Statistical Process Control

Fundamentals For 6-sigma

Prof. S. K. Neogy
Indian Statistical Institute
Delhi Centre

Sampling
Sampling Methods
Methods for
for 6-sigma
6-sigma
Fundamentals
Fundamentals
• Sampling Methods
– To ensure that processes are stable, data are
gathered in samples.
• Random samples. Randomization is useful because
it ensures independence among observations. To
randomize means to sample is such a way that every
piece of product has an equal chance of being
selected for inspection.
• Systematic samples. Systematic samples have some
of the benefits of random samples without the
difficulty of randomizing.
 SPC
SPC Fundamentals
Fundamentals

• Sampling Methods
– To ensure that processes are stable, data are
gathered in samples (continued)
• Sampling by Rational Subgroup. A rational
subgroup is a group of data that is logically
homogenous; variation within the data can provide a
yardstick for setting limits on the standard variation
between subgroups.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• Process Charts
– Tools for monitoring process variation.
– The figure on the following slide shows a
process control chart. It has an upper limit, a
center line, and a lower limit.
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

Control Chart

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• Variables and Attributes

– To select the proper process chart, we must
differentiate between variables and attributes.
• A variable is a continuous measurement such as
weight, height, or volume.
• An attribute is the result of a binomial process that
results in an either-or-situation.
– The most common types of variable and
attribute charts
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

Central Requirements for Properly Using

Process Charts

1. You must understand the generic process for implementing

process charts.
2. You must know how to interpret process charts.
3. You need to know when different process charts are used.
4. You need to know how to compute limits for the different types
of process charts.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• A Generalized Procedure for Developing

Process Charts
– Identify critical operations in the process where
inspection might be needed. These are
operations in which, if the operation is
performed improperly, the product will be
negatively affected.
– Identify critical product characteristics. These
are the attributes of the product that will result
in either good or poor function of the product.
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• A Generalized Procedure for Developing

Process Charts (continued)
– Determine whether the critical product
characteristic is a variable or an attribute.
– Select the appropriate process control chart
from among the many types of control charts.
This decision process and types of charts
available are discussed later.
– Establish the control limits and use the chart to
continually improve.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• A Generalized Procedure for Developing

Process Charts
– Update the limits when changes have been made
to the process.
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• Understanding Control Charts

– A process chart is nothing more than an
application of hypothesis testing where the null
hypothesis is that the product meets
requirements.
• An X-bar chart is a variables chart that monitors
average measurement.
• An example of how to best understand control charts
is provided under the heading “Understanding
Control Charts” in the textbook.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• Interpreting Control Charts

– Before introducing other types of process
charts, we discuss the interpretation of the
charts.
– The figures in the next several slides show
different signals for concern that are sent by a
control chart, as in the second and third boxes.
When a point is found to be outside of the
control limits, we call this an “out of control”
situation. When a process is out of control, the
variation is probably not longer random.
Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts
Control Chart Evidence for Investigation

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts
Control Chart Evidence for Investigation
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts
Control Chart Evidence for Investigation

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts
Control Chart Evidence for Investigation
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• Implications of a Process Out of Control

– If a process loses control and becomes
nonrandom, the process should be stopped
immediately.
– In many modern process industries where just-
in-time is used, this will result in the stoppage
of several work stations.
– The team of workers who are to address the
problem should use a structured problem
solving process.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts for
for variable
variable data
data
X-bar and
X-bar R Charts
and R Charts
 14

Mean
13
x-Bar
x-Bar Chart
Chart
12

Sub-group

Range
2
R-Chart
R-Chart
1

Sub-group

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• X-bar and R Charts

– The X-bar chart is a process chart used to
monitor the average of the characteristics being
measured. To set up an X-bar chart select
samples from the process for the characteristic
being measured. Then form the samples into
rational subgroups. Next, find the average value
of each sample by dividing the sums of the
measurements by the sample size and plot the
value on the process control X-bar chart.
 Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts

• X-bar and R Charts (continued)

– The R chart is used to monitor the variability or
dispersion of the process. It is used in
conjunction with the X-bar chart when the
process characteristic is variable. To develop
an R chart, collect samples from the process
and organize them into subgroups, usually of
three to six items. Next, compute the range, R,
by taking the difference of the high value in the
subgroup minus the low value. Then plot the R
values on the R chart.

Process
Process Control
Control Charts
Charts
X-bar and R Charts
 3σ Control Chart Factors

Sample size x-chart R-chart

n A2 D3 D4
2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
6 0.48 0 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86

Control
Control charts
charts for
for Variables
Variables

• X-bar charts track process means

• Range charts track process variation
 Example: x-Bar and R Charts
Sample Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Obs 5
1 10.68 10.689 10.776 10.798 10.714
2 10.79 10.86 10.601 10.746 10.779
3 10.78 10.667 10.838 10.785 10.723
4 10.59 10.727 10.812 10.775 10.73
5 10.69 10.708 10.79 10.758 10.671
6 10.75 10.714 10.738 10.719 10.606
7 10.79 10.713 10.689 10.877 10.603
8 10.74 10.779 10.11 10.737 10.75
9 10.77 10.773 10.641 10.644 10.725
10 10.72 10.671 10.708 10.85 10.712
11 10.79 10.821 10.764 10.658 10.708
12 10.62 10.802 10.818 10.872 10.727
13 10.66 10.822 10.893 10.544 10.75
14 10.81 10.749 10.859 10.801 10.701
15 10.66 10.681 10.644 10.747 10.728

Calculate sample means, sample ranges, mean

of means, and mean of ranges.
Sample Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Obs 5 Avg Range
1 10.68 10.689 10.776 10.798 10.714 10.732 0.116
2 10.79 10.86 10.601 10.746 10.779 10.755 0.259
3 10.78 10.667 10.838 10.785 10.723 10.759 0.171
4 10.59 10.727 10.812 10.775 10.73 10.727 0.221
5 10.69 10.708 10.79 10.758 10.671 10.724 0.119
6 10.75 10.714 10.738 10.719 10.606 10.705 0.143
7 10.79 10.713 10.689 10.877 10.603 10.735 0.274
8 10.74 10.779 10.11 10.737 10.75 10.624 0.669
9 10.77 10.773 10.641 10.644 10.725 10.710 0.132
10 10.72 10.671 10.708 10.85 10.712 10.732 0.179
11 10.79 10.821 10.764 10.658 10.708 10.748 0.163
12 10.62 10.802 10.818 10.872 10.727 10.768 0.250
13 10.66 10.822 10.893 10.544 10.75 10.733 0.349
14 10.81 10.749 10.859 10.801 10.701 10.783 0.158
15 10.66 10.681 10.644 10.747 10.728 10.692 0.103

Averages 10.728 0.220400

 Control Limit Formulas
When process standard deviation is unknown...

x Chart Control Limits

n A2 D3 D4
UCL = x + A 2 R 2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
LCL = x - A 2 R 4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
6 0.48 0 2.00
R Chart Control Limits 7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
UCL = D 4 R 9 0.34 0.18 1.82
10 0.31 0.22 1.78
LCL = D 3 R 11 0.29 0.26 1.74

x-Bar Chart

UCL = x + A 2 R = 10.728 + .58(0.2204) = 10.856

LCL = x - A 2 R = 10.728 - .58(0.2204) = 10.601

1 0 .9 0 0

1 0 .8 5 0 UCL
1 0 .8 0 0

1 0 .7 5 0
M eans

1 0 .7 0 0

1 0 .6 5 0

1 0 .6 0 0
LCL
1 0 .5 5 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
S a m p le
 R-Chart
UCL = D 4 R = ( 2.11)(0.2204) = 0.46504
LCL = D3 R = (0)(0.2204) = 0

0 .8 0 0

0 .7 0 0

0 .6 0 0

0 .5 0 0
UCL
R 0 .4 0 0

0 .3 0 0

0 .2 0 0

0 .1 0 0

0 .0 0 0 LCL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12 13 14 1 5
S a m p le

XBar-R Chart: Example

You’re manager of a 500-

room hotel. You want to
analyze the time it takes to
deliver room service food
orders to the room. For 7
days, you collect data on 5
deliveries per day. Is the
process in control?
 R Chart
Hotel Data

Sample
Day Delivery
Time Mean Range
1 7.30 4.20 6.10 3.45 5.55 5.32

Control Chart
Hotel Data

Sample
Day Delivery
Time Mean Range
1 7.30 4.20 6.10 3.45 5.55 5.32 3.85
 Control Chart
Hotel Data

Sample
Day Delivery
Time Mean Range
1 7.30 4.20 6.10 3.45 5.55 5.32 3.85
2 4.60 8.70 7.60 4.43 7.62 6.59 4.27
3 5.98 2.92 6.20 4.20 5.10 4.88 3.28
4 7.20 5.10 5.19 6.80 4.21 5.70 2.99
5 4.00 4.50 5.50 1.89 4.46 4.07 3.61
6 10.10 8.10 6.50 5.06 6.94 7.34 5.04
7 6.77 5.08 5.90 6.90 9.30 6.79 4.22

R Chart
Control Limits Solution

∑R i
3.85 + 4.27 + L + 4.22
R= i =1
= = 3.894
k 7

UCLR = D4 ⋅ R = (2.11)(3.894 ) = 8.216

From Table
LCLR = D3 ⋅ R = (0 )(3.894 ) = 0 (n = 5)
 R Chart
Control Chart Solution

R, Minutes
8 UCL
6
4 R-bar
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day

Hotel Data

Sample
Day Delivery
Time Mean Range
1 7.30 4.20 6.10 3.45 5.55 5.32 3.85
2 4.60 8.70 7.60 4.43 7.62 6.59 4.27
3 5.98 2.92 6.20 4.20 5.10 4.88 3.28
4 7.20 5.10 5.19 6.80 4.21 5.70 2.99
5 4.00 4.50 5.50 1.89 4.46 4.07 3.61
6 10.10 8.10 6.50 5.06 6.94 7.34 5.04
7 6.77 5.08 5.90 6.90 9.30 6.79 4.22
 X Chart
Control Limits Solution*
k

∑X i
X= i =1
=
k
k

∑R i
R= i =1
=
k
UCLX = X + A2 ⋅ R =
LCLX = X − A2 ⋅ R =

X Chart
Control Chart Solution*

X, Minutes
8 UCL
6 X-bar
4
2 LCL
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day