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Warehouse
A warehouse is a building for storing goods.[1][2] Warehouses
are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers,
transport businesses, customs, etc. They are usually large plain
buildings in industrial parks on the outskirts of cities, towns or
villages.

They usually have loading docks to load and unload goods from
trucks. Sometimes warehouses are designed for the loading and
unloading of goods directly from railways, airports, or seaports.
They often have cranes and forklifts for moving goods, which are
An automatic storage warehouse for
usually placed on ISO standard pallets loaded into pallet racks.
small parts
Stored goods can include any raw materials, packing materials,
spare parts, components, or finished goods associated with
agriculture, manufacturing, and production. In India and Hong
Kong, a warehouse may be referred to as a godown.[3] There are
also godowns in the Shanghai Bund.

Contents
History
Prehistory and ancient history
Medieval Europe
Industrial revolution
20th century
Typology
Retail warehouses
Cool warehouses and cold storage
Overseas warehouses
Packing warehouses Bridgewater House, Whitworth
Street, Manchester (a packing
Railway warehouses
warehouse)
Canal warehouses
Operations
Storage and shipping systems
Automation and optimization
Recent trends
Education
Safety
See also
References
Further reading
External links

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History

Prehistory and ancient history

A warehouse can be defined functionally as a building in which to store bulk produce or goods
(wares) for commercial purposes. The built form of warehouse structures throughout time depends
on many contexts: materials, technologies, sites, and cultures.

In this sense, the warehouse postdates the need for communal or state-based mass storage of surplus
food. Prehistoric civilizations relied on family- or community-owned storage pits, or ‘palace’
storerooms, such as at Knossos, to protect surplus food. The archaeologist Colin Renfrew argued that
gathering and storing agricultural surpluses in Bronze Age Minoan ‘palaces’ was a critical ingredient
in the formation of proto-state power.[4]

The need for warehouses developed in societies in which trade

reached a critical mass requiring storage at some point in the
exchange process. This was highly evident in ancient Rome,
where the horreum (pl. horrea) became a standard building
form.[5]   The most studied examples are in Ostia, the port city
that served Rome. The Horrea Galbae, a warehouse complex on
the road towards Ostia, demonstrates that these buildings could
be substantial, even by modern standards. Galba's horrea
complex contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone,
covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m²). As a Ruined warehouses in Ostia; an
point of reference, less than half of U.S. warehouses today are ancient Roman city
larger than 100,000 square feet (9290 m²).[6]

Medieval Europe

The need for a warehouse implies having quantities of goods too

big to be stored in a domestic storeroom. But as attested by
legislation concerning the levy of duties, some medieval
merchants across Europe commonly kept goods in their large
household storerooms, often on the ground floor or cellars.[7][8]
An example is the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, the substantial
quarters of German traders in Venice, which combined a
dwelling, warehouse, market and quarters for travellers.[9]
A Sust, a Middle Ages type of
From the Middle Ages on, dedicated warehouses were
warehouse, in Horgen, Switzerland
constructed around ports and other commercial hubs to
facilitate large-scale trade. The warehouses of the trading port
Bryggen in Bergen, Norway (now a World Heritage site),
demonstrate characteristic European gabled timber forms dating from the late Middle Ages, though
what remains today was largely rebuilt in the same traditional style following great fires in 1702 and
1955.

Industrial revolution

During the industrial revolution of the mid 18th century, the function of warehouses evolved and
became more specialised. The mass production of goods launched by the industrial revolution of the
18th and 19th centuries fuelled the development of larger and more specialised warehouses, usually
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located close to transport hubs on canals, at railways and

portside. Specialisation of tasks is characteristic of the factory
system, which developed in British textile mills and potteries in
the mid-late 1700s. Factory processes speeded up work and
deskilled labour, bringing new profits to capital investment.

Warehouses also fulfill a range of commercial functions besides

simple storage, exemplified by Manchester's cotton warehouses
Historic Atlantic Dock warehouse in
and Australian wool stores: receiving, stockpiling and
Brooklyn in the 1800s
despatching goods; displaying goods for commercial buyers;
packing, checking and labelling orders, and dispatching them.

The utilitarian architecture of warehouses responded fast to emerging technologies. Before and into
the nineteenth century, the basic European warehouse was built of load-bearing masonry walls or
heavy-framed timber with a suitable external cladding. Inside, heavy timber posts supported timber
beams and joists for the upper levels, rarely more than four to five stories high.

A gabled roof was conventional, with a gate in the gable facing

the street, rail lines or port for a crane to hoist goods into the
window-gates on each floor below. Convenient access for road
transport was built-in via very large doors on the ground floor. If
not in a separate building, office and display spaces were located
on the ground or first floor.

Technological innovations of the early 19th century changed the

shape of warehouses and the work performed inside them: cast
iron columns and later, moulded steel posts; saw-tooth roofs;
19th-century warehouses in
and steam power. All (except steel) were adopted quickly and
Gloucester docks in the United
were in common use by the middle of the 19th century.
Kingdom, originally used to store
imported corn
Strong, slender cast iron columns began to replace masonry
piers or timber posts to carry levels above the ground floor. As
modern steel framing developed in the late 19th century, its
strength and constructability enabled the first skyscrapers. Steel girders replaced timber beams,
increasing the span of internal bays in the warehouse.

The saw-tooth roof brought natural light to the top story of the warehouse. It transformed the shape
of the warehouse, from the traditional peaked hip or gable to an essentially flat roof form that was
often hidden behind a parapet. Warehouse buildings now became strongly horizontal. Inside the top
floor, the vertical glazed pane of each saw-tooth enabled natural lighting over displayed goods,
improving buyer inspection.

Hoists and cranes driven by steam power expanded the capacity of manual labour to lift and move
heavy goods.

20th century

Two new power sources, hydraulics and electricity, re-shaped warehouse design and practice at the
end of the 19th century and into the 20th century.

Public hydraulic power networks were constructed in many large industrial cities around the world
in the 1870s-80s, exemplified by Manchester. They were highly effective to power cranes and lifts,
whose application in warehouses served taller buildings and enabled new labour efficiencies.

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Public electricity networks emerged in the 1890s. They were used at

first mainly for lighting and soon to electrify lifts, making possible
taller, more efficient warehouses. It took several decades for electrical
power to be distributed widely throughout cities in the western world.

20th-century technologies made warehousing ever more efficient.

Electricity became widely available and transformed lighting, security,
lifting and transport from the 1900s. The internal combustion engine,
developed in the late 19th century, was installed in mass-produced
vehicles from the 1910s. It not only reshaped transport methods but
enabled many applications as a compact, portable power plant,
wherever small engines were needed.

The forklift truck was invented in the early 20th century and came into Aisle with pallets on storage
wide use after World War II. Forklifts transformed the possibilities of racks in a modern
multi-level pallet racking of goods in taller, single-level steel-framed warehouse
buildings for higher storage density. The forklift, and its load fixed to a
uniform pallet, enabled the rise of logistic approaches to storage in the
later 20th century.

Always a building of function, in the late 20th century warehouses began to adapt to standardisation,
mechanisation, technological innovation and changes in supply chain methods.

Typology
Warehouses are generally considered industrial buildings[10]
and are usually located in industrial districts or zones (such as
the outskirts of a city).[11] LoopNet categorizes warehouses using
the "industrial" property type.[12] Craftsman Book Company's
2018 National Building Cost Manual lists "Warehouses" under
the "Industrial Structures Section."[13] In the UK, warehouses
are classified under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 as
the industrial category B8 Storage and distribution.[14][15]

Types of warehouses include storage warehouses, distribution

centers (including fulfillment centers and truck terminals), retail
warehouses, cold storage warehouses, and flex space.[16][17]

Retail warehouses

These displayed goods for the home trade. This would be India House, Manchester.
finished goods- such as the latest cotton blouses or fashion
items. Their street frontage was impressive, so they took the
styles of Italianate Palazzi.

Richard Cobden's construction in Manchester's Mosley Street was the first palazzo warehouse. There
were already seven warehouses on Portland Street when S. & J. Watts & Co. commenced building the
elaborate Watts Warehouse of 1855,[18][19] but four more were opened before it was finished.

Cool warehouses and cold storage

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Cold storage preserves agricultural products. Refrigerated

storage helps in eliminating sprouting, rotting and insect
damage. Edible products are generally not stored for more than
one year. Several perishable products require a storage
temperature as low as −25 °C.

Cold storage helps stabilize market prices and evenly distribute

goods both on demand and timely basis. The farmers get the
opportunity of producing cash crops to get remunerative prices.
The consumers get the supply of perishable commodities with
lower fluctuation of prices. The Pickles Building 101 Portland
Street, Manchester
Ammonia and Freon compressors are commonly used in cold
storage warehouses to maintain the temperature. Ammonia
refrigerant is cheaper, easily available, and has a high latent heat of evaporation, but it is also highly
toxic and can form an explosive mixture when mixed with fuel oil. Insulation is also important, to
reduce the loss of cold and to keep different sections of the warehouse at different temperatures.

There are two main types of refrigeration system used in cold storage warehouses: vapor absorption
systems (VAS) and vapor-compression systems (VCS). VAS, although comparatively costlier to
install, is more economical in operation.

The temperature necessary for preservation depends on the storage time required and the type of
product. In general, there are three groups of products, foods that are alive (e.g. fruits and
vegetables), foods that are no longer alive and have been processed in some form (e.g. meat and fish
products), and commodities that benefit from storage at controlled temperature (e.g. beer, tobacco).

Location is important for the success of a cold storage facility. It should be in close proximity to a
growing area as well as a market, be easily accessible for heavy vehicles, and have an uninterrupted
power supply.

Overseas warehouses

These catered for the overseas trade. They became the meeting places for overseas wholesale buyers
where printed and plain could be discussed and ordered.[18] Trade in cloth in Manchester was
conducted by many nationalities.

Behrens Warehouse is on the corner of Oxford Street and Portland Street. It was built for Louis
Behrens & Son by P Nunn in 1860. It is a four-storey predominantly red brick build with 23 bays
along Portland Street and 9 along Oxford Street.[19] The Behrens family were prominent in banking
and in the social life of the German Community in Manchester.[20] [21]

Packing warehouses

Modern term: Fulfillment house

The main purpose of packing warehouses was the picking, checking, labelling and packing of goods
for export.[18] The packing warehouses: Asia House, India House and Velvet House along Whitworth
Street in Manchester were some of the tallest buildings of their time. See List of packing houses.

Railway warehouses

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Warehouses were built close to the major stations in railway hubs. The first railway warehouse to be
built was opposite the passenger platform at the terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
There was an important group of warehouses around London Road station (now Piccadilly
station).In the 1890s the Great Northern Railway Company’s warehouse was completed on
Deansgate: this was the last major railway warehouse to be built.[18]

The London Warehouse Picadilly was one of four warehouses built by the Manchester, Sheffield and
Lincolnshire Railway in about 1865 to service the new London Road Station. It had its own branch to
the Ashton Canal. This warehouse was built of brick with stone detailing. It had cast iron columns
with wrought iron beams.[22]

Canal warehouses

All these warehouse types can trace their origins back to the canal warehouses which were used for
trans-shipment and storage. Castlefield warehouses are of this type- and important as they were
built at the terminus of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761.

Operations
A customised storage building, a warehouse enables a business to stockpile goods, e.g., to build up a
full load prior to transport, or hold unloaded goods before further distribution, or store goods like
wine and cheese that require maturation. As a place for storage, the warehouse has to be secure,
convenient, and as spacious as possible, according to the owner's resources, the site and
contemporary building technology.  Before mechanised technology developed, warehouse functions
relied on human labour, using mechanical lifting aids like pulley systems.

Storage and shipping systems

Some of the most common warehouse storage systems are:

Pallet racking including selective, drive-in, drive-thru, double-deep, pushback, and gravity flow
Cantilever racking uses arms, rather than pallets, to store long thin objects like timber.
Mezzanine adds a semi-permanent story of storage within a warehouse[23]

Vertical Lift Modules are packed systems with vertically arranged trays stored on both sides of
the unit.
Horizontal Carousels consist of a frame and a rotating carriage of bins.
Vertical Carousels consisting of a series of carriers mounted on a vertical closed-loop track,
inside a metal enclosure.

A "piece pick" is a type of order selection process where a product is picked and handled in
individual units and placed in an outer carton, tote or another container before shipping. Catalog
companies and internet retailers are examples of predominantly piece-pick operations. Their
customers rarely order in pallet or case quantities; instead, they typically order just one or two pieces
of one or two items. Several elements make up the piece-pick system. They include the order, the
picker, the pick module, the pick area, handling equipment, the container, the pick method used and
the information technology used.[24] Every movement inside a warehouse must be accompanied by a
work order. Warehouse operation can fail when workers move goods without work orders, or when a
storage position is left unregistered in the system.

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Material direction and tracking in a warehouse can be coordinated by a Warehouse Management

System (WMS), a database driven computer program. Logistics personnel use the WMS to improve
warehouse efficiency by directing pathways and to maintain accurate inventory by recording
warehouse transactions.

Automation and optimization

Some warehouses are completely automated, and require only operators to work and handle all the
task. Pallets and product move on a system of automated conveyors, cranes and automated storage
and retrieval systems coordinated by programmable logic controllers and computers running
logistics automation software. These systems are often installed in refrigerated warehouses where
temperatures are kept very cold to keep the product from spoiling. This is especially true in
electronics warehouses that require specific temperatures to avoid damaging parts. Automation is
also common where land is expensive, as automated storage systems can use vertical space
efficiently. These high-bay storage areas are often more than 10 meters (33  feet) high, with some
over 20 meters (65 feet) high. Automated storage systems can be built up to 40m high.

For a warehouse to function efficiently, the facility must be properly slotted. Slotting addresses
which storage medium a product is picked from (pallet rack or carton flow), and how they are picked
(pick-to-light, pick-to-voice, or pick-to-paper). With a proper slotting plan, a warehouse can improve
its inventory rotation requirements—such as first in, first out (FIFO) and last in, first out (LIFO)—
control labor costs and increase productivity.[25]

Pallet racks are commonly used to organize a warehouse. It is important to know the dimensions of
racking and the number of bays needed as well as the dimensions of the product to be stored.[26]
Clearance should be accounted for if using a forklift or pallet mover to move inventory.

Recent trends
Modern warehouses commonly use a system of wide aisle pallet racking to store goods which can be
loaded and unloaded using forklift trucks.

Traditional warehousing has declined since the last decades of the 20th century, with the gradual
introduction of Just In Time techniques. The JIT system promotes product delivery directly from
suppliers to consumer without the use of warehouses. However, with the gradual implementation of
offshore outsourcing and offshoring in about the same time period, the distance between the
manufacturer and the retailer (or the parts manufacturer and the industrial plant) grew considerably
in many domains, necessitating at least one warehouse per country or per region in any typical
supply chain for a given range of products.

Recent retailing trends have led to the development of warehouse-style retail stores. These high-
ceiling buildings display retail goods on tall, heavy-duty industrial racks rather than conventional
retail shelving. Typically, items ready for sale are on the bottom of the racks, and crated or palletized
inventory is in the upper rack. Essentially, the same building serves as both a warehouse and retail
store.

Another trend relates to vendor-managed inventory (VMI). This gives the vendor the control to
maintain the level of stock in the store. This method has its own issue that the vendor gains access to
the warehouse.

Large exporters and manufacturers use warehouses as distribution points for developing retail
outlets in a particular region or country. This concept reduces end cost to the consumer and
enhances the production sale ratio.

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Cross-docking is a specialised type of distribution center (DC) in that little or no inventory is stored
and product is received, processed (if needed) and shipped within a short timeframe. As in
warehousing, there are different types of cross-docks.

Reverse logistics is another type of warehousing that has become popular for environmental reasons.
The term refers to items that are going from the end user back to the distributor or manufacturer.

Education
There are few non-profit organizations which are focused on imparting knowledge, education and
research in the field of warehouse management and its role in the supply chain industry. The
Warehousing Education and Research Council (WERC)[27] and International Warehouse Logistics
Association (IWLA)[28] in Illinois, United States. They provide professional certification and
continuing education programs for the industry in the country. The Australian College of Training
have government funded programs to provide personal development and continuation training in
warehousing certs II – V (Diploma), they operate in Western Australia online and face to face, or
Australia wide for online only courses.

Safety
Warehousing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National
Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding
occupational health and safety issues.[29][30]

See also
Automated storage and retrieval system
Document automation
Data warehouse
Inventory
Inventory management software
Pick and pack
RFID
Shipping list
Voice Directed Warehousing
Warehouse management system

References
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0071452373. "warehouse: A building designed for the storage of various goods."
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Findlaw. Thompson Reuters. Retrieved 2018-12-17. "Office buildings, shopping centers,
nightclubs, hotels, certain warehouses, some apartment complexes -- as well as vacant land
that has the potential for development into these types of buildings -- can all be zoned as
commercial. Almost any kind of real estate (other than single-family home and single-family
lots) can be considered commercial real estate... Manufacturing plants and many storage
facilities have industrial zoning."
Jackson, John B. (2016-04-08). Warehouse Veteran: Your Tactical Field Guide to Industrial
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development: The research agenda". In Ball, Rick; Pratt, Andy C. (eds.). Industrial Property:
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Market Report (PMR)...There is a section of the report that deals specifically with industrial
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industrial/warehouse units (circa 1,000 square metres)."
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ooks?id=F9oABAAAQBAJ). Routledge. § 3.5. ISBN 9781135084424. "Although industrial
property is such a large commercial property sector and its buildings can range in size from a
small business workshop...up to a large warehouse...the sector generally includes the
following types of properties: logistic centres; warehouses; distribution centers; industrial
estates."
Jowsey, Ernie (2014-07-11). Real Estate Concepts: A Handbook (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=F9oABAAAQBAJ). Routledge. § 3.5. ISBN 9781135084424. "From a property
perspective, industrial property is property (land and buildings) that can be used for a variety
of purposes, with the following being the most common uses: ... storage;...The main types of
property invested in in the UK are: 1 Shops (retail sector...2 Offices...3 Industrial factories
and warehouses..."
Gilmour, Emma (2016-06-28). "Industrial property: what is it?" (https://www.realcommercial.c
om.au/news/what-is-industrial-real-estate). www.realcommercial.com.au. Retrieved
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Doven, Rodney (2018-04-05). "What is An Industrial Warehouse?" (https://www.assetbuildin
g.com.au/industrial-commercial-buildings/warehouse-construction/).
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companies out of Vancouver | Financial Post" (https://business.financialpost.com/real-estate/
property-post/shortage-of-industrial-real-estate-is-pushing-companies-out-of-vancouver).
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s?id=F9oABAAAQBAJ). Routledge. § 3.5. ISBN 9781135084424. "Warehouses are used for
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perspective, industrial property use generally classified under the Use Classes Order 2010 as: ...
B8 Storage or Distribution..."
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Process Alternatives. Warehousing Education & Research Council (WERC).
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Cygnus Supply and Demand Chain Executive. Accessed 2010-08-06.
26. "Installation Guide to Warehouse Storage Rack Systems - Rack Express" (http://www.rackexpres
s.com/blog/pallet-rack/installation-guide-warehouse-storage-rack-systems/).
www.rackexpress.com.
27. "Warehouse Education & Research Council - Warehouse Certification and Online Programs" (htt
ps://www.edumaritime.net/illinois/warehouse-education-research-council). www.edumaritime.net.
28. "International Warehouse Logistics Association (IWLA) - Certified Logistics Professional
Program" (https://www.edumaritime.net/illinois/warehouse-logistics-association-iwla).
www.edumaritime.net.
29. "CDC - NIOSH Program Portfolio : Transportation, Warehousing and Utilities" (https://www.cdc.g
ov/niosh/programs/twu/default.html). www.cdc.gov. 2019-03-14. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
30. "CDC - NORA - Transportation, Warehousing and Utilities Sector Council" (https://www.cdc.gov/n
ora/councils/twu/default.html). www.cdc.gov. 2019-02-12. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
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5/2/2020 Warehouse - Wikipedia

Further reading
Kumar (2014). warehouse – Layout Planning and Part Feeding Methods (http://www.yesdee.co
m/ysdbook.php?ysde=409&ys=0-64-56). Yes Dee Publishing Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789380381381.
The Story of the Bale.. Manchester: Lloyd's Packing Warehouses Ltd, Princess Street, 1926
Taylor, Simon, et al. (2002) Manchester - the warehouse legacy: introduction and guide; text by
Simon Taylor, Malcolm Cooper and P. S. Barnwell. English Heritage ISBN 9781873592670

External links
"Warehouse Analytics for Astute Logisticians" (http://logisticsbureau.com/warehouse-analystics-f
or-astute-logisticians/) – Smart Conference 2011
Online shopping drives demand for warehousing space August 2018 (https://www.bbc.co.uk/new
s/business-45210148)

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