Teaching Aptitude

Chapter 1 : Evaluation System

Chapter 2 : Teaching Aids

Chapter 3 : Styles of Teaching

Chapter 4 : Methods of Teaching

Chapter 5 : Factors Affecting Teaching

Chapter 6 : Learners Characteristics

Chapter 7 : Steps of Teaching

Chapter 8 : Teaching: Characteristics and Basic

Requirements

Chapter 9 : Teaching: Nature and Objectives

Chapter 10 : Teaching: Concept and Assumptions

Page 1 of 53
 Evaluation System
Evaluation System
Assessment performance is an integral part of any process of learning and
teaching.as part of sound educational strategy, examinations should be employed to
bring about qualitative improvement in education. (National Policy on Education,
1986)
Evaluation is a wider concept than testing and measurement and is supposed
to judge the worth of all the educational outcomes brought about as a result of
teaching-learning process.
Evaluation, actually is a continuous appraisal of the achievement of the aim of
education as well as the methods of teaching and learning with a view to continuous
improvements so that education becomes dynamic and self-developing.it also
involves the self-appraisal by the student of their success and failures from time to
time.
This way, the students come to know their own drawbacks and try to improve.
Thus, it helps the teacher in diagnosing the pupil’s difficulties.
Because it is a continuous assessment of the pupil’s day to day progress in all
sphere, it helps in determining the potentialities and interests of every student, on
the basis of the day-to-day records of pupil it becomes easy to know present status
of a student and his growth towards the desirable goal.in this way, evaluation
provides information essential for effective guidance programme.
Thus, evaluation may be defined as a systematic process of determining the
extent which educational objectives are achieved by pupils.
Quillen and Hana quotes as, “Evaluation is the process of gathering and
interpreting evidence on changes in behaviour of the students as the progress
through school.”
Kothari Commission reiterated as, “Evaluation is a continuous process. It forms
an integral part of the total system of education and in intimately related to
educational objectives. It exercises a great influence on the pupils study habits and
the teacher’s methods of instruction and thus helps not only to measure educational
achievement but also to improve it. The techniques of evaluation are means of
collecting evidences about the student’s development in desirable directions.”

Page 2 of 53
 Basically, evaluation is a term which has overtones that distinguish it from
measurement. The latter implies only a precise quantitative assessment of outcomes
of instruction, whereas evaluation signifies a wider, more comprehensive and
continuous process of assessing students’ progress.

According to the approach, evaluation is thus integrated with the whole task of
education and its purpose is to improve instruction and not merely to measure its
achievement.
In its higher senses, evaluation brings out the factors that are inherent in
student growth such as proper attitudes and habits, manipulative skills, appreciations
and understanding in addition to conventional acquisition of knowledge.
Scope of Evaluation
Evaluation covers a wider purpose than the testing. The testing only aims at
knowing the achievement of the pupils in a particular subject during a specified
period. Again, testing confines to the memorisation of knowledge only and does not
test the application, skills, abilities, interests and other objectives of teaching of a
subject. On the other hand, evaluation not only aims at knowing the achievements
but helps in improving curriculum and methods also. It is never static but is dynamic
and its methods and materials changes according to the changes in needs of the
individual and society. Because education is a process of growth and its aims are
changing from time it is essential that own evaluation techniques should also change.
So evaluation aims at improving the whole educational process in the following way:
1. Evaluation tests the genuineness of objectives and helps in their modification.
It does not test the content learnt but the objectives. If the objectives are not
achieved, it tries to find out the reason for that. It may be that the objectives
are ambitious or below the stands. It is, therefore, necessary to modify the
objectives in the light of the needs of the individual and of the society.
2. Evaluation helps in judging the effectiveness of the methods of teaching in
terms of the objectives of teaching. The method of teaching are also modified
if they do not help in achieving the objectives.
3. Evaluation also helps in finding out the psychological soundness of the
material. Because curriculum is the base for success of the education process,
it is essential that it should be dynamic and broad based and should be
modified according to changing objectives.

Page 3 of 53
 4. It test the all-round development of the child and helps in predicting the future
success of the student in a particular field. So it serves the diagnostic and
prognostic purpose and thus serves as basis for guidance to the teacher and
the taught.
5. Evaluation helps in the improvement and modification of the evaluation tools
and techniques which should not be static but should change from time to
time.

Scope of Evaluation
The scope and interrelation of evaluation with objectives, methods and curriculum

can be shown in the following diagram:

Triangular Process of Evaluation

Evaluation procedure should not delimit its scope to only paper and pencil aspect for
this may not reveal most of the inherent quality and his participation in the day-to-
day activities of the school programme. So it is essential to maintain the systematic
records of the pupil’s progress in theoretical studies, practical work and the various
co-curricular activities which form an integral part of educative process. This will give
a true picture of the child’s progress throughout the year and will thus give reliability
and validity to the evaluation programme which is based upon the objectives of the
teaching subject.
For this, every school should maintain diaries of pupils, anecdotal records and
cumulative records. Children’s diaries throw much light to their appreciations,
attitudes and interests and attitudes and their personal and social problems.
Anecdotal records is the teacher’s description of significant pupil behaviour in an
incident on critical behaviour.

Page 4 of 53
 Cumulative Record assist the teacher to discover the growth of students in
different directions. Every type of information regarding each child is entered in this
card from time to time. This will reveal the whole history of the child and the
assessment done in this way should be counted at the time of final assessment.
Cumulative records will also help the vocational guidance services in determining the
future vocations of pupils.

Purpose of Evaluation
In broad sense, the purpose of evaluation can be classified into two categories:
1. Educational Purpose
2. Administrative Purpose

1. The Educational Purpose of Evaluation

The educational purpose of evaluation is basically with Quality Control in
relation to:

2. The Administrative Purpose of Evaluation

The administrative purpose of evaluation is concerned with the accountability
to:

Page 5 of 53
Types of Evaluation
Evaluation can be classified into 3 groups as:
1. Diagnostic Evaluation
2. Formative Evaluation
3. Summative Evaluation

1. Diagnostic Evaluation-This type of evaluation is generally done in the beginning

of teaching-learning process in order to find out the specific weaknesses, either
or an individual or at class level, and also to find out particular strengths. It
helps to design the courses and curricula according to the capabilities of the
learner to help him overcome his deficiencies in knowledge, skills and abilities.
2. Formative Evaluation-It is concerned with making decisions relating to forming
or development of students as well as of the courses. It provides feedback at
appropriate stages of teaching-learning process which helps in making changes
in the curriculum, teaching strategies and the learning environment, formative
evaluation is done during the process of teaching-learning with the following
purposes:
i. To monitor student learning for the purpose of providing individualized
instruction.
ii. To evaluate teaching effectiveness.
iii.

To evaluate courses and curricula with the purpose of modification, updating

or replacement, if necessary.
iv. To evaluate curriculum materials.

Page 6 of 53
 v. To evaluate the learning environment with a view to improving it.

3. Summative Evaluation-It is concerned with making judgements about a

finished product or process. Terminal examinations-whether internal or
external-are a good example of summative evaluation. But summative
evaluation must not necessarily be terminal in nature. Cumulative assessments,
where they are undertaken solely for the purposes of selection, promotion,
prediction, recording and such other administrative purposes, should be
considered as a series of summative evaluation.

The Evaluation Process

The process of evaluation has the following stage:
1. Formulating and selecting worthwhile objectives of teaching in a subject.
2. Classifying and defining objectives in terms of expected learning outcomes or
behavioural changes in pupils.
3. Developing appropriate Learning experiences or activities.
4. Devising and adopting suitable assessment procedures to collect and modifying
the necessary aspects of the entire system for better results.

Page 7 of 53
 Teaching Aids
Teaching aids assist students in learning. These aids consist of video, audio and
hands-on tools to help involve the students and enhance the learning experience.

Students tend to get more involved when learning if teaching aids are implemented
into the curriculum. Hands-on aids, such as computers, maps and other tools that
require some sort of interaction from the students, have the highest levels of
effectiveness.

The tools are designed to involve the students, promote interaction, and promote
faster learning and better comprehension. Being able to see, hear or get involved in a
topic creates a much better method for learning.

How a teacher chooses to use learning aids in a classroom can vary dramatically. The
main factor in the effective use of teaching aids is that a skilled teacher is behind the
tools being used.

Need of Teaching Aids

1) Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to
retain more concept permanently.

Page 8 of 53
2) Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different
teaching aids.

3) Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and
smell properly.

4) Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.

5) The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.

6) Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.

7) Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning permanent.

8) Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.

The teaching aids used in the teaching can be classified into the following ways:

a. Traditional Aids:

Blackboard/chalkboard, books, periodicals.

b. Visual Aids:

Objects, picture, map, figure, chart, posters, model, bulletin board, flannel board,
globe, graph or any other type of graphics such as| diagrams, cut-outs, cartoons,
etc.

c. Mechanical Aids:
i. Audio: Radio, tape recorder, teaching machine.
ii. Visual: Projector, epidiascope, film strips, motion picture, etc.
iii. Audio-Visual: Films, television, video, cassettes, etc. Visual Material Aids:
Use of Chart: The most commonly used types of charts include outline
charts, tabular charts, flow charts and organization charts. Flip charts and
flow charts are also being used.

Types of Teaching Aids

There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as follows-

Page 9 of 53
1) Visual Aids: The aids which use sense of vision are called Visual aids. For
example :- actual objects, models, pictures, charts, maps, flash cards, flannel board,
bulletin board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc. Out of these black board
and chalk are the commonest ones.

2) Audio Aids: The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids. For
example: - radio, tape recorder, gramophone etc.

3) Audio – Visual Aids: The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing
are called Audio- Visual aids. For example: - television, film projector, film strips etc.

Importance of teaching aids

Teaching aids are important because they create a visual and interactive experience
for the students. As the students become more engaged, they are more likely to
understand the topic being taught.

Teaching aids play a very important role in Teaching- Learning process. Importance of
Teaching aids are as follows:-

1) Motivation: Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.

2) Clarification: Through teaching aids, the teacher clarify the subject matter more
easily.

3) Discouragement of Cramming: Teaching aids can facilitate the proper

understanding to the students which discourage the act of cramming.

4) Increase the Vocabulary: Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the

students more effectively.

5) Saves Time and Money

6) Classroom Live and active: Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.

7) Avoids Dullness

8) Direct Experience: Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students

Page 10 of 53
 Styles of Teaching
No two teachers are alike, and any teacher with classroom teaching experience will
agree that their style of teaching is uniquely their own. An effective teaching style
engages students in the learning process and helps them develop critical thinking
skills. Traditional teaching styles have evolved with the advent of differentiated
instruction, prompting teachers to adjust their styles toward students’ learning
needs.

Logically, the self-directed learner is a bad match for the “Authority/Expert” teacher,
benefiting instead from a “Delegator” approach. The “Dependent Learner” needs the
Authority Figure/Expert teacher, but would presumably be listless when matched
with the “Delegator.”

What are the typical styles of teaching?

The following list of teaching styles highlights the five main strategies teachers use in
the classroom, as well as the benefits and potential pitfalls of each respective
teaching method.

Authority, or lecture style

The authority model is teacher-centred and frequently entails lengthy lecture
sessions or one-way presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb
information.

Page 11 of 53
  Pros: This style is acceptable for certain higher-education disciplines and
auditorium settings with large groups of students. The pure lecture style is
most suitable for subjects like history that necessitate memorization of key
facts, dates, names, etc.
 Cons: It is a questionable model for teaching children because there is little or
no interaction with the teacher.

Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role while allowing teachers to
demonstrate their expertise by showing students what they need to know.

 Pros: This style gives teachers opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats

including lectures, multimedia presentations and demonstrations.
 Cons: Although it’s well-suited for teaching mathematics, music, physical
education, arts and crafts, it is difficult to accommodate students’ individual
needs in larger classrooms.

Facilitator, or activity style

Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking skills
and retain knowledge that leads to self-actualization.

 Pros: This style trains students to ask questions and helps develop skills to find
answers and solutions through exploration; it is ideal for teaching science and
similar subjects.
 Cons: Challenges teacher to interact with students and prompt them toward
discovery rather than lecturing facts and testing knowledge through
memorization.

Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best-suited for curriculum that requires lab activities, such as
chemistry and biology, or subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate and
creative writing.

1. Pros: Guided discovery and inquiry-based learning places the teacher in an

observer role that inspires students by working in tandem toward common
goals.

Page 12 of 53
 2. Cons: Considered a modern style of teaching, it is sometimes criticized as new-
fangled and geared toward teacher as consultant rather than the traditional
authority figure.

Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that blends the
teachers’ personality and interests with students’ needs and curriculum-appropriate
methods.

 Pros: Achieves the inclusive approach of combining teaching style clusters and
enables teachers to tailor their styles to student needs and appropriate subject
matter.
 Cons: Hybrid style runs the risk of trying to be too many things to all students,
prompting teachers to spread themselves too thin and dilute learning.

Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and curriculum
— from math and science to English and history — it’s crucial that they remain
focused on their teaching objectives and avoid trying to be all things to all students.

Teaching Styles

 Expert: Similar to a coach, experts share knowledge, demonstrate their

expertise, advise students and provide feedback to improve understanding and
promote learning.
 Formal authority: Authoritative teachers incorporate the traditional lecture
format and share many of the same characteristics as experts, but with less
student interaction.
 Personal model: Incorporates blended teaching styles that match the best
techniques with the appropriate learning scenarios and students in an adaptive
format.
 Facilitator: Designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom
projects while providing information and offering feedback to facilitate critical
thinking.
 Delegator: Organizes group learning, observes students, provides consultation,
and promotes interaction between groups and among individuals to achieve
learning objectives.

What teaching style is best for today’s students?

Whether you’re a first-year teacher eager to put into practice all of the pedagogical
techniques you learned in college, or a classroom veteran examining differentiated

Page 13 of 53
instruction and new learning methodologies, consider that not all students respond
well to one particular style. Although teaching styles have been categorized into five
groups, today’s ideal teaching style is not an either/or proposition but more of a
hybrid approach that blends the best of everything a teacher has to offer.

Here is a recap from the list of teaching methods described earlier.

 Authority, or lecture style: This traditional, formal approach to teaching is

sometimes referred to as “the sage on the stage.”
 Demonstrator, or coach style: This style retains the formal authority role while
allowing teachers to demonstrate their expertise by showing students what
they need to learn.
 Facilitator, or activity style: This approach encourages teachers to function as
advisors who help students learn by doing.
 Developer, or group style: This style allows teachers to guide students in a
group setting to accomplish tasks and learn what works or doesn’t.
 Hybrid, or blended style: This approach incorporates different aspects of the
various styles and gives teachers flexibility to tailor a personal style that’s right
for their coursework and students.

The traditional advice that teachers not overreach with a cluster of all-encompassing
teaching styles might seem to conflict with today’s emphasis on student-cantered
classrooms. Theoretically, the more teachers emphasize student-centric learning the
harder it is to develop a well-focused style based on their personal attributes,
strengths and goals.

In short, modern methods of teaching require different types of teachers — from the
analyst/organizer to the negotiator/consultant. Here are some other factors to
consider as teachers determine the best teaching method for their students.

Empty vessel: Critics of the “sage on the stage” lecture style point to the “empty
vessel” theory, which assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to be
filled by the “expert” teacher. Critics of this traditional approach to teaching insist
this teaching style is outmoded and needs to be updated for the diverse 21st-century
classroom.

Active vs. passive: Proponents of the traditional lecture approach believe that an
overemphasis on group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like facilitator and
delegator, favour gifted and competitive students over passive children with varied
learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of meeting the needs of all
learners.

Page 14 of 53
Knowledge vs. information: Knowledge implies a complete understanding, or full
comprehension, of a particular subject. A blend of teaching styles that incorporate
facilitator, delegator, demonstrator, and lecturer techniques helps the broadest
range of students acquire in-depth knowledge and mastery of a given subject. This
stands in contrast to passive learning, which typically entails memorizing facts, or
information, with the short-term objective of scoring well on tests.

Interactive classrooms: Laptops and tablets, videoconferencing and podcasts in

classrooms play a vital role in today’s teaching styles. With technology in mind, it is
imperative that teachers assess their students’ knowledge while they are learning.
The alternative is to wait for test results, only to discover knowledge gaps that should
have been detected during the active learning phase.

Constructivist teaching methods: Contemporary teaching styles tend to be group

focused and inquiry driven. Constructivist teaching methods embrace subsets of
alternative teaching styles, including modelling, coaching, and test preparation
through rubrics scaffolding. All of these are designed to promote student
participation and necessitate a hybrid approach to teaching. One criticism of the
constructivist approach is it caters to extroverted, group-oriented students, who tend
to dominate and benefit from these teaching methods more than introverts;
however, this assumes introverts aren’t learning by observing.

Student-centric learning does not have to come at the expense of an instructor’s

preferred teaching method. However, differentiated instruction demands that
teachers finesse their style to accommodate the diverse needs of 21st-century
classrooms.

Page 15 of 53
150 Teaching Methods
1. Lecture by teacher (and what else can you do!)
2. Class discussion conducted by teacher (and what else!)
3. Recitation oral questions by teacher answered orally by students (then what!)
4. Discussion groups conducted by selected student chairpersons (yes, and what
else!)
5. Lecture-demonstration by teacher (and then what 145 other techniques!)
6. Lecture-demonstration by another instructor(s) from a special field (guest
speaker)
7. Presentation by a panel of instructors or students
8. Presentations by student panels from the class: class invited to participate
9. Student reports by individuals
10.Student-group reports by committees from the class
11.Debate (informal) on current issues by students from class
12.Class discussions conducted by a student or student committee
13.Forums
14.Bulletin boards
15.Small groups such as task oriented, discussion, Socratic
16.Choral speaking
17.Collecting
18.Textbook assignments
19.Reading assignments in journals, monographs, etc.
20.Reading assignments in supplementary books
21.Assignment to outline portions of the textbook

Page 16 of 53
22.Assignment to outline certain supplementary readings
23.Debates (formal)
24.Crossword puzzles
25.Cooking foods of places studied
26.Construction of vocabulary lists
27.Vocabulary drills
28.Diaries
29.Dances of places or periods studied
30.Construction of summaries by students
31.Dressing dolls
32.Required term paper
33.Panel discussion
34.Biographical reports given by students
35.Reports on published research studies and experiments by students
36.Library research on topics or problems
37.Written book reports by students
38.Flags
39.Jigsaw puzzle maps
40.Hall of Fame by topic or era (military or political leaders, heroes)
41.Flannel boards
42.Use of pre-test
43.Gaming and simulation
44.Flash cards
45.Flowcharts
46.Interviews
47.Maps, transparencies, globes
48.Mobiles
49.Audio-tutorial lessons (individualized instruction)
50.Models
51.Music
52.Field trips
53.Drama, role playing
54.Open textbook study
55.Committee projects–small groups
56.Notebook
57.Murals and montages
58.Class projects
59.Individual projects
60.Quiz down gaming
61.Modelling in various media

Page 17 of 53
62.Pen pals
63.Photographs
64.Laboratory experiments performed by more than two students working
together
65.Use of dramatization, skits, plays
66.Student construction of diagrams, charts, or graphs
67.Making of posters by students
68.Students drawing pictures or cartoons vividly portray principles or facts
69.Problem solving or case studies
70.Puppets
71.Use of chalkboard by instructor as aid in teaching
72.Use of diagrams, tables, graphs, and charts by instructor in teaching
73.Use of exhibits and displays by instructor
74.Reproductions
75.Construction of exhibits and displays by students
76.Use of slides
77.Use of filmstrips
78.Use of motion pictures, educational films, videotapes
79.Use of theatre motion pictures
80.Use of recordings
81.Use of radio programs
82.Use of television
83.Role playing
84.Sand tables
85.School affiliations
86.Verbal illustrations: use of anecdotes and parables to illustrate
87.Service projects
88.Stamps, coins, and other hobbies
89.Use of community or local resources
90.Story telling
91.Surveys
92.Tutorial: students assigned to other students for assistance, peer teaching
93.Coaching: special assistance provided for students having difficulty in the
course
94.Oral reports
95.Word association activity
96.Workbooks
97.Using case studies reported in literature to illustrate psychological principles
and facts
98.Construction of scrapbooks

Page 18 of 53
99.Applying simple statistical techniques to class data
100. Time lines
101. “Group dynamics” techniques
102. Units of instruction organized by topics
103. Non directive techniques applied to the classroom
104. Supervised study during class period
105. Use of socio-metric text to make socio-metric analysis of class
106. Use of technology and instructional resources
107. Open textbook tests, take home tests
108. Put idea into picture
109. Write a caption for chart, picture, or cartoon
110. Reading aloud
111. Differentiated assignment and homework
112. Telling about a trip
113. Mock convention
114. Filling out forms (income tax, checks)
115. Prepare editorial for school paper
116. Attend council meeting, school board meeting
117. Exchanging “things”
118. Making announcements
119. Taking part (community elections)
120. Playing music from other countries or times
121. Studying local history
122. Compile list of older citizens as resource people
123. Students from abroad (exchange students)
124. Obtain free and low cost materials
125. Collect old magazines
126. Collect colour slides
127. Visit an “ethnic” restaurant
128. Specialize in one country
129. Follow a world leader (in the media)
130. Visit an employment agency
131. Start a campaign
132. Conduct a series
133. Investigate a life
134. Assist an immigrant
135. Volunteer (tutoring, hospital)
136. Prepare an exhibit
137. Detect propaganda
138. Join an organization

Page 19 of 53
 139. Collect money for a cause
140. Elect a “Hall of Fame” for males
141. Elect a “Hall of Fame” for females
142. Construct a salt map
143. Construct a drama
144. Prepare presentation for senior citizen group
145. Invite senior citizen(s) to present local history to class including
displaying artefacts (clothing, tools, objects, etc.)
146. Prepare mock newspaper on specific topic or era
147. Draw a giant map on floor of classroom
148. Research local archaeological site
149. Exchange program with schools from different parts of the state
150. In brainstorming small group, students identify a list of techniques and
strategies that best fit their class.

Methods of Teaching
There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorized into three
broad types. These are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred methods, content-
focused methods and interactive/participative methods.

(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTERED METHODS

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject
matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority.
Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are expository or lecture
methods – which require little or no involvement of learners in the teaching process.
It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in what they are taught, that such
methods are called “closed-ended”.

(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at

the same time. In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual role as
a learner as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than constricts his
intellectual horizons”. The teacher also learns new things everyday which he/she
didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a resource rather than
an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are discussion method,

Page 20 of 53
discovery or inquiry based approach and the Hill’s model of learning through
discussion (LTD).

(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the
content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be taught
are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on the clarity
and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners cannot alter or
become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of a method which
subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the content is the
programmed learning approach.

(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily
laying emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher. These methods are
driven by the situational analysis of what is the most appropriate thing for us to
learn/do now given the situation of learners and the teacher. They require a
participatory understanding of varied domains and factors.

In summary, three types of methods commonly used in instruction are: –

 Teacher-centred methods
 Learner centred methods
 Content focused methods
 Interactive/participative methods

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Skill Verbs that characterize the skill

Knowledge Label, list, match, recall, select, state, underline
Comprehension Describe, explain, interpret, summarize, paraphrase
Application Complete, organize, solve, calculate, compute, use
Analysis Categorize, classify, find patterns and relationships, compare
Synthesis Compose, create, formulate, hypothesize, write
Evaluation Judge based on criteria, support, conclude

Four-Phase Learning Cycle

Page 21 of 53
 1. Introduction: a question, challenge, or interesting event that captures the
students’ curiosity.
2. Exploration: the opportunity for students to manipulate materials, to explore,
and to gather information.
3. Concept Development: With a common experience to relate to, terminology is
introduced and concepts developed in class discussion.
4. Application: This could take the form of an enrichment activity, an opportunity
to apply what has been learned, or a test to assess learning.

The Taxonomy of Instructional Techniques

Teacher Focused

 Direct Instruction: Teacher explains or demonstrates

 Drill and Practice: Repetition to hone a skill or memorize information
 Lecture: Teacher provides information to students in a one-way verbal
presentation

Dialogue Oriented

 Question and Answer: Requires reflection as information is exchanged in

response to a question
 Discussion: An exchange of opinions and perspectives

Student Focused

 Mental Modelling: Assists students in managing their own learning by

modelling a problem-solving technique
 Discovery Learning: Uses students’ personal experiences as the foundation for
building concepts
 Inquiry: Allows students to generate the questions that they will then
investigate and answer

SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

Page 22 of 53
We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn from in the
course of classroom instruction. It is however, important to note that the choice of
any form of methods should not be arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the
criteria we have already examined. At the same time each method is not fool-proof,
but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is why I would recommend the
use of complementary methods rather than one method.

1. LECTURE METHOD

A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the method of

relaying factual information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all
THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells,
explains, describes or relates whatever information the trainees are required to learn
through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-centred. The instructor is
very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other hand are very inactive, doing
all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement of
trainees limits its usefulness as a method of instruction.

The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very little
knowledge or limited background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for
presenting an organised body of new information to the learner. To be effective in
promoting learning, the lecture must involve some discussions and, question and
answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.

PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE

As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the instructor. It is
therefore very important to consider the attention span of trainees when preparing a
lecture. The attention span is the period of time during which the trainees are able to
pay full attention to what the instructor is talking about. It is estimated to be 15-25
minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention for a long period of time and
careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.

The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she should work
out the essentials of the topic, organise them according to priorities and logical
connections, and establish relationships between the various items. Careful
organisation of content helps the trainees to structure and hence, to store or
remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor should use a
variety of approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from the KNOWN
to UNKNOWN; from SIMPLE to COMPLEX, or from PARTS to a WHOLE.

Page 23 of 53
Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very important. For
example, in explaining technical processes the instructor should search for
illustrations that will be familiar to the trainees. Unfamiliar technical words should be
introduced cautiously. New terminologies should be defined and explained and
examples given.

In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be
adequately prepared, fluent in his/her presentation and should use various teaching
aids and illustrations such as charts, transparencies, codes and even the real objects
during presentation. Question and Answer periods should be included in the lecture.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainee’s attention span (up
to 25 minutes).

2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.

4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.

5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.

6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.

7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom

situation an instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion,
the instructor spends some time listening while the trainees spend sometimes
talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience for the
trainees than the lecture.

Page 24 of 53
A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes. As
it helps to foster trainee’s involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute to
desired attitudinal changes. Discussion may be used in the classroom for the purpose
of lesson development, making trainees apply what they have learnt or to monitor
trainees learning by way of feedback.

LESSON DEVELOPMENT

In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience, discussion

may be used to develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For example, in
safety training many of the procedures and behaviour that should be observed can
be established through discussion with trainees. Trainees can draw on their
experience of working in workshops contract sites to contribute to the discussion. In
discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion can help to clarify
the different points of view and may assist each trainee to define his or her own
opinion. Used in this way, discussion may be more effective in motivating trainees
than lectures. Trainees can see that some importance is attached to their
contributions.

APPLICATION

Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help trainees

apply what they have learned. The instructor can ask questions that help trainees to
relate concepts and principles to contexts that are familiar to the trainees or in which
they will ultimately be needed. For example following a lecture on “types of wood
joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing trainee’s attention to the places
or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and the reasons for using one type
than the other. Used in this way discussion contributes to the transfer of learning.

FEEDBACK

The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees learning.

The answers provided by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the extent and
quality of learning taking place. Instructors can use this information to repeat or
modify an explanation to improve learning. They can also provide feedback to
trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken place. Discussion used
in this way should follow after other methods of classroom instruction such as
lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.

CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION

Page 25 of 53
Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in groups. In either
case, the goal is to meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees to:-

A) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work
setting.

B) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.

C) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.

D) Express what had been learned?

Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be guided by
the instructor. It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is the instructor’s
responsibility to see that the objectives are met. If it is not properly guided, a
discussion can degenerate into a consideration of inappropriate or unimportant
topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.

3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

“The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it… one of
the two most essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the
ability to explain. Both are vital to the success of either an operation lesson or an
information lesson”. Weaver and Cencil in APPLIED TEACHING TECHNIQUES.

DEFINITION

Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill, scientific

principle or experiment.

TEACHER PREPARATION

1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.

2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions etc.

3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and
check their useful condition.

4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.

5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.

Page 26 of 53
6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and
proximity to electric, gas and water outlets.

7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one step
at a time.

PRESENTATION

1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.

2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.

3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to YOUR advantage.

4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.

5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.

6. Explain WHY and HOW: use the techniques of SHOW and TELL.

7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.

2. Never demonstrate on a student’s material.

3. Work towards one aim.

4. Allow time for possible student participation.

CARRYING OUT A DEMONSTRATION

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good
example.

2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.

3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will perform it
themselves.

4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.

Page 27 of 53
5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare beforehand ask key questions as you
go along and allow trainees to ask questions.

6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.

7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, hand-outs etc. to support
your demonstration.

8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after demonstration.

9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore,
make them correct ones.

10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.

AFTER DEMONSTRATION

1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.

2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible in a
practical class session.

3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.

4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.

5. Coach weak or slow trainees.

6. Check trainee’s completed work for accurate performance and record.

7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.

4. BUZZ GROUPS

Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session, the plenary
group can break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific questions or issues.
The room soon fills with noise as each sub-group ‘buzzes’ in discussion. If
appropriate, after the discussion one member of each group can report its findings
Page 28 of 53
back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more depending on the
activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups of
three or more. This allows almost every one to express an opinion. While they are
buzzing, participants are able to exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective
experience. It may provide a good opportunity for trainees to reflect on the content
of a lecture. A good buzz session will generate many ideas, comments and opinion,
the most important of which will be reported back.

Buzz groups help trainers as they allow you to:

– Draw your breath

– Gauge the mood, by listening to some of the discussions

– Change pace of the session

– Encourage participants to reflect on what they have learnt and how they might
apply it in their work.

DISADVANTAGES

The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in unfamiliarity with their use, the time
required, the need for leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and the need to
have tables and chairs arranged for quick and easy discussion.

5. BRAINSTORMING

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very
quickly. It is particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It differs from the buzz
group’s discussion in that the focus is on generating as many ideas as possible
without judging them. In this technique, all ideas are given equal credence.

Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from
previous ideas. No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed
exactly as they are expressed on a board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. The
combination of swiftly generated ideas usually leads to a very animated and
energising session. Even the more reserved participants should feel bold enough to
contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing experiences and
thoughts.

Page 29 of 53
It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the
responses.

After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for
example listing the best options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and
analysed so that they belong to the group rather than individuals. Unlike a buzz
session, a brainstorm session can work well with a large group and usually takes less
time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you might lose the
attention of some participants.

6. ROLE PLAYS

In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. When
done well, role plays increase the participant’s self-confidence, give them the
opportunity to understand or even feel empathy for other people’s viewpoints or
roles, and usually end with practical answers, solutions or guidelines.

Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and
examining the complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help
participants to consolidate different lessons in one setting and are good energisers.

However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the
willingness of participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is
too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at the
outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome. Some role plays can
generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is therefore essential that a
role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the opportunity for the
trainer and the participants to raise and assess new issues.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

METHOD USES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
THE LECTURE METHOD 1. To orient students. 1. Saves time. 1. Involves one way
A formal or semi-formal 2. To introduce a 2. Permits communication.
discourse is which the subject. flexibility. 2. Poses problems
instructor presents a series 3. To give directions 3. Requires less in skill teaching.
of events, facts, or on procedures. rigid space 3. Encourages
principles, explores a 4. To present basic requirement. student
problem or explains material. 4. Permits passiveness.
relationships 5. To introduce a adaptability. 4. Poses difficulty in
demonstration, 5. Permits gauging student
discussion, or versatility. reaction.
performance. 6. Permits better 5. Require highly

Page 30 of 53
 6. To illustrate centre over skilled instructors.
application of rules, contact and
principles, or sequence.
concepts.
7. To review, clarify,
emphasise or
summarise.
THE DISCUSSION METHOD 1. To develop 1. Increase 1. Require highly
A method in which group imaginative solutions students interest skilled instructor.
discussion techniques are to problems. 2. Increases 2. Requires
used to reach instructional 2. To stimulate student’s preparation by
objectives. thinking and interest acceptance and student.
and to secure student commitments. 3. Limits content.
participation. 3. Utilises student 4. Consumes time.
3. To emphasise main knowledge and 5. Restricts size of
teaching points. experience. groups.
4. To supplement 4. Results in more
lectures, reading, or permanent
laboratory exercises. learning because
5. To determine how of high degree of
well student student
understands concepts participation.
and principles.
6. To prepare students
for application of
theory of procedure.
7. To summarise,
clarify points or
review.
THE PROGRAMMED 1. To provide remedial 1. Reduce failure 1. Require local or
INSTRUCTION METHOD instruction. rate. commercial
A method of self-instruction 2. To provide make-up 2. Improves end- preparation.
instruction for late of-course 2. Requires lengthy
arrivals, absentees, or proficiency. programmer
transients. 3. Saves time. training.
3. To maintain 4. Provides for 3. Increases
previously learned self-instruction. expenses.
skills which are not 4. Requires
performed frequently considerable lead
enough. time.
4. To provide
retraining on
equipment and
procedures which
have become
obsolete.
5. To upgrade

Page 31 of 53
 production.
6. To accelerate
capable students.
7. To provide enough
common background
among students.
8. To provide the
review and practice of
knowledge and skills.
THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT 1. To orient students 1. Increase 1. Require careful
METHOD to a topic prior to coverage of planning and follow
A method in which the classroom or material. up.
instructor assigns reading to Laboratory work. 2. Reduce 2. Poses evaluation
books, periodicals, project or 2. To set the stage for classroom time. problem.
research papers or exercises a lecture 3. Permits 3. Produce non-
for the practice. demonstration or individual standard results.
discussion. attention.
3. To provide for or
capitalise on
individual differences
in ability, background,
or experience through
differentiated
assignments.
4. To provide for the
review of material
covered in class or to
give practice.
5. To provide
enrichment material.
THE TUTORIAL METHOD 1. To reach highly 1. Permits 1. Requires highly
A method of instruction in complicated skills adaptive competent
which an instructor works operations or instruction. instructor.
directly with an individual operations involving 2. Stimulates 2. Demands time
student. danger or expensive active and money.
equipment. participation.
2. To provide 3. Promotes
individualised safety.
remedial assistance.
THE SEMINAR METHOD 1. To provide general 1. Provides 1. Requires highly
A tutorial arrangement guidance for a group motivation and competent
involving the instructor and working on an report. instructor.
groups, rather than advanced study or 2. Stimulates 2. Poses evaluation
instructor and individual. research project. active problems.
2. To exchange participation. 3. Is more costly
information on 3. Permits than most other
techniques and adaptive methods.

Page 32 of 53
 approaches being instruction.
explored by members
of a study or research
group.
3. To develop new and
imaginative solutions
to problems under
study by the group.
THE DEMONSTRATION 1. To teach 1. Minimise 1. Require careful
METHOD manipulative damage and preparation and
A method of instruction operations or waste rehearsal.
where the instructor by procedures. 2. Saves time 2. Requires special
actually performing an 2. To teach 3. Can be classroom
operation or doing a job troubleshooting. presented to large arrangements.
shows the students what to 3. To illustrate groups.
do, how to do it, and principles.
through explanations brings 4. To teach operation
out why, where, and when it or functioning of
is done. equipment.
5. To teach teamwork.
6. To set standards of
workmanship.
7. To teach safety
procedures.
THE DEMONSTRATION 1. To teach 1. Builds 1. Requires tools
METHOD manipulative confidence. and equipment.
A method of instruction is operations or 2. Enable learning 2. Requires large
required to perform under procedures. evaluation. block.
controlled conditions the 2. To teach operation 3. Reduces 3. Requires more
operations, skills or or functioning of damages and instructors.
movement being taught. equipment. waste.
3. To teach team skills 4. Promotes
4. To teach safety safety.
procedures.
THE BUZZ GROUP 1. To develop and 1. Help trainers to 1. Unfamiliarity in
express imaginative draw breath. use.
ideas, opinions. 2. Gauge the 2. Time required.
2. Stimulate thinking. mood by listening 3. Need for group
to some leaders.
discussion.
3. Change pace of
discussion.
4. Encourage
participants to
reflect what was
learnt.
BRAINSTORMING 1. Discover new ideas, 1. Leads to a very 1. It takes time

Page 33 of 53
 thoughts and animated and particularly if it is a
responses very energising large group.
quickly. session. 2. May consume a
2. More reserved lot of material e.g.
participants feel flipcharts or writing
free to contribute. materials.
3. Requires high
level facilitation
skills.
ROLE PLAYS 1. Exploring and 1. Good 1. Participants
improving energizers. might be reluctant.
interviewing 2. Promotes 2. May not work
techniques and empathy of with trainees who
examining trainees for other do not know each
complexities and situation. other well.
potential conflicts of 3. Encourages
groups. creativity in
2. To consolidate learning.
different lessons in
one setting.

Factor Affecting Teaching

To know factor affecting teaching is so important because after analysis all factors
which affecting teaching, teacher can improve himself and can become good teacher
and create better citizen for country. If study teaching subjects, we find many factors
which affecting teaching which can write in list of these factors.

 Teacher knowledge, enthusiasm and responsibility for learning.

 Classroom activities that encourage learning.
 Assessment activities that encourage learning through experience.
 Effective feedback that establishes the learning processes in the classroom.
 Effective interaction between the teacher and the students, creating an
environment that respects, encourages and stimulates learning through
experience.

1. Educational qualification of teacher

Higher qualified teacher can provide high scholarly instructions which can effect than
general graduate teacher. Many teachers hold different degrees which is the sign of
their higher education qualification. A teacher is just B.A. and other teacher is M.A.,
Page 34 of 53
M.Ed., PhD, if we compare both, then is sure that higher qualified teacher can cede
good teaching result.

2. Skills

Skill is an ability to do any work with better way. If a teacher has teaching skill then
he can provide effective teaching. Often says that teaching is God gifted but getting
good education training and Psychologize best educational books, we can get this
skill and create better result. In teaching talent we can include following skills

 Communication skill of teacher

 Taking teaching aids
 Technique of teaching
 Method of teaching
 Human relation skill

3. Experience of Teacher

Experience of teacher affects also the teaching. After increasing teaching experience,
a teacher learns many new things in teaching experience which he can employ in
next time teaching. First day teacher may not effect on students but after 5 years
teaching, a teacher can more effect on students.

4. Class – room environment

Class room environment effects also on teaching. This environment is made both by
teacher and students.
Without both active participation in education, teaching never effects. If the
concentration lives in class room and students listen teacher’s voice and teacher also
cares the activity of teacher doing interacting with students.

5. Economic Factor

Economic background of teacher and student is also affected teaching. Even salary of
teacher effects on his thinking level. Poor and rich students can also classify
economically and sometime these factors can effect on effective teaching.

Page 35 of 53
6. Administrative policies of school or college or university

Administrative policies also effect teaching. Teacher wants to instruct with his way
but administrative policies is not allowed, so the voice of teach can stop and effect of
teaching may slow in class room.

7. Subject Matter

Sometime when a teacher teaches that subject in which he is not specialize , he

cannot create any effect through his teaching but same teacher can teaches his
specialize subject with better way .

8. Parental expectations

What are the expectations of parent on students? This factor can be defined
psychologically. If parent wants to frame up his children doctor or engineer and
continually stress on student, sometime student may not at that rank, so mentally he
can create depression and which can stop effective teaching of teacher.

Learners Characteristics
Analysing learner characteristics is essential since this will help you to determine
what strategies to use in actual instruction. Identifying the characteristics of learners
entails gathering information on the learners’ cognitive, physiological, affective, and
social characteristics (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Learner information can be obtained
from surveys, interviews, observations, results of previous course performance, and
assessment of their current knowledge/skill levels. The following list, adapted from
Smith and Ragan (1999), may serve as a guideline in depicting the profile of your
target learners. Note that depending on the learning task, it is not necessary to
include all factors given below in your analysis.

Page 36 of 53
Questions to consider

Who are my learners? How many of them will there be? Where are they going to be
studying? What are their ages, their previous educational experience, their life and
work experience? What kind of people are they? How do they prefer to learn? Why
can some students confidently tackle the subjects they study and succeed? How do
they do this?

Learner characteristics can be personal, academic, social/emotional and/or cognitive

in nature. Personal characteristics often relate to demographic information such as
age, gender, maturation, language, social economic status, cultural background, and
specific needs of a learner group such as particular skills and disabilities for and/or

Page 37 of 53
impairments to learning. Academic characteristics are more education and/or
learning related such as learning goals (of an individual or a group), prior knowledge,
educational type, and educational level. Social/emotional characteristics relate to the
group or to the individual with respect to the group. Examples of social/emotional
characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within a group, sociability,
self-image (also feelings of self-efficacy and agency), mood, etc. Finally, cognitive
characteristics relate to such things as attention span, memory, mental procedures,
and intellectual skills which determine how the learner perceives, remembers, thinks,
solves problems, organizes and represents information in her/his brain.

Theoretical Background

The theoretical roots of learner characteristics can be traced back to Witkin (1949;
1978, p. 39) who saw them as a “characteristic mode of functioning that we reveal
throughout our perceptual and intellectual activities in a highly consistent and
pervasive way”. In other words, learner characteristics are seen as traits (i.e.,
characteristic of the learner and, thus, not easily influenced) and not as states (i.e.,
characteristic of the situation in which the learner finds himself/herself and, thus
more easily influenced). As early as 1949, Witkin published research related to field
dependence/field independence. Field dependent people have difficulty separating
an item from its con-text while a field independent person can easily break up an
organized whole into its relevant parts.

A second driving force with respect to learner characteristics – and especially

cognitive learner characteristics – was Guilford who referred to them as intellectual
abilities (Structure of Intellect Model, 1967). He organized these abilities along three
dimensions, namely operations (cognition, memory, divergent production,
convergent production, and evaluation), content (visual, auditory, symbolic,
semantic, and behavioural) and products (units, classes, relations, systems,
transformations, and implications). Guilford saw these dimensions as being
independent of each other yielding, theoretically, 150 different components of
intelligence on which learners can differ.

With respect to the coupling or use of specific instructional approaches for specific
learner characteristics, Cronbach and Snow (1977) posited their model of Aptitude-
Treatment Interactions which held that certain instructional strategies (i.e.,
treatments) will be more or less effective for different individuals depending upon
the individual’s specific abilities (i.e., aptitude). This model presupposes that optimal
learning is the result of the instruction being perfectly matched to the learner’s
aptitudes.

Page 38 of 53
Cognitive Characteristics

A. General characteristic

 General aptitudes
 Specific aptitudes
 Development level
 Language development level
 Reading level
 Level of visual literacy
 Cognitive processing styles (read an article by G. Kearsley)
 Learning styles (visit the Learning Styles Resource Page by J. Shindler; read an
article on Myers-Briggs’ learning stylesby H. J. Brightman; Read an article on
Kolb’s learning styles by J. Blackmore)
 Cognitive and learning strategies
 General world knowledge

B. Specific prior knowledge

Physiological Characteristics

A. Sensory perception (read a summary of information theory by P. E. Doolittle)

B. General health
C. Age

Effective Characteristics

A. Interests
B. Motivation and motivation to learn (read an article by S. C. Tzeng
C. Attitude toward learning and subject matter
D. Perceptions of and experiences with specific forms of mediation
E. Academic self-concept
F. Anxiety level
G. Beliefs
H. Attribution of success (i.e., locus of control)

Social Characteristics

A. Relationships to peers
B. Feelings toward authority
C. Tendencies toward cooperation or competition
D. Moral development (read an article by Y. L. LaMar)
Page 39 of 53
E. Socioeconomic background
F. Racial/ethnic background, affiliations
G. Role models

Use the following questions to help you to start thinking about the characteristics
and learning preferences of your learners.

 What are some of the personal characteristics of the learners (age, gender,
cultural background, profession, background, family life, etc.)?
 What is the educational level of the learners?
 Will there be any barriers to their learning such as literacy or numeracy issues,
or lack of computer skills?
 Why are they taking the course?
 How will they use their knowledge?
 What do they already know about the topic?
 Are there any prerequisites?
 How will they be studying this topic? (Face to face, distance, blended etc.)
 Are they novice or expert learners?

Cross-References

 Abilities and learning

 Aptitude-treatment-interaction
 Knowledge representation
 Learner preferences and achievement
 Learning styles
 Role of prior knowledge in learning processes

References

 Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Cronbach, L. & Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A
handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.
 Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
 Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during
instruc-tion does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist,

Page 40 of 53
 discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.
Educational Psychologist, 46(2), 75-86.
 Manouselis, N., Drachsler, H., Vuorikari, R., Hummel, H. G. K., Koper, R. (2010).
Recom-mender systems in technology enhanced learning. In P. B. Kantor, F.
Ricci, L. Ro-kach and B. Shapira (Eds.), Recommender systems handbook.
Berlin: Springer.
 Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2009). Learning styles:
Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 105-
119.
 Witkin, H. (1949). The nature and importance of individual differences in
perception. Journal of Personality, 18, 145–70.
 Witkin, H. (1978). Cognitive styles in personal and cultural adaptation.
Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Steps of Teaching
Steps of Teaching

In order to make teaching an effective process one needs to follow certain steps.
These steps are so important that these cannot be removed from the process of
teaching. If a teacher deviates from these steps, the outcome of the teaching may be
biased.

Page 41 of 53
1. Planning: Without a plan one cannot proceed in a resolution. In the teaching-
learning process also a teacher has to make a plan according to the strength of the
students, the locality of the school the environmental conditions of the school and
the contents and the subjects he is going to teach. He has to take into consideration
the language that he finds suitable for teaching. The planning includes the gradation
of students, as to how many are present in the class, how many are absent, how
many are high achieving and how many mediocre. The teacher has to plan for the
arrangement of teaching aids like maps, charts, models, overhead projector etc.

2. Preparation: During the preparation stage, the teacher has to follow the subject or
topic systematically. As the present times are times of science and technology, the
presentation must also be scientific in nature for which the teacher may need
overhead projectors, slides TV and video tapes etc. for making his presentation more
effective and understandable.

3. Presentation: After preparation, the teacher is prepared to present the topic in the
class to the full satisfaction of students and the observer who is there to watch his
presentation.

4. Comparison: Comparison is an important characteristic of teaching. It allows a

second chance, to all the three participants, the teacher, the learner and the
observer to arrange one more programme of teaching-learning in order to remove,
any shortcomings found in the first attempt.

Seven Steps for Teaching and Learning

1. Diagnose the needs of student and create appropriate classroom profile

summary power standards multiple intelligence’s formative assessment
strategies instructional strategies

2. Create and maintain classroom profiles to record data identifying the standards,
formative assessment date(s), summative assessment date(s), and student
information reflecting performance on standards

3. Plan engaging lessons three-part lesson (opening, work period, and

closing) essential question(s) engaging instructional activities based upon the
identified power standards and depth of knowledge

4. Teach the standards using standards-based instruction and ensure the identified
instructional activities at the appropriate depth of knowledge level

Page 42 of 53
5. Utilize formative assessment strategies to daily determine if standards taught were
mastered and update the classroom profile daily

6. Re-teach, provide additional support, and document response to intervention (RTI)

for students who have not mastered the standard(s)

7. Administer a summative assessment to validate that students have mastered the

standards and update the classroom profile record.

Repeat step two and/or three and follow the process until all power standards have
been taught and mastered by all students.

Teaching: Characteristics and

Basic Requirements
Characteristics of Teaching:

“The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible…To teach is to

make an assumption about what and how the student learns; therefore, to teach well
implies learning about students’ learning” (Ramsden, 1992).

The task of the teacher in higher education has many dimensions: it involves the
provision of a broad context of knowledge within which students can locate and
Page 43 of 53
understand the content of their more specific studies; it involves the creation of a
learning environment in which students are encouraged to think carefully and
critically and express their thoughts, and in which they wish to confront and resolve
difficulties rather than gloss over them, it involves constantly monitoring and
reflecting on the processes of teaching and student understanding and seeking to
improve them. Most difficult of all perhaps, it involves helping students to achieve
their own aims, and adopt the notion that underlies higher education: that students’
learning requires from them commitment, work, responsibility for their own learning,
and a willingness to take risks, and that this process has its rewards, not the least of
which is that learning can be fun!

So what is good or effective teaching? Smith (1995) suggests that learning ‘is a
consequence of experience’ (p.588). He argues that education and therefore
teaching, should be focused on the creation of ‘appropriately nourishing experiences
so that learning comes about naturally and inevitably’ (p.589). He states that schools
should focus less on ‘talking about learning and teaching’ and ‘more about doing’
(p.589)

Alton-Lee (2003) has provided ten clearly defined and research-supported

characteristics of quality teaching

1. A focus on student achievement.

2. Pedagogical practices that create caring, inclusive and cohesive learning
communities.
3. Effective links between school and the cultural context of the school.
4. Quality teaching is responsive to student learning processes.
5. Learning opportunities are effective and sufficient.
6. Multiple tasks and contexts support learning cycles.
7. Curriculum goals are effectively aligned.
8. Pedagogy scaffolds feedback on students’ task engagement.
9. Pedagogy promotes learning orientations, student self-regulation, Meta
cognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse.
10.Teachers and students engage constructively in goal oriented assessment.

(Alton-Lee, 2003: vi-x)

These are not easy tasks, and there is no simple way to achieve them. Still less are
there any prescriptions that will hold well in all disciplines and for all students. How
we teach must be carefully tailored to suit both that which is to be learnt and those
who are to learn it. To put it another way – and to add another ingredient – our
teaching methods should be the outcome of our aims (that is, what we want the

Page 44 of 53
students to know, to understand, to be able to do, and to value), our informed
conceptions of how students learn, and the institutional context – with all of its
constraints and possibilities – within which the learning is to take place.

1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training.

2. Teaching is interaction between teacher and students.
3. Teaching is an art to give knowledge to students with effective way.
4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of different
subjects.
5. Teaching is continues process.
6. Teacher can teach effectively, if he has full confidence on the subject.
7. Teaching encourages students to learn more and more.
8. Teaching is formal as well as informal
9. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching, teacher
imparts information in interesting way so that students can easily understand the
information.
10. Teaching is tool to help student to adjust himself in society and its environment.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS of Teaching

Basic requirements of teaching include,

I. The Teacher: The teacher is an innovator of information and knowledge. He is the

creator and transmitter of knowledge, values and ethos to our youngsters for latter’s
physical, mental, emotional and social development. In the process of teaching-
learning, the teacher is the main vehicle, and he knows what is right and what is
wrong in the society. The teacher masters over his subject and uses an effective
language for the communication in order to bring a positive change in the behaviour
of the learner. Since, it is the age of science and technology, the teacher ought to
have a sound knowledge of science and technology. He should therefore use the
latest means of media communication in the process of teaching.

II. The Learner: The learner is a dependent one and immature. He has to cooperate
in the teaching-learning process with the teacher and try to get as much information
and knowledge as possible from him. He must follow the teacher for understanding
and getting knowledge. The learners may be categorized as the students of primary
schools, elementary schools, secondary schools, senior secondary schools, colleges or
universities.

III. The Subject (Topic): The subject is the main concern in the whole endeavour of
teaching and learning process. The topic is generally decided by the teacher but the

Page 45 of 53
learner can also contribute in deciding a topic, so that, a balanced and harmonious
development takes place. It is for the teacher to prepare necessary charts, maps,
tables and models that pertain to the decided topic. Media based technological and
scientific aids may also be made available by the teacher to make the teaching more
interesting and understandable.

IV. The Environment: The learner’s growth and all round development are the main
objectives of teaching. This is possible only when there is a suitable environment for
the teaching-learning process. The teacher as such creates such environment and
nurtures the’ learner in that environment. Learners are not passive objects. For long,
the child or the learner was viewed as a natural or given category. This undermined
the importance of the fact that the development of the learner is intimately linked to
changes in the sociocultural and historical conditions in a given society.

Teaching: Nature and Objectives

Nature of Teaching:

In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning. Teaching is the
specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to provide unique
service to meet the educational needs of the individual and of society. The choice of
learning activities whereby the goals of education are realized in the school is the
responsibility of the teaching profession.

In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet curriculum

outcomes, teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides students in
Page 46 of 53
their social relationships. Teachers employ practices that develop positive self-
concept in students. Although the work of teachers typically takes place in a
classroom setting, the direct interaction between teacher and student is the single
most important element in teaching.

1. Dynamic, Social & Humane: Influenced by human & social factors

2. An Art & Science: Exercise of being systematic & including talent & creativity
3. Diverse in Application: There are various forms of teaching

Objectives of Teaching

Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the emerging demands from the
school system. For this, it has to prepare teachers for a dual role of;

Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching learning situations who

enables learners (students) to discover their talents, to realize their physical and
intellectual potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and
human values to function as responsible citizens; and,

An active member of the group of persons who make conscious effort to contribute
towards the process of renewal of school curriculum to maintain its relevance to the
changing societal needs and personal needs of learners, keeping in view the
experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives that have emerged
in the light of changing national development goals and educational priorities.

These expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger context and its dynamics
as well as concerns impinge upon her functioning. That is to say, teacher has to be
responsive and sensitive to the social contexts of education, the various disparities in
the background of learners as well as in the macro national and global contexts,
national concerns for achieving the goals of equity, parity, and social justice as also
excellence

To be able to realize such expectations, TE has to comprise such features as would

enable the student teachers to

 Care for children, and who love to be with them;

 Understand children within social, cultural and political contexts;
 View learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience;

Page 47 of 53
  Understand the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating conductive
conditions for learning, differences among students in respect of the kind, pace
and styles of learning.
 View knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective
learning.
 Be receptive and constantly learning.
 View learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience, and
knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
 View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in textbooks, but as
constructed in the shared context of teaching learning and personal
experience.
 Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a better world.
 Appreciate the potential of productive work and hands-on experience as a
pedagogic medium both inside and outside the classroom.
 Analyse the curricular framework, policy implications and texts. Have a sound
knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.
 The objectives of teacher education would therefore be to, Provide
opportunities to observe and engage with children, communicate with and
relate to children Provide opportunities for self-learning, reflection,
assimilation and articulation of new ideas; developing capacities for self-
directed learning and the ability to think, be self-critical and to work in groups.
 Provide opportunities for understanding self and others (including one‘s
beliefs, assumptions and emotions); developing the ability for self-analysis,
self-evaluation, adaptability, flexibility, creativity and innovation.
 Provide opportunities to enhance understanding, knowledge and examine
disciplinary knowledge and social realities, relate subject matter with the social
milieu and develop critical thinking.
 Provide opportunities to develop professional skills in pedagogy, observation,
documentation, analysis, drama, craft, story-telling and reflective inquiry.

The most remarkable objectives of teaching are

1. Au Round Development of a Learner: The prime objective of teaching is the all-

round development of the learner that includes his physical, mental and spiritual or
moral development. This objective is the basis of Gandhi’s idea of basic education.

2. Behaviour change: The education should be imparted to a learner in such a way

that it reflects the attitude, behaviour and personality of the learner.

3. Development of Adjustment The manner of teaching should be such that it makes

the pupils feel at home in his class room. The teacher has to ensure that the learner
Page 48 of 53
is well adjusted to the environment which includes his classmates, school mates and
other members of his society at large.

4. Learner’s Mental Ability The teacher should take into account the mental ability of
the pupils while teaching. This will enable the teacher to make himself more
communicative with his students and in turn the students will have a better
understanding of what is being taught to them.

5. Transmission of Knowledge The process of teaching should ensure that the

knowledge is transmitted from the teacher to the pupil. For achieving this objective,
the teaching need to be very communicative and the process of teaching should
ensure the pupil participation in it. The more the pupil are encouraged to interact
with the teacher, the more the chances of transmission of knowledge.

6. Assimilation of Lessons Teaching does not stop at delivering lectures and giving
home tasks to the students. It has to be responsible for the assimilation of what is
taught to the students. The manner of teaching should be pleasant enough to make
the students grasp whatever they are taught.

7. Friendly Environment One of the primary objectives of teaching is to make the

environment of the place of teaching more friendly and conducive to learning. His all
attention should remain focused to the teaching and he, should not get irritated with
the non-conducive atmosphere of the class room.

Teaching: Concept and

Assumptions
Teaching methodology is a very important component of teacher education or
instructor training within the realm of teaching as a profession. Before we venture
further to look into the essentials of teaching methodology, it is necessary to define
some key concepts. These concepts are teaching, learning and finally teaching

Page 49 of 53
methodology. The understanding of these concepts will be crucial for our overall
understanding and application of teaching methodology.

Knowledge is like a garden: If it is not cultivated, it cannot be harvested.-

Guinean proverb.

TEACHING – SOME ASSUMPTIONS

It is often assumed that when one knows the subject matter well, then such a person
is capable of teaching the subject. For example, a highly skilled carpenter may feel
that he can readily instruct others in the skills of his trade by simply showing how he
does the work and explaining the ideas and purposes which are involved. This does
not amount to teaching.

Many people also mistakenly think that anybody can teach. Perhaps one inordinate
precedent which reinforces this thinking is the concept of “untrained teachers”. We
rarely hear of untrained doctors, engineers, and architects etc. What makes teaching
a profession, like others, is that it has its own principles, ethics and unique practices.
Therefore, not every Tom, Dick and Harry can arrogate to themselves the functions of
teaching without undertaking the requisite training in teaching.

Teaching is not simply the presentation of new skills and knowledge to the trainee. It
is also not the mere transferring of what the teacher/instructor knows into the hands
or minds of the trainee. Furthermore, teaching, is not the same as telling nor is telling
synonymous with teaching. Effective teaching means that there are certain things
which the teacher must do and other things which the trainees must also do to
increase the chances of learning taking place. The teacher has to go through formal,
theoretical and practical training. In addition, the teacher needs to plan his/her
activities in order to ensure that trainees can acquire the desirable knowledge and
skills. In teaching the process is just as important as the product. We do not focus on
the product alone: Both the means and end are crucial. Planning is crucial because it
involves the selection and organisation of learning experiences which will lead to
meaningful interaction between the teacher and trainees.

“Tell me and I will forget show me and I will remember do it with me and I will
know”.

This means knowledge is a result of telling, showing and doing “actively” with
learners (trainees) in a teaching process.

FOCUS OF TEACHING

Page 50 of 53
Teaching focuses on three fundamental elements and processes. These are cognitive,
psychomotor and affective processes. All the three are interrelated and it is often
difficult to arbitrarily teach only one without unconsciously or sub-consciously
teaching the other.

1. COGNITIVE PROCESS

The cognitive process is related to knowledge. It appeals mainly to our mind or

intellect. It is reflected in the acquisition of new ideas or the re-organisation of an
existing body of ideas. This knowledge affects our responses and reactions to
situations. We can illustrate cognitive abilities in teaching situations involving:-

 Ability to identify facts which explain the existence or absence of particular

matter.
 Ideas which can convince or persuade someone in an argument.
 Ability to determine the interconnection between two or more things.
 One’s ability to create alternative ways of doing something.
 One’s ability to organise ideas and thoughts when making a verbal or written
presentation:-

a) Ideas, facts, figures, numbers and symbols.

b) Inter-relationship between such facts, ideas, figures, numbers, symbols etc.

c) Organisation of such ideas, figures, facts, numbers, symbols etc. in an orderly

manner so as to reflect clear, understandable and logical meaning.

2. PSYCHOMOTOR PROCESS

Refers to skills acquired through the teaching/learning situation. These skills relate to
how we learn to co-ordinate and use our hands, heads, legs and other parts of our
bodies. We can manipulate things using our psychomotor abilities such as:-

 Manual (Using hands) skills in Carpentry, Garment-making, Motor Vehicle

Mechanics, Masonry etc.
 The ability to play any or all ball games e.g. Soccer, Basketball, Netball, Rugby,
Volleyball etc.
 On becoming effective athletes and gymnastics.
 Undertaking any other trade, skill or craft.

All these processes will require both teachers and trainees to be practical, creative,
precise and manipulative.

Page 51 of 53
3. AFFECTIVE PROCESS

Affective means feelings and attitudes. Our feelings and attitudes reflect the values
we are associated with. Some values are positive and progressive while others are
negative and archaic. Affective teaching seeks to promote positive values and
attitudes while at the same time gradually, but systematically chipping at those which
are negative and disruptive. Attitudes and values are important in another sense.
They greatly influence not only what we do, but also how we do what we do.

TEACHING AND TRAINING

What would be the difference between teaching and training? Is training the same as
teaching and vice versa? The answer to these questions particularly the second one,
is YES and NO. Yes because training focuses mainly on the practical known as
“knowledge how” as differentiated from “knowledge that”, the theoretical (or
philosophical knowledge). But not all training is teaching because in training, the
instructor can almost determine with certainty the exact skills and expected
behaviour of a learner. That is why we know how a trainee who has acquired
desirable skills should behave. But teaching in general travels beyond this. It has to
do with making learners creative and critical thinkers with desirable values and
attitudes in addition to having requisite skills (Which is an aspect of training). But as
we said earlier on, it is difficult to teach skills alone, for example without
communicating (consciously or unconsciously) certain attitudes and values.

GUIDELINES OF TEACHING

According to Carl Shafer, “effective learning is fostered by masterful teaching.” This

means teachers should develop an ability for making complex or difficult material
simple enough for their learners. Successful teachers are those who display the
following abilities.

 Good mastery of the subject they teach.

 Stimulate and sustain learners’ interest in what they teach.
 Use language which learners understand easily.
 Break down the content or lesson into simple manageable yet systematic
blocks.
 Help learners to learn on their own rather than depending wholly on the
teacher.
 Makes learners creative and critical in order to fully understand the idea, art or
skill being taught.
 Ability to review, test and confirm, if not apply what has been taught.

Page 52 of 53
Put differently, Shafer has come up with specific guidelines which he refers to as the
seven laws of teaching. These laws can be paraphrased as shown below.

A good teacher needs to:

1) Have a clear understanding of the content embodied in the lesson.

2) Makes learners develop interest in the subject matter through effective class
management techniques.

3) Uses words and expressions which have common meaning to the learner and
teacher alike.

4) Starts teaching the known and proceeds gradually to teach the unknown or more
abstract material.

5) Makes learners to think, act and discover new knowledge on their own.

6) Encourages learners to reproduce in their own words what they have learned.

7) Evaluates what has been taught in order to determine its worth and correct any
false impression.

See: The Seven Laws of Teaching by Carl Shafer.

Page 53 of 53