inspected as per interval recommended in Table 2 below:

No Recommended Maintenance Schedule

1. Observation of oil & winding temperatures & Hourly
recording
2. Checking of the Colour of silica gel in the Daily
breather and also oil level of the oil seal. If the
silica gel colour changes from blue to pink by
50%, the silica gel is to be reconditioned or
replaced.

  38 
 
   
 3. Observation of oil levels in (a) main Daily
conservator tank (b) OLTC conservator (c)
bushings and examining for oil leaks if any
from the transformer
4. Visual check for overheating if any at terminal Daily
connections (Red hots) and observation of any in each shift
unusual internal noises.
5. Check for noise, vibration or any abnormality Daily
in cooling fans & oil pumps of power
transformers standby pumps & fans are also to
be run condition to be observed.
6. Visual check of explosion vent diaphragm for Daily
any cracks
7. Checking for any water leakage into cooler in Daily
case of forced cooling system.
8. Cleaning of silica gel breather When silica gel is
replaced
9. Check temperature alarms by shorting contacts Quarterly
by operating the knob.
10. Check auto start of cooling fans and pumps Quarterly
11. Lubricating / Greasing all moving parts of Quarterly or as given
OLTC mechanism in the manufacturers
manual
12. Testing of main tank oil and OLTC for Quarterly
Breakdown Voltage and moisture content
13. Testing of oil samples for dissolved gas Half yearly
analysis
14. Testing of oil in main tank and OLTC for Once in a year
acidity, tan delta, interface tension specific
resistivity
15. Overhauling of oil pumps and their motors also During substation
cooling fans & their motors. maintenance
16. Cleaning of bushings, inspect for any cracks or During substation
chippings of the porcelain and checking of maintenance
tightness of clamps and jumpers
17. Checking of all connections on the transformer During substation
for tightness such as bushings, tank earth maintenance
connection
18. Bushing testing for tan δ delta and capacitance During substation
measurement maintenance
19. Measurement of IR values of transformer with during substation
2.5 KV megger up to 33KV rating and 5.0 KV maintenance
megger above 33KV rating. Recording of the
values specifying the temperature which
measurements are taken.
20. Checking of Buchholz relay for any gas During substation
collection and testing the gas collected maintenance or after
failure switch-off

  39 
 
   
 21. Checking of operation of Buchholz relay by air During substation
injection ensuring actuation alarm & trip maintenance
22. Testing of Buchholz surge relays & low oil During substation
level trips for correct operation maintenance
23. Calibration of thermometers (temperature During substation
indicators) and tap position indicator. maintenance
24. Remaining old oil in thermometer pockets, During substation
cleaning the pockets and filing with new oil. maintenance
25. Checking of control circuitry, interlocks of oil During substation
pumps and cooling fans for auto start and stop maintenance
operation at correct temperatures and also for
manual operation
26. Calibration of oil & winding temperature Only when suspect
indicators
27. Replacement of oil in OLTC Numbers of
operations as
recommended by
manufacturer or poor
oil condition.
28. Inspection of OLTC mechanism and contacts of Number of operation
its diverter switch as recommended by
manufacturers
29. Overhaul of tap changer and mechanism Number of operation
as recommended by
manufacturers
30. Measurement of magnetizing current at normal After failure switch-
tap and extreme taps off
31. Measurement of DC winding resistance After failure switch-
off
32. Turns ratio test at all taps After failure switch-
off
33. Pressure testing of oil coolers After repair
34. Filtration of oil / replacement of oil and Whenever the
filtration insulation resistance
values of transformer
are below permissible
limits and oil test
results require
filtration /
replacement of oil
35. General overhaul (consisting 1) Inspection of One in 10 years
core & winding (2) Through washing of Or after failure
windings (3) Core tightening (4) Check-up of switch-off
core bolt insulation (5) Replacement of gaskets
(6) Overhaul of OLTC

Major inspections require the transformer to be out of service. All HV, LV and
TV bushings should be grounded before doing the work.

In addition to such off line tests, that could prevent a failure, using an infrared

  40 
 
   
 scan on a transformer can locate “hot spots”. The high temperature areas may
be caused by a radiator valve being closed, low oil in a bushing, or an LTC
problem. Early detection could allow time to repair the problem.

It is also essential to perform more detailed discussion for dissolved gas

analysis test of the oil by a lab. A dissolved gas analysis lab test will notify one
if high levels of gases are found (CIGRE Technical Brochure 296). Following
the lab report may allow one to plan one’s course of action. If there seems to
be a problem, it would be worthwhile to take a second dissolved gas in oil
sample and send it to a different lab and compare the results (IEEE C57 104-
1991).

3.2. Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is the best technique for detecting

abnormalities in transformers. The bulk of solid insulation used in oil filled
transformers consists of cellulose. It is used in the form of paper tapes, which
are wrapped around winding conductors and as sheets for inter-winding, inter-
core and winding-to-earth insulation. Oil-filled transformers typically contain a
ratio of oil to paper of about 20:1 (wt/wt). If the paper is heated to more than
98°C it begins to degrade and the working life of the transformer may be
markedly reduced.

Following routine tests are essential for deciding maintenance or necessary

repairs on any transformer. Degradation of cellulosic insulation can be caused
by localized hot spots at relatively high temperatures (incipient fault
conditions) or from more general heating of large portions.

It is a common practice to test materials used in power transformers when new

and then to assess the condition of the electrical insulation to detect developing
problems in the early stages, also to assess remaining life and risk of failure.

The determination of dissolved gases in insulating liquids (carbon dioxide,

carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, acetylene, ethane, and ethylene) of an
electric transformer allows the evaluation of abnormal electric and thermal
events. In order to protect the transformer, based upon the relationship that was
established between the DGA results and potential cause of fault, appropriate
preventive measures can be taken. In fact, the degradation of hydrocarbons,
resulting from heat or electric arcs, proceeds in accordance with reactions
competing among themselves, generating decomposition gases, depending
upon the temperature and energy of the discharges. The sampling and analysis
technique are documented in IEC Standard –Publication 60567 “Guide for the
sampling of gases and oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the
analysis of free and dissolve gases”. Interpretation of results is documented in
IEC standard- Publication 60599 "Interpretation of the analysis of gases in
transformers and other oil-filled electrical equipment in service".

  41 
 
   
4. Condition-Based Maintenance
Condition based maintenance (predictive maintenance i.e. to monitor if something is
going to fail) program combines the database with diagnostic tools and warning of
imminent failure.

One of the most important tools in a condition based maintenance strategy is to have
a convenient, reliable and cost efficient method to identify the deteriorating
condition of a transformer.

4.1. Transformer On-line Monitoring

Transformer unavailability has a considerable impact on the operation of

electricity generation and installation networks. This method shall preferably
be applicable whilst the transformer is on-line. On-line monitoring of
transformers and associated accessories (measuring certain parameters or
conditions while energized) is an important consideration in their operation and
maintenance. The justification for on-line monitoring is driven by the need to
increase the availability of transformers, to facilitate the transition from time-
based and/or operational-based maintenance to condition-based maintenance,
to improve asset and life management, and to enhance failure-cause analysis.

Various issues must be considered when determining whether or not the

installation of an on-line monitoring system is appropriate. Prior to the
installation of on-line monitoring equipment, cost-benefit and risk-benefit
analyses are typically performed in order to determine the value of the
monitoring system as applied to a particular transformer. For example, for an
ageing transformer, especially with critical functions, on-line monitoring of
certain key parameters is appropriate and valuable. Monitoring equipment can
also be justified for transformers with certain types of load tap changers that
have a history of coking or other types of problems, or for transformers with
symptoms of certain types of problems such as overheating, partial discharge,
excessive ageing, bushing problems, etc. However, for transformers those are
operated normally without any overloading and have acceptable routine
maintenance and dissolved gas analysis (DGA) test results, monitoring can
probably not be justified economically.

Monitoring systems available on the market already provide solutions for

monitoring the windings and magnetic circuit (e.g. gas dissolved in oil,
ultrasound emission, temperatures). Other methods and systems are under
development. They all aim to prevent major failures and extend service
lifetime of the equipment by triggering preventive maintenance. Furthermore,
the use of monitoring data must be coupled with the implementation of
diagnostic tools. Figure 5 presents one type of Transformer On-line
Monitoring.

  42 
 
   
 Fig. 5: Transformer monitoring (TM) system

The data measured on new transformers are the most important reference data
for the later judgement of their actual condition. The most common sensors for
on-line condition monitoring are:

a) Moisture sensor: The presence of moisture in the transformer oil may be

an indication of accelerated ageing of the insulation or an indication of gasket
deterioration and inward leakage.

b) Top oil temperature sensor: Top oil temperature is an indicator of the

thermal performance of a transformer.

c) Combustible gas sensors: Thermal and electrical stresses breakdown the

dielectric oil into a variety of gases. The gases are indicative of developing
faults in the transformer and early detection will trigger corrective action to
prevent costly failures. Such sensors are most sensitive to hydrogen and carbon
monoxide.

5. Conclusion
Power transformers are one of the most expensive components in an electricity
system. Knowing and maintaining their condition is essential to meet the goals of
maximizing return on investment and lowering the total cost associated with
transformer operation.

  43 
 
   
6. Reference
• NFPA 70B Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment
Maintenance, 2006

• Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Distribution

Equipment and Systems. International Electrical Testing Association Inc.

• IEC Standard –Publication 60567 “Guide for the sampling of gases and
oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the analysis of free and
dissolve gases”.

• IEC standard- Publication 60599 "Interpretation of the analysis of gases in

transformers and other oil-filled electrical equipment in service"

• IEEE C57.104, 1991 IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases

Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers

• CIGRE Technical Brochure 296 “Recent developments on the

interpretation of dissolved gas analysis in transformers”, 2006

• CIGRE Technical Brochure 343 “Recommendations for Condition

Monitoring and Condition Assessment Facilities for Transformers, 2008

• CIGRE Technical Brochure 248 "Guide on Economics of Transformer

Management", 2004

  44 
 
   
 ANNEX

Concept of Life Expectancy

The design of the transformer plays a vital role in life expectancy of a transformer.
The oil and paper forms the main insulating material. It is a generally accepted that
the life of the transformer is normally the life of the insulating material. More
precisely life of cellulose paper decides the life of transformer as the oil could be
replaced, reconditioned or reclaimed. Therefore, insulation design, quality of
insulating material, manufacturing process and maintenance of insulating material is
important.

The basis for “normal life expectancy” of oil-immersed transformers with oil-
impregnated Class 105 (previously defined as class A) paper insulation is that “the
temperature of the insulation on average shall not exceed 98°C”.

In practice, not all parts of a winding operate at the same temperature since some
parts are cooled more effectively than others 1 . The part of the winding which
reaches the hottest temperature is known as the ‘hot spot’. The hot spot location in
the winding is dependent on the physical design. Therefore the ‘average
temperature’ of a complete winding is normally determined by measuring its change
in resistance above a reference temperature.

Research and development tests have established that the hot spot temperature is
about 13°C above the average winding temperature in typical naturally cooled
transformers (ONAN). Measurement of average winding temperature therefore
allows the hot spot to be deduced, at least in an empirical way. When a transformer
is unloaded the conductor temperature is virtually the same as the ambient
temperature of the air surrounding the transformer. When load current is passed, the
conductor temperature rises above ambient and eventually stabilizes at an elevated
value (assuming the load current is constant). The total temperature of the hot spot
is then given as:

Hot Spot Temperature

=
Ambient Temperature
+
Average Winding Temperature Rise
+
Hot Spot Differential

1
The temperature distribution in the winding does not vary linearly with its height
as usually assumed. Variation in temperature with winding height is close to the
linear distribution in forced oil cooling, whereas for naturally oil cooled
transformers (ONAN and ONAF) it can be quite non-linear
  45 
 
   
The basis of the IEC specification for thermal design, with the transformer at full
load, is to assume an annual average temperature of 20°C. On average, over a year
therefore, the limit of 98°C is achieved if:

98°C ≥ 20°C + average winding temperature rise +13°C

Therefore the average winding temperature rise should be ≤65°C and this forms the
basis of the IEC specification for 65°K average winding temperature rise. There are
also IEC requirements for the temperature rise of the insulating oil when the
transformer is at full load. The specified rise of 60°C ensures that the oil does not
degrade in service and is compatible with allowing the average winding temperature
to rise by 65°C.

If any of the IEC reference ambient temperatures are exceeded by the site
conditions the permitted internal temperature rises are adjusted to restore the basic
thermal equation for normal life expectancy. For example, if the annual average
temperature was 25°C instead of 20°C, the permitted average winding rise is
reduced to 60°C to restore the 98°C total hot spot temperature. Note that the correct
annual average temperature to use when specifying transformers is a “weighted
value” given as follows:

N Ta
1
Ta1 = 20log 1020
N
1
Where
Ta1 = weighted annual ambient temperature
Ta = monthly average temperature
N = month number

The weighted value is designed to take proper account of the Arrhenius law.

These were that for those periods for which the hot-spot temperature is above that
corresponding to normal ageing, insulation life is being used up at faster than the
rate corresponding to normal life expectancy. In order to obtain normal life
expectancy, therefore, there must be balancing periods during which insulation life
is being used up less rapidly. Expressed in quantitative terms the time required for
insulation to reach its end of life condition is given by the Arrhenius law of
chemical reaction rate:

L = e T
Where
L = the time for the reaction to reach a given stage, but which might in
this case be defined as end of life
T = the absolute temperature
While α and β are constants

Within a limited range 80–140°C of temperatures this can be approximated to the

simpler Montsinger relationship:

  46 
 
   
 L = e
Where
ρ is a constant
θ is the temperature in degrees Celsius

For the purposes of this evaluation this is not relevant and of more significance is
the rate of ageing. This is the inverse of the lifetime, that is:

v = Me

Where M is a constant which is dependent on many factors but principally

moisture content of the insulation and availability of oxygen.

It is the fact that the coefficient of temperature variation ρ can be

generally regarded as a constant over the temperature range 80–140°C
and it is widely agreed that its value is such that the rate of ageing
doubles for every 6K increase in temperature for most of the materials
currently used in transformer insulation.

Relative Ageing Rate

If 98°C is then taken as the temperature at which normal ageing rate occurs, then the
relative ageing rate at any other temperature θh is given by the expression:

V =
Ageing Rate at 98°C

From which, according to Montsinger

= 2

This is represented by the table below.

θh Relative rate of
using life
80 0.125
86 0.25
92 0.5
98 1.0
104 2.0
110 4.0
116 8.0
122 16.0
126 32.0
134 64.0
140 128.0

  47 
 
   
Reference Materials:

• “Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering”, by Colin R. Bayliss,

Brian J. Hardy, Edition 2007

• “The J & P transformer book: a practical technology of the power transformer” by

Martin J. Heathcote, Edition 2007

  48 
 
   
Notes

  49 
 
   
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