NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: BUS 804

COURSE TITLE: Structure and Strategy

1
 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
14/16, AHMADU BELLO WAY, VICTORIA ISLAND, LAGOS, Nigeria.

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

2
Course Guide: BUS 804

Course Title: Strategy and Structure

Course Developers/Writers: 1. Dr. Olusegun Adeleke Adenuga

2. Mr Jelili Babatunde Sufian (NOUN)
3. Mrs Adegbola (NOUN)

Content Editors: DR. TIMOTHY ISHOLA

Programme Coordinator: DR (MRS) CAROLINE ATURU-AGHEDO

Department of Administration,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

Head of Department: DR (MRS) YEMISI I. OGUNLELA

Department of Administration,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

Dean of Faculty: DR TIMOTHY ISHOLA

Faculty of Management Sciences,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
National Open University of Nigeria,
Headquarters,
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way,
Victoria Island,
Lagos.

Abuja Office:-
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street,
Off Aminu Kano Crescent,
Wuse II, Abuja,
Nigeria.

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed:- 2013

ISBN:

All Rights Reserved

CONTENTS
PAGE
Module 1 ………………………………………………
1
Unit 1 Strategic management: definitions
Unit 2 The corporate strategy
Unit 3 The concept of strategy
Unit 4 The corporate planning contents

Module 2 ……………………………………………...

Unit 1 Organizational structure: concepts and formats

Unit 2 Techniques of delegation in an organization
Unit 3 Corporate mission statements
Unit 4 Organizational vision statement

Module 3 ……………………………………………….

Unit 1 Organizational core values

Unit 2 Vision and the management of change
Unit 3 Communications planning in organization
Unit 4 How organizational structure influences communication

Module 4 ………………………………………………………

Unit 1 Introduction
Unit 2 Need for Structure
Unit 3 Choice of Structure
Unit 4 Examples of Structure
Unit 5 Approach to Coordination

4
MODULE 5 ……………………………………………………………..

Unit 1 Introduction
Unit 2 Forms of Culture
Unit 3 Determinants of Culture
Unit 4 Changing Culture

5
 UNIT 1 Strategic Management: Definitions

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Strategic Management: Definitions
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Definition of strategy
3.2 Plans and Planning
3.2.1 Strategic Planning
3.2.2 Techniques involves in planning
3.2.3 Importance of strategy to organization
3.3 Ingredients to successful planning and implementation
3.4 Benefits of Good Planning
3.5 Limitations of strategic planning in an organization of strategic planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Going by the many challenges and opportunities in the global marketplace, today‘s managers
must do more than set long-term strategies and hope for the best outcome (Begley & Boyd,
2003). They must go beyond what some called ―incremental management‖, a situation whereby
they view their job as making a series of small, minor changes to improve the efficiency of their
firm operations. This is base on the fact that as the pace of ‗change‘ is accelerating
globally
especially in the workplace, so also is the pressure on managers to give the necessary strategic
direction to their firm.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain what strategic planning is all about

Understand the essence of good planning in an organization
Identify limitations of organizational strategy

6
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 DEFINITION OF STRATEGY

Strategy is a word with many meanings and all of them are relevant and useful to those who are
charged with setting strategy for their corporations, businesses, or organizations. Some
definitions of strategy as offered by various writers are briefly reviewed below.
Chandler (1962), defined strategy as ―the determination of the basic long-term goals and
objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources
for carrying out these goals.‖
Anthony, (1965), sees strategy as ―the pattern of objectives, purposes or goals and major policies
and plans for achieving these goals stated in such a way as to define what business the company
is or is to be in and the kind of company it is or is to be. Here we can see the emergence of some
vision of the company in the future as an element in strategy.
In effect, Mintzberg (1994) declared that strategy is a plan, a pattern, a position, a perspective
and, in a footnote, he indicated that it can also be a ploy, a maneuver intended to outwit a
competitor.
Generally, strategy can be defined as a method or plan chosen to bring about a desired future,
such as achievement of a goal or solution to a problem.
Another definition sees strategy as the art and science of planning and marshalling resources for
their most efficient and effective use. Strategy management consists of the analyzing, decisions,
and action an organization undertakes in order to create and sustain competitive advantages. This
definition captures two main elements that go to the heart of strategy management.
Firstly, the strategic management of an organization entails three ongoing processes: analysis,
decision, and action. That is, it is concerned with the analysis of strategic goals (vision, mission,
and strategic objectives) along with the analysis of the internal and external environment of the
organization.
Secondly, leaders must make strategic decisions; these decisions broadly speaking address two
basic questions: what industries should we compete in? How should we compete in those
industries? Taking decision is of little value unless such decision is acted upon. Therefore, firms
must take the necessary actions to implement their strategies. This leads us to plan and planning.

3.2 PLANS AND PLANNING

Plans of action, whether for business or for any other things, always have two fundamental
aspects: ends and means — what is to be achieved and how it is to be achieved. The ends sought
might be broad, far-reaching, and off in the distant future. Or, they might be nearby, tightly
focused, and well defined. And, whether we label these future results ―goals,‖ ―aims,‖ ―targets,‖
or ―objectives‖ is of little consequence. The same is true of the means chosen to attain
one‘s
ends. We might call these ―programs,‖ ―actions,‖ ―steps,‖ ―initiatives‖ or we might even reuse

7
the word ―plans.‖ As is the case with ends, means, too, might be very broad or very narrow, and
long-term or short-term.
Needless to say, the scope and scale of our plans, thinking, and managerial activity varies. At
least three levels of strategy and planning are widely accepted:
 enterprise level
 business unit level
 functional level

Those combinations of ends and means we call plans can be found at all three levels of
organization. Strategies, too, exist at all three levels. Consequently, one can and should find
strategic thinking, planning, and management at all three levels.
Planning has been defined in various ways, ranging from thinking about the future to specifying
in advance who is to do what and when to do it. For our purposes, we will define planning as
―the activity of preparing a plan‖ and we will define a plan as a set of intended outcomes (ends)
coupled with the actions by which those outcomes are to be achieved (means). To plan, then, is
to specify the ends sought and the means whereby they are to be attained.

Planning can be formal or informal and involve lots of documentation or very little. The
information base can be large and captured in a wide range of reports, studies, databases, and
analyses, or it can rest entirely on the personal knowledge of a few people, or even just one.
Plans, and thus the planning activities that produce them, frequently will address timeframes,
either generally, or in the form of milestones and perhaps detailed schedules. Resources, too,
might be addressed, whether in terms of money, space, equipment, or people. There are no
predetermined, mandatory guidelines to follow; it is a matter of doing what is appropriate for the
task at hand. Strategic planning is a different matter.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) Give at least 2 definitions of strategic planning
2) Explain three levels of strategy and planning in an organization

3.2.1 Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is a defined, recognizable set of activities. These include:
 establishing and periodically confirming the organization‘s mission and its corporate
strategy, what has been termed ―the context for managing‖.
 setting strategic or enterprise-level financial and non-financial goals and objectives
 developing broad plans of action necessary to attain these goals and objectives
 allocating resources on a basis consistent with strategic directions and goals and
objectives, and managing the various lines of business as an investment ―portfolio‖

8
  deploying the mission and strategy, that is, articulating and communicating it, as well as
developing action plans at lower levels that are supportive of those at the enterprise level.
 monitoring results, measuring progress, and making such adjustments as are required to
achieve the strategic intent specified in the strategic goals and objectives.
 reassessing mission, strategy, strategic goals and objectives, and plans at all levels and, if
required, revising any or all of them.

3.2.2 TECHNIQUES INVOLVES IN PLANNING

The techniques involved in strategic planning and management generally include some variation
of the following:
a strategic review or audit intended to clarify factors such as mission, strategy, driving
forces, future vision of the enterprise, and the concept of the business
a stakeholders‘ analysis to determine the interests and priorities of the major stakeholders
in the enterprise (e.g., board of trustees, employees, suppliers, creditors, clients, and
customers)
an assessment of external threats and opportunities as well as internal weaknesses and
strengths (known variously as SWOT or TOWS), leading to the identification and
prioritization of strategic issues
either as part of the assessment above, or as a separate exercise, the identification of
―core‖ or ―distinctive competencies‖
also as part of the assessment above, or as separate exercises, the playing out of
―scenarios‖ and even ―war games‖ or simulations
situational and ongoing ―scans‖ and analyses of key sectors in the business environment,
including industries, markets, customers, competitors, regulators, technology,
demographics, and the economy, to name some of the more prominent sectors of the
environment
various kinds of financial and operational performance audits intended to flag areas
where improvement might yield strategic advantage.

3.2.3 Importance of strategy to organization

Why is planning so important and why must it be done in concert with a strategy? From a macro
perspective, business today gets done in a global marketplace. Change is occurring at an
unprecedented pace. Time and distance continue to become less and less relevant due to the
explosive growth of technology and the Internet.
There was a time when strategic planning was done by the biggest companies, and those who
lead change. Now, it is a requirement for organizational survival. Leaders of business must be
looking ahead, anticipating change, and developing a strategy to proactively and successfully
navigate through the turbulence created by change.
At a micro view, the level of any individual company, strategic planning provides a company‘s
purpose and direction. That is, how the organization is going to get somewhere they don‘t know

9
where they are going? Everyone in an organization needs to know the direction of the
organization in terms of what they sell or do and who their target customers are. A good strategy
will balance revenue and productivity initiatives. Without strategic planning, businesses simply
drift, and are always reacting to the pressure of the day. Any organization that do not plan have
exponentially higher rates of failure than those that plan and implement well.
It requires business leaders to accept that yesterday‘s success does not ensure success in the
future. It requires challenging the status quo, changing behaviours, implementing new
procedures, hiring different people, and putting new systems in place in order to deliver on the
strategy. The best plans and ideas without great execution are just plans or ideas, therefore,
regardless of the size of an organization, a strategic plan is the foundation on which all business
activities can be connected and ―aligned‖.

3.3 INGREDIENTS TO SUCCESSFUL PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION

1) Creating Vision and Direction that is Simple and Clear – a strategy may be fairly
complicated at the highest level but the closer it gets to the front line and the marketplace, the
simpler it has to be.
2) A Good Plan – is well thought out, challenges assumptions, and is created with input from
sources inside and outside the organization.
3) Great Execution – requires commitment from the very top. This commitment must be
demonstrated through behaviour, investment, communication and accountability. The plan is a
living document that must become part of the culture and updated to reflect changes in the
environment.
4) Communication – continuously using different medium and in terms that connect individuals
and their roles to the vision and success of the organization

3.4 BENEFITS OF GOOD PLANNING

Here are a few of the benefits of good planning and great execution;
1) Better Decisions - Information communicated through vision and strategy allows people to
make the best decisions (hiring and rewarding the right people, adopting and developing the right
systems, making the right investments, etc).
2) Increased Energy – Resulting from rallying behind a cause, and elimination of conflict and
confusion of priorities.
3) Increased Capacity – People are focused on what is important and less concerned about what
is not.
4) Improved Customer Satisfaction – A true test of value and leads to higher retention and
growth.
5) Competitive Advantage – Doing what you do better than others.
6) Better Solutions – Uncovering the enormous intellectual and creative capacity of an
organization that collectively works toward solutions rather than a relying on select few.

10
7) Market Recognition – Over time you can ―own‖ a position and space in the marketplace.
8) Greatly enhances the chance of success

3.5 LIMITATIONS OF STRATEGIC PLANNING of Strategic Planning

Strategic Planning has limitations, such as the following:

1. Strategic Planning is not a way of making future decisions. There is no way anyone can
predict the future. Strategic Planning provides overall guidance and direction based on what we
think will happen.

2. Strategic Planning is not a blueprint for the future. There are too many changes taking place -
marketplace is changing, customer preferences are changing, new competition, new
technologies, new opportunities, declining financial condition, etc. Strategic Planning is a
dynamic process, which is receptive to change.

3. Strategic Planning cannot resolve critical situations threatening the organization. Strategic
Planning will not get you out of a crisis. The organization should be stable before engaging in
strategic planning.

4. Strategic Planning should not replace good intuitive judgement. If an organization is lucky
enough to have good intuitive thinkers, then exercise extreme care before embarking on formal
strategic planning. You do not want to destroy intuitive thinking within the organization.

5. Strategic Planning will not identify all critical issues related to the organization. Strategic
Planning attempts to identify the most significant issues that will confront the organization. By
focusing on major issues, strategic plans minimize the detail and thereby improve the chances for
successful implementation.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Give 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of strategic planning in an organization

Problems the strategic planning raises for organizations

Strategic planning can raise new problems for an organization. Some of the pitfalls associated
with strategic planning include:

1. Strategic Planning is difficult. It requires that people think differently. Strategic planning
needs to be a creative process with new ideas. Many people are not well suited for this type of
decision making. New relationships and roles are often necessary within strategic planning.
Some people are not comfortable with new activities and tasks.

11
2. Strategic Planning is time consuming. It requires the involvement of people, not to mention
research time, reallocating resources, changing the organization, etc. All of this can drain the
organization, especially if resources are scarce.

3. Strategic Plans can be bad! Poor assumptions, overly optimistic projections, and other
bad decisions can result in a bad strategic plan. A bad strategic plan will lead to serious
problems for the organization.

4. Impossible to Implement. If upper-level management fails to support the Strategic Plan, then
implementation will be impossible and the overall process will have been wasted. Additionally,
there can be internal resistance to strategic planning. People resist strategic planning for several
reasons: some employees can complain that it not makes sense, others can claim that there is not
enough time, do not understand why we are doing this.

Since strategic planning raises critical issues, it usually leads to change. Therefore, it will be
important to understand how to implement change. You can reduce the impact of change on
people by following these guidelines:

1. Allow some input and involvement from people. As long as they have a say in change, they
tend to accept it better.

2. Try to avoid threatening the security of people. When change affects the security of people,
they will resist.

3. Make sure change follows a pattern of previous decisions that were successful. If you are
trying to implement change after several failed attempts, your chances of success are limited.

4. Make sure everyone understands why change is taking place.

5. Change should take place based on planning. Change should never be experimental.

The best way to plan for change is within the strategic planning process. And since change is so
prevalent throughout an organization, almost every manager should make strategic planning part
of his or her job. The next step in the process is to organize how a strategic plan will be
developed.

4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Strategy is a useful concept, even in all its many variations. Strategic planning is a useful tool, of
help in managing the enterprise, especially if the strategy and strategic plans can be successfully

12
deployed throughout the organization. Thinking and managing strategically are important aspects
of senior managers‘ responsibilities. All these are part of what it takes to manage the enterprise.
None of them is sufficient.

5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this unit concerns strategy management, planning strategy, importance
of strategy to organization with emphasis on benefits of good planning and limitations of
strategic planning.

6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) List five (5) benefits of good planning.

2) Justify the assertion in the face of what you have learnt I this unit ―if you fail to plan, you are
planning to fail‖

7.0 FURTHER READING

Andrews, K. (1980). The Concept of Corporate Strategy, 2nd Edition. Dow-Jones Irwin.

Bryson, J. M. (1995). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Jossey-
Bass.

Chandler, A. Jr. (1962). Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American
Industrial Enterprise. MIT.

Mintzberg, H. (1994). The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning. Basic Books.

Porter, M. (1986). Competitive Strategy. Harvard Business School Press.

Steiner, G. (1979). Strategic Planning. Free Press.

Tregoe, B., & Zimmerman, J. (1980). Top Management Strategy. Simon and
Schuster.

13
 UNIT 2 CORPORATE STRATEGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Corporate Strategy
3.2 The Need for Strategy
3.3 Level of Strategy
3.3.1 Corporate Strategy
3.3.2 Business Strategy (Competition strategy)
3.3.3 Operational Strategy
3.4 Types of Strategies
3.4.1 Integration Strategies
3.4.1.1 Vertical Integration Strategies
3.4.1.1.1 Forward Integration
3.4.1.1.2 Backward Integration
3.4.1.2 Horizontal Integration Strategies
3.4.2 Intensive Strategies
3.4.2.1 Market Penetration
3.4.2.2 Market Development
3.4.2.3 Product Development
3.4.3 Diversification Strategies
3.4.3.1 Concentric Diversification
3.4.3.2 Conglomerate Diversification
3.4.3.3 Horizontal Diversification
3.4.4 Other Survival Strategies
3.4.4.1 Joint Venture
3.4.4.2 Retrenchment
3.4.4.2.1 Turn Around
3.4.4.2.2 Captive Company Strategy
3.4.4.2.3 Divestiture
3.4.4.2.4 Liquidation
3.5 Porter Generic Strategies
3.5.1 Cost Leadership
3.5.2 Differentiation
3.5.3 Focus
3.6 Characteristics of Strategy
3.7 Important / Relevance of Corporate Strategy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

14
 



1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word corporate implies an assembly of scan autonomous units as members of one body.
Therefore a corporate strategy refers to a strategy, which such a corporate body adopts.
Corporate Strategy is the strategy formulated by top management to oversee the interest and
options multi-line corporations. It is the course chartered for the total organisation that specifies
in what market the organisation will compete. It also addresses the question 'what business
should we be in? It also focuses on the way the different businesses an organisation chooses to
compete in or should be integrated into.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define corporate strategy

 Identify and mention types of strategy
 Mention and explain the importance of corporate strategy
 Explain the characteristics of strategy

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Corporate Strategy

Strategies are the approaches by which long term objective are to be achieved. It is the pattern of
significant decision made to fulfill organisation purpose.

Mintzberg (1996) defines strategy as the mediating force between an organisation and its
environment; that is, between internal and external context.

Thompson and Strickland (1997) defined strategy as the management action plan for achieving
the organised chosen objective i.e. blue print that specifies how the organisation will be
operated and what approaches and action will be taken in pursing the organisation objective.

Corporate strategy is therefore the art or science of formulating, implementing and evaluating
cross functional decision that enables an organisation to achieve stated objective.

3.2 The Need for Strategy

The followings are the reasons why businesses strategies.

 There is a significant rise in international competition, the global market has become
not only difficult but it is becoming difficult to retain.
 Managers at all levels have the need to understand the strategic and operational
changes associated with total quality management (TQM) / Quality Assurance
 Rapid technological change, in other words, if a manager must remain useful and

15
 relevant in today's turbulent business environment, he must be able to help shape and
implement new strategies that will enhance business growth and development.

3.3 Level of Strategy

There are three levels of strategies

 Corporate level strategy

 Business level strategy
 Operational level strategy

3.3.1 Corporate Strategy

The main issue concerned is the overall scope of the organisation i.e. how the organisation
should be run both in structure and financial terms. It also deals with how resources are to be
allocated, the financial markets and also the issue of diversification and acquisition.

3.3.2 Business Strategy (Competition strategy)

This strategy is how to compete in the market. The concern is about which products or services
should be developed and offered. And the extent to which these will meet customer need in such
a way as to achieve the objective of the organisation.

3.3.3 Operational Strategy

It is concerned with how different organisation (marketing, finance, product personnel)

contributes to the other levels of strategy.

3.4 Types of Strategies

David (1991) grouped strategy into the following categories:

 Integration Strategies
 Intensive Strategies
 Diversification Strategies
 Other Strategies

3.4.1 Integration Strategies

This strategy is further subdivided into vertical and horizontal strategies. Vertical Integration
strategies include:

 Forward Integration strategies

 Backward Integration strategies

Horizontal Integration strategies include:

16
 




 Mergers
 Acquisition or takeover

3.4.1.1 Vertical Integration Strategies

This includes forward integration and backward integration. The purpose of vertical integration
strategies is to enable a firm gain control over its distributors, suppliers and or competitors.

3.4.1.1.1 Forward Integration

This involves gaining ownership or increased control over distributor or retailer. This method is
most effective when organisation present distributors are expensive; unreliable or incapable of
meeting the firm's distribution needs can be used by firms that have both capital and human
resources to manage the raw business of distributing its own product.

Forward integration is the business level strategy in which a firm takes over a function
previously provided by a distributor or a retailer. The primary aim of forward integration
strategy is to gain more control over the firm's product quality and distribution networks. Coca-
Cola is a global company that has been aggressively implementing the forward integration
strategy through the purchase of domestic and foreign retailers as a means of improving its
distribution efficiently.

3.4.1.1.2 Backward Integration

Backward integration is strategy of seeking ownership or increase control of a firm supplier. This
type of strategy can be appropriate when a firm's current suppliers are unreliable, too costly or
cannot meet the firm needs or when there are urgent needs for a material.

Backward integration can also be defined as a strategy of seeking ownership or increased control
of a firm's suppliers. Backward integration strategy primary objective is to minimize resource
acquisition costs and efficient operations. It is usually resorted.

3.4.1.2 Horizontal Integration Strategies

Horizontal integration refers to a strategy of seeking ownership or increase control over firm's
competitors. Horizontal integration includes mergers, acquisition or take over.

Under this type of strategy, the firm seeks growth through the acquisition of its competitors (one
or more business operating at the same stage of the production and marketing chain). The main
objective is for access to new market and the elimination of competition. Besides, horizontal
integration in the forms of mergers, acquisitions and takeovers among competitors results in
increased economics of scale as well as enhance the transfer of resources and competencies.
Horizontal integration is the most popular way of seeking growth by firms in recent times.

3.4.2 Intensive Strategies

17
 These are strategies that concentrate efforts to improving a firm's competitive position with
existing products. These include: market penetration, market development and product
development.

3.4.2.1 Market Penetration

Market penetration- This is the strategy that seeks to increase market share for existing
products /services in present markets through greater marketing efforts. It involves:

(i) Increasing present customers' rate of usage

 Increasing the size of purchase
 Increasing the rate of product obsolescence
 Advertising other uses
 Giving price incentives for increased use

(ii) Attracting competitors customers

 Establishing shaper brand differentiation
 Increasing promotional effort
 Initiating price cuts

(iii) Attracting non users to buy the product

 Including trial use through sampling, price incentive etc
 Pricing up or down
 Advertising new uses

3.4.2.2 Market Development

This involves the introduction of old or existing products in new markets geographical areas
adding different channels of distribution or by changing the content of advertising or the
promotional medial.

Market development is used when new channel of distribution are available, reliable,
inexpensive and of good quality. For this strategy to work, the firm

i. Must be good at what it does and

ii. These must be new untapped or unsaturated market.

It consists of the following:

i) Opening additional geographical markets

 Regional expansion
 National expansion
 International expansion

ii) Attracting other market segments

18
 



 Developing product versions to appeal to other segments

 Entering other channels of distribution
 Advertising in other media

3.4.2.3 Product Development

Product development: This is a strategy that seeks increased sales by improving or modifying
existing products or creation of new but related items that can be marketed to current customers
through established channels.

Product development is centered on improving existing products e.g. panadol-extra.

Product development involves improving or modifying present product or services. Product

development usually entails large research and development expenditures. It consists of:

i. Developing new product Features

 Adapt (to other ideas, developments)
 Modify (change colour, sound, odour, form, shape)
 Modify (stronger, longer, thicker, extra value)
 Minify (smeller, shorter, lighter)
 Substitute (other ingredients, process, power)
 Rearrange (other patterns, layout, sequence, components)
 Reverse (inside out)
 Combine (blend, alloy, assortment, ensemble, combine limits, purposes, appeals, ideas)

(ii) Developing quality variations

(iii) Developing additional models and sizes (product proliferation)

3.4.3 Diversification Strategies

There are basically three types of diversification: concentric, horizontal and conglomerate.

3.4.3.1 Concentric Diversification

This involves the addition of a business related to the firm in terms of technology markets or
products. Under the concentric diversification strategy the new business is selected usually with
the current businesses. The ideal concentric diversification occurs when the combined company
profits increase strengths and opportunities as well as decrease weakness and exposure to risk.

Concentric diversification is known to deal with adding new but related products or services. It
is useful when an organisation product is currently in the decline stage.

19
3.4.3.2 Conglomerate Diversification

This is the type of diversification that involves the additional new, unrelated products or
servicing to existing businesses diversification is profit to this and little concern is given to the
creation of product / market synergy with existing businesses.

Conglomerate diversification is centered on adding new unrelated product.

3.4.3.3 Horizontal Diversification

This involves the addition of new and related products or services for present customers.
Horizontal diversification is not as the firm was already familiar with its present customers.

Horizontal diversification: it is a strategy of adding new related products or services for present
customer.

3.4.4 Other Survival Strategies

These other strategies are also referred to as survival strategy they are:

3.4.4.1 Joint Venture

This occurs when two or more companies form a temporary partnership or consortium
for the purpose of capitalizing on some opportunity.

Joint venture may result in formation of a separate organisation where two or more sponsoring
firm has shared equity ownership.

Joint venture may be in forms of co-operation arrangements such as research and development
partnerships, cross-distribution agreements, cross licensing agreements, cross-manufacturing
agreements and joint - brooding consortia. The popularity of joint ventures stems from the fact
that they enable firms improves communications and networking, stabilize their operations and
minimize risk. More recently, competitors are entering into co-operative agreements as means
of improving their businesses. Usually, the collaborating firms contribute distinctive capabilities
such as technology, distribution, and basic research or manufacture capacity. However, there is
danger of intended transfer of important skills or technology beyond that anticipated by the
cooperating firms.

Joint ventures:
 It is popular strategy that occurs which two or more companies form a temporary
partnership or some opportunity.
 Joint venture allows company to improve communication and networking.
 To acquire capital and technology
 To develop new product
 To enter new market

20
3.4.4.2 Retrenchment

Retrenchment: this occurs when an organisation regroup through cost and assets reduction to
reverse decline sales and profits. It is a sometime called term around or re-organisation strategy.
This is type of business strategy in which an organisation regroups through cast and assets
reduction to reverse declining sales and profits. Declining profits may be caused by economic
recessions, production inefficiencies and innovative breakthrough by competitors. The primary
objective of retrenchment strategy is the fortification of the firm's basic distinctive competencies.
Retrenchment may be accomplished either through cost or asset reduction. These are four types
of retrenchment strategies, turnaround, becoming a captive company, divestiture, bankruptcy or
liquidation.

3.4.4.2.1 Turn Around

This strategy emphasizes the improvement of operational efficiency. There are two main phases
of a turn around strategy; contraction and consolidation Contraction is the initial attempt to halt
the declining profitability through a general, across the board cutback in size and costs while
consolidation is the implementation of a program to stabilise, the new learner firm.

3.4.4.2.2 Captive Company Strategy

This is becoming another company's sole supplier or distributor in exchange for a long-term
commitment from that company. It involves the surrendering of the captive company's
independence for security. A company with a weak competitive position may offer to be a
captive company to one of its larger customers in order to guarantee the company's confirmed
existence with a long -term contract.

Organisation can pursue a combination of two or more strategies simultaneously. Organisation

must establish precision to be able to make difficult business decision.

3.4.4.2.3 Divestiture (Divestment)

This type of strategy business lines sells multiple business limits. Divestiture can be undertaking
to raise capital for further strategic acquisitions to get rid of unprofitable businesses that require
too much capital or that do not fit well with the firm's other activities and to comply with
government antitrust laws.

Divestment involves selling a division or part of an organisation. It is also used to raise capital
for further strategic actions.
 It is concerned with selling businesses that are unprofitable.
 That requires too much capital
 That does not fit well with the firm other activities.

21
 3.4.4.2.4 Liquidation

This strategy involves the selling of a company's assets in parts for their tangible worth. Since
the liquidation firm's industry is unattractive and the company too weak to be sold as a going
concern management often decide to convert as many salable assets as possible to cash for
distribution to stock holders after all obligations have been met.

Liquidation involves selling a company asset, or in parts, for their tangible worth. It is
recognition of defeat and consequently can be emotionally difficult strategy e.g.

 Nigeria National Shipping Line
 Nigerian Airways

3.5 Porter Generic /Competitive Strategies

This is formulated at the business unit or product level. Its primary objectives are to
provide
basic direction for strategic actions. It places emphasis on the provident of competitive position
of a company's services in the specific industry or market segment served by the business unit.

According to Michael Porter competitive strategies are offensive or defensive actions taken by a
firm within an industry with the objective of creating defendable position in the long run and
outperform competitors in the industry. Corporate and business strategies are generally
implemented through competitive strategies.

For Porter, there are three main types of generic competitive strategies. These are: overall cost
leadership, differentiation and focus. They are generic because they can be successfully
employed by an organisation.

Generic strategies allows organisation to gain competitive advantage for three different bases

 Cost Leadership
 Differentiation
 Focus

3.5.1 Cost Leadership

This emphasis producing standardized products at very low per unit cost for consumer and client
who are price sensitive.

Overall cost leadership is the main thrust of this strategy is the achievement of overall cost
leadership in an industry through a set of functional policies aimed at this basis objective.

Under this strategy the firm or business unit design, produces and market a comparable product
more efficiently than its competitors. Thus low - costs relatives to competitors becomes the
theme running through the entire strategy, though quality, service and other areas cannot be
ignored. This strategy ensures that a form obtains on above average return on investment as it

22
protects the firm against all the competitive forces. The successful implementation of this
strategy requires - sustained capital investment and access to capital process engineering skills
intensive supervision of labour, products designed for ease in manufacturing and low - cost
distribution system.

3.5.2 Differentiation

It is a strategy aimed at producing products and services considered unique in industry and
directed to consumer who are relatively price insensitive.
This strategy is one in which the firm differentiates its product or service by creating something
that is perceived to be unique industry wide. Differentiation may come in forms of design or
brand image, technology, customer service dealer network etc. A successful implementation of
this strategy require engineering creative flair, strong capability in basic research, corporate
reputation for quality or technological leadership strong cooperation from channels.

3.5.3 Focus

Means of producing products and services that fulfill the need of small groups of consumer.
This strategy is based on focusing on a particular group segment of the product line or
geographical market. The entire strategy is built around serving a particular target very well and
each functional policy developed with this in mind. The underlying assumption is that the firm is
able to better serve its narrow strategic target is effectively or efficiently than competitors
competing more broadly. Focus may take two forms, cost and differentiation focus. Cost focus is
a lower cost competitive strategy that focuses on a particular buyer group or market using cost
advantage while differentiation focus concentrates on a particular group product line segment or
geographical market.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1

Mention types of strategy known to you. Discuss any two.

3.6 Characteristics of Strategy

Peace and Robinson (1984) identified the following characteristics of strategy.

 It has a long term horizon

 It must requires concentration of efforts
 It must be supportive of one another, in that they must follow a consistent pattern
 It has a significant impact
 It must be based on goals that are simple, consistent and long- term
 It must be based on a particular understanding of the competitive
Environment
 It must be based on an objective appraisal of resources
It must be effectively implemented

23
3.7 Important / Relevance of Corporate Strategy

Corporate strategy is important because it deals with the major, fundamental issue that affects
the future of organizations.

When organizations make errors in corporate strategy it will suffer the consequences, possibly
risking it own survival. But when the organisation develops its strategy well it reaps the benefits.

Corporate strategy involves the entire organisation; it involves all areas of functions of the
business. It borrows best practice from each part and combines these, thereby creating more than
just the sum.

 Corporate strategy is also concern with the survival of the business as a minimum
objective and the correction of value added as a maximum objectives;
 It covers the range and depth of the organizations activities e.g. devastating
 Corporate strategy directs the changing and relationship of the organization with its
environment
 Corporate strategy is centered to the development of distinctiveness i.e. it is not enough
to strategize but to the good and every vital to be better then competitors.
 Corporate strategy is crucial to adding value rather than sales, profitability, market share,
earning per share or other indicators.
 Corporate strategy deals with the major fundamental issues that affect the future of an
organisation.
 It is also concerned with the survival of the business.
 It cover all the areas of activities of an organisation
 It is centered to the development distinctiveness: i.e snaking thing different from the
others.
 Strategy is crucial to adding value.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES2

i. Explain Corporate Strategy.

ii I-low does it influence business growth?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Corporate strategy can therefore be seen as the liking process between the management of the
organization's internal resources and its external relationships with its customers, supplier,
competitors and the economic and social environment in which it exists. The organisation
develops these relationships from its abilities and resources. Hence, the organisation uses its
history, skills, resources, knowledge and various concepts to explore its future actions.

5.0 SUMMARY

Corporate strategy is therefore the art or science of formulating, implementing and evaluating
cross functional decision that enables an organisation to achieve stated objective.

24
 Three levels of strategies were identified. They are:

 Corporate level strategy

 Business level strategy
 Operational level strategy

Types of Strategies as grouped by David (1991) are:

 Integration Strategies
 Intensive Strategies
 Diversification Strategies
 Other Strategies

Porter Generic /Competitive Strategies' primary objectives are to provide basic direction for
strategic actions. Generic strategies allows organisation to gain competitive advantage for three
different bases

 Cost Leadership
 Differentiation
 Focus

Strategy characteristics and its relevance are also treated.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. What strategy do you implore in selling a new product?

ii. Highlight the relevance of corporate strategy to a business man.

Answer To Self Assessment Exercises 1

The following are the types of strategies

 Integration Strategies
 Intensive Strategies
 Diversification Strategies
 Other Strategies

Answer To Self Assessment Exercises 2

Strategies are the approaches by which long term objective are to be achieved. It is the pattern of
significant decision made to fulfill organisation purpose.

Mintzberg (1996) defines strategy as the mediating force between an organisation and its
environment; that is, between internal and external context.

25
Thompson and Strickland (1997) defined strategy as the management action plan for achieving
the organised chosen objective i.e. blue print that specifies how the organisation will be operated
and what approaches and action will be taken in pursing the organisation objective.

Corporate strategy is therefore the act the science of formulating, implementing and evaluating
cross functional decision that enables an organisation to achieve stated objective.

Corporate Strategies influence on Business Growth


 Corporate strategy involves the entire organisation; it involves all areas of functions of
the business. It borrows best practice from each part and combines these, thereby creating
more than just the sum.
 Corporate strategy is also concern with the survival of the business as a minimum
objective and the correction of value added as a maximum objectives;
 It covers the range and depth of the organizations activities e.g. devastating
 Corporate strategy directs the changing and relationship of the organisation with its
environment
 Corporate strategy is centered to the development of distinctiveness i.e. it is not enough
to strategize but to the good and every vital to be better then competitors.
 Corporate strategy is crucial to adding value rather than sales, profitability, market share,
earning per share or other indicators.
 Corporate strategy deals with the major fundamental issues that affect the future of an
organisation.
 It is also concerned with the survival of the business.
 It cover all the areas of activities of an organisation
 It is centered to the development distinctiveness: i.e making thing different from the
others.
 Strategy is crucial to adding value.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Olayinka, K. & Aminu, S.A. (2006). Marketing Management: Planning and Control. Sundoley
Press Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Nigeria. Pp 321-326.

Esosa Bob Osaze, Nigeria Corporate Policy and Strategic Management-Text and Cases, pp.40-
46

Charles Perrow, the Analysis of Goals in Complex Organisation: American Sociology Review
Vol. 26pp854-866

Reimann, B. C. (1995). Leading Strategic Change: Innovation, Value, Growth. Planning Review
23
Lassere, P. (1995). Corporate Strategies For Asia Pacific Region, Long Range Planning 28,(1)
13-30

26
 UNIT 3 THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Strategy
3.1.1 Strategy as Plan
3.1.2 Strategy as Ploy
3.1.3 Strategy as Position
3.1.4 Strategy as Pattern
3.1.5 Strategy as Perspective
3.2 Origin of Business Strategy
3.3 Components of Strategy
3.4 Functions of Strategy
3.5 Stages of Strategy
3.5.1 Strategy Formulation
3.5.2 Strategy Implementation
3.5.3 Strategy Evaluation and Control
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Strategy is all about winning. It is the unifying theme that gives coherence and direction to the
individual decisions of an organisation. This unit therefore investigates the role of strategy in
business/organizational success.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, students should be able to:


 Define strategy
 Explain the origin of business strategy
 Enumerate the components and functions of strategy
 Describe the stages of strategy

27
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Strategy

A strategy is action taken by an organisation to attain superior performance. Strategic

management is the process by which managers choose a set of strategies for their organizations.
Some organisations go through this kind of process every year; although this should not be taken
to imply that the organisation chooses a new strategy ea year. In many organizations, the results
of annual strategic management process are used as input into the budget process for the coming
year. Thus, strategic plan shapes resources allocation within the organisation.

According to Andrews (1980) strategy is the pattern of decisions in an organisation that

determines and reveals its objectives, purpose and goals, produces the principal policies and
plans for achieving those goals and defines the range of products and services the organisation is
to pursue, the kind of organisation it is or intends to be and the nature of the contribution
it
intends to make to its constituencies.

For Bats and Eldredge, (1984) strategy may be defined as the guiding philosophy of the
organisation in the commitment of its resources to attain or fulfill its goals.

Vancil (1977) defined the strategy of an organisation as a conceptualization, expressed or

implied by the organization‘s management of the long - term objectives or purposes of the
organisation, the broad constraints and policies self imposed by management and the current set
of plans and near term goals that have been adopted in the expectation of contributing to the
achievement of the organization‘s objectives.

Minrzberg (1987) opened up a five - way definition of strategy as plan, ploy, pattern, position
and perspective.

3.1.1 Strategy as Plan

Views strategy as some sort of consciously intended course of action, a guideline (or some sort
of guidelines) to deal with a situation. This definition stresses two essential characteristics of
strategy; they are made in advance of the actions to which they apply and they are developed
consciously and purposefully.

3.1.2 Strategy as Ploy

Views strategy as specific plan employed for just a specific maneuver intended to outwit an
opponent or competitor. This definition enables practioners to focus attention on the most
dynamic and competitive aspects of strategy.

3.1.3 Strategy as Position

Views strategy specifically as a means of locating an organisation in an environment. By this

definition strategy becomes the mediating force or match between organizations and external and

28
internal environments.

3.1.4 Strategy as Pattern

This definition views strategy as a pattern in stream of actions, since strategies can both
be
intended, as well as realized actions, the definition of strategy as pattern encompasses the
resulting behaviour. This strategy is been as consistency in behaviour whether or not intended.

3.1.5 Strategy as Perspective

Views strategy as organizational ingrained way of perceiving the world. It is a perspective shared
by the members of an organisation through their intentions and or by their actions. Thus,
strategies have been referred to as the character of an organisation distinct and integrated
commitments to ways of acting and responding that are built right into it.

3.2 Origin of Business Strategy

Business strategy is a comparatively young field of study -- even within the management
sciences. There are different definitions of strategy, both within its generic and business contexts.
Although, business strategy is fairly new, many of its concepts and theories have their
antecedents in military strategy, which extends back to principles enunciated by Julius Caesar
and Alexander the Great and further still on Sun Tzu's classic treatise written at about 360 B.C.
The word "strategy" comes from the Greek word strategos, which is formed from stratos,
meaning army, and -ag, meaning to lead.

The applicability of the principles of military strategy to business is a subject of continuing

controversy. What is agreed, however, is that military strategy can yield important insights into
business management, the most basic being the military distinction between strategy and tactics.
Strategy is the overall plan for employing resources to establish a favourable position. A tactic is
a scheme for specific action. While tactics are concerned with the maneuvers necessary to win
battles, strategy is concerned with winning the war. Strategic decisions, whether in the military
or the business spherehave common characteristics:

 They are important,
 They involved a significant commitment of resources,
 They are not easily reversible.

Armies and business enterprises have similar needs for strategy. Both possess objectives; for the
army, these are established by the government, for the enterprise they are established by its
board of directors. For both, the competitive situation arises from the incompatibility between
the objectives of different organizations. For instance, in 1990-1 Iraq wanted control of Kuwait
and the United Nation wanted the restoration of Kuwait sovereignty; Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola
each aim for leadership in the world soft drink market. Both armies and companies possess
resources that include people, capital equipment and technical skills. Both face external
environments determined partly by exogenous factors (the terrain in military conflict, the market
in business competition) and partly by the strategies pursues by the rivals.

29
At the more detailed level, specific principles of military strategy have been applied to business
situations. Such principles include the relative strengths of offensive and defensive strategies,
the merits of outflanking as opposed to frontal assault, the roles of flexible and graduated
responses to aggressive initiatives, and the potential for deception, envelopment, escalation, and
attrition Arithmetical theories of numerical superiority, such as Lanchester's theories of battle
outcomes as functions of troops, firepower and rates of reinforcement have been applied (by
Japanese companies in particular) to predict critical levels of market share.

At the same time, there are some clear differences in the nature of competition between warfare
and business rivalry. The objective of war is (usually) to defeat the enemy. The purpose of
business rivalry is seldom so aggressive: most business enterprises limit their competitors.
Hence, a closer analogy may be between diplomacy and business strategy.

Diplomacy is concerned primarily with the management of peaceful relations: only when
diplomacy breaks down do nations normally resort to war. Similarly, business relations typically
comprise a duality between cooperation and competition. Competition at times may be intense,
but seldom between established rival does it become destructive.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1

Highlight the functions of strategy.

3.3 Components of Strategy

According to Hofer and Schedule, strategy should be building around four components;

 Scope: This defines the product / market matches and territories in which the
 organisation will compete.
 Resources Deployments and Distinctive Competencies: This stipulates how the
 organisation will distribute its resources across various areas.
 Competitive Advantage: This specifies what organisation does especially well.
 Synergy: This specifics the benefits expected to result from decisions about scope,
resource deployment and distinctive competence.

3.4 Function of Strategy

According to Minrzberg, strategy performs the following functions:


 Setting of Direction: Organizations need strategies to set direction for themselves and to
 outsmart competitors or at least enable them to maneuver through threatening


environments. Good strategies enable organisation to weather through the storms of the
 environment and come top.

 Focusing Effort: Strategies provide focus for organizational effort as well as promote the

30
 



co-ordination of organizational actively. Also strategy provides the basis for collective
which is the hallmark of organisation.

 Defining the Organisation: Strategy defined the organisation as it gives the organisation
 meaning for its employees and outsiders. It provides a convenient way for people to


understand an organisation and differentiates it from others.

 Providing Consistency: Strategies reduce uncertainty and provide consistencies which

aid cognition satisfy intrinsic needs for order and promote stability.
3.5 Stages of Strategies

There are three main stages of strategy as Aluko et al at 1998 namely, strategy formulation,
strategy implementation and evaluation.

3.5.1 Strategy Formulation

This is the process of establishing a business mission, conductive research to determine critical
internal and external factors, establishing long-term objectives, and choosing among alternative
strategies. Sometimes it is referred to as 'strategic planning'. It consists of three activities.

 Conducting research,
 Integrating inquisition with analysis,
 Making decision.

Conducting research involves gathering and assimilating information about a given form's
industry and market. The process is called environment scanning.

There are two environmental scanning- internal scanning and external auditing.

 Internal scanning aims of discovering strengths and weakness in the functional areas of
 business. This can be done by;
 Computing rates
 Measuring performance
 Comparing the past periods
  Industry averages
 Carrying out survey on employee morale e.t.c

External auditing: This deals with developing a finite list of environmental opportunities that
could benefit a firm, and environmental threats that should be avoided. Also firms should
respond offensively or defensively to the factors by formulating strategies that take advantages
of external opportunities or minimize the impact of potential threats.

The principal sub-activities of strategy formulation help a firm take advantage of

perceived market needs or cope with attendant risks. The strategic alternative which results, from
material opportunity and corporate capability at an acceptable level of risk are what may be
called an 'economy strategy'.

31
 The process described therefore assumes that organizational strategies are analytically objective
in estimating the relative capacity of their company and the opportunity they see or anticipation
in developing markets.

3.5.2 Strategy Implementation

It involves the activities and decisions that are made to install new strategies or support existing
strategies. Some refers to it as operational management.

Strategy implementation is often called the 'action stage' of strategic management. It comprises
of sub - activities which are primarily administrative. If organizational purpose is determined,
then the resources of the company can be mobilized to accomplish it. There must be translation
of strategic though into strategic action. It involves these activities which include:

i. Establish annual (short-term) objectives

ii. Devising policies
iii. Allocating resources

This stage requires personal commitments discipline sacrifice. Successful strategy

implementation hinges upon manager's ability to motivate employees. It concludes developing
strategy- supportive budgets, programs and cultures, linking reward system and motivation to
both long-term and short- term objectives.

3.5.3 Strategy Evaluation and Control

Strategic evaluation and control involve the activities and decisions that keep the process on
track. This include following up on goal accomplishment and giving feedback to the decision
makers on the result achieve so far. Strategic management process results in decisions that can
have significant long lasting consequences.

Erroneous decisions can inflict severe penalties and can be exceedingly difficult, and may be
impossible to reverse. Therefore, timely evaluation and alert management to problems and
potential problems strategy evaluation is important because organizations face dynamic business
environments in which major internal and external factors often change quickly and dramatically
strategy evaluation includes three activities namely:

i. Reviewing bases of strategy

ii. Measuring organizational performance
iii. Taking corrective actions

The products of a business strategy evaluation are answers to these questions:

i. Are the objectives of the business appropriate?

ii. Are the major policies and plans appropriate?

32
iii. Do the results obtained to date confirm or refuter critical assumptions on which the
strategy rates.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 2

Discuss the three major stages of strategy.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Strategy is all about winning. If strategy is purely a matter of intuition and experience, then there
is little or no point in studying this unit. The only way to learn is to go and do it. The key premise
that underlies this unit is that, there are concepts, frameworks and techniques that are immensely
useful in formulating and implementing effective strategies.

Finally, this unit explains / explores the contribution that strategy can make to successful
performance, both for business / organizations and individuals.

5.0 SUMMARY

You have learnt various definitions of strategy which are given by Andrews (1980), Bats and
Eldredge (1984), Vancil (1977) and Minrzbergs (1987).

The unit also gave the origin of business strategy, components and functions of strategy and
finally, stages or strategy.

A strategy is action taken by an organisation to attain superior performance. Strategic

management is the process by which managers choose a set of strategies for the enterprise.

Minrzberg (1987) opened up a five - way definition of strategy as plan, ploy, pattern, position
and perspective.

According to Hofer and Schedule, strategy should be building around four components which are
scope, Resources Deployments and Distinctive Competencies, Competitive Advantage and
Synergy.

Strategy performs functions such as: setting of direction, focusing effort, defining the
organisations and providing consistency.
There are three main stages of strategy as Aluko et al at 1998 namely, strategy formulation,
strategy implementation and evaluation.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the following terms:

(i) Strategy as Plan
(ii) Strategy as Ploy
(iii) Strategy as Position

33
 (iv) Strategy as Pattern
(v) Strategy as Perspective

2. Give a detailed comprehensive origin of business strategy.

Answers to Self Assessment Exercise 1

The following are the functions of strategy.

 Setting of direction
 Focusing effort
 Defining the organization
 Providing consistency

Answers to Self Assessment Exercise 2

Three major stages of strategy are:

 Strategy formulation
 Strategy implementation
 Strategy evaluation and control

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Osuagum, L. (1999): Marketing Principles and Management, Grey Resourced Ltd, Lagos,
Nigeria. Pp336

Pierce and Robinson, Strategic Management, Formulation, Implementation and Control, 6th Ed,
Elwin, p. 240-249

Peter F. Drucker, Practice of Management, Harper & Row, N.Y., pp.30-37

Hitt, Ireland and Hoskinson, Strategic Mnagement Competitiveness and Globalization, 2"d Ed.
Pp 351-400

Esosa Bob Osaze, Nigeria Corporate Policy and Strategic Management-Text and Cases,
pp.40-46

Charles Perrow, the Analysis of Goals in Complex Organisation: Amenrican Sociology Review
Vol. 26pp.854-866

B.C.Reimann, 1995, Leading Strategic Change: Innovation, Value, Growth, Planning Review
23 (September/October)

Lassere, Phillipi, Corporate Strategies for Asia Pacific Region, Long Range Planning. 28, (1)
13-30

34
 UNIT 4 CORPORATE PLANNING CONTENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
30 Main Content
3.1 Corporate Planning
3.2 Why do Managers Plan
3.3 Nature of Planning
3.4 Steps in Planning
3.5 Benefit of Corporate Planning
3.6 Limitation of Corporate Planning
3.7 Why Corporate Planning Fails
3.8 Guideline for Planning Effectiveness
3.9 Features of Corporate Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor - Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the preceding unit, you have been introduced to corporate strategy. This unit exposes you to
corporate planning, its features, steps in planning, its benefits and why corporate planning fails.
Enjoy your study.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain corporate planning

 Mention the steps in planning and the features of corporate planning
 Enumerate the benefits of planning
 Explain why corporate planning fails

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Corporate Planning

Planning is the process of setting goals and objectives in an organisation and then determining
how to achieve such goals and objectives.

Adeleke (2001) Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to go unless
we plan we would in consequence leave things to chance.

35
 Corporate Planning: Is concerned with the organizations as a whole operation and enterprise.
Corporate planning is the cost of decisions and activities or resolution involved in the
formulation and implementation of strategies which are designed to achieve the objectives of the
organisation.

Iyanda and Bello (1988) pointed out that planning move an organisation from a current state into
a desired future state.

The rationale of planning is basically that of trying to equip a manager with the resources that
would be needed for realizing measurable results in the future. Corporate planning is a
systematic objectives and comprehensive process of long range planning, taking into
consideration the organisation resources, capabilities and environment in totality.

3.2 Why do Managers Plan

Planning is carried out by managers for several reasons as follows:

(i) To focus on objectives.

(ii) To forestall uncertainty and unexpected changes.
(iii) To minimize cost of operation and to facilitate control
(iv) To take practice rather than reactive measures and decision.
(v) To prepare for unforeseen circumstances

3.3 Nature of Planning

Planning involves deciding in advance of

(i) What to do
(ii) How to do it
(iii) When to do it
(iv) Where to do it
(v) Who should do it?
(vi) What are needed to do it?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1

i. Itemize the benefits of corporate planning

3.4 Steps in Planning

For effective planning in an organisation certain process should be followed:

• Scan the environment:

36
i.e. one should be aware of the opportunities and threat in the environment.

 Set objectives and goals:

The objectives and goals should answer question about the mission and purpose of the
organisation such as where are we, where are we going, where we want to be and when.


 Identify the resources required to attain the objectives:

These resources should include the money, men, materials and machine.

 Identify alternative courses of action to reach the goals, determine the cost of various
alternatives.
 Select a course of action that appears best among the alternatives.
 Formulate the supporting plans
 Implement the plans
 Monitor the plan implementation and develop feedback mechanism.

3.5 BENEFIT OF CORPORATE PLANNING

The benefits are as follows:

 It creates clarity of purpose and better awareness of goals and problems.

 It enables management to take calculated business risk and think ahead.
 It brings an improvement in the motivation morale and job-satisfaction of employees.
 It improves communication between division / department of the
 organisation.
 It brings an improvement in the quality of managerial decision.
 It also brings an improvement in the ability of a firm to cope with change
and uncertainty particularly in a dynamic and turbulent environment.

3.6 Limitation of Corporate Planning

The limitations of corporate planning include the following:


 It is not useful in a dying company
 Planning is a time consuming and expensive process.
 It is not a guarantee that the company will not be affected by adverse circumstances in
 other word; it is not a substitute for good management.
 It is subject to error and cannot be fully accurate.
 Planning itself cannot produce result, timely and appropriate actions are required for
success.
37
  A comprehensive planning programme cannot be expected to be an overnight
success.

3.7 Why Corporate Planning Fails

Corporate planning fails because of the following reasons:


 Lack of support from top management
 Bureaucratic organizational objectives
 Poor and ineffective information system
 Failure to devote sufficient resources
 Faulty implementation of plans
 Failure to devote sufficient resources
 Over emphasis on short term results, to the neglect of long term goals.
 Failure to allow planning organisation to grow to maturity

3.8 Guideline for Planning Effectiveness


 Leadership i.e. top management support:
 The corporate planning must be initiated and encourage by top management, it must

also have their commitment.
 Developing a planning culture: The organisation must develop in the
 employees a planning culture.
 Employee participation:
 Effective corporate planning requires an environment which emphasizes openness,


interdependence and visibility. There should be a climate of mutual trust and
cooperation.
 Effectiveness organizational structure:
 Corporate planning involves at all times some level of interrelationship among various


levels of employees in order to plan effectively management must define relationship
within and outside the organisation.
 Forecasting and information system:
These should be opportunity for the assessment of the future and for collection and
dissemination of information.

38
 Long rang Strategic planning

Medium range Tactical planning

Short range Operational planning

PLANNING HORIZONS

Strategy planning: is a formal process in which the assumption, reasons and the plans
themselves are all written with figures to serve for future references.

Strategic planning: is very comprehensive and encompasses both long and short terms.

Strategic planning is a systematic and logical process.

Strategic planning is concerned with decision having long term and enduring effects.

Tactical planning , which is an informal planning process often exist in the planner's mind. They
are not put on record.

Tactical planning is medium term and tends to be fragmented e.g. budget

Tactical planning involves the selection of the means of attaining specified objectives.
Operational planning system is limited to a short term duration e.g. 3-6 month's e.g. meeting a
sales target.

Operational planning is also formulated within and in pursuance of strategies.

3.9 Features of Corporate Planning

(1) It is formal and systematic in approach

(i) It entails a sequence of steps.
(ii) It is a continuous and on — going process
(iii) It involves planning for the whole organisation rather than some component part.
(iv) It relates to the future
(v) It relates the Organisation with its environment
(vi) It is very comprehensive in nature involving both strategic planning, tactical or
operational planning.

39
(vii) It involves planning for the whole organisation rather than some component parts.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 2

i. Define corporate planning

ii. List the guideline for effective planning.

4.0 CONCLUSION

You can understand from foregoing discussion study that corporate planning is concerned with
the organizations as a whole operation and enterprise. There are steps one must take when
planning. This in turn results to good outcome which translate into corporate planning benefits.
Corporate planning featured are also mentioned.

5.0 SUMMARY

Planning is the process of bridging the gap between where we are and where we want to go.
Unless we plan we would in consequence leave things to chance.

The unit has discussed corporate planning, its nature, benefits, steps, features, limitations,
guidelines and why corporate planning fails.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Enumerate the reasons why managers plan

ii. Highlight the steps needed for effective planning in an organisation.

Answers to Self Assessment Exercises 1

Benefit of Corporate Planning

The benefits are as follows:

 It creates clarity of purpose and better awareness of goals and problems.
 It enables management to take calculated business risk and think ahead.
 It brings an improvement in the motivation morale and job-satisfaction of employees.
 It improves communication between division! department of the
organisation.
 It brings an improvement in the quality of managerial decision.
 It also brings an improvement in the ability of a firm to cope with change and uncertainty
particularly in a dynamic and turbulent environment.

Answers to Self Assessment Exercises 2

Corporate Planning: Is concerned with the organizations as a whole operation and enterprise.
Corporate planning is the cost of decisions and activities or resolution involved in the

40
formulation and implementation of strategies which are designed to achieve the objectives of the
organisation.

Iyanda and Bello (1988) pointed out that planning move an organisation from a current state
into a desired future state.

The rationale of planning is basically that of trying to equip a manager with the resources that
would be needed for realizing measurable results in the future. Corporate planning is a
systematic objectives and comprehensive process of long range planning, taking into
consideration the organisation resources. Capabilities and environment in totality.

Guidelines for Planning Effectiveness are:

 Leadership i.e. top management support.

 Developing a planning culture.
 Employee participation.
 Effectiveness organizational structure.

Forecasting and information system.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Aminu, S.A. (2006): Marketing Management: Planning and Control; Sundoley Press Nigeria
Limited, Lagos, Nigeria.

Abell D.F. (1980) Defining the Business: the Starting Point of Strategic Planning, Englewood
Cliffs N.J. Prentice Hall.

Ansoff, 11.1. (1957), "Strategies for Diversification", Harvard Business Review, vol.25, No.5,
Oxford: Butterworth Hienemann, Third Edition

Wilson, R. M. S., & Gilligan, C. (1997). Strategic Marketing Management, Planning,

Implementation and Control, Butter Hienemann.

41
Module 2

UNIT 1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES: CONCEPTS AND FORMATS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Structure
3.2 Organizational structure: concepts and formats
3.3 The process of departmentalization
3.4 The process of delegation
3.5 Risks involve in delegation
3.5.1 Loss of control
3.5.2 Reverse delegation
3.5.3 Loss no job
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

3.0 Main Content

1.0 INTRODUCTION

If you have not read through the Course Guide, this is the time to do so; then you will have a
general understanding of what this unit is all about. Thus unit lays the essentials groundwork of
organizational structure and outlines the processes of departmentalization and delegation of duty.
The concepts that you will be studying in this course require that you understands the meaning of
certain terms. Some of the questions that will be discussed in this unit are: What are the primary
forms of departmentalization? Describe a matrix form of departmentalization; why is delegation
the art of managing? And describe how the process of delegation works.

2.0 OBJCTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
Discuss the primary form of departmentalization
What is meant by the parity of authority and responsibility?
Describe how the process of delegation works.

42
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of structure

The description of structure implicitly offers an account of what a system is made of; it may be a
configuration of items, a collection of inter-related components or services. A structure may be a
hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a
lattice featuring connections between components that are related in space.

3.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES: CONCEPTS AND FORMATS

An organization is when two or more people work together to achieve a group result. After the
objectives of an organization are established, the functions that must be performed are
determined. Personnel requirements are assessed and the physical resources needed to
accomplish the objectives determined. These elements must then be coordinated into a structural
design that will help achieve the objectives. Finally, appropriate responsibilities are assigned.
Determining the functions to be performed involves consideration of division of labor; this is
usually accomplished by a process of departmentalization.

3.3 The process of Departmentalization

Grouping related functions into manageable units to achieve the objectives of the enterprise in
the most efficient and effective manner is departmentalization. A variety of means can be
utilized for this purpose. The primary forms of departmentalization are by function, process,
product, market, customer, geographic area, and even matrix (also called project organization).
In many organizations, a combination of these forms is used.

Forms of departmentalization by description

1) FUNCTION: Key Terms
a) Departmentalization the grouping of related functions into manageable units to achieve the
objectives of the enterprise in the most efficient and effective manner.
b) Delegation the process that makes management possible because management is the process
of getting results accomplished through others. Delegation is the work a manager performs to
entrust others with responsibility and authority and to create accountability for results. It is an
activity of the organizing function.
c) Scalar principle (chain of command) a clear definition of authority in the organization. This
authority flows down the chain of command from the top level to the first or lowest level in the
organization.
d) Centralization occurs in an organization when a limited amount of authority is delegated.
e) Decentralization occurs when a significant amount of authority is delegated to lower levels in
the organization.

43
f) Contingency approach an approach to organizational structure that states that the most
appropriate organizational structure depends on the situation, consisting of the particular
technology, the environment, and many other dynamic forces.
Perhaps the oldest and most common method of grouping related functions is by specialized
function, such as marketing, finance, and production (or operations). Sometimes this form of
departmentalization may create problems if individuals with specialized functions become more
concerned with their own specialized area than with the overall business. An example of
departmentalization by function appears in diagram below.

2) PROCESS
Departmentalization can also take place by process. This type of departmentalization often exists
in manufacturing companies. As illustrated in the diagram below.

3) PRODUCT
Whenever specialized knowledge of certain products or services is needed, departmentalization
by product may be best. This usually occurs in large diversified companies.

4) MARKET
When a need exists to provide better service to different types of markets, departmentalization by
market may be the appropriate form. An example of a business serving nonprofit markets, which
uses the market form of departmentalization, is shown in diagram below.

44
5) CUSTOMER
Sometimes key or major customers warrant departmentalization by customer. This is often the
case in banks.

6) GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
When organizations are spread throughout the world or have territories in many parts of a
country, departmentalization by geographical area may provide better service to customers and
be more cost effective. A typical example for this form of departmentalization. is shown in
diagram below.

7) MATRIX (PROJECT ORGANIZATION)

Departmentalization by matrix, or project, has received considerable use in recent years,
particularly in such industries as aerospace. In this method, personnel with different backgrounds
and experiences that bear on the project are assembled and given the specific project to be
accomplished within a certain time period. When the project is completed, these specialized
personnel return to their regular work assignments.

8) COMBINATION APPROACH
Many organizations, particularly large, physically dispersed and diversified organizations, utilize
several different forms of departmentalization. It is an organizational chart showing the use of
several forms of departmentalization.

3.4 The process of Delegation --The Art of Managing

The process of managing begins with the establishment of objectives. Once the objectives have
been established, the functions that must be accomplished are considered. Then the work to be
performed or the responsibilities to be assigned are determined. This means it is necessary to
know the personnel and physical resources needed to accomplish the objectives of the enterprise.
Thus, when the functions, personnel, and other resources are grouped together by some means of
departmentalization into a logical framework or organizational structure, the process of
delegation begins.
45
Delegation is the process that makes management possible. Why? Because management is the
process of getting results accomplished through others.

3.5 RISKS IN DELEGATION

The sheer volume of management responsibilities necessitates delegation. There is somewhat of
a paradox in this situation, however, because delegation involves taking risks. Among the risks
of delegation are loss of control, reverse delegation, and even loss of a job.

3.5.1) LOSS OF CONTROL: In giving over authority to another, the manager loses some
control over the proper completion of a project. The manager who has lived by the adage "If you
want it done right, do it yourself' may find it difficult to delegate tasks for which he or she will
ultimately be held accountable.

The key to successful delegation is assigning the right responsibilities to the right person. Of
course, one never knows who the right persons are until one meets and works with them, but it
must realistically be assumed that a given organization, department, or section employs at least
some competent, willing, and responsible individuals. This assumption does not address itself to
the fact that it is nearly impossible today for the manager to be technically superior to all
employees. A staff that is not utilized effectively because of a manager's failure to delegate is a
major loss to an organization, a waste of human resources.

3.5.2) REVERSE DELEGATION: An important consideration for the manager who tries to do
everybody's job is that he or she does so at the expense of the job for which he was
hired--
managing. An interesting analogy that underscores the value of delegation for management's
sake is the "monkey-on-the-back" analogy, which claims that managers spend far more time with
their employees than they even faintly realize. This habit occurs especially when a problem is
brought to the manager's attention. In encounters with employees, the manager's use of simple
phrases, such as "send me a memo on that," or "let me think about that and I'll let you know," or
"just let me know what I can do," causes the problem to jump onto the manager's back.

The manager assumes the responsibility for handling the task that was delegated to the employee
in the first place, and when the employee reaches an impasse, the manager takes the next step.
This is reverse delegation, and many employees are adept at it. Naturally, there will be situations
in which the next step is justified, but unless the manager wants endless lines at the office door,
he or she should avoid the casual and repeated use of those phrases that permit employee
problems to ride on the manager's back. In fact, this principle of delegation is that accountability
to a superior cannot be delegated.

46
A solution to this problem is to encourage initiative in employees. An employee should not have
to wait until he is told to do something; nor should they have to ask. They should practice the
completion of assigned tasks.
By keeping the responsibility where it belongs, the manager will increase discretionary time to
manage and can still handle system-imposed tasks. To develop initiative in employees early is
one of the ways to develop a new generation of capable managers.

3.5.3) LOSS OF JOB: The foregoing discussion brings to mind another risk in delegation from
management's viewpoint. Is it possible to delegate one's self right out of a job? Suppose a
subordinate develops so much initiative that he or she becomes superior to the boss. This is a
threatening problem for the manager. The employee would be very happy if his or her
development resulted in promotion, but what if the promotion costs the manager his job?
Consensus among theorists suggests that the employee should be given the opportunity to
perform to as high a level of responsibility as possible if this improves the group's performance.
The manager should then endeavor to reward that person accordingly, even if it means helping
that person to land a better job outside the organization. To neglect and waste the talents of any
individual is as criminal as the misuse of company funds or equipment.

In practice, we have all heard stories from individuals who feel more competent than their
managers. Thus it would seem that the best safeguard a manager has in preserving his or her
position is to be a good manager and to prepare for his or her own advancement.

4.0 Conclusion
This unit treats concepts and format of organizational structure. It discusses departmentalization
and the primary forms of departmentalization which includes by function, process, product,
market, customer, geographic area, and even matrix (also called project organization). The unit
also discusses the process of delegation and the risks involved in delegation of power.

5.0 Summary
We have gone through the concepts and formats of organizational structure and this has enabled
us to understand them. Also, we are now able to identify them in our various places of work. In
our next unit, we shall be discussing the definition of responsibilities and authority, and dos and
the don‘ts of delegation of power.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1). Identify the risks involved in the delegation of power.

2). Explain the process of departmentalization in an organization

47
7.0 References/Further Readings
Montana, P. & Charnov, B. (1993). Management: A Streamlined Course for Students and
Business People. Hauppauge, New York: Barron’s Business Review Series. pp. 155-169.

48
 UNIT 2 Techniques of Delegation in an organization

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Techniques of Delegation
3.1.1 Definition of Responsibilities and Authority
3.1.2 Performance Rating
3.1.3 Awareness of Limitations
3.2 Parity of Authority and Responsibility
3.3 Scalar Principle
3.4 The Do‘s and Don‘ts of Delegation
3.4.1 The Dos of delegation
3.4.2 The Don‘ts of delegation
3.5 Major types of Organizational Structure
3.5.1 Line Organization
3.5.2 Line and Staff Organization
3.5.3 Committee Organization
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit (2), we discussed departmentalization and the process of delegation. In this unit
we shall discuss techniques of delegation. As we shall see shortly, the different techniques of
delegation and the do‘s and don‘ts of delegation of power.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Understand techniques of delegation
Parity of authority and responsibility
Scalar Principle
The do‘s and don‘ts of delegation and
Major types of organizational structure

49
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Techniques of Delegation
The art of delegation often depends on a given situation. Plans change and people differ, but this
does not imply that the employee should have to be notified on a daily basis of what is needed.
Nor does it imply that there are not some generally accepted techniques that can facilitate the
process of delegation, as discussed below.
More suggestions are detailed in the list of do's and don'ts.

3.1.1 Definition of Responsibilities and Authority

A clear definition of responsibilities and the authority to accomplish them constitute the
foundation of the art of delegation. Whenever possible, these responsibilities should be stated in
writing. The employee should also have a good idea of how the job fits into the total picture and
why it is important. The manager should also encourage questions and be completely
approachable. This practice, in combination with exhibiting confidence and trust by allowing
subordinates to pursue goals without undue reporting, constant checking, and other exaggerated
forms of control, will create a supportive climate and help to build an effective working
relationship.

3.1.2 Performance Rating

Once the employee understands the job, that person should be made aware of how performance
will be measured. This step in the management process has already been mentioned.
By and large, and within reason, managers receive the type and level of job performance they
expect or informally accept over a period of time. In fact, low expectations tend to breed low
performance and the opposite is true of high expectations. The failure to confront lower than
desired levels of performance is tantamount to acknowledging them as acceptable; high
expectations mean setting challenging but achievable goals. The focus should be on results that
are motivating and attainable.
The manager should establish a system for setting objectives and set up a procedure for
periodically reporting progress toward these objectives. Consideration of less-experienced
employees demands more frequent consultation and, possibly, reporting. The manager who is
committed to delegating authority should avoid switching back and forth in delegation, thereby
causing only confusion and stagnation among employees.

3.1.3 Awareness of Limitations

It may seem self-evident, but delegation cannot be used when the individual does not welcome
additional responsibility. Knowing who wants greater responsibility or promotion is as important
as knowing who is qualified for a job. It is often difficult for successful executives, who owe
their success to a driving desire for greater responsibility and recognition, to understand others
who seem to lack that motivation.

50
In essence, the manager-employee relationship is one of interdependence. A major goal of
delegation is to reduce dependence on the manager, but the manager incurs a certain
responsibility to the employee in delegation.
The manager is responsible for helping the assistant discover how best to develop his or her
abilities in order to meet future responsibilities.
Managers can develop employees through the art of delegation and should practice this art
judiciously.
With effective delegation, a manager can multiply his or her effectiveness and, through others,
achieve the results expected.

3.2 Parity of Authority and Responsibility

An important principle of organization as well as management is that authority should equal
responsibility. This principle is known as the parity of authority and responsibility and ensures
that work will be performed with a minimum amount of frustration on the part of personnel. By
not delegating authority equal to responsibility, a manager will create employee dissatisfaction
and generally this will lead to waste especially in the areas of energies and resources.

3.3 Scalar Principle

This concept is generally referred to as the chain of command. It means that there should be a
clear definition of authority in the organization and that this authority flows, one link at a time,
through the chain of command from the top to the bottom of the organization. Communication in
the organization is through channels. Following this principle generally results in clarification of
relationships, less confusion, and improved decision-making.

3.4 The Do’s and Don’ts of Delegation

3.4.1 The Do's
Delegate as simply and directly as possible. Give precise instructions.
Illustrate how each delegation applies to organizational goals.
Mutually develop standards of performance.
Clarify expected results.
Anticipate the questions your employees may have, and answer them in order.
Discuss recurring problems.
Seek employee ideas about how to do the job.
Accentuate the positive rather than the negative. Be supportive. Exhibit trust.
Recognize superior performance.
Keep your promises.

3.4.2 The Don'ts

Do not threaten your staff. Effective delegation depends more on leadership skills than on
position power.

51
 Do not assume a condescending attitude.
Do not merely give answers. Show an employee how to do something and why it is done
that way.
Do not overreact to problems. Refrain from criticizing an employee in front of others.
Avoid excessive checks on progress.

3.5 Major Types of Organizational Structure

Although there are a number of variations of organizational structure, we shall discuss line and
staff organizations and committee organization here.

3.5.1 Line Organization

The line organization is the simplest organizational structure. It is the "doing" organization, in
that the work of all organizational units is directly involved in producing and marketing the
organization's goods and services. There are direct vertical links between the different levels of
the scalar chain. Since there is a clear authority structure, this form of organization promotes
greater decision-making and is simple in form to understand.
On the other hand, managers may be overburdened when they have too many duties.

3.5.2 LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATION

When staff specialists are added to a line organization to "advise; "serve;‖ or ―support" the line
in some manner, we have a line and staff organization. These specialists contribute to the
effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. Their authority is generally limited to making
recommendation to the line organization.
Sometimes this creates conflict. However, such conflict can be reduced by having staff
specialists obtain some line experience, which will tend to make them better understand the
problems facing the line managers they support. Such functions as human resources management
and research and development are typical staff functions.

3.5.3 Committee Organization

When a group of people is formally appointed to consider or decide certain matters, this type of
structure is a committee. Committees can be permanent (standing) or temporary and usually
supplement line and staff functions. Sometimes ad hoc or temporary committees are set up to
deal with a specific problem. Once this committee makes its recommendations, it is dissolved.
On the other hand, permanent committees usually act in an advisory capacity to certain
organizational units or managers. For example, committees are used to a large extent in
Universities especially in (NOUN). They may report to a Dean or Departmental Unit. Certain
committees, called plural committees, have the authority to give order, not only to recommend.
These committees are usually reserved for a very high level, such as the board of directors. An
example is an executive committee of the board for compensation or for succession planning.

52
Although committees have a number of advantages, they also have a number of disadvantages,
particularly being excessively time consuming. Hence they should be managed effectively.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we discussed the techniques of delegation such as definition of responsibilities and
authority, performance rating and awareness of limitations. We went ahead to parity of authority
and responsibility; we also made explanation on dos and don‘ts of delegation. All these helped us
to understand the delegation of authority.

5.0 Summary
We have just discussed techniques of delegation. We saw that the delegation process works as
follows. The manager has certain defined objectives to accomplish at the end of a budget period.
He or she assigns the responsibilities (i.e., duties to be performed) to key employees, along with
the commensurate authority to go with those responsibilities. The accomplishment of the
assigned responsibilities should equal the defined objectives.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

List and explain techniques of delegation

Answers to Self Assessment Exercise

1. Explain the phrase ―authority should equal responsibility‖
2. Explain the dos and don‘ts of delegation

7.0 References/Further Readings

Montana, P. & Charnov, B. (1993). Management: A Streamlined Course for Students and
Business People. Hauppauge, New York: Barron’s Business Review Series. pp. 155-169.

53
 UNIT 3 CORPORATE MISSION STATEMENTS

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of mission statements
3.1.1 Importance
3.2 Basic elements that should be incorporated Mission Statement
3.3 Correlation between performance and well-developed mission
3.4 Process to follow in developing Mission Statement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The Mission Statement is a crucial element in the strategic planning of every business
organization. Creating a mission is one of the first actions an organization should take if the
organization wants to be successful. This can be a building block for an overall strategy and
development of more specific functional strategies. By defining a mission an organization is
making a statement of organizational purpose. In this unit, you will learn what mission statement
is, its importance, the basic elements that should be incorporated mission statement; the seven-
step process for formulating a vision and how to implementing the vision

2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Know what mission statement is all about and its benefits to an organization
Understand and identify Basic elements that should be incorporated Mission Statement
Explain the correlation between performance and well-developed mission
Know the process to follow in developing Mission Statement, above all,
Implement the mission

3.0 Main Content

3.1. Definition of Mission Statement

Mission Statement Defined: A corporate mission statement defines what the corporation does,
who it serves, and how it serves (creates value for) its clients. It is designed to provide clarity of
focus and direction for those in the company and answers the questions of who we serve
and

54
how. It also creates clarity of value for those outside the company and answers the question of
whether this company can be of value to me and/or my company. Although, some people get a
vision statement confused with a mission statement. Drohan (1999) explained that "a vision
statement pushes the association toward some future goal or achievement, while a mission
statement guides current, critical, strategic decision making," In The Mission Statement Book by
Jeffrey Abrahams, TRINOVA Corporation defines a mission statement in the following way, "A
mission statement is an enduring statement of purpose for an organization that identifies the
scope of its operations in product and market terms, and reflects its values and priorities,"
(Abrahams, 1995). Christopher Bart a leading researcher in the art of mission statements says,
"A good mission statement captures an organization as unique and enduring
reason for being, and energizes stakeholders to pursue common goals. It also
enables a focused allocation of organizational resources because it compels a firm
to address some tough questions: What is our business? Why do we exist? What
are we trying to accomplish?" (Bart, 1998).
Stone gives another definition extracted from Say and Live it: The 50 Corporate Mission
Statements That Hit the Mark. "Corporate mission statements...are the operational, ethical, and
financial guiding lights of companies. They are not simply mottoes or slogans; they articulate the
goals, dreams, behavior, culture, and strategies of companies," (Stone, 1996). Basically, a
mission statement is designed to say exactly what the organization anticipates it will achieve.

3.1.1 Importance of Mission Statement

Abrahams (1995) posits that every company no matter how big or small, needs a mission
statement as a source of direction, a kind of compass, that lets its employees, its customer, and
even its stockholders know what it stands for and where its headed. Thinking Ahead (1998)
stated that a mission statement gives everyone the opportunity to know what the organization is
about and what it is not about. With this in mind an individual is able to decide if this mission is
something that they can commit to.
A well-developed mission statement offers other several potential benefits. These benefits
include direction, focus, policy, meaning, challenge, and passion.
1). Direction states what the organization does and what it wants to be successful in.
2). Focus concentrates on the company‘s strengths and competitive advantages and tells people
how to obtain them.
3). Policy is a guideline of what a company finds acceptable and unacceptable and states
organizational values.
4). Meaning shows what a company strives to achieve and why they wish to do so.
5). Challenge is the setting up of goals and measurements of achievement for employees.
6). Passion makes everyone involved with the organization to show feelings of enthusiasm,
pride, and commitment.
With all of these benefits it is amazing that some organizations do not establish a well-developed
mission statement. However, if a good mission statement is developed it will not be effective if

55
every member of the organization does not know how the mission will be accomplished (Bailey,
1996).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain the importance of mission statement to an organization

3.2 Basic Elements that should be Incorporated Mission Statement
There are some basic elements that should be incorporated into a mission statement.

 Firstly, the target audience is important. It needs to be established whom the mission
statement will be directed to. Some groups that may be considered are employees,
stockholders, customers, and the community. The mission statement can be targeted at a
combination of these groups or just one of them.
 Next, the length of the mission statement needs to be considered. Some companies‘
mission statements are only a single sentence and others are very long including visions,
philosophies, objectives, plans, and strategies. "All that is necessary is that the mission be
long enough to reach the target audience. In addition,
 The tone is also important. In this aspect it is important to use appropriate language that
is directed to the target audience and reflects the makeup of the organization. Establishing
the correct tone involves a process of intentional, individual word selection. According to
Drohan (1999), if the language is too flowery and cumbersome a great mission statement
may not be taken seriously. "A mission statement should be written to encourage
commitment and to energize all employees toward fulfilling the mission" (Stone, 1996).
Endurance should also be considered. "Mission statements should serve to guide and
inspire the organization for many years," (Stone, 1996). The mission statement should be
able to withstand time and ultimately have a meaning in the long-term standings of the
organization. In the same respect the mission statement should also remain current. A
mission statement created years ago may no longer be effective (Stone, 1996). When the
competitive environment changes the mission should be revised (Stone, 1996). Finally, it
should consist of an element of uniqueness (Stone, 1996). An organizations mission
statement should be unique to the organization. It should portray the individuality of the
company (Stone, 1996).

3.3 Correlation between Performance and well-developed Mission

In considering specific components of a mission statement, Bart (1998) tracked the correlation
between twenty-five items and company performance measured by financial measures. This
research indicated that not just any mission statement will do. Bart found six items that are
consistently linked to organizational performance. These are:

56
  A statement of purpose or general nonfinancial goals,
 A statement of values,
 A specification of behavioural standards,
 Identification of the organization‘s competitive strategy,
 A statement of vision, and
 An expression of intent to satisfy the needs and expectations of multiple stakeholder
groups (Bart, 1998).

Companies that had mission statements that included these items showed higher performance
than companies that did not use these components in their mission statements. This research
indicates there is a strong correlation between performance and well-developed mission
statements.

3.4 Process to follow in developing Mission Statement

Developing a mission statement can be a very difficult process. When creating a mission
statement it should be done as part of the strategic planning process for the organization. This
process should be started with and environmental analysis, followed by development and
prioritizing goals and objectives. After this process is finished, the mission of the company
becomes clearer and an effective mission statement can be created. Then, you need to decide
who is going to write the mission statement. A mission-writing committee should be set up to
perform this duty. It can be either a group of only management members or a more diversified
group of members from different areas in the corporation. It is more effective to use a committee
made up of management and non-management personnel.
It should be noted that the organization may lose valuable input by limiting the voices it is
willing to hear; also, people may be more willing to carry out a mission that they helped
develop,"
According to Bailey (1996), in developing mission statement, the committee should also include
people from outside the organization. These people may include customers, suppliers, and other
interested parties. Several different perspectives are important to be considered in developing a
mission statement. By using different perspectives in the development the final product will be
directed so each individual can comprehend the mission. After a situation analysis and all the
important factors are considered, the selected committee is ready to draft the mission statement.
Stone (1996) suggested that when the draft is complete it should be shared with all members of
the organization. If agreement is established it is time to communicate the mission statement. In
this process the form and structure the mission statement will take is decided. This form may
include an annual report presentation, a copy printed on fancy paper and hung on a wall in
a
frame, a brochure, an engraved granite piece, or any other form. It is also important in the
communication process to introduce the mission statement to all the employees and ask for
suggestions on implementation. The final step is to operationalize the mission statement. In order
to do this, the company needs to make its strategies, tactics, and operations remain consistent

57
with the mission statement. The mission statement should be translated into performance
objectives and used as a basis for strategic planning.
Effective mission statements can be a great asset to an organization. When everyone is working
together in a defined manner greater organizational purpose is achieved. A mission statement is a
stepping stone in the strategic planning process. It is important that when an organization
implements a mission statement they apply it to their functional strategies and consider input
from various groups.

4.0 Conclusion
The ambition to transform an organization into a world class begins with the conception of an
organizational vision. In this unit, we have looked at definition of vision statements and its
importance, we have also examined the basic elements that should be incorporated Mission
Statement and the process to follow in developing Mission Statement. It is therefore, expected
that you should use this method to change your organizational world.

5.0 Summary
What you have learnt in this unit concerns the definition of vision statements and its importance
in an organization. We examine the basic elements that should be incorporated Mission
Statement with the process to follow in developing Mission Statement.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Prepare the due process to follow in developing mission statement of your organization

7.0 References/Further Readings

Abrahams, J. (1995). The Mission Statement Book. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press.

Bailey, J. (1996). "Measuring Your Mission." Management Accounting (USA). 78, (6) 44-46.
[Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Bart, C. (1998). "Mission Matters." The CPA Journal. v68 n8 p56-57. [Online].
www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Drohan, W. (1999). "Writing a Mission Statement." Association Management. v51 p117.

[Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Payne, T. (1996). "Mission/Purpose." Managers Handbook. v1 p6. [Online].

www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Stone, Romuald. (Winter 1996). "Mission Statements Revisited." SAM Advanced Management

58
 Journal. 61 (1). 31-37. [Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com.

"Thinking Ahead." (1998). Restaurant Hospitality. v82 pp41-43. [Online].

www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

59
 UNIT 4 ORGANIZATIONAL VISION STATEMENT

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Vision statement defined
3.2 Properties of a good Vision
3.3 How do you develop a Vision?
3.4 Seven-step process for formulating a vision
3.5 Barriers to Vision
3.6 Implementing the vision
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 Introduction
The important tool used in managing sustaining an organization is vision. Vision is a mental
picture of preferred future with passion to work it out. Shanker, a boxer in his hay day will
always say ‗you can only hit it if you see it‖. Vision is a driving force for an
organizational
success; it gives the future success to an organization in order for the organization to plan
towards success.

2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Give definition of organizational vision statement.

develop an organizational vision
know properties of a good vision
explain seven-step process for formulating a vision and
implementing the vision

60
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Vision Statement Defined
A corporate vision statement sets a dynamic and compelling view of the corporation at some
point in the future. It is an emotional driver to some ―big idea‖ or challenge that drives those in
the corporation toward it. It is not intended for those outside the company. It is not a goal, as they
should be SMART, but rather it can be a wild, crazy, and even unattainable idea, as long as it
provides a deeply emotional drive to accomplish something great that those in the organization
can get behind and drive toward.

3.2 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD VISION

 A good vision is a mental model of a future state. It involves thinking about the future,
and modeling possible future states. A vision doesn't exist in the present, and it may or
may not be reached in the future. Nanus describes it like this: "A vision portrays a
fictitious world that cannot be observed or verified in advance and that, in fact, may
never become reality". However, if it is a good mental model, it shows the way to
identify goals and how to plan to achieve them.
 A good vision is idealistic. How can a vision be realistic and idealistic at the same time?
One way of reconciling these apparently contradictory properties of a vision is that the
vision is realistic enough so that people believe it is achievable, but idealistic enough so
that it cannot be achieved without stretching. If it is too easily achievable, it will not set a
standard of excellence, nor will it motivate people to want to work towards it. On the
other hand, if it is too idealistic, it may be perceived as beyond the reach of those in the
organization, and discourage motivation.
 A good vision is appropriate for the organization and for the times. A vision must be
consistent with the organization's values and culture, and its place in its environment. It
must also be realistic. For example, in a time of downsizing and consolidation in an
industry, a very ambitious, expansionistic vision would not be appropriate. An
organization with a history of being conservative, and a culture encouraging conformity
rather than risk taking, would not find an innovative vision appropriate. The computer
software company mentioned above, with a history of producing high quality
instructional software, would not find a vision to become the industry leader in video
games or virtual reality software an appropriate one.
 A good vision sets standards of excellence and reflects high ideals. Generally, the
vision proposed above for the software company does reflect measurable standards of
excellence and a high level of aspiration. The actual measure could be the external
reputation of the company, as assessed by having users evaluate the company and its
products.
 A good vision clarifies purpose and direction. In defining that "realistic, credible,
attractive future for an organization," a vision provides the rationale for both the mission
and the goals the organization should pursue. This creates meaning in workers' lives by
clarifying purpose, and making clear what the organization wants to achieve. For people
in the organization, a good vision should answer the question, "Why do I go to work?"
With a good vision, the answer to that question should not only be, "To earn a paycheck,"

61
 but also, "To help build that attractive future for the organization and achieve a higher
standard of excellence."
 A good vision inspires enthusiasm and encourages commitment. An inspiring vision
can help people in an organization get excited about what they're doing, and increase
their commitment to the organization. The computer industry is an excellent example of
one characterized by organizations with good visions. A recent article reported that it is
not unusual for people to work 80 hour weeks, and for people to be at work at any hour of
the day or night. Some firms had to find ways to make employees go home, not ways to
make them come to work! What accounts for this incredible work ethic? It is having a
sense of working organizations that are building the future in a rapidly evolving and
unconstrained field, where an individual's work makes a difference, and where everyone
shares a vision for the future.
 A good vision is well articulated and easily understood. In order to motivate
individuals, and clearly point toward the future, a vision must be articulated so people
understand it. Most often, this will be in the form of a vision statement. There are dangers
in being too terse, or too long-winded. A vision must be more than a slogan or a "bumper
sticker." Slogans such as Ford Motor Company's "Quality Is Job One" are good
marketing tools, but the slogan doesn't capture all the essential elements of a vision. On
the other hand, a long document that expounds an organization's philosophy and lays out
its strategic plan is too complex to be a vision statement. The key is to strike a balance.
 A good vision reflects the uniqueness of the organization, its distinctive competence,
what it stands for, and what it is able to achieve. This is where the leaders of
an
organization need to ask themselves, "What is the one thing we do better than anyone
else? What is it that sets us apart from others in our area of business?" A good example of
a visioning process refocusing a company on its core competencies is Sears. A few years
ago, Sears had expanded into areas far afield from its original business as a retailer.
Among other things, Sears began offering financial services at their stores. Poor
performance led Sears to realize that they could not compete with financial services
companies whose core business was in that area, so they dropped that service and
eliminated other aspects of their business not related to retailing. Interestingly, Sears'
primary competitor is Wal-Mart, an organization with a very clear and compelling vision.
Sam Walton found a niche in providing one stop shopping for people in rural areas, and
overwhelmed "Mom and Pop" stores with volume buying and discounting. Wal-Mart is
very clear about their vision, and has focused on specific areas where they can be the
industry leader. The key is finding what it is that your organization does best. Focus your
vision there.
 A good vision is ambitious. It must not be commonplace. It must be truly extraordinary.
This property gets back to the idea of a vision that causes people and the organization to
stretch. A good vision pushes the organization to a higher standard of excellence,
challenging its members to try and achieve a level of performance they haven't achieved
before. Inspiring, motivating, compelling visions are not about maintaining the status
quo.

62
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain six properties of a good vision.

3.3 HOW DO YOU DEVELOP A VISION

At this point you should know what a good vision consists of, and recognize a vision statement
when you see one. But how does a strategic leader go about developing a vision for an
organization? Nanus also offers a few words of advice to someone formulating a vision for an
organization:

 Learn everything you can about the organization. There is no substitute for a thorough
understanding of the organization as a foundation for your vision.
 Bring the organization's major constituencies into the visioning process. This is one
of Nanus's imperatives: don't try to do it alone. If you're going to get others to buy into
your vision, if it's going to be a wholly shared vision, involvement of at least the
key
people in the organization is essential. "Constituencies," refer to people both inside and
outside the organization who can have a major impact on the organization, or who can be
impacted by it. Another term to refer to constituencies is "stakeholders"- those who have
a stake in the organization.
 Keep an open mind as you explore the options for a new vision. Don't be constrained
in your thinking by the organization's current direction - it may be right, but it may not.
 Encourage input from your colleagues and subordinates. Another injunction about
not trying to do it alone: those down in the organization often know it best and have a
wealth of untapped ideas. Talk with them!
 Understand and appreciate the existing vision. Provide continuity if possible, and don't
throw out good ideas because you didn't originate them.

3.4 SEVEN-STEP PROCESS FOR FORMULATING A VISION

1. Understand the organization. To formulate a vision for an organization, you first must
understand it. Essential questions to be answered include what its mission and purpose are, what
value it provides to society, what the character of the industry is, what institutional framework
the organization operates in, what the organization's position is within that framework, what it
takes for the organization to succeed, who the critical stakeholders are, both inside and outside
the organization, and what their interests and expectations are.

2. Conduct a vision audit. This step involves assessing the current direction and momentum of
the organization. Key questions to be answered include: Does the organization have a clearly
stated vision? What is the organization's current direction? Do the key leaders of the organization
know where the organization is headed and agree on the direction? Do the organization's
structures, processes, personnel, incentives, and information systems support the current
direction?

63
3. Target the vision. This step involves starting to narrow in on a vision. Key questions: What
are the boundaries or constraints to the vision? What must the vision accomplish? What critical
issues must be addressed in the vision?

4. Set the vision context. This is where you look to the future, and where the process of
formulating a vision gets difficult. Your vision is a desirable future for the organization. To craft
that vision you first must think about what the organization's future environment might look like.
This doesn't mean you need to predict the future, only to make some informed estimates about
what future environments might look like. First, categorize future developments in the
environment which might affect your vision. Second, list your expectations for the future in each
category. Third, determine which of these expectations is most likely to occur. And fourth,
assign a probability of occurrence to each expectation.

5. Develop future scenarios. This step follows directly from the fourth step. Having determined,
as best you can, those expectations most likely to occur, and those with the most impact on your
vision, combine those expectations into a few brief scenarios to include the range of possible
futures you anticipate. The scenarios should represent, in the aggregate, the alternative "futures"
the organization is likely to operate within.

6. Generate alternative visions. Just as there are several alternative futures for the environment,
there are several directions the organization might take in the future. The purpose of this step is
to generate visions reflecting those different directions. Do not evaluate your possible visions at
this point, but use a relatively unconstrained approach.

7. Choose the final vision. Here's the decision point where you select the best possible vision for
your organization. To do this, first look at the properties of a good vision, and what it takes for a
vision to succeed, including consistency with the organization's culture and values. Next,
compare the visions you've generated with the alternative scenarios, and determine which of the
possible visions will apply to the broadest range of scenarios. The final vision should be the one
which best meets the criteria of a good vision, is compatible with the organization's culture and
values, and applies to a broad range of alternative scenarios (possible futures).

3.5 Barriers to Vision

Vision can be killed, it can be shredded and an organization can commit vision suicide.
Therefore, as you engage in the visioning process, one should be alert to the following vision
killers:

 Tradition
 Fear of ridicule
 Stereotypes of people, conditions, roles and governing councils
 Complacency of some stakeholders
 Fatigued leaders
 Short-term thinking
 "Naysayers"

64
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain six barriers to vision formulation

3.6 IMPLEMENTING THE VISION

Now that you have a vision statement for your organization, it is not the end of the process.
Formulating the vision is only the first step; implementing the vision is much harder, but must
follow if the vision is going to have any effect on the organization. The three critical tasks of the
strategic leader are formulating the vision, communicating it, and implementing it. Before
implementing the vision, the leader needs to communicate the vision to all the organization's
stakeholders, particularly those within the organization. The vision needs to be well articulated
so that it can be easily understood. And, if the vision is to inspire enthusiasm and
encourage
commitment, it must be communicated to all the members of the organization.

How do you communicate a vision to a large and diverse organization? The key is to
communicate the vision through multiple means. Some techniques used by organizations to
communicate the vision include disseminating the vision in written form; preparing audiovisual
shows outlining and explaining the vision; and presenting an explanation of the vision in
speeches, interviews or press releases by the organization's leaders. An organization's leaders
also may publicly "sign up" for the vision. You've got to "walk your talk." For the vision to have
credibility, leaders must not only say they believe in the vision; they must demonstrate that they
do through their decisions and their actions.

Once you've communicated your vision, how do you go about implementing it? This is where
strategic planning comes in. To describe the relationship between strategic visioning and
strategic planning in very simple terms, visioning can be considered as establishing where you
want the organization to be in the future; strategic planning determines how to get there from
where you are now. Strategic planning links the present to the future, and shows how you intend
to move toward your vision. One process of strategic planning is to first develop goals to help
you achieve your vision, then, develop actions that will enable the organization to reach these
goals.

4.0 CONCLUSION

An organization must and can develop a strategic plan that includes specific and measurable
goals to implement a vision. A comprehensive plan will recognize where the organization is
today, and cover all the areas where action is needed to move toward the vision. In addition to
being specific and measurable, actions should clearly state who is responsible for their
completion. Actions should have milestones tied to them so progress toward the goals can be
measured.

Implementing the vision does not stop with the formulation of a strategic plan - the organization
that stops at this point is not much better off than one that stops when the vision is formulated.
Real implementation of a vision is in the execution of the strategic plan throughout the

65
organization, in the continual monitoring of progress toward the vision, and in the continual
revision of the strategic plan as changes in the organization or its environment necessitate.

5.0 Summary
In this unit we have dealt with definition of vision statement, examined the properties of a good
vision and discussed how to develop a Vision with the seven-step process for formulating a
vision and how to implement the vision.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Give detail step-by-step approach to formulate an organizational vision.
2. Explain the properties of a good vision

7.0 References/Further Readings

Abrahams, J. (1995). The Mission Statement Book. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press.

Bailey, J. (1996). "Measuring Your Mission." Management Accounting (USA). 78 (6) 44-46.
[Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Bart, C. (1998). "Mission Matters." The CPA Journal. v68 n8 p56-57. [Online].
www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Drohan, W. (1999). "Writing a Mission Statement." Association Management. v51 p117.

[Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Payne, T. (1996). "Mission/Purpose." Managers Handbook. v1 p6. [Online].

www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com

Stone, R. (1996). "Mission Statements Revisited." SAM Advanced Management Journal. 61 (1).
31-37. [Online]. www.web1.infotrac.galegroup.com.

66
Module 3

UNIT 1 ORGANIZATIONAL CORE VALUES

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Organizational core values
3.2 Value at work
3.3 Importance of value at work
3.4 What values can look like
3.4.1 Team work
3.4.2 Honesty
3.4.3 Excellence
3.4.4 Commitment
3.4.5 Ownership
3.4.6 Recognition
3.4.7. Customer service
3.4.8 Profession
3.4.9 Personal development

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 Introduction
Every corporate organization has a unique manner of operations ranging from product packaging
to customers‘ service relationship. All these help to define the organization and determine their
success. In this unit, we shall discuss organization core values which is one of the crucial
strategy for achieving organization goal.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Organizational core values

67
 Discuss the components of organizational core values.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 ORGANISATIONAL CORE VALUES

An organisational value according to Rokeach (1973) is a belief that a specific mode of conduct
is preferable to an opposite or contrary mode of conduct. Some organisations think of their
values as their ―guiding beacon‖ directing the process of organisational development and growth.
Others describe them as the components of their philosophy. They do relate to how organisations
deal with their beliefs about people and work. They define non-negotiable behaviours. More and
more studies show that successful companies place a great deal of emphasis on their values. Any
organisation which espouses particular values will tell you that those values underpin their
vision.

There are different types of values but for the purpose of our study, we shall limit ourselves to
value at work.

3.2 Value at work

Values at work assist the organization by the following:
1) Providing a framework for how employees treat one another at work.
2) Providing a framework for how employees treat their customers.
3) Helping employees make good sense of working life and how to fit in the big picture of the
organization.
4) Providing a framework for achieving the vision and increasing the effectiveness of the
organisation.
5) Creating an environment conducive to job satisfaction as well as finding work which is
exciting and challenging.
6) Differentiating one organisation from another.

3.3 Importance of value at work

Values at work are important because:
1) It gives us guidelines for employees‘ behaviour.
2) Because we in a highly competitive world and it helps show the organization‘s customers how
they are different from other providers, and potential staff how the organization differs from
other prospective employers because the organization say ―This is what we value here‖.

People are increasingly aware of organizational values and look for them, frequently choosing
one organisation over another because of their values.
 They provide the basis for achieving culture change.
 They help enable people and organisations to succeed.
 They impact on professional practice.
 They can provide a measurement of success for individuals. (Some organisations include
them in people‘s performance reviews)
 They can provide some stability through change; i.e. which values are remaining, how do
we implement the change in line with our values?
68
Values are the essence of corporate culture because they set out the ―do‘s‖ and ―don‘ts‖ of the
organization. They are not written only to be hanged on the wall but also to be practice.

Core values and beliefs can relate to different constituents such as customers, employees, and
shareholders, to the organization's goals, to ethical conduct, or to the organization's management
and leadership philosophy. For instance, Baxter Healthcare Corporation has articulated three
Shared Values: Respect for their Employees, Responsiveness to their Customers, and Results for
their Shareholders, skillfully linking their core values to their key constituencies and also saying
something about what is important to the organization.

3.4 What values look like

What value looks like varies from one organisation to another. Core value of an organization can
be symbolized by one word, then have a brief definition and follow be a defined behaviour.
Values supports organizational vision, shapes their culture, and reflect what they value.
According to Collins and Porras (1991), expressed the importance of core values and beliefs this
way:

I firmly believe that any organization, in order to survive and achieve success, must have a sound
set of beliefs on which it premises all its policies and actions. Next, I believe that the
most
important single factor in corporate success is faithful adherence to those beliefs. And, finally, I
believe [the organization] must be willing to change everything about itself except those beliefs
as it moves through corporate life.

3.4.1 Teamwork
Teamwork is an effective construct that every organization must desired to achieve. One of the
motto of the European football (Liverpool F.C) says ―never walk alone‖. Listening to and
respecting each other whilst working together to achieve mutually beneficial results for the
organization. Providing support to one another, working co-operatively, respecting one another‘s
views, and making our work environment fun and enjoyable. All these are the characteristics of
teamwork.

The under bullet points indicate defined behaviours of teamwork.

Everyone has strengths which we value and will use whenever possible.
All team meetings will include a progress report from everyone and requests for help
when needed.
We help others to achieve their deadlines without having to be asked.
All projects have identified points which are celebrated by the whole team.
We work with one another with enthusiasm and appreciation.
We work with one another without manipulation.
Conflict is resolved according to agreed guidelines for this team.
Conflict is brought out into the open and dealt with constructively until all parties are
satisfied with the result.
69
3.4.2 Honesty
Being open and honest in all our dealings and maintaining the highest integrity at all times
All concerns are allowed to bare their mind constructively with solutions offered.
Each person is as skilled in some way as another and is entitled to express their views
without interruption.

3.4.3 Excellence
Always doing what we say we will and striving for excellence and quality in everything we do.
Quality will always delight the client whilst staying within budget limitations.
If we give our word we keep it unless agreed otherwise by all parties.

3.4.4 Commitment
Working with urgency and commitment to be successful from individual and company
perspectives.
Timeframes are always met unless urgent circumstances mean we have to renegotiate
new timeframes with all parties.
Clients‘ needs agreed within budgets are met regardless of personal wants.

3.4.5 Ownership
Taking ownership of our customers‘ needs and being accountable for delivering friendly and
professional service.
We are each fully accountable for our work in gaining any possible repeat business with
customers.
We understand our customers‘ business, prepare for all meetings with them

3.4.6 Recognition
Recognising and rewarding each other‘s contributions and efforts.
All individual successes are celebrated within the team.
Assistance is appreciated every time.

3.4.7 Customer’ Service

We enjoy their custom and so they deserve our service-timely, responsive, proactive, meeting
their needs and aiming to delight.
At every meeting with our customers we ask them what we could have done better, then,
implement their suggestions before we meet them again.
Before any accounts are rendered, we check with our customers that they are sufficiently
satisfied to pay the agreed account.
All agreements are met.

3.4.8 Professionalism
At all times we act with integrity, providing quality service, being reliable and responsible.
We do not upset one another intentionally, always endeavouring to present negative
feedback constructively.
We take pride and ownership in all that we do and say.

70
 We never talk about people behind their backs.

3.4.9 Personal development

We value learning, feedback, coaching and mentoring.
Coaching and mentoring are commonplace here; we all coach and mentor one another.
All opportunities for our own learning are pursued.
Whenever we undertake a project it is our responsibility to express our training needs and
gather the required skills.
We each take responsibility to gain the required development to meet our customers‘
needs.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we have discussed organizational core values and what value looks like in an
organization. Core value of an organization can be symbolized by one word, then have a brief
definition and follow be a defined behaviour. They we explained different defined behaviours
such as honesty, teamwork, customers‘ service, personal development and so on.

5.0 Summary
We have fully seen that core values determine organizational success; most organizations
describe them as the components of their philosophy. Although, organizational core values are
stated and conspicuously hanged on the walls of different organizations but the essence is that
they should be practiced.

6.0 Tutored-Marked Assignment

Discussed the importance of organizational core values

6.0 Further Reading

http://www.changed.co.nz/articles/COREVALUES.pdf

71
 UNIT 2 VISION AND THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Vision and the management change
3.1.1 What is change?
3.1.2 Condition and process
3.1.3 Planned or unplanned?
3.1.4 Tactical or strategic
3.1.5 Evolutionary or Revolution?
3.2 Generalized effects of change
3.2.1 Self-confidence
3.2.1 Confusion
3.2.3 Loss and conflict
3.3 Implementing Change
3.3.2 Select the type of change
3.3.1 Develop sensing networks
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

In this chapter, we will examine how to implement and manage organizational change, and learn
how to integrate the notions of the strategic environment, the estimate of the situation, and the
management of change. We will also discuss why change is necessary, the nature of change, the
effects of change on employees in the organization, leadership implications of change, and why
efforts to change an organization often come up short of the intended target.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand vision and the management change

 Generalized effects of change on an organization and
 How to implement organizational change.

72
3.0 Main Content

3.1.1 What is organizational change?

Organizational change is about making alterations to the organization's purpose, culture,

structure, and processes in response to seen or anticipated changes in the environment. Strategic
management of change is all about identifying and embedding in the organization those changes
that will ensure the long-term survival of the organization. How do we think about change?

3.1.2 Condition and Process

Change can be thought of as a condition and a process. Change as a condition describes what is
happening in the environment; it is part of the reality we must accept. Change as a condition may
profoundly influence our organization, but it takes place externally and we have little control
over it.

Change as a process is what we foster internally in response to changes in the environment. It is

the leadership and management actions we take to change the organization. Therefore, unlike
changes in the environment, change as a process is ours to influence (Sullivan & Harper, 1996).

3.1.3 Planned or unplanned?

Change can be planned or unplanned. Both can be good, both can be bad. Unplanned change just
happens in reaction to unseen or unanticipated influences. Often, it is difficult to tell where the
change came from and how it was initiated. Paradoxically, planned change is all about
maintaining the organization's relevancy in the face of environmental pressures.

3.1.4 Practical or Strategic?

Tactical change occurs in the short-term and, more often than not, is short-lived. "Fad-surfing" is
a sure symptom of tactical change. In the face of changes in the environment, many leaders often
reach out and grasp the "fad du jour" [e.g., one-minute manager, management by objective
(MBO), TQM, TQL]. Then the next day, they grasp at the next "fad du jour," whip-sawing the
organization with inconsistent messages and inconsequential behaviour. This attempt to manage
change is a sure sign that the leaders do not understand the environment, the organization, or
both.

73
 UNPLANNED PLANNED
CHANGE CHANGE
TACTICAL KNEE-JERK ROUTINE

REACTION ADJUSTMENTS

STRATEGIC SPONTANEOUS BUILDING

OPPORTUNITY ROBUSTNESS

Strategic change is about leveraging vision to get at fundamental aspects of the organization,
including the organization's direction and its culture. Strategic change is about forging
organizational robustness in the face of environmental pressures. Hence, an accurate and
insightful view of the current reality is as important as a clear vision (Senge 1990). Robustness is
the timely capacity to anticipate and adapt to environmental change in order to maintain
competitive advantage. Improving and maintaining robustness takes three interdependent forms,
viz:

 First, it is a function of comprehensive environmental scanning, accurate articulation of

values, beliefs, and assumptions, the freedom to question values, beliefs and assumptions,
creativity to formulate new options, and tolerance of risk in the pursuit of a new course.
 Second, robustness is about resource self-sufficiency. Often, the capital
investment/reinvestment required to implement change is huge.
 Third, robustness is about maintaining contact and managing credibility with strategic
constituencies.

3.1.5 Evolutionary or Revolutionary?

Change can be evolutionary or revolutionary. It can take place gradually within an existing
paradigm, or it can be a dramatic shift to an entirely new paradigm. In addition to being gradual,
evolutionary change usually is linear, and sequential. The downside of evolutionary change is
that it is predictable. Competitors can figure out what your organization is doing and where it is
going.

Revolutionary change is about transforming the organization. The revolution can be small or it
can be total. The path of transformational change, while not linear and sequential, can be made
predictable to people inside the organization through proper planning and communication.

Both evolutionary and revolutionary change can be legitimate strategic choices under the right
environmental conditions. Environmental conditions can be defined by velocity, mass, and
complexity. The velocity of change is the rate change takes place. The mass of the change is how
widespread it is. And, the complexity of change means that change never occurs in isolation.
Each change affects other changes in often unseen, unanticipated, or misunderstood ways that
lead to unintended second- and third-order effects (Sullivan & Harper 1996).

74
3.2 Generalized effects of change

Can we anticipate the generalized effects of change on employees? Within the domain of human
behaviour, the answer is yes. Four main effects are salient: self-confidence, confusion, loss, and
conflict.

3.2.1 Self-confidence

Change can cause employees to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, in short, to lose self-
confidence. It is essential for the employees in the organization to be involved in planning and
executing change, to have opportunities to develop new skills required by the change, and to
depend on psychological support mechanisms put in place before, during, and after the change is
implemented.

3.2.2 Confusion

Change can create confusion throughout the organization. Change alters the clarity and stability
of roles and relationships, often creating chaos. This requires realigning and renegotiating formal
patterns of relationships and policies.

3.2.3 Loss and Conflict

By definition, change creates loss and therefore generates interpersonal conflict. Change can
create loss of meaning and purpose. People form attachments to symbols and in symbolic
activity. When the attachments are severed, people experience difficulty in letting go of old
attachments. Avoiding or smoothing over these issues produce conflict underground, where it
can fester and boil over. The psychological wounds that come with change require the creation of
arenas where issues can be dealt with that may require symbolic healing (Bolman & Deal 1991).

3.3 Implementing Change

How does a major change take place and become infused throughout the organization? The
answer comes from being broad-minded rather than narrowly focused. A strategic leader must
develop sensing networks, expand the target audience, gather and broaden the power base, alert
the organization that change is coming, actively manage the planning and execution processes by
linking every day-to-day action to the vision for change, continually communicate the vision for
change to key internal and external constituencies, know about and plan for overcoming
resistance, and be prepared for unexpected but necessary mid-course corrections (Goodfellow
1985).

3.3.1 Develop Sensing Networks

Most strategic leaders consciously develop and maintain a variety of information and power
networks. These networks may be the sources of information that change is necessary. In
addition to serving as sources of information, these networks also serve as sounding boards for

75
new ideas. The people in these networks must be trusted by the leader, and familiar with the
leader's thought processes.

3.3.2 Select The Type Of Change

What type of change is needed? The answer depends on the nature of changes in the
environment, how well strategic leaders have studied the environment and anticipated the need
for change, and the nature of the organization itself. Two forms of interest here are revolutionary
change and evolutionary change.

4.0 Conclusion

Research shows that organizations can get so immersed in inertia that they require revolutionary
changes to adapt successfully to the changing environment. In other words, some organizations
may not be able to change in spite of warnings from the environment. General Motors and IBM
are two examples of organizations that almost became irrelevant because they persisted with
their unimaginative products despite the risks imposed by Japanese car manufacturers and the
rise of the personal computer. They could not visualize another way of doing things. In Nigeria
of today, all attention is oil sector and this is dangerous. Can you think of examples within your
organization where change mistakenly was avoided, or the wrong kind of change was selected?

5.0 Summary

In "stuck" organizations, quantum changes seem to occur only after a significant decline in
organizational performance; often a leader is recruited from outside the organization. This is
because leaders from outside the organization bring a new way of seeing the world; they are not
trapped by the cultural norms and conventions that created the inertia. Revolutionary change is
the way to save an organization that has lost its competitive advantage and slipped perilously
close to the abyss of irrelevancy. The downside to revolutionary change is that it tends to
accentuate the negative generalized effects discussed earlier.

Self Assessment Exercise

Write short notes on the following:

(1) Planned and unplanned change
(2) Tactical and strategic change
(3) General effects of change

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Differentiate between revolutionary and evolutionary change in an organization

76
7.0 Reference/Further Readings

Argyris, C. (2011). Organizational traps: Leadership, culture, organizational design. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Canary, H. (2011). Communication and organizational knowledge: Contemporary issues for theory
and practice. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis.
Cheney, G. (2011). Organizational communication in an age of globalization: Issues, reflections,
practice. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2010). Behavior in organizations (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Prentice Hall. FRED C. LUNENBURG

77
 UNIT 3 COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING IN ORGANIZATION

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Communication Planning – Definition
3.1.2 Reasons for communication in an organization
3.2 Process of communication
3.2.1 Upward communication
3.2.2 Downward communication
3.3 Forms of communication
3.4 Models of communication
3.5 Communication planning – The six steps training
3.6 Communications vehicles in an organization
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 Introduction
In this unit we shall discuss communication planning in organizations. Effective
communication is a key to organizational success; it is a process that assists organizations to
reach their goals. We shall definition communication planning, give reasons for communication
in an organization, delve into process of communication, forms of communication and lastly,
communication planning – The six steps training.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Understand clearly the meaning of communication planning in an organization
Discuss the process of communication.

3.0 Main Content

3.1.1 COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING — DEFINITION?

Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another. It is
a way of reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings, and values. People and

78
organizations communicate with others for a variety of reasons — to inform, persuade, prevent
misunderstandings, present a point of view or reduce barriers.
Communications happens when the message you send is received, understood and acted upon by
your intended audience. Communications planning is simply a process to help you reach that
goal.
The communications plan has been described in a number of ways, including:
• a foundation on which to base decisions and create ideas
• a means of focusing on where you want to be and what needs to be done to get there
• a tool for discovering opportunities, optimizing challenges and initiating change
• a means of monitoring your communications efforts.

Communications planning is a straightforward, step-by-step process that will help you clearly
and logically summarize what you want to say to your intended audience and map out how you
will deliver that message.
Keep in mind, the same logical process used to launch a new consumer product on a national
basis can also be used to inform parents about a bake sale to raise funds for their child's school
trip.

3.1.2 REASONS FOR COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

Organizations need to communicate for the following reasons:
• To inform. You may need to let interested parties know who you are, what you can do for
them, what they can do to help you, or even just how to get in touch.
• To build understanding or change behaviour.
You may want to encourage others to think, act or feel a certain way; to stop smoking, for
example. This can involve appealing to feelings, self-interest, or a person's imagination.

• To prevent misunderstandings. Even a small misunderstanding can create large problems for
an organization. As a manager, you can ensure good communications by putting yourself in your
audience's position, paying attention to their needs and getting to know them.

• To present a point of view. Often this is all you need to do to accomplish your goal.

• To lower barriers between groups and individuals. These barriers may range from
information overload to suspicion and prejudice.

Communication in the organisation represents a complex system of the flow of information,

orders, wishes and references made out of two partially complementary systems: formal
communication network and informal communication network (Fox, 2001).

Formal communication is a systematic and formal process of information transmission in spoken

and written form planned in advance, and adjusted with the needs of the organisation. Fox (2001)
maintain that while informal communication does not follow the line determined in advance, but
there is an undisturbed communication between particular groups within the organisation.

79
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Mention 4 reasons for communication within an organization

3.2 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The process of communication involves several elements: the sender, the message, the medium,
and the recipient. Communication flows from the sender which is the source of the
communication (be it an individual or a group). He sends off the message to the recipient using a
particular medium. When talking about the communication within the organisation, characteristic
for the medium are different immediate conversations, memos, printouts and schemes depending
on the content and the aim of the message which the sender wants to convey to the recipient. The
recipient then attempts to understand which message the sender wants to convey, although the
communication process may sometimes be interrupted by a noise in the communication channel,
which can impede the communication. The problem which often appears within the organisation
is getting information overload which leads to a burden, so therefore it is important to take
account of selecting only the relevant information.

3.2.1 Upward communication

The one which goes up the official hierarchy, from the lower to the higher level in the
organisation. Information goes from the subordinates to the superiors. It is mostly used for
sending information associated with the proposals system, employees‘ opinion, work insight,
attitudes and problems of the employees. It is important to secure the freedom of communicating
(undisturbed information flow) since the main drawback of the upward communication is
message filtering.

3.2.2 Downward communication

Flows from the higher to the lower levels in the organisation. It is characteristic for giving
orders, broadening of ideas and communicational knowledge. It takes up a lot of time, but its
most common problem is the loss or denying of information on the path through the chain of
command; very often there is misunderstanding of the directions, therefore a backward
connection has to be established in order to confirm the transmission of correct and full
information.
Weihrich and Koontz term the horizontal and diagonal flow of information a sideward
communication, because of their generic joint features. S. P. Robbins terms them a lateral
communication. Horizontal communication appears among people of the same status within a
department or among different working units, whereas the diagonal communication appears
among people of the different status who are not formally connected in the organisational
communication system. (Fox, 2001).

3.3 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can develop into several different forms: oral, written and non-verbal form.
Oral communication – the spoken word is the main code of the communication. Formal
discussions and informal rumours are some of the forms of oral communication. Usual channels
of oral communication are phone, video, and face-to-face conversations. There are some
advantages of oral communication over other forms of communication, namely the speed of

80
conveying the information and feedback. The disadvantage, however, is the possibility of
distorting the original message. In the business world oral communication plays a great role.

Written communication – compared to the oral communication it is tangible whereby it is

much easier to verify the data. One of its disadvantages is that it takes up more time compared to
the oral communication and there is not a direct feedback. The written form of the
communication is attached to some sort of technology which enables us to convey the
information (PC, paper, pen, printer, fax machine, telephone, and so on).

Non-verbal communication–facial expression, gesturing, handshake, tone of the voice, look

and appearance are some of the elements of non-verbal communication. According to Rouse &
Rouse (2005), non-verbal communication implies all intentional and accidental meanings which
have no form of a written or spoken word. Non-verbal form of the communication is often
neglected compared to the other forms of communication. Important advantages of non-verbal
communication are that it supports other forms of communication; whereas the disadvantage is
that the recipient may misconceive the message and consequently misinterpret it.

3.4 MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The first Model of Communication is the STMCRO communication model.

1st MODEL
S T M C R D

Source Transmitter Message Channel Receiver Destination.

i. Source – sender of a message.

ii. Transmitter – Means of sending the Message e.g, memo, phone call or personal
visit.
iii. Message – Series of lodes, symbols, signs, signals etc.
iv. Channel – Carrier of the message.
v. Receiver – Exactly what receive the message?
vi. Destiny – Receiver or end product of the message.

I. SOURCE: Source is the originator of the message. It is the beginner of the communication
process. The source is the one that arranges the codes, the signal and the signs in a way that is
good to others then he sends it out.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain the role of channel in communication

81
 THE SKILLS OF THE SOURCE
1. Sensory skills; these are:
a. Ears; the sense of hearing – auditory
b. Nose; the sense of smelling – olfactory
c. Eyes; the sense of seeing – optical.
d. Tongue: the sense of tasting –
e. Skin: the sense of touching – Tactile
These five sensory skills are used in communication.

II. TRANSMITTER: Physical or material means of sending message e.g. memo, phone call,
personal visit, vocal apparatus i.e. microphone, telephone services, vocal cord. Transmitter is the
means by which the source encodes, sends his/ her message.

III. MESSAGE: Meaningful information. A process of creating meaning. A message starts from
the thought, a good transmitter and finally passes through the receiver to the destination.
Message is a piece of information which is very important than any other information and that
which can change the course of life.

IV. CHANNEL: This is the medium of carrying the message. It is the sum of all the means of
carrying the message. These include all the senses verbal and non- verbal. Channel is the carrier
of the message. Transmitter is a means but channel is a medium. A manager can use many
channels in a transmitter. This is known as MULTIFACETED channel.

V. RECEIVER: The person or the thing {ear} that receives the message. Receiver is exactly
what/who receives the message. It may be the ear, tongue, skin, eyes e.t.c.

3.5 COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING — THE SIX STEPS TRAINNIG

STEP ONE — Research and Analysis or Take Stock of Your Current Situation
Start your communications planning with some research. Research can be inform of conducting a
public opinion poll or as simple as browsing the Internet or talking on an informal basis with
your clients or staff. It also means asking the following questions about your current situation
and what affects it:
• What are your organization's goals, strengths and weaknesses? Having a clear picture of what
your organization wants to achieve will help you determine a good course of action for your
communications.
• What resources do you already have? Information, people, money, time and public support are
all valuable assets. Determining which assets you have and which ones you might need will help
you decide on the scope of your communications program.
• Is there any current research that will help you? Do you need to do any research?
• Has this type of communications activity taken place before? If so, what was the result?
• What are your major communications opportunities? Perhaps the local newspaper is always
interested in your organization's activities. Or maybe there's an annual meeting coming up where
you can present your messages.
• What are your major communications impediments?
This will help the organization to achieve its objections through low-cost manner.

82
The analysis stage involves sifting through the research to look for information that will
help the organization frame its communications plan. Analysis can help you:
• define your communications challenge.
• identify friends (and opposition) and suggest their motivation.
• help identify audiences, place them in order of importance and determine how they perceive
your organization
• suggest what messages should be directed to your audience.

STEP TWO — Goals and Objectives

Defining your goals and objectives or what you are trying to achieve will help you focus on the
who, why, when and how of your communications planning.
Goals are the overall changes the organization wish to cause.
Objectives are the short-term, measurable the organization will take to reach its goal.

When deciding on your objectives, ask yourself:

• Are we seeking to provide new information?
• Are we calling the audience to action?
• Are we seeking to change behaviour?
Your objectives should form a clear statement of what it is you are trying to do. They should be
specific, realistic and listed in order of importance. They should also be measurable. When you
evaluate your communications plan, you will measure your results against your objectives.

STEP THREE — Target Audience

The next step in the planning process is to determine your target audiences by:
• listing the groups with whom you need to communicate
• analyzing each group.
When choosing the people or groups your organization needs to influence, it may be helpful to
think about the many different ways you can describe them. For example, your target audience
might be males aged 18–24. But, it could be more helpful to know that your target audience is
males aged 18–24 who are car owners or football players or volunteer fire fighters or teachers.
The more clearly you can define your audience, the easier it will be to make choices about your
messages and communications vehicles.
When analyzing each group, consider:
• What do they already know about your organization?
• How are they likely to react to your message and why?
• What are some factors influencing the audience that receives your message — for example:
literacy levels or multicultural differences?
• Are there any difficulties you might have in communicating with each group?

STEP FOUR — Key Messages

Taking into consideration your objectives and target audiences, it is now time to identify the
essential idea or set of ideas you want to communicate. Ask yourself — What does the audience
already know about this issue?
What does the audience need to know? What do we want to tell the audience?
Now, develop the message or messages you want your target audience to hear and to believe.
Write down each message in a simple, specific statement.

83
Keep in mind, to motivate people, you must show them that you will help meet their needs. A
clear description of the benefits to your audiences will help ensure that your message is received,
understood and acted upon.

STEP FIVE — Communications Strategy

Tactics
There are many communications vehicles available from which an organization can choose.
Having done your communications analysis, you will be able to narrow your choices to the
communications vehicles that:
• fit with the resources you already have
• are the most effective communications vehicles to reach your target audience and influence
them with your message(s)
• help you achieve your goals and deliver the outcomes you want.

Timing is another very important consideration when choosing your communications vehicles.
You don't want your messages competing unnecessarily with other events. Finally, there is the
budget. Don't let a limited budget discourage you. There are many inexpensive communication
vehicles.

Implementation
Make a list of all the activities that will take place:
• before the launch of your communications campaign; for example, preparing a mailing list,
writing a news release
• at the time of the launch; for example, distribution of the news release as a follow-up; for
example, responding to media inquiries resulting from the news release.
If you develop a long-term plan, be sure to build in some check points to monitor progress and
aid adjustments.

STEP SIX — Evaluation

How will you know if you are successful? Will the audience receive the messages you intend
them to receive, or will they get an entirely different message? By evaluating your
communications plan, you can learn how your plan worked with various audiences, which
activities had the most impact, and which parts of the plan failed.
There are a variety of formal measurement techniques for measuring the results against your
objectives, such as: readership surveys, attitude audits, focus group sessions.
You can do your own evaluation on a less formal basis by assessing media coverage and talking
to your clients.
The evaluation of your first plan should form the foundation of your next communications plan.

3.6 Vehicles Of Communication In An Organization

Organization/Corporate Communications
− spokesperson
− speeches
− special events
− displays
− trade shows or special client-group meetings

84
− annual and other reports
− annual meetings

Internal Communications
− meetings
− newsletters
− employee annual report
− information in pay envelopes
− letters sent to employees' homes
− bulletin board messages
− electronic mail messages
− employee special events

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we discussed communication planning in an organization which is a tool for
discovering opportunities, optimizing challenges and initiating change in an organization. We
also developed six step training process to follow in reaching effective communication in an
organization.

5.0 Summary
All along, we have highlighted the fact that communication planning is a critical process to a
successful organization and how organizations can do it. The forms of communication from
verbal , written to non-verbal are well explained. Communication in the organisation represents a
complex system of the flow of information, orders, wishes and references made out of two
partially complementary systems: formal communication network and informal communication
network.

In the next unit, we shall discuss how organizational structure influences communication

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Mention the process of communication in an organization

7.0 FURTHER READING/REFERENCE

Inett, P, & Shewchuk, J. (2005).This Factsheet: Communications Planning for Organizations.

www.gov.on.ca/omaf

85
 UNIT 4 HOW ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE INFLUENCES
COMMUNICATION

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 How organizational structure influences communication
3.2 Directions of Communication
3.2.1 Downward communication
3.2.2 Purpose of downward communication
3.2.3 Upward Communication
3.2.4 Types of informal upward communication
3.3 Barriers to effective upward communication
3.4 Methods of improving the effectiveness of upward communication
3.5 Horizontal Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 Introduction

An organization‘s structure influences the communication patterns within the organization. The
structure of an organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions:
downward, upward, and horizontal. These three directions establish the framework within which
communication in an organization takes place especially in educational settings. Examining each
one will enable us to better appreciate the barriers to effective organizational communication and
the means to overcome these barriers.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand how organizational structure influences communication especially in
educational settings
 Identify reasons for communication in an organization
 Discuss the directions of communication and methods of improving the
effectiveness of upward communication in educational settings.

86
3.0 Main Content

Assume that you are a manager of an organization. Think of the broad range of messages that are
communicated to you in the course of a workday. For example, a senior manager may ask you to
complete an important state report; another manager may hand you a memo regarding the status
of a new program recently implemented; you may read an e-mail message from a colleague
regarding the winner of the office‘s football team; and your secretary may tell you a funny story.
From these examples, it is easy to distinguish between two basic types of communication that
occur in school organizations: formal communication – the exchange of messages regarding the
official work of the organization, and informal communication – the
exchange of unofficial
messages that are unrelated to the organization‘s formal activities. In this article, I will focus on
formal communication.

3.1 How organizational Structure Influences Communication

Although the basic process of communication is similar in many different contexts, one unique
feature of organizations has a profound impact on the communication process – namely, its
structure (Greenberg & Baron, 2011). Organizations often are structured in ways that dictate the
communication patterns that exist. Given this phenomenon, we may ask: How is the
communication process affected by the structure of an organization?

The term organizational structure refers to the formally prescribed pattern of relationships
existing between various units of an organization (Ivancevich, Konopaske, & Matteson, 2011).
An organization‘s structure typically is described using a diagram, known as an organizational
chart. Such diagrams provide graphic representations of the formal pattern of communication in
an organization. An organization chart may be likened to an X-ray showing the organization‘s
skeleton, an outline of the planned, formal connections between individuals in various
departments or units (Argyris, 2011).
An organizational chart consists of various boxes and the lines connecting them. The lines
connecting the boxes in the organizational chart are lines of authority showing who must answer
to whom – that is, reporting relationships. Each person is responsible to (or answers to) the
person at the next higher level to which he or she is connected. At the same time, people are also
responsible for (or give orders to) those who are immediately below them. The boxes and lines
form a blueprint of an organization showing not only what people have to do (jobs performed
including appropriate job titles), but with whom they have to communicate for the organization
to operate properly (Jones, 2011).

3.2 Directions of Communication

The structure of an organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions:
downward, upward, and horizontal (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). We shall examined them one
by one.

87
3.2.1 Downward Communication
Traditional views of the communication process in school organizations have been dominated by
downward communication flows. Such flows transmit information from higher to lower levels of
the school organization. School leaders, from central office administrators to building-level
administrators, communicate downward to group members through speeches, messages in school
bulletins, school board policy manuals, and school procedure handbooks.

3.2.2 Purpose of downward communication

Canary (2011) has identified five general purposes of downward communication:
1. Implementation of goals, strategies, and objectives. Communicating new strategies and
goals provides information about specific targets and expected behaviors. It gives direction for
lower levels of the school/school district, community college, or university. For example: "The
new reform mandate is for real. We must improve the quality of student learning if we are to
succeed."

2. Job instructions and rationale. These are directives on how to do a specific task and how the
job relates to other activities of the school organization. Schools, community colleges, or
universities need to coordinate individual and departmental objectives with organization-wide
goals. We often fail to provide enough of this kind of information, leaving it to the individual
staff member to get the big picture.

3. Procedures and practices. These are messages defining the school organization's policies,
rules, regulations, benefits, and structural arrangements in order to get some degree of uniformity
in organization practices. In school organizations, this information is transmitted to staff
members through board and organization-wide policy manuals, handbooks, and the day-to-day
operation of the school organization.

4. Performance feedback. Departmental progress reports, individual performance appraisals,

and other means are used to tell departments or individuals how well they are doing with respect
to performance standards and goals. For example: "Mary, your work on the computer terminal
has greatly improved the efficiency of our department."

5. Socialization. Every school organization tries to motivate staff members to adopt the
institution's mission and cultural values and to participate in special ceremonies, such as picnics
and United Way campaigns. It is an attempt to get a commitment, a sense of belonging, and a
unity of direction among staff members (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). For example: "The
school thinks of its employees as family and would like to invite everyone to attend the annual
picnic and fair on May 30."
The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions, and
information to organizational members. However, much information gets lost as it is passed from
one person to another. Moreover, the message can be distorted if it travels a great distance from
its sender to the ultimate receiver down through the formal school organization hierarchy
(Tourish, 2010).

88
3.2.3 Upward Communication
The behaviorists have emphasized the establishment of upward communication flows. In a
school organization, this refers to communication that travels from staff member to leader. This
is necessary not only to determine if staff members have understood information sent downward
but also to meet the ego needs of staff.

3.2.4 Types of informal upward communication

Five types of information communicated upward in a school organization are as follows (Canary,
2011).
1. Problems and exceptions. These messages describe serious problems and exceptions to
routine performance in order to make the leader aware of difficulties.
2. Suggestions for improvement. These messages are ideas for improving task-related
procedures to increase the quality or efficiency of organization members.
3. Performance reports. These messages include periodic reports that inform the leader how
individual organization members and departments are performing.
4. Grievances and disputes. These messages are employee complaints and conflicts that travel
up the school organization hierarchy for a hearing and possible resolution. If the grievance
procedure is backed up by the presence of a collective bargaining agreement, organization
members are even more encouraged to express true feelings.
5. Financial and accounting information. These messages pertain to costs, accounts receivable,
interest on investments, tax levies, and other matters of interest to the board, central
administration, and building-level administrators.

Ideally, the organizational structure should provide for both upward and downward
communication flows. Communication should travel in both directions through the formal school
organization hierarchy. Unfortunately, communication from the bottom does not flow as freely
as communication from the top.

3.3 Barriers to effective upward communication

Some barriers to effective upward communication in a school are as follows (Cheney, 2011).
1. Administrators fail to respond when staff members bring up information or problems. Failure
to respond will ultimately result in no communication.
2. Administrators tend to be defensive about less-than-perfect actions. When staff members see
this defensiveness, information will be withheld.
3. The administrator's attitude plays a critical role in the upward communication flow. If the
administrator is really concerned and really listens, then upward communication improves.
4. Physical barriers can also inhibit upward communication flow. Separating an administrator
from her staff members creates common problems.
5. Time lags between the communication and the action can inhibit upward communication. If it
takes months for the various levels of administration to approve a staff member's suggestion,
upward communication is hindered.

89
3.4 Methods of improving the effectiveness of upward communication
The following are some methods of improving the effectiveness of upward communication in a
school organization (Keyton, 2011):
1. The open-door policy. Taken literally, this means that the administrator's door is always open
to staff members. It is an invitation for staff to come in and talk about any problem they may
have. In practice, the open-door policy is seldom used. The administrator may say: "My door is
always open," but in many cases both the staff, member and the administrator know the door is
really closed. Typically, this does not occur in a learning organization (Reason, 2010; Senge,
2006).

2. Counselling, attitude questionnaires, and exit interviews. The leader can greatly facilitate
upward communication by conducting non-directive, confidential counselling sessions;
periodically administering attitude surveys; and holding exit interviews for those who leave the
organization. Much valuable information can be gained from these forms of communication.

3. Participative techniques. Group decision making can generate a great deal of upward
communication. This may be accomplished by the use of union-management committees, quality
circles, suggestion boxes, site-based councils, and the like.

4. The ombudsperson. The use of an ombudsperson has been utilized primarily in Europe and
Canada to provide an outlet for persons who have been treated unfairly or in a depersonalized
manner by large, bureaucratic government (Hyson, 2010; International Ombudsman Institute,
2009; Kucsko-Stadlmayer, 2009). More recently, it has gained popularity in American state
governments, the military, universities, and some business firms. Xerox Corporation inaugurated
the position in 1972, and General Electric followed shortly thereafter (Malik, 2010). If developed
and maintained properly, it may work where the open-door policy has failed.

5. The union contract. A prime objective of the union is to convey to administration the feelings
and demands of various employee groups. Collective bargaining sessions constitute a legal
channel of communication for any aspect of employer-employee relations. A typical provision of
every union contract is the grievance procedure. It is a mechanism for appeal beyond the
authority of the immediate supervisor.

6. The grapevine. Although leaders may be reluctant to use the grapevine, they should always
listen to it. The grapevine is a natural phenomenon that serves as a means of emotional release
for staff members and provides the administrator with significant information concerning the
attitudes and feelings of staff members.

In short, the upward flow of communication in a school organization is intended to provide

channels for the feedback of information up the school hierarchy. Some deterrents may prevent a
good return flow, but there are ways to promote more effective administrator-staff
communications.

3.5 Horizontal Communication

Upward and downward communication flows generally follow the formal hierarchy within the
school organization. However, greater size and complexity of organizations increase the need for

90
communication laterally or diagonally across the lines of the formal chain of command. This is
referred to as horizontal communication. These communications are informational too, but in a
different way than downward and upward communication. Here information is basically for
coordination — to tie together activities within or across departments on a single school campus
or within divisions in a school-wide organizational system. Horizontal communication falls into
one of three categories (Canary, 2011).

1. Intradepartmental problem solving. These messages take place between members of the same
department in a school or division in a school-wide organizational system and concern task
accomplishment.
2. Interdepartmental coordination. Interdepartmental messages facilitate the accomplishment of
joint projects or tasks in a school or divisions in a school-wide organizational system.
3. Staff advice to line departments. These messages often go from specialists in academic areas,
finance, or computer service to campus-level administrators seeking help in these areas.
In brief, horizontal communication flows exist to enhance coordination. This horizontal channel
permits a lateral or diagonal flow of messages, enabling units to work with other units without
having to follow rigidly up and down channels. Many school organizations build in horizontal
communications in the form of task forces, committees, liaison personnel, or matrix structures to
facilitate coordination.

External communication flows between employees inside the organization and with a variety of
stakeholders outside the organization. External stakeholders include other administrators external
to the organization, parents, government officials, community residents, and so forth. Many
organizations create formal departments, such as a public relations office, to coordinate their
external communications.

4.0 Conclusion
Organizational structure influences communication patterns within an organization.
Communications flow in three directions—downward, upward, and horizontally. Downward
communication consists of policies, rules, and procedures that flow from top administration to
lower levels. Upward communication consists of the flow of performance reports, grievances,
and other information from lower to higher levels. Horizontal communication is essentially
coordinative and occurs between departments or divisions on the same level. External
communication flows between employees inside the organization and a variety of stakeholders
outside the organization.

5.0 Summary
We have seen that the term organizational structure refers to the formally prescribed pattern of
relationships existing between various units of an organization. We also saw that the structure of
an organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions: downward,
upward, and horizontal. These three directions establish the framework within which
communication in an organization takes place.

91
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
The three distinct directions in which the communication the structure of organization should
provide for are:
1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication and
3. Horizontal communication

6.0 TUTOR MARKRD ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Explain the barriers to effective organizational communication

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Argyris, C. (2011). Organizational traps: Leadership, culture, organizational design. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Canary, H. (2011). Communication and organizational knowledge: Contemporary issues for
theory and practice. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis.
Cheney, G. (2011). Organizational communication in an age of globalization: Issues, reflections,
practice. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2010). Behavior in organizations (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Hyson, S. (2011). Provincial and territorial ombudsman offices in Canada. Toronto, Ontario:
University of Toronto Press.
International Ombudsman Institute. (2009). The international ombudsman yearbook. Boston,
MA: Brill Academic Publishers.
Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. (2011). Organizational behavior and
management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Jones, G. R. (2011). Essentials of contemporary management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and organizational culture: A key to understanding work
experiences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kucsko-Stadlmayer, G. (2009). European ombudsman-institutions: A comparative legal analysis
regarding the multifaceted realization of an idea. New York, NY: Springer.
Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. O. (2008). Educational administration: Concepts and
practices. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage.
Malik, M. S. (2010). A comprehensive analysis of the law of the ombudsman. New York, NY:
Aberdeen University Press.
Reason, C. (2010). Leading a learning organization: The science of working with groups.
Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization (rev.
ed.). New York, NY: Currency/Doubleday.
Tourish, D. (2010). Auditing organizational communication: A handbook of research, theory,
and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.

92
Module 4

UNIT 1 STRUCTURE AND SYSTEM

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Cost
3.1 Concept of Organisation Structure
3.2 Significance of Organisation Structure
3.3 Components of Organisation Structure
3.4 Dimensions of Organisation Structure
3.5 Organisational Effectiveness
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
Structure is the arrangement by which various organisational activities are divided up, and how
efforts are coordinated. Structure is pivotal between task and process. An organisation needs to
be appropriately structured for the circumstances in which it finds itself and – particularly – the
tasks it has decided to carry out. It follows, therefore, that strategy should be determined first,
followed by the organisational structure.
In an organisation, a number of activities are performed. These activities are required to be
coordinated. Organisation structure is designed for division of tasks, grouping of activities and
coordinating and controlling the tasks of the organisation. The detailed study of all components
and dimensions of organisational structure is required for creation of efficient and stable
structure.

2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the concept of organisation structure;
 Significance of organization Structure
 explain the components of organisation structure;
 analyse the dimensions of organisation structure;
 discuss organizational effectiveness

93
3.0 Main Cost
3.1 Concept of Organisation Structure
Organisation structure may be defined as the established pattern of relationships among the
components of the organisation. Organisation structure in this sense refers to the network of
relationships among individuals and positions in an organisation. Jennifer and Gareth have
defined organisation structure as the formal system of task and reporting relationships that
controls, coordinates and motivates employees so that they cooperate and work together to
achieve an organisation‘s goals. In fact organisation structure describes the organisation
framework. Just as human beings have skeletons that define their parameters, organisations have
structures that define-theirs. It is like the architectural plan of a building. Just as the architect
considers various factors like cost, space, special features needed etc. while designing a good
structure, the managers too must look into factors like benefits of specialisation, communication
problems, problems in creating authority levels etc., before designing the organisation structure.
The manager determines the work activities to get the job done, writes job descriptions, and
organises people into groups and assigns them to superiors. He fixes goals and deadlines and
establishes standards of performance. Operations are controlled through a reporting system. The
whole structure takes the shape of a pyramid. The structural organisation implies the following
things:
 The formal relationships with well-defined duties and responsibilities
 The hierarchical relationships between superior and subordinates within the organisation;
 The tasks or activities assigned to different persons and the departments;
 Coordination of the various tasks and activities;
 A set of policies, procedures, standards and methods of evaluation of performance which
are formulated to guide the people and their activities.

The arrangement which is deliberately planned is the formal structure of organisation. But the
actual operations and behaviour of people are not always governed by the formal structure of
relations. Thus, the formal arrangement is often modified by social and psychological forces and
the operating structure provides the basis of the organisation.

94
3.2 Significance of organisation structure
The organisation structure contributes to the efficient functioning of organisation in the
following ways.
Clear-cut Authority Relationships: Organisation structure allocates authority and
responsibility. It specifies who is to direct whom and who is accountable for what results. The
structure helps an organisation member to know what is his role and how does it relate to other
roles.
Pattern of Communication: Organisation structure provides the patterns of communication and
coordination. By grouping activities and people, structure facilitates communication between
people centred on their job activities. People who have joint problems to solve often need to
share information.
Location of Decision Centres: Organisation structure determines the location of centres of
decision making in the organisation. A departmental store, for instance may follow a structure
that leaves pricing, sales promotion and other matters largely up to individual departments to
ensure that various departmental conditions are considered.
Proper Balancing: Organisation structure creates the proper balance and emphasizes on
coordination of group activities. Those more critical aspect for the success of the enterprise may
be given higher priority in the organisation. Research in a pharmaceutical company, for instance,
might be singled out for reporting to the general manager or the managing director of the
company. Activities of comparable importance might be given, roughly equal levels in the
structure to give them equal emphasis.
Stimulating Creativity: Sound organisation structure stimulates creative thinking and initiative
among organisational members by providing well defined patterns of authority. Everybody
knows the area where he specialises and where his efforts will be appreciated.
Encouraging Growth: An organisation structure provides the framework within which an
enterprise functions. If it is flexible, it will help in meeting challenges and creating opportunities
for growth. A sound organisation structure facilitates growth of the enterprise by increasing its
capacity to handle increased level of activity.
Making use of Technological Improvements: A sound organisation structure which is
adaptable to change can make the best possible use of latest technology. It will modify the

95
existing pattern of authority- responsibility relationships in the wake of technological
improvements.
In short, existence of good organisation structure is essential for better management. Properly
designed organisation can help in improving team work and productivity by providing a
framework within which the people can work together most effectively. Therefore, an
organisation structure should be developed according to the needs of the people in the
organisation.

3.3 Components of organisation structure

Organisation structures influence the division of the tasks, grouping of activities, coordinating
the activities and the overall accomplishment of the tasks. Since organisation structure relates to
relatively stable relationship and process of the organisation, all influencing factors must be
analysed for designing the organisation structure.
According to Robbins organisation structure stipulates how tasks are to be allocated, who reports
to whom, and the formal coordinating mechanisms and interaction patterns that will be followed.
John Ivancevich and Michael Matteson have also expressed the same view and advocated that
manager are required to take following four decisions for designing organisational structure:
 Divisions of overall task into smaller jobs
 Distribution of authority among the jobs.
 Bases by which the individual jobs are to be grouped together; and
 The appropriate size of group reporting to each superior.

Let us discuss each of them in detail.

Division of Labour
Adam Smith emphasized on the division of labour in his celebrated work, Wealth of Nation. In
the early twentieth century, Henry Ford used assembly line operations for manufacturing
automobiles. He assigned a specific repetitive task to each worker. The whole tasks were broken
into number of smaller steps or activities. Each step was required to be completed by separate
individual. Thus, the individual attained specialisation in performing that particular activity. The
manufacturing sector has been using the work specialisation extensively all over the world. The

96
division of labour which results in work specialization provide following benefits to the
organisation.
 The performance of specialised job enhances the work efficiency. Hence, the employees
skills can be used in the most efficient way.
 Since the work cycles of the job are very short, the workers can attain perfection on that
job quickly.
 It enhances productivity in the organisation.
 The workers can be trained easily to perform the repetitive work.
 The training costs are reduced.
 It is easier to match workers with the specific job skills.

Despite these benefits, the division of labour has been criticized on the following ground.
 It cannot be used for all types of jobs.
 It may lead to monotony and boredom.
 It focuses on physical performance of the job and underestimates the behavioural aspects
of the workers.

The positive features of division of labour overshow the negative features. Hence, the work
specialization has been widely used as an important means for enhancing productivity in the
organisation.

Delegation of Authority
Delegation is the process that a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he
performs that part, which because of his position he can perform effectively. Delegation is
legitimate authorisation to a manager or employee to act in specified ways. It enables him to
function independently without reference to the supervisor but within the limits set by the
supervisor and the normal framework of organisational objectives, policies, rules and procedures.
Thus, delegation involves : a) entrustment of work to another for performance, b) grant of power,
right or authority to be exercised to perform the work, c) creation of an obligation on the part of
the person accepting delegation.
Delegation of authority is one of the most important element in the process of organisation.
Organisations are characterised by a network of activities and roles. Delegation is the process

97
through which the interrelationships are created among individuals in their different roles in the
organisation.
Delegation is necessary because it is physically impossible for a single man to look after
the
affairs of a large organisation. The success of a manager lies in his ability to multiply himself
through other people. The organisations of today are not only large but also complex in
character. No manager can claim to have all the skills and expertise to perform all the diverse
kinds of jobs. Again, large scale business activities are not confined to one place. It may have
several branches and units at several places. Delegation becomes a necessity for running these
branches.
An organisation is continuity. Managers may go and come but the organisation continues.
Delegation provides continuity of operations in the organisation. The process of delegation helps
managerial development in an organisation.
Thus, a delegation is important for any organisation because it reduces the burden of the
managers and leaves him free to look after important matters of the organisation. It is a method
by which subordinates can be developed and trained to take up higher responsibilities. It
provides continuity to the organisation and creates a healthy organisational climate by creating
better understanding among the employees.
The major benefits of delegation are:
 Delegation leads to professionalism.
 Managerial decisions may involve creativeness and innovativeness.
 The competitive environment may be created in the organisation.
 The mangers may take quick decisions.

The limitations of delegation of authority are:

 The managers may resist to delegate authority.
 The managers may require training for taking decisions and the costs of training may be
higher.
 Every person may not be able to take high level of decision in the effective way.
 The administrative costs may also increase.

Despite these limitations, delegation of authority enhances efficiency in the organisation.

98
Departmentation
The division of labour divides the jobs into smaller activities. In order to coordinate these
activities, they are grouped together. The basis by which these activities are grouped together are
known as departmentalisation.
It may be defined as the process of forming departments or grouping activities of an organisation
into a number of separate units for the purpose of efficient functioning. This term vary a great
deal between different organisations. For example, in business undertaking, terms are division,
department and section; in Government these are called branch, department and section; in
military, regiment, batallion groups and company.
The impact of departmentation is a delineation of executive responsibilities and a grouping of
operating activities. Every level in the hierarchy below the apex is departmentalised and each
succeeding lower level involves further departmental differentiation.
The major benefits of departmentalisation are:
Specialisation: Departmentation leads to the benefits of specialisation as various organisational
activities are grouped according to their relation with the specific functions or objectives. Every
departmental manager specialises in the tasks assigned to him.
Administrative control: Departmentation helps in effective managerial control because the
standards of performance for each and every department can be laid down precisely. Every
department has a specific objective. This also facilitates keeping expenditure within limits.
Fixation of responsibility: Since organisation work is divided into manageable units, and
authority and responsibility are precisely defined, it is easier to fix the accountability of different
managers for the performance of various tasks.
Freedom or autonomy: The departments created through departmentation are semi-autonomous
units. Their heads are given a sufficient degree of authority to run their departments. This
increases the efficiency of the departments.
Development of managers: Departmentation helps in the development of managerial personnel
by providing them opportunities to take independent decisions and initiative. The executives can
develop themselves for promotion to higher jobs.

99
Span of Control
The departmentation reflects the types of jobs which are grouped together. Different persons are
involved in performing these jobs. They are required to be supervised closely. Span of control
refers to the number of individuals a manager can effectively supervise. Thus, it is expected that
the span of control, that is, the number of subordinates directly reporting to a superior should be
limited so as to make supervision and control effective. This is because executives have limited
time and ability.
It is sometimes suggested that the span of control should neither be too wide nor too narrow. In
other words, the number of subordinates should not be too large or too small. The number of
subordinates cannot be easily determined because the nature of jobs and capacity of individuals
vary from one organisation to another. Moreover, the actual span of supervision affects the
organisation in different ways. A wide span results in fewer levels of supervision and facilitates
communication. It permits only general supervision due to the limited availability of time.
Narrow span, on the other hand, requires multiple levels of supervision and hence longer time for
communication. It is more expensive and complicates the process of communication. A narrow
span, however enables managers to exercise close supervision and control. Although there are
certain limits to the span of control, the tendency in recent years has been to avoid specifying
absolute number because it has been recognised that the ideal span depends on a number
of
factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below:
Nature of the Work: If the work is simple and repetitive, the span of control can be
wider.
However, if the work requires close supervision the span of control must be narrow.
Ability of the Manager: Some managers are more capable of supervising large number of
people than others. Thus for a manager who possesses qualities of leadership, decision-making
ability and communication skill in greater degree the span of control may be wider.
Efficiency of the Organisation: Organisations with efficient working systems and competent
personnel can have larger span of control.
Staff Assistants: When staff assistants are employed, contact between supervisors and
subordinates can be reduced and the span broadened.
Time Available for Supervision: The span of control should be narrowed at the higher levels
because top managers have less time available for supervision. They have to devote the major
part of their work time in planning, organising, directing and controlling.

100
Ability of the Subordinates: Fresh entrants to jobs take more of a supervisor‘s time than trained
persons who have acquired experience in the job. Subordinates who have good judgement,
initiative, and a sense of obligation seek less guidance form the supervisor.
Degree of Decentralisation: An executive who personally takes many decisions is able to
supervise fewer people than an executive who merely provides encouragement and occasional
direction. It should be clear that the size of the span of control is related to numerous variables,
and no single limit is likely to apply in all cases. A variety of factors can influence the resulting
number of employees comprising the optimum span of control in any particular organisation.
The span of control also influence the creation of tall and flat structure. Let us learn the concept
of tall and flat structure.

Tall and Flat Structure

A tall organisational structure would have many hierarchical levels There is a long distance
between the top most manager and the bottom most manager. There are large number of job
titles and a career path to the employee. Fewer number of subordinates a particular manager is
required to guide, the organisational structure would be taller. Contrarily, a flat structure would
have wide span of management. The number of hierarchy would be less. Larger the number of
subordinates a particular manager is required to guide the organisational structure would be
flatter. Choosing an appropriate span of management is important for two reasons. First, it
affects efficiency. Too wide a span may mean that managers are over extended and subordinates
are receiving too little guidance or control. When this happens, managers may be pressured to
ignore or condone serious errors. In contrast, too narrow a span may mean that managers are
underutilized.
Thus, the extent of division of work, the nature of delegation of authority, the process of
departmentation and the requirement of effective supervision i.e., span of control influence the
designing of organisation structure.

3.4 Dimensions of organisation structure

Robins has identified three dimensions of organisation structure, i.e., formalization,
centralisation and complexity. Let us learn them briefly.

101
Formalization: It refers to the extent to which the activities, rules, procedures, instructions, etc.
are specified and written. This primarily means that the degree to which the activities of the
organisation are standardised. High division of labour i.e., specialisation, high level of delegation
of authority, high degree of departmentation and wide span of control lead to high degree
of
formalization. The major benefits of formalization are as follow :
 Standardised activities reduce the variability in the organisation.
 It promotes coordination. All activities are defined and specified which facilitate the
process of coordination.
 There is least scope of discretion. The decision is taken on the basis of standard rules and
procedures; hence the scope of personal discretion is reduced.
 Operating costs are reduced.
 The standard activities reduce the conflict and ambiguity.

Formalization is criticised on the following ground:

 It prevents creativity and flexibility in the organisation.
 It may be difficult for the organisation to change the rules.
 The formulation and implementation of new rules may face great resistance by the
employees.

Despite these limitations formalization has been widely used in the organisation. The formalized
structure helps in smooth functioning of the organisation. Well defined jobs and relationships
enhance the efficiency of the organisation.
Centralisation: There are some organisations, where top management makes all the decisions
and middle and lower level managers merely implement the decisions taken by the top
management. At the other extreme, there are some organisations in which decisions are made at
all levels of management. The first case fits into the centralised structure where as the second
one is highly decentralised. One of the fourteen principles of Henry Fayol happens to be
centralisation. According to him, decreasing the role of subordinates in decision-making is
centralisation; increasing their role is decentralisation. Fayol believed that managers should
retain final responsibility but at the same time give their subordinates enough authority to
do
their jobs properly. The problem is to find the proper degree of centralisation in each case. Thus,
centralisation refers to the degree to which decision making is centralised in the organisation.

102
In centralisation little delegation of authority is the rule; power and discretion are concentrated in
a few executives. Control and decision-making reside at the top levels of management. However,
absolute centralisation is untenable because it would mean that subordinates have no duties,
power or authority. Centralisation may be essential in small organisation to survive in a highly
competitive world. But as the organisation becomes more complex in terms of increasing size,
interdependence of work-flow, complexity of tasks and spatial physical barriers within and
among groups, a function requisite for efficiency is to move decision-making centres to the
operating level. Thus, the larger the size of an organisation, the more urgent is the need for
decentralisation. This does not mean that decentralisation is good and centralisation is bad. On
the other hand, decentralisation is the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all
authority except that which can be exercised at central points. It is the pushing down of authority
and power of decision-making to the lower levels of organisation. The centres of decision-
making are dispersed throughout the organisation. The essence of decentralisation is the
transference of authority from a higher level to a lower level. It is a fundamental principles of
democratic management where each individual is respected for his inherent worth and
constitution.
As you know, decentralisation is a correlate of delegation; to the extent that authority is not
delegated, it is centralised. Absolute centralisation decreases the role of subordinate managers
which in turn encourages decentralisation. Absolute decentralisation is also not possible because
managers cannot delegate all their authority.
Complexity: It refers to the differences among the jobs and units. It reflects the degree of
differentiation existing within the organisation. A variety of jobs and units create more complex
organisation structure. The management of complex structure may be difficult. Based on the
complexity of activities, there may be horizontal differentiation, vertical differentiation and
spatial differentiation. Let us learn them briefly. Horizontal differentiation refers to the number
of different units at the same level. This means if the number of activities which require more
specialised skills, the organisation will tend to be more complex. Specialisation and
departmentation are good examples of such differentiation. Another differentiation i.e., vertical
differentiation refers to the number of levels in the organisation. It reflects the depth of the
hierarchy in the organisation. This means that increase in hierarchical level enhances complexity
in the organisation.

103
In such organisation, coordination and communication become difficult. The process of
interaction is influenced by span of control which determines the number of persons effectively
supervised by a manager. In the wide span, the managers have more persons to be supervised and
in the narrow span they have fewer people to be supervised. The supervision depends on number
of other factors as well. The third types of differentiation i.e., spatial differentiation refers to the
degree to which location of units and the personnel are dispersed. As you must be aware that
these days activities of the organisation are located in different areas. The multiple location
increases the complexity of the organisation. Coordination and interaction also become difficult
in such organisation.
An increase in above types of differentiation may lead to increase in complexity in the
organisation. Thus, the complexity of the organisation determines the amount of coordination,
communication and control. John Invancevich and Michael Matteson have analysed that the high
formalization reflects high specialisation, delegated authority, functional departments and wide
span of control. The high centralisation reflects the high specialisation, centralised authority,
functional departments and wide span of control. The high complexity reflects high
specialisation, delegated authority, territorial, customer and product departments and narrow
spans of control. The low formalization, centralisation and complexity reflect the opposite
characteristics.

3.5 Organizational effectiveness

The term Organizational Effectiveness is often used interchangeably with organization
development especially when used as the name of a department or a part human resources
function within an organization. Organizational effectiveness is the concept of how effective an
organization is in achieving the outcomes the organization intends to produce. The idea of
organizational effectiveness is especially important for non-profit organizations as most people
who donate money to nonprofit organizations and charities are interested in knowing whether the
organization is effective in accomplishing its goals.
However, scholars of nonprofit organizational effectiveness acknowledge that the concept has
multiple dimensions and multiple definitions. For example, while most nonprofit leaders define
organizational effectiveness as 'outcome accountability,' or the extent to which an organization
achieves specified levels of progress toward its own goals, a minority of nonprofit leaders define

104
effectiveness as 'overhead minimization,' or the minimization of fundraising and administrative
costs.
According to Richard etal. (2009) organizational effectiveness captures organizational
performance plus the myriad internal performance outcomes normally associated with more
efficient or effective operations and other external measures that relate to considerations that are
broader than those simply associated with economic valuation (either by shareholders, managers,
or customers), such as corporate social responsibility.
An organization's effectiveness is also dependent on its communicative competence and ethics.
The relationship between these three are simultaneous. Ethics is a foundation found within
organizational effectiveness. An organization must exemplify respect, honesty, integrity and
equity to allow communicative competence with the participating members. Along with ethics
and communicative competence, members in that particular group can finally achieve their
intended goals.
Foundations and other sources of grants and other types of funds are interested in organizational
effectiveness of those people who seek funds from the foundations. Foundations always have
more requests for funds or funding proposals and treat funding as an investment using the same
care as a venture capitalist would in picking a company in which to invest.
Organizational effectiveness is an abstract concept and is difficult for many organizations to
directly measure. Instead of measuring organizational effectiveness directly, the organization
selects proxy measures to represent effectiveness. Proxy measures may include such things as
number of people served, types and sizes of population segments served, and the demand within
those segments for the services the organization supplies.
For instance, a non-profit organization which supplies meals to house bound people may collect
statistics such as the number of meals cooked and served, the number of volunteers delivering
meals, the turnover and retention rates of volunteers, the demographics of the people served, the
turnover and retention of consumers, the number of requests for meals turned down due to lack
of capacity (amount of food, capacity of meal preparation facilities, and number of delivery
volunteers), and amount of wastage. Since the organization has as its goal the preparation of
meals and the delivery of those meals to house bound people, it measures its organizational
effectiveness by trying to determine what actual activities the people in the organization do in
order to generate the outcomes the organization wants to create.

105
4.0 Conclusion
Among the factors of powerful leadership, factors of globalization issues and vision, mission and
strategies are likely to play a moderate role and leadership dynamism a significant role.
However, it finally turns out, that no amount of strength and driving force of leadership is to
produce an effect without a strong performance culture backed and supported by powerful work
systems.

5.0 Summary
Students should be able to understand concept of organisation structure; Significance and
component of organization Structure; and analyse the dimensions of organisation structure.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

* What is Culture?
* Discuss organizational Culture
* Differentiate between Significance and component of organization Structure

7.0 References and further readings

Herman, R. D., & Renz, D. O. (2008). Advancing Nonprofit Organizationa Effectiveness
Research and Theory: Nine Theses. Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 18(4), 399-415.

Mitchell, George E. (2012). The Construct of Organizational Effectiveness: Perspectives from

Leaders of International Nonprofits in the United States. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector
Quarterly.

106
 UNIT 2: NEED FOR STRUCTURE

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Cost
3.1 Need for Structure
3.2 Internal and External factors that affect an Organisation
3.3 Developing an effective organisation structure
3.3.1 Advantages of effective organizational structure
3.3.2 Disadvantages of effective organizational structure
3.4 Roles of people in an organisation
3.5 Signs & Symptoms of the Lack of Coordination in an Organization
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
Organizations need structuring so that lines of authority along with individual duties and
responsibilities can be understood by every company member. There are, however, additional
ways that these structures optimize the operation.
There are many negative consequences of structural deficiencies including: -
 Low morale – people not knowing what‘s expected of them and lacking responsibility
and autonomy.

 Excessive meetings.

 Late and inappropriate decisions.

 Conflict and departmental divisions.

107
  Lack of coordination.

 Inadequate response to changing circumstances.

 Rising costs.

Larger organisations can devolve quite a bit of responsibility, given an appropriate structure,
broad strategic and policy orientation, guidelines for good practice in service delivery and
budgetary controls. A small organisation is unlikely to develop the same level of budgetary and
reporting systems and controls as a larger one and nor indeed is this necessary.

2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the Need for structure;
 explain the Internal and External factors that affect an Organisation,
 Developing an effective organisation structure,
 Advantages and disadvantages of effective organization structure

3.0 MAIN COST

3.1 Need for structure
Structure helps people in the organisation to work together effectively. The more effective the
structure, the more effective the working relations between people and departments. Structure
underpins how power and accountability, internal and external, operate within the organisation: it
determines how responsibilities are allocated and enables effective participation.
Any organisation needs defined responsibilities, communication channels, agreed procedures etc.
There is no ideal structure, just various options from which to choose the most appropriate. The
most obvious divisions are departmental or functional groupings. Structure should indicate the
pattern of reporting relationships. It can be captured in an organisational chart. Indeed, if it
cannot easily be captured in such a chart, or if there are too many complexities or crossed lines in
this, then the structure is too unclear to be workable in practice.

108
3.2 Internal and external factors that affect an organisation
Successful small-business owners keep track of all the factors that can have an impact on their
business. They know when to sweat the small stuff without taking their eyes off the big picture,
and they understand that all kinds of circumstances can change the all-important bottom line.
Knowing the internal and external factors that affect an organization gives a small-business
owner the intelligence he needs to sort out the company's priorities and make strategic plans for
the future.

Internal Factors
Some of the forces impacting your small business are more challenging to master than others.
The degree to which you can control them varies. At the same time, you can improve the state of
internal and external factors effecting your small business; you can't make the economy grow,
but you can encourage spending. Understanding the factors at work better equips you to prepare
for them. The best thing about internal factors is that you can control many of them. Some
factors, such as your business's reputation, image and creditworthiness, are a result of the way
you run your business. Other factors, such as your organization's management structure and
staffing and the physical decor of your business, are based on your business decisions, and you
can change them as you see fit. Changing internal factors usually involves some indirect costs,
such as lost productivity while new employees are trained, some direct costs, such as a penalty
for terminating a lease before it expires, or some combination of the two.

External Factor
External factors are all those things that are beyond your control. Tight lending conditions,
government regulations and competition are some of the external factors that affect virtually
every small business. Strategic planners anticipate and manage some of the circumstances that
affect their business. Exploring alternative financing sources until lending restrictions ease,
developing plans for compliance with regulations and enhancing innovation and service to stay
ahead of the competition are forward-thinking ways to keep external factors from threatening the
survival of your business.

109
Prioritization
There are many different ways to prioritize and manage the issues that affect your business.
Making a traditional list of pros and cons or conducting a simple return-on-investment analysis
can add clarity to virtually any business decision. Sorting factors according to how severely each
factor will impact your organization and how likely each factor is to take place can help you
discern which factors need your immediate attention and which ones can simmer on the back
burner for a while.

Review
Regularly reviewing the factors that affect your small business is the best way to guard against a
catastrophe such as a new regulation that you are not prepared to comply with. A formal monthly
or quarterly review of your internal operations will help you discern subtle trends and issues that
you need to address. Trade publications, blogs and newsletters are some of the resources that can
help you keep informed about the external factors that affect your business. Reviewing this
information will help maintain your awareness of critical factors and help ensure that your
priorities remain sound so you can adjust your business plans as needed for your continued
success.
3.3 Developing an effective organisational structure
To fulfil its mission effectively, a business needs to operate within a structure best suited to its
purposes. Traditionally large businesses divide the organisation up into functional areas.
Syngenta's functions include research and development, global supply (including
manufacturing), human resources (HR), sales and marketing, finance, and Information Systems
(IS).
Within any organisation there are likely to be several layers of authority. The number of levels
depends upon whether the business has a hierarchical or flat structure. A hierarchical structure
has many layers of management, each with a narrow span of control. Instructions feed
downwards from one level of management to those below. Feedback comes from the lower
levels upwards. The reporting system from the top of the hierarchy to the bottom is known as the
chain of command. A hierarchical structure enables tight control. It offers clear opportunities for
promotion and may reduce stress levels in both managers and employees. Everybody knows their
place in the hierarchy.

110
However, communication can be a problem in hierarchical organisations. Without effective
management, it can take a long time for information to pass up and down the chain of command.
Staff may not be fully empowered. Rather than being able to use their initiative, employees may
need to seek approval for every action from higher levels of managements. This not only can
cause delay but also be bad for employee morale, reducing their motivation to work.
A flat line structure is one where there are few layers of management. Each manager has a wide
span of control. This means a manager has responsibility for many people or tasks. Delegation is
necessary for tasks to be carried out effectively. This structure gives employees more
responsibility for their work. Communication is also faster up and down the layers. This enables
problems to be solved more quickly.

3.3.1 Advantages of Effective Organizational Structures

An organization structure is the manner in which subunits in organizations are inter-related and
grouped. An organizational structure specifies how subordinates report to their superiors. This
enhances coordination in the activities of the members of the group. There are various
organization structures which include line, functional, product and matrix organizational
structures. A major advantage of an effective organizational structure is that it reduces conflict
between employees regarding who is to carry out certain jobs in the organization.
Facilitates Specialization: Organizational structure facilitates division of work since each boss
has specialized knowledge on his field of work. He has better and accurate knowledge to guide
his subordinates. The supervisor's task is to ensure that his department performs its best,
regardless of whether other units are performing as well. The supervisor should also help his
subordinates perform to their best in that area of specialization.
Control over Resources: Organizational structures simplify control over resources because
these resources can be rationed and allotted to the various units. These resources should be used
to their most productive uses at that level. Since resources are very scarce, they should be
utilized effectively by eliminating unnecessary wastage. This can only be done if an
organizational structure is clearly defined and there is control of employees through an effective
organizational structure.
Easier Communication: Organizational structures clearly state who reports to whom. A
subordinate cannot report directly to the manager before communicating with his immediate

111
supervisor. This simplifies the work of executive employees so that they are not overwhelmed by
the activities of the firm. Flow of information is controlled so that employees do not take
advantage of insider information that may expose confidential information critical for the firm's
survival.
Better Employee Performance: Organizational structures clearly show various jobs to be
performed by employees and which supervisor will manage them. The supervisor trains them out
of his own experience or from the rules of the organization and helps they become better
performers. Supervisors punish and reward where necessary and this helps the employees learn
from their own experiences and also from their supervisors. In a way, these supervisors are role
models to their subordinates.

3.3.2 Disadvantages of Effective Organizational Structures

Departmentalization: Staff does not always know the case of the client in detail, other
organizations may not always talk to the same person, and very specific job knowledge is
required, hard to find a fill in for positions.
Matrix Organizations: Employees are harder to manage due to independence, could increase
expenses, more employees needed, lack of loyalty to position, constant team work needed.
The Project Team: Who is in charge may create conflict, lack of consideration for others, lack
of accountability, lack of job focus.
The collegial model: Lack of accountability, lack of authority.

3.4 ROLES OF PEOPLE IN AN ORGANISATION

Directors, Managers and Supervisors all have responsibilities in the workplace as do grass root
operatives. Directors are individuals with legal responsibility to the businesses, customers,
employees, suppliers and shareholders.
Directors
The Directors typically create the business plans. Directors sit on the board because they have
specialist expertise in a particular line of business, or because they have generalist experience, or
sometimes more importantly, good contacts.
The Managing director
The Managing Director is the figurehead of the organisation.

112
Managers have the job of organising and controlling resources. Their work is often described as
'getting things done with or through people'.
Senior managers
Senior Managers make top level decisions concerning where an organisation operates and what it
makes or does. These decisions require detailed analysis and skilled judgement.
Middle managers
Middle Managers organise and control the resource of an organisation within established
guidelines.
Junior/supervisory management
Junior/supervisory management is usually concerned with short-term supervisory activities -
making sure that orders get out on time, making sure that people and resources are where they
should be, etc.
Supervisors
Supervisors are quite often the backbone of the organisation. They are people who know how
things should be done at 'ground level'. They work with managers to put plans into action at
operational level. They manage day-to-day resources including the supervision of staff.
Operatives
Operatives are at the ground level but their work is still very important. It needs to be carried out
with care and precision. In a supermarket the operatives will include the shelf stackers, and
checkout operatives.
The formal roles of members of an organisation will usually be set out in an organisational chart
which sets out the span of control of the various levels of supervision. The informal roles that
people play are less easy to map out but are also very important.

3.5 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF THE LACK OF COORDINATION IN AN

ORGANIZATION
A lack of coordination in an organization can decrease productivity, complicate processes and
delay the completion of tasks. In order to coordinate the efforts of an entire organization, the
organization requires a systematic integration of a process that creates accountability within the
organization. Implementing this type of process allows interdepartmental coordination

113
throughout the organization between employees. Recognizing early signs and symptoms of not
having coordination in an organization can help it prevent further damage.

Delay
One of the signs that an organization lacks coordination is delay. When there is a lack of
coordination between management, labor, production and sales, delays will result causing the
organization to become ineffective. When delays become part of the operations of the
organization, customer relations will suffer for the organization. Delays create unreliability and
will alienate customers from the organization. By controlling and properly managing work in
progress, the organization can work to prevent delays and resulting coordination problems.

Duplication
Another sign of a lack of coordination within an organization is redundancy. With redundancy,
an organization will spend double the effort, material and time to produce the same item twice.
Redundancy typically results from a lack of coordination between various departments within the
organization. By implementing control measures to reduce redundancies, an organization can
work toward improving overall coordination within the organization.
Lost Data
Organizations must effectively utilize information to function at an optimal level. When this
information is not readily available as needed within the organization, the lack of information
can create a cascading effect that will damage the organization. Lack of coordination creates
gaps in the acquisition and distribution of information. This in turn makes the organization's
available resources ineffective and causes it to miss opportunities. By implementing an
accountability system for the information, the organization can improve coordination and
minimize lost information.
Inflexibility
When an organization does not support coordinated efforts, innovation and progress can become
stagnant within it. This can make the organization obsolete and unable to compete against other
organizations in the same industry that have adopted a coordinated effort to adapting new
methods of producing and managing the organization. Inflexibility also freezes many protocols

114
that could have potentially become productive. This happens because there is not enough
coordination to gauge the effectiveness of the new protocol.

4.0 Conclusion
The discussion has exposed you to the fact that organizational structure relates to pattern of
relationships along positions in the organisation and among members of the organization, which
defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships and channels of communication
among organizational members. You have understood that essential factors are normally taken
into consideration in designing organization structure. There are different types of structure and
relationship in organization. Organizational structure is affected by technology as a critical
aspect of the external environment.

5.0 Summary
This study unit has been used to discuss:
• The Need for Structure
• Internal and External factors that affect an Organisation
• Developing an effective organisation structure
• Roles of people in organisations
• Signs & Symptoms of the Lack of Coordination in an Organization

6.0 Tutor marked assignment

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of effective organizational structures
2. Mention role of people in an organisation

7.0 References and further readings

Atkinson, P. (1985). ―The Impact of Information Technology and Office Automation on
Administrative Management‖, British Journal of Administrative Management, vol. 35, no. 3.

Child, J. (1988). Organization: A Guide to Problems and Practice, Second Edition, New York:
Paul Chapman.

Drucker, P.F. (1989). The Practice of Management, London: Heinemann Professional

115
 UNIT 3 CHOICE OF STRUCTURE

Contents
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Cost

3.1 Choice of Structure

3.2 Levels of Organisation Structure
3.3 Dimensions of People – Organisation Relationship
3.3.1 Clarification of Objectives
3.3.2 Clarification of Tasks
3.3.3 The Division of Work
3.4 Forms of Relationship In Organization
3.5 Types of Organisation Structure
3.5.1 Line and Staff Organisation
3.5.2 Functional Organization
3.5.3 Project Organisation
3.5.4 Matrix Organisation

3.6 Common Features Of Organisations

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References and Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In firms of even modest size, interdependent decisions are allocated to distinct managers. One
manager is given the right and responsibility to make production decisions, for instance, while
another makes marketing choices despite the fact that production and marketing decisions affect
one another.
One manager controls one product line while a second manager controls another, even though
the two product lines may share a factory or a sales force. Formal organizational design is, at its

116
essence, a process of breaking interdependent decisions into bundles commonly known as jobs,
assigning individuals to those jobs, and arranging some means to coordinate individual action.

2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
* What you understand by choice of structure
* Discuss types of structure

3.0 MAIN COST

3.1 Choice and Structure
The choice of structure will depend on a number of factors including the organisation‘s culture,
function and mission, its size, its budget and the personalities involved. The options range from a
bureaucracy to a collective structure. It follows that structure should not be static, but should be
reviewed to take account of important strategic changes. Upsizing and downsizing should also be
strategic and measured, with impact upon strategy and thereby structure taken into account.. The
need to have unity and consistency of values and purpose is common to all structures.
Different types of organisation will need different structures.An organisation that has a number
of different core functions may find it advantageous to separate these functions, in order to
enable the different cultures and approaches needed to operate. In particular, a professional
manager could be employed to head up the service delivery arm, and a charismatic leader for the
advocacy arm. Also, the service delivery arm could incorporate the necessary standards and
controls without imposing these on the campaigns team to the detriment of creativity. However,
there would need to be clear systems to achieve organisational coherence and maximum use of
expertise through the organsation.
There is often a need for a strong functional approach in certain sectors of animal protection
organisations such as: fundraising, human resources, accounting and IT (Information
Technology). In all these functions, considerable expertise is needed, and a striving towards
professionalism.
Where an organisation is not a single-issue group, the research and dissemination of issue-related
expertise will be necessary. Whether to have separate issue-related departments will depend on
the size of the organisation and its strategic focus. For example, a small campaigning group may

117
select one or two flagship campaigns and therefore not need issue-related departments. However,
a large generalist international or national organisation would benefit from issue-related
expertise, so departments based on issue would be more likely.
The number of people a manager can control varies according to many factors, including: the
manager‘s temperaments, skills and abilities, the staff‘s temperament, skills and abilities, the
nature and complexity of the work being undertaken, the time the manager has to be spend on
strategy and planning as well as day-to-day supervision etc. Availability of procedures and
precedents also has an impact.
A general rule is that, under ideal circumstances, no Chief Executive should have more than four
to six departmental heads reporting directly to him/her. This may be more if the remit of each
department head is small and the scope of their work fairly simple. Managers further down the
chain of command can lead greater numbers of staff. Once again the optimum number will
depend on the scope and complexity of the task. For example, whilst a single boss could
effectively manage a large team (say 30+) of staff employed in simple and uniform data
processing duties, a manager of consultants/project analysts carrying out complex duties should
have far fewer staff reporting to him/her (maximum six to ten).

3.2 Levels of organisation structure

According to Parsons (1980), organisations are structured in layers. This implies that the
determination of policy and decision-making, the execution of work, and the exercise of
authority and responsibility are carried out by different people at varying levels of seniority
throughout the organisation structure. Therefore, it is possible to look at organisations in terms of
interrelated levels in the hierarchical structure such as the technical level, the managerial level
and the community level. These are discussed below.

1. The Technical Level

The technical level is concerned with specific operations and discrete tasks, with the actual job or
tasks to be done, and with performance of the technical function. Examples are: the physical
production of goods in a manufacturing firm; administrative processes giving direct service to
the public in government departments; the actual process of teaching in an educational
establishment.

118
2. The Managerial Level
The technical level interrelates with the managerial level, or organisational level, which is
concerned with the coordination and integration of work at the technical level. Decisions at the
managerial level relate to the resources necessary for performance of the technical function, and
to the beneficiaries of the products or services provided. Decisions will be concerned with:
 mediating between the organisation and its external environment, such as the users of the
organisation‘s products or services, and the procurement of resources; and

 the ‗administration‘ of the internal affairs of the organisation including the control of the
operations of the technical function.

3. The Community Level

In turn, the managerial level interrelates with the community level or institutional level,
concerned with broad objectives and the work of the organisation as a whole. Decisions at the
community level will be concerned with the selection of operations, and the development of the
organisation in relation to external agencies and the wider social environment.
Examples of the community level within organisations are:
 the board of directors of joint stock companies;

 governing bodies of educational establishments which include external representatives;

and

 trustees of non-profit organisations.

Such bodies provide a mediating link between the managerial organisation and coordination of
work of the technical organisation, and the wider community interests. Control at the
institutional level of the organisation may be exercised, for example, by legislation, codes of
standards or good practice, trade or professional associations, political or governmental actions,
and public interest.
In practice, all these levels are interrelated, and there is not a clear division between
determination of policy and decision-making, coordination of activities and the actual execution
of work. Most decisions are taken with reference to the execution of wider decisions, and most
execution of work involves decision. Decisions taken at the institutional level determine
objectives for the managerial level, and decisions at the managerial level set objectives for the

119
technical level. therefore if the oragnisation as a whole is to perform effectively, there must be
clear objectives; a soundly designed structure; and good communication, both upwards and
downwards, among the different levels of the organization (Mullins, 2000).
The managerial level, for example, would be unable to plan and supervise the execution of work
of the technical function without the knowledge, expertise, practical know-how and enthusiasm
of people who are closest to the actual tasks to be undertaken. People operating at the technical
level should, therefore, make known to higher levels the practical difficulties and operational
problems concerning their work. It is the duty of the managerial level to take appropriate action
on this information, and to consult with people at the community or institutional level (Mullins,
2000).

3.3 DIMENSIONS OF PEOPLE – ORGANISATION RELATIONSHIP

3.3.1 Clarification of Objectives
A clarity of objectives is necessary in order to provide a basis for the division of work and
grouping of duties into sub-units. The objectives for these sub-units must be related to the
objectives of the organisation as a whole in order that an appropriate pattern of structure can be
established.
According to Mullins (2000), clearly stated and agreed objectives will provide a framework for
the design of structure, and a suitable pattern of organisaiton to achieve those objectives. The
nature of the organisation and its strategy will indicate the most appropriate organisational levels
for different functions and activities, and the formal relationships between them. Clearly defined
objectives will help facilitate systems of communication between different parts of the
organisation and extent of decentralization and delegation. The formal structure should help
make possible the attainment of objectives. It should assist in the performance of the essential
functions of the organisation and the major activities which it needs to undertake.

3.3.2 Clarification of Tasks

According to Woodward (1980), tasks are the basic activities of the organisation which are
related to the actual completion of the productive process and directed towards specific and
definable end-results. To ensure the efficient achievement of overall objectives of the
organisation, the results of the task functions must be coordinated.

120
There are four essential functions that the organisation must perform such as follow:
(i) The good or service must be developed.
(ii) Something of value must be created. In the case of the business organisation, this might be
the production or manufacture of a product; in the case of the public sector organisation, the
provision of a service.
(iii) The product or services must be marketed. They must be distributed or made available to
those who are to use them.
(iv) Finance is needed in order to make available the resources used in the development, creation
and distribution of the products or services provided.
There are other activities of the organisation, called element functions, which are not directed
towards specific and definable ends but are supportive of the task functions and an intrinsic part
of the management process. These include personnel, planning,
management services, public relations, quality control and maintenance. In other organisations,
noticeably in service industries, personnel can be seen as closely associated with a task function.
But in the majority of organisations, the personnel function does not normally have any direct
accountability for the performance of a specific end-task.
These two kinds of functions, task and element, differ in a number of ways and these differences
have important implications for organisation. Failure to distinguish between the two types of
functions can lead to confusion in the planning of structure and in the relationship between
members of the organisation.
According to Woodward, for example, activities concerned with raising funds for the business,
keeping accounts and determination of financial policy are task functions. But management
accounting, concerned with prediction and control of production administration, is an element
function, and is primarily a servicing and supportive one. Relationships between the accountants
and other managers seemed better when the two functions were organizationally separate. This is
the case especially in divisionalised organisation when each product division has its own
accounting staff providing line managers with the necessary information to control their own
departments.

121
3.3.3 The Division of Work
According to Mullins (2000), work has to be divided among its members and different jobs
related to each other within the formal structure of an organisation,. The division of work and the
grouping together of people should, wherever possible, should be organized by reference to some
common characteristic which forms a logical link between the activities involved. It is necessary
to maintain a balance between an emphasis on subject matter or function at higher levels of the
organisation, and specialisation and concern for staff at the operational level.

3.4 FORMS OF RELATIONSHIP IN ORGANIZATION

Some formal relationships between individual positions will arise from the defined pattern of
responsibilities in any organisation structure. These individual authority relationships may be
identified as line, functional, staff or lateral.
The design of organisation structure in terms of the principle of line, functional, staff or lateral,
determines the pattern of role relationships and interactions with other roles, discussed in the
next unit.
(i) Line Relationships
In line relationships, authority flows vertically down through the structure, for example, from the
managing director to managers, section leaders, supervisors and other staff. There is a direct
relationship between superior and subordinate, with each subordinate responsible to only one
person. Line relationships are associated with functional or departmental division of work and
organizational control. Line managers have authority and responsibility for all matters and
activities within their own department.
(ii) Functional Relationships
Functional relationships apply to the relationship between people in specialist or advisory
positions, and line managers and their subordinates. The specialist offers a common service
throughout all departments of the organisation, but has no direct authority over those who make
use of the service. There is only an indirect relationship.
For example, the personnel manager has no authority over staff in other departments – this is the
responsibility of the line manager. But, as the position and role of the personnel manager would
have been sanctioned by top management, other staff might be expected to accept the advice
which is given.

122
The personnel manager, however, could be assigned some direct, executive authority for certain
specified responsibilities such as, for example, health and safety matters throughout the whole
organisation. Note, however, that specialist in a functional relationship with other managers still
have a line relationship with both their own superior and their own departmental subordinate
staff.

(iii) Staff Relationships

Staff relationships arise from the appointment of personal assistants to senior members of staff.
Persons in a staff position normally have little or no direct authority in their own right but act as
an extension of their superior and exercise only ‗representative‘ authority. They often act in a
‗gatekeeper‘ role. There is no direct relationship between the personal assistant and other staff
except where delegated authority and responsibility have been given for some specific activity.
In practice, however, personal assistants often do have some influence over other staff, especially
those in the same department or grouping. This may be partially because of the close relationship
between the personal assistant and the superior, and partially dependent upon the knowledge and
experience of the assistant, and the strength of the assistant‘s own personality.

(iv) Lateral Relationships

Lateral relationships exist between individuals in different departments or sections, especially
individuals on the same level. these lateral relationships are based on contact and consultation
and are necessary to maintain coordination and effective organisational performance. Lateral
relationships may be specified formally, but in practice, they depend upon the cooperation of
staff and in effect are a type of informal relationship.
3.2 TYPES OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
1. Line and Staff Organisation
An area of management which causes particular difficulty is the concept of line and staff.
As organisations develop in size and work becomes more complex, the range of activities and
functions undertaken increases. People with specialist knowledge have to be integrated into the
managerial structure. Line and staff organisation is concerned with different functions which are
to be undertaken. It provides a means of making full use of specialists while maintaining
the
concept of line authority.

123
According to Mullins (2000), the concept of line and staff relationships presents a number of
difficulties. With the increasing complexity of organisations and the rise of specialist services, it
becomes harder to distinguish clearly between what is directly essential to the operation of the
organisation, and what might be regarded only as an auxilliary function.
The distinction between a line manager and a staff manager is not absolute. There may be a fine
division between offering professional advice and the giving of instructions. Friction inevitably
seems to occur between line and staff managers. Neither side may fully understand nor
appreciate the purpose and role of the other. Staff managers are often criticised for unnecessary
interference in the work of the line manager and for being out of touch with practical realities.
Line managers may feel that the staff managers have
an easier and less demanding job because they have no direct responsibility for producing a
product or providing a service for the customer, and are free from day-to-day operational
problems.
Furthermore, staff managers may feel that their own difficulties and work problems are not
appreciated fully by the line manager. Staff managers often complain about resistance to their
attempts to provide assistance and coordination, and the unnecessary demands for departmental
independence by line managers. A major source of difficulty is to persuade line managers
to
accept, and act upon, the advice and recommendations which are offered.
2. Functional Organization
Under this structure, the division of work and the grouping together of people is organised by
reference to some common characteristic which forms a logical link between the activities
involved. This emphasizes functions of the organizational operations as well as specialization.
The most commonly used bases for grouping activities according to function are: specialization;
the use of the same set of resources; and the shared expertise of members of staff. It is a matter
for decision in each organisation as to which activities are important enough to be organised into
separate functions, departments or sections.

3. Project Organisation
The division of work and methods of grouping described earlier tend to be relatively permanent
forms of structure. With the growth in newer, complex and technologically advanced systems, it
has become necessary for organisations to adapt traditional structures in order to provide greater

124
integration of a wide range of functional activities. In recent years, greater attention has
been
given, therefore, to more flexible forms of structure and the creation of groupings based on
project teams and matrix organisation.
Members of staff from different departments or sections are assigned to the team for the duration
of a particular project.
Therefore, a project organization may be set up as a separate unit on a temporary basis for the
attainment of a particular task. When this task is completed, the project team is disbanded or
members of the unit are reassigned to a new task. Project teams may be used for people working
together on a common task or to coordinate work on a specific project such as the design and
development, production and testing of a new product; or the design and implementation of a
new system or procedure. For example, project teams have been used in many military systems,
aeronautics and space programmes. A project team is more likely to be effective when it has a
clear objective, a well-defined task, and a definite end-result to be achieve, and the composition
of the team is chosen with care.

4. Matrix Organisation
The matrix organisation is a combination of:
(i) functional departments which provide a stable base for specialised activities and a permanent
location for members of staff; and
(ii) units that integrate various activities of different functional departments on a project team,
product, programme, geographical or systems basis. As an example, ICI is organised on matrix
lines, by territory, function and business.
A matrix structure might be adopted in a university or college with grouping both by common
subject specialism, and by association with particular courses or programmes of study.
Therefore, the matrix organisation establishes a grid, or matrix, with a two-way flow of authority
and responsibility. On the basis of the functional departments, authority and responsibility flow
vertically down the line, but the authority and responsibility of the project manager flow
horizontally across the organisation structure.

125
3.6 COMMON FEATURES OF ORGANISATIONS
A basic aim for the study of organisations is to indicate both the common features of
organisations and the main distinguishing features between different types of organisations. It
provides a useful framework for the comparative study of organisations. Some of these common
features to organizations are as discussed below.

1. Organisational Sub-systems
The transformation or conversion of inputs into outputs is a common feature of all organisations.
Within the organisation (system) as a whole, each of the different transformation or conversion
activities may themselves be viewed as separate subsystems with their own input-conversion-
output process interrelated to, and interacting with, the other sub-systems. The analysis of an
organisation could perhaps be based upon the departmental structure as sub-systems.
The important point is the interrelationships and coordination of sub-systems in terms of the
effectiveness of the organisation as an integrated whole. The interrelationship and
interdependence of the different parts of the system raise the question of the identification of
these sub-systems. The boundaries are drawn at the discretion of the observer and sub-systems
are identified according to the area under study. These sub-systems may be identified, therefore,
in a number of different ways, although there is a degree of similarity among the alternative
models.

2. Socio-technical System
According to Mullins (2000), the socio-technical system is concerned with the transformation or
conversion process itself, the relationships between technical efficiency and social considerations
and the effect on people. Researchers observed that new methods of work and changes in
technology disrupted the social groupings of workers, and therefore, brought about undesirable
changes to the psychological and sociological properties of the old method of working. As a
result, the new method of work could be less efficient than it could have been despite the
introduction of new technology.

126
3. Interaction between Organization and Environment
An open systems approach is an attempt to view the organisation as a purposeful, unified whole
in continual interaction with its external environment. The organisation (system) is composed of
a number of interrelated parts (sub-systems). Any one part of the organisation‘s activities affects
other parts. Managers cannot afford to take a narrow, blinkered view. They need to adopt a
broader view of the organisation‘s activities. Managers should recognise the interrelationships
between various activities and the effects that their actions and decisions have on other activities.
Using the above framework of five main interrelated sub-systems – task, technology, structure,
people, management – provides a useful basis for the analysis of organizational performance and
effectiveness.

4. Situational Organisation
The analysis of organisational effectiveness requires an understanding of relationships within the
organisation‘s structure, the interrelated sub-systems and the nature of its external environment.
Irrespective of the identification of sub-systems, the nature and scale of the series of activities
involved in converting inputs to outputs will differ from one organisation to another in terms of
the interrelationships between technology, structure, methods of operation, and the nature of
environmental influences. Contingency models of organisation highlight these interrelationships
and provide a further possible means of differentiation between alternative forms of organisation
and management.
The contingency approach takes the view that there is no one best, universal form of
organisation. There are a large number of variables, or situational factors, that influence
organizational performance. Contingency models can be seen as an ‗if-then‘ form of
relationship. If certain situational factors exist, then certain organisational and managerial
variables are most appropriate. Managers can utilise these models to compare the structure and
functioning of their own organisation (Mullins, 2000).

4.0 Conclusion
The discussion has exposed you to the fact that organizational structure relates to pattern of
relationships along positions in the organisation and among members of the organization, which
defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships and

127
channels of communication among organizational members. You have understood that essential
factors are normally taken into consideration in designing organization structure.
There are different types of structure and relationship in organization. Organizational structure is
affected by technology as a critical aspect of the external environment.

5.0 Summary
This study unit has been used to discuss:
 The Meaning and Nature of Organsation Structure; that structure defines positions and
responsibilities, and it keeps on changing.
 Levels of Organisation Structure such as technical, management, and community levels.
 Dimensions of People – Organisation Relationship such as clarification of objectives,
clarification of tasks, and division of work.
 Forms of Relationship in Organization in areas of line, staff, function and lateral
relationships.
 Types of Organizational Structure like line and staff, functional, project and matrix
organizations.
 Common Features of Organisations such as organizational sub-systems, socio technical
system, interaction between the organization and the environment, and situation
organization.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Mention and discuss the forms of relationship in organization.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Child, J. (1988). Organization: A Guide to Problems and Practice, Second Edition, New York:
Paul Chapman.

Drucker, P. F. (1989). The Practice of Management, London: Heinemann Professional.

Mullins, J. L. (1995). Hospital Management: A Human Resources Approach, Second Edition,

London: Pitman Publishing.

128
 UNIT 4 FORMS OF STRUCTURE

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Cost
3.1 Objectives of an Organisation Structure
3.1.1 Aligning Organisational Objectives
3.2 Organizational Structure Dimensions
3.3 Business Organizational Structure
3.3.1 Classical Form of Organisation
3.3.2 Alternate Design
3.3.3 Organisational and Mechanistic Designs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Structure is the pattern of relationships among positions in the organisation and among members
of the organisation. The purpose of structure is the division of work among members of the
organisation, and the co-ordination of their activities so that they are directed towards achieving
the same goals and objectives of the organisation. Structure defines tasks and responsibilities,
work roles and relationships, and channels of communication. Business organizational structures
have evolved with the adoption of Internet technologies and the increase in collaborative
teamwork. In place of hierarchical vertical structures many organizations have introduced
horizontal structures where cross-functional teamwork replaces departmental specialization.
Companies align their businesses in different ways: some structures reflect the company‘s
specialization in specific market sectors; others focus their business around product groups. The

129
Internet also enables the creation of virtual organizations that have no permanent structure, but
bring together people for specific projects.

2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss relatively complex structure
• explain the mid-size structure
• analyse Business organisational structure;

3.0 MAIN COST

3.1 Objectives of an Organisation Structure

The overall goals, purpose and mission of a business that have been established by its
management and communicated to its employees. The organizational objectives of a company
typically focus on its long range intentions for operating and its overall business philosophy that
can provide useful guidance for employees seeking to please their managers.

3.1.1 Aligning Organisational Objectives

Creating a clear line of sight from the top of the organisation to the front line is critical to the
implementation of organisational goals. Everyone in an organisation should have an
understanding of what the organisation's objectives are and how they fit with and contribute to
helping achieve these objectives. This philosophy is based upon the belief that it is the front line
personnel that produces the bottom line profits. The concept of a 'clear line of sight' is
based
upon the principle of one level of objectives informing the next level of objectives. High level
objectives are often linked directly to the organisation's mission and strategic plan and provide
the framework for the next level of objectives and priorities.

This chain of linked objectives is cascaded all the way down the organisation thereby
providing‘clear line of sight‘ from an individual‘s objectives to the team's objectives, through to
the organisation's strategic objectives.

130
A hierarchy of objectives

Performance management plays an important role in this process. It provides managers with a
framework within which they are able to:

 Communicate organisational objectives and plans to individuals and teams

 Discuss and agree team and individual objectives
 Monitor and review individual and team performance
 Plan and support individual and team performance.

Performance management is a cyclical process enabling managers to identify underperformance,

take action to improve performance and develop the skills and competences of individuals and
teams. Performance management is part of an organisation's communication system. This is
shown in the diagram below.

131
The Performance Management Cycle

3.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE DIMENSIONS

Here are a number of dimensions or attributes that should be considered when designing an
organization. These are important also during strategic planning.

Specialization
The shape of a company is often closely related to the number and distribution of specialist roles.
'Birds of a feather flock together', as they say, and people who have studied the same subject like
to work with one another, as not only can they discuss common problems but they also can learn
from one another as they professionally develop. Whilst not always necessary, it can also be
helpful if your manager understands you and your work.

132
In consequence, when companies split into departments, these are often driven by specialization,
and firms which have more specializations will have more divisions (and possibly sub-divisions
too).

Standardization
The number and control of repeatable processes varies with organization. In the classic
manufacturing assembly plant there is much which is standardized. On the other hand,
professional organizations such as consultancies will have less control, and organizations that
that work flexibility will have less standardization.

Formalization
Formalization of what is done is similar to standardization but is more about the number of
written rules, policies, procedures, and so on. This is typical of a large bureaucracy where there
is a large central staff whose existence is often based on the formulation and policing of rules. It
also may be found in highly regulated environments and where health and safety is at risk,
including hospitals and nuclear power stations.
The dilemma with formalization is that whilst it ensures consistency and can help the
organization stay legal and safe, it also prohibits originality and change, with the result that
formalized organizations can become unthinking and out of date.

Centralization
In a centralized organization, much of the control is held centrally, with managers and corporate
staff who issue rules and make key decisions. Whilst centralization gives control that allows for
common and lockstep action, it removes freedom from the extremes of the company where local
conditions and customers may demand alternative courses of action. Repeated centralization and
decentralization is a pattern found in phases of organizational growth and crisis, where each
reacts against problems in the other.

Configuration
The configuration of a company is in the number of hierarchical layers and span of control (how
many subordinates each manager has). The natural approach to sustaining control in a company

133
is to have managers and subordinates but too many subordinates are difficult to manage, so this
process continues in subdivision. This however creates its own problems and various
organizational forms have been used in order address the issues of configuration.
Traditionalism
In the original organizations which were typically craft-based, such as thatching, agriculture and
stonemasonry, there were few written rules and many people could not read or write. Instruction
and learning was done through a master-apprentice structure.
Whilst there are fewer such organizations now, a significant variable is the amount of
information and processes which are documented as opposed to being orally transmitted. Smaller
companies are more likely to retain this informality, especially where they are based on expertise
and where they are sufficiently stable that employees stay there long enough to learn tacitly and
then go on to re-transmit their knowledge.

3.3 BUSINESS ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

Organisational design refers to the process of coordinating the structural elements of
organisations in the most appropriate manner. There are three distinct schools; the classical, the
neoclassical and the contemporary. The classical school represented by Max Weber, F.W.Taylor
and Henry Fayol; the proponents of formal hierarchy, clear set of rules and specialisation of
labour. The neo-classical represented by organisational scholar such as McGregor, Argyris and
Likert. They emphasize on employee satisfaction along with economic effectiveness and call for
the designing of flat hierarchical structure with a high degree of decentralisation. The proponents
of contemporary design emphasize on the environmental factors in which the organisations are
operating. Let us now learn them briefly.

3.3.1 Classical Form of Organisation

The Simple Structure: A simple structure has low departmentalisation, wide span of control,
concentration of authority in a single person, and little or no formalization. Simple structure is
normally flat type of organisation having two or three vertical levels, a loose body of employees
and one individual in whom the decision-making authority is centralised. Usually, practiced in
small organisations having owner manager or family owned businesses. The advantage of simple

134
structure is in its simplicity. It is fast, flexible, inexpensive to maintain and accountability is
absolutely clear. However, it is very difficult to maintain especially when the organisations grow
larger.
The Bureaucracy: The most common form of organisation is the classical bureaucratic structure.
The structure is inflexible, impersonal and highly standardised. You may observe some of the
organisations we come across very frequently. The banks, where we deposit our money and
withdraw cash as and when we need them. The stores from where we buy large number of items
of daily use. The income tax office, we need to file our income tax returns every year. If you
observe these organisations closely, we may find that they are all having highly routinised work
system carried out through specialisation, formally written rules and regulations, centralised
authority, narrow span of control and all decision have to follow the chain of command. Max
Weber (1947), considered it as an ideal form of organisation. The bureaucracy, though not very
ideal form of organisation in modern times but still holds ground. The strength of bureaucracy
lies in its ability to perform standardised functions highly efficiently. However, obsessive
observance of rules and regulations is said to be its major weakness.
The Matrix Structure: Mathematically, matrix is an array of horizontal rows and vertical
columns. In order to understand the Matrix Structure, we first need to understand the Functional
Organisation, a form of departmentalisation in which every member of the organisation engaged
in a functional area i.e., employee engaged in marketing or production is grouped into one unit.
The matrix organisation is defined as type of organisation in which each employee has two
bosses or (under dual authority). They have to report to both functional and divisional manager
and also to a project or group manager. This type of structure is most popular in the advertising
agencies, hospitals, Research and Development laboratory and universities. The matrix structure
allows for flexible use of organisations human resources, pooling and sharing of specialized
resources but the major problem is with regard to coordination of task and stress caused by two
bosses.

3.3.2 Alternate Design

Robins has classified the structural designs into three broad types; the team structure, the virtual
organisation, and the boundary less organisation.

135
The Team Structure: The team structure uses the team as the central device to coordinate work
activities. Robins defines work team as a group whose individual efforts result in a performance
greater than the sum of the individual inputs. The primary characteristics of the team structure
are that it breaks down departmental barriers and decentralises decision making to the level of
the work team. One of the prerequisites of the team structure is that the employees have to be
both generalists as well as specialists. In India some of the well known multinationals like
Xerox, Motorola and the IT giant H.P uses cross functional teams.
The Virtual Organisation: In the age of specialisation no organisation can survive without
outsourcing. The core activity remains with the main organisation whereas parts are performed
by others. The virtual organisation (also known as network or modular organisation) goes a step
ahead by outsourcing major business function. In structural terms the virtual organisation is
highly centralised, with little or no departmentation. When large organisations use virtual
structure, they frequently use it to outsource manufacturing activities. This is the reason why do
some of the very large organisations do business of crores of rupees without having
manufacturing activities.
The Boundary Less Organisation: The credit for coining the term boundary less organisation
goes to Mr. Jack Welch of General Electrics (GE). He wanted GE to become boundary less
organisation. The type of organisation, which seeks to eliminate the chain of command, have
limitless span of control and replace departments with empowered teams. By removing vertical
boundaries, management flattens the hierarchy, status, and ranks are minimized. G.E. has been
using cross-hierarchical teams, participative decision making practices and 360-degree
performance appraisal system to break vertical boundaries. It is the networked computers (with
the help of internet and intranet), which makes the boundary less organisation possible by
allowing people to communicate across inter-organisational and intra-organisational boundaries.
Electronic Mail for example permits hundreds of employee to share information simultaneously
and allows ranks and file workers to communicate directly with senior executives.

3.3.3 Organisational and Mechanistic Designs

There are two extreme models of organisational design i.e., mechanistic model and organic
model. Let us learn them briefly. Robins has identified following characteristics of mechanistic
and organic model of organisational design:

136
Mechanistic Model: The major features of mechanistic model are as follow:
• extensive departmentalization
• high formalization
• a limited information network; and
• centralisation
The activities are grouped together based on the strategies of the departmentation like functional,
division, adaptive; etc. There are standardised policies, procedures, rules and decision making
styles. The flow of information is very limited. The decision making style is highly centralised.
Thus, the mechanistic model endevours to achieve efficiency because of its structural
characteristics.
Organic Model: The major features of organic model are as follow:
• cross hierarchical and cross functional teams
• low formalization
• comprehensive information network
• high participation in decision making
In the organic model teams emerge from different hierarchy and functional areas. The tasks,
rules, procedures and decision making are in a fluid situation and changeable. The information
flow across the organisation. There exists decentralisation of decision making where
participation is sought from the larger group. This model focuses on flexibility and adaptability.
It encourages greater utilisation of human resources.

4.0 Conclusion
The discussion has exposed you to the fact that organizational structure relates to pattern of
relationships along positions in the organisation and among members of the organization, which
defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships and channels of communication
among organizational members. You have understood that essential factors are normally taken
into consideration in designing organization structure.
There are different types of structure and relationship in organization. Organizational structure is
affected by technology as a critical aspect of the external environment.

137
5.0 SUMMARY
Structure is what ensures that your organization will function smoothly and as you intended. You
should think about structure

5.0 Tutorial Assignment

1. What is Organisation Structure
2. Discuss Organizational Structure Dimensions
3. Discuss Business Organizational Structure
4. Discuss Classical Form of Organisation

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Berkowitz, W.R, and Wolff, T.J. (1999). The spirit of coalition building. Washington, D.C.:
American Public Health Association.

Unterman, I. & Davis, R.H. (1984). Strategic management of not-for-profit organizations: From
survival to success. New York, NY: Praeger

138
 MODULE 5 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Organizational Culture
3.2 Chat of Organisational Culture
3.3 Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory
3.3.1 Power distance
3.3.2 Uncertainty avoidance
3.3.3 Individualism vs. collectivism
3.3.4 Masculinity vs. femininity
3.3.5 Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation
3.4 Factors and elements of organizational culture
4.0 Conclusion.
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutorial assignment.
7.0 References/Further reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The culture of an organisation is a set of norms, values and beliefs. These have developed over
time, unplanned and emergent. However, the culture of an organisation is something that can
have an enormous impact on the way in which an organisation operates, and its effectiveness. It
is also something that can be assessed and, if necessary, changed over time. Organisational
culture interventions are notorious for their difficulty and duration but if culture change is needed
this should not deter an organisation from embarking on the process of change. Indeed, it may be
the key to its survival.
Different cultures are reflected in different organisational structures and systems. Indeed, it is
important that structures and systems are appropriate to the organisation‘s culture. Also, different
people prefer different organisational cultures.

139
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
 Give a conceptual definition of Organizational culture

 What are the dimensions of Hofstede's categorization of culture

 Discuss factors and element of organizational culture

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational culture is the behavior of humans who are part of an organization and the
meanings that the people attach to their actions. Culture includes the organization values, visions,
norms, working language, systems, symbols, beliefs and habits. It is also the pattern of such
collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of
perceiving, and even thinking and feeling. Organizational culture affects the way people and
groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders.
Ravasi and Schultz (2006) state that organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions
that guide interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various
situations. At the same time although a company may have "own unique culture", in larger
organizations, there is a diverse and sometimes conflicting cultures that co-exist due to different
characteristics of the management team. The organizational culture may also have negative and
positive aspects.
Schein (2009), Deal & Kennedy (2000), Kotler (1992) and many others state that organizations
often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures.
3.2 CHAT OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

140
Clan: Strong value placed on flexibility and discretion with a focus inside the organization.
Leaders tend to be mentors and coaches. Effectiveness is evaluated in terms of the cohesion and
morale of individuals inside the firm and tacit knowledge held. Overall, the organization tends to
be a friendly place to work, with a great deal of commitment and loyalty.
Hierarchy: Strong value placed on control and stability with a focus inside the organization.
Leaders tend to be monitors and organizers. Effectiveness is measured in terms of efficiency and
orderly coordination. The organization tends to be a formal and standardized place to work with
emphasis on explicit knowledge.
Market: Strong value placed on control and stability with a focus outside the organization.
Leaders tend be driven and competitive. Effectiveness is measured in terms of goal achievement
and beating the competition in the marketplace. The organization can be a difficult place to work
because there is a constant focus on results and doing better than colleagues.
Adhocracy: Strong value placed on flexibility and discretion with a focus outside the
organization. Leaders tend to be entrepreneurial and innovative, perhaps even visionary.
Effectiveness is evaluated in terms of creativity and leading-edge innovation in the marketplace.
The organization tends to be a vibrant place to work, with significant risk taking.

141
3.3 HOFSTEDE'S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS THEORY
Hofstede (1980) looked for global differences between over 100,000 of IBM's employees in 50
different countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that
might influence business behaviour. He suggested about cultural differences existing in regions
and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for the own
cultural introspection. Cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and
even in "mental programs", a term Hofstede uses for predictable behaviour. Hofstede relates
culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, profession, family, to society and
subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc.
Hofstede suggests of the need of changing "mental programs" with changing behaviour first
which will lead to value change and he suggests that however certain groups like Jews, Gypsies
and Basques have maintained their identity through centuries without changing. Hofstede
demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behaviour of
organizations and identified four dimensions of culture.
Power distance: Different societies find different solutions on social inequality. Although
invisible, inside organizations power inequality of the "boss-subordinates relationships" is
functional and according to Hofstede reflects the way inequality is addressed in the society.
"According to Mulder's Power Distance Reduction theory subordinates will try to reduce the
power distance between themselves and their bosses and bosses will try to maintain or enlarge
it", but there is also a degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of
power. A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger
amounts of power than others. A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal
rights.
Uncertainty avoidance: Is the coping with uncertainty about the future. Society copes with it
with technology, law and religion (however different societies have different ways to addressing
it), and according to Hofstede organizations deal with it with technology, law and rituals or in
two ways - rational and non-rational, where rituals being the non-rational. Hofstede listed as
rituals the memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, large part of the planning
and control systems, and the nomination of experts.
Individualism vs collectivism: Disharmony of interests on personal and collective goals
(Parsons and Shils, 1951). Hofstede brings that society's expectations of

142
Individualism/Collectivism will be reflected by the employee inside the organization.
Collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence of members on their organizations,
when in equilibrium - organization is expected to show responsibility on members. Hofstede says
that capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition and depends on it but
individualism is also related to the development of middle class. Research indicates that some
people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism, for example, and
someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to
personal freedom and self-sufficiency.[citation needed]
Masculinity vs. femininity: This reflects whether certain society is predominantly male or
female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations.
Long- Versus Short-Term: Orientation which he describes as "The long-term orientation
dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society‘s search for virtue. Societies with a short-
term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth. They are
normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity
to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. In societies with a long-term
orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They
show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest,
thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results.

3.3 FACTORS AND ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Gerry Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be
used to describe or influence organizational culture:
The paradigm: What the organization is about, what it does, its mission, its values.
Control systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on. Role cultures would have
vast rulebooks. There would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture.
Organizational structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through
the business.
Power structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power
based?
Symbols: These include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power
such as parking spaces and executive washrooms.

143
Rituals and routines: Management meetings, board reports and so on may become more
habitual than necessary.
Stories and myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is
valued within the organization.
These elements may overlap. Power structures may depend on control systems, which may
exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true.
According to Schein (1992), the two main reasons why cultures develop in organizations is due
to external adaptation and internal integration. External adaptation reflects an evolutionary
approach to organizational culture and suggests that cultures develop and persist because they
help an organization to survive and flourish. If the culture is valuable, then it holds the potential
for generating sustained competitive advantages. Additionally, internal integration is an
important function since social structures are required for organizations to exist. Organizational
practices are learned through socialization at the workplace. Work environments reinforce
culture on a daily basis by encouraging employees to exercise cultural values. Organizational
culture is shaped by multiple factors, including the following:
External environment: The external environments of an organization are those factors outside
the company that affect the company's ability to function. Some external elements can be
manipulated by company marketing, while others require the organization to make adjustments.
Monitor the basic components of your company's external environment, and keep a close watch
at all times.
Customers: Your customers are among the external elements you can attempt to influence, via
marketing and strategic release of corporate information. But ultimately, your relationship with
your clients is based on finding ways to influence them to purchase your products. Market
research is used to determine the effectiveness of your marketing messages, and to decide what
changes can be made to future marketing programs to improve sales.
Government: Government regulations in product development, packaging and shipping play a
significant role in the cost of doing business and your ability to expand into new markets. If the
government places new regulations on how you must package your product for shipment, that
can increase your unit costs and affect your profit margins. International laws create processes
that your company must follow to get your product into foreign markets.

144
Economy: As with the majority of the elements of your organization's external environment,
your company must be efficient at monitoring the economy and learning how to react to it, rather
than trying to manipulate it. Economic factors affect how you market products, how much
money you can spend on business growth, and the kind of target markets you will pursue.
Competition: Your competition has a significant effect on how you do business and how you
address your target market. You can choose to find markets that the competition is not active in,
or you can decide to take on the competition directly in the same target market. The success and
failure of your various competitors also determines a portion of your marketing planning, as
well. For example, if a long-time competitor in a particular market suddenly decides to drop out
due to financial losses, then you will need to adjust your planning to take advantage of the
situation.
Public Opinion: Any kind of company scandal can be damaging to your organization's image.
The public perception of your organization can hurt sales it's negative, or it can boost sales with
positive company news. Your firm can influence public opinion by using public relations
professionals to release strategic information, but it is also important to monitor public opinion to
try and defuse potential issues before they begin to spread.
Industry: The overall economic, regulatory, social and political conditions that affect all
participants in an industrial market in a similar way and cannot readily be influenced by
marketing. The industry environment experienced by a business can include such things as
demographics, lifestyle shifts and economic cycles.

4.0 Conclusion
Organisational culture is an important concept and a pervasive one in terms of its impact on
organizational change programmes. The suggests an ambiguity in terms of the link with
organisational performance as strong cultures have been shown to hinder performance
(unadaptive) and there is also a problem of isolating the impact of corporate culture on
performance. The problems associated with the culture/performance linkage include validation
concerns in terms of measurement, as the effect of a particular cultural variable may not affect all
performance-related organisational processes in the same way. Researchers also view it as a
socially constructed norm and not just a managerial control strategy ‗caught not taught‘. Hatch

145
(1997) suggests that organisations should aim to manage with cultural awareness and not merely
manage the culture.

5.0 Summary
It should be appreciated that each of the elements of culture listed at the introductory section of
this chapter have their effects on organization and buyers behavior. It is the managers and the
marketing executives responsibility; to carefully observe relevant cultural elements in its
environment and to appropriately take account of them in his management and marketing
programme. This is so because from the open system stand point organizations are seen as
pattern of human culture shaped so as to allow at least for survival, at most growth, and
development in an environment of the law. The environment of any one organization is likely to
differ to a great and lesser degree from every other organization. To have an open system view is
to look at culture as contingent upon the circumstance of a particular case.

6.0 Tutorial Assignment

* What is the organization culture is all about ?
* Factors and element of organisational culture

7.0 Reference/Further Reading

ICFAI Centre for Management Research, ECCH Collection (2003), 3M’s Organisational
Culture. http://www.ecch.cranfield.ac.uk.

Zalami, A. (2005). Alignment of Organisational Cultures in the Public and Private Sectors,
Presentation given at Excellence in Public Service, Amman, Jordan in September,2005.

Smircich, L. (1983). ‗Concepts of Culture and Organisational Analysis‘, Administrative Science

Quarterly, 28:339-58.

146
 UNIT 2 KEY CULTURES

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Types of Culture
3.1.1 Power Culture
3.1.2 Role Culture
3.1.3 Task Culture
3.1.4 Person Culture
3.2 The Organizational Culture Inventory
3.3 How Culture Works
3.4 Why is culture important
3.5 Guidelines for cultural change
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutorial Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The values and behaviors that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of
an organization. Organizational culture includes an organization's expectations, experiences,
philosophy, and values that hold it together, and is expressed in its self-image, inner workings,
interactions with the outside world, and future expectations.
2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:

 Discuss types of culture

 Expantiate what organizational culture is all about

147
  Discuss how culture works

 Explain guidelines for cultural change

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Culture

Charles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) with linking organizational structure
to organizational culture. The described four types of culture are:

3.1.1 Power Culture

A power culture is frequently found in small campaigning societies. It involves a powerful
central character or leader. Its structure is depicted by a web: -
Power culture usually operates informally, with few rules and procedures. Control is exercised
by the centre and decisions are taken on the basis of power and influence. Size is a problem for
power cultures, as the web can break if it becomes too large and complex. Then, the only way
the organisation can remain web-structured is to develop other ‗spin-off‘ organisations, each
web-structures in their own right.

3.1.2 Role Culture

Role culture is what was previously known as a ‗bureaucracy‘. The structure can be depicted as a
Greek temple: -
Work is coordinated by a manager, or small number of managers, at the top of the structure. The
pillars are strong functional departments. The work of these departments is coordinated and
controlled by: -
 Procedures governing roles e.g. authority definitions and job descriptions.

 Procedures for communications e.g. document distribution and circulation rules.

 Rules for settlement of disputes e.g. appeal to lowest crossover points.

With ultimate coordination and control by senior manager(s).

Position power is the major power source in this culture: personal power is not welcomed, and
expert power only appreciated ‗in its proper place‘. Rules and procedures are all encompassing.

148
The success of this culture depends on appropriate allocation of roles and responsibilities. Also, a
stable environment is necessary for this culture to work – Greek temples tremble when the
ground shakes, and collapse under an earthquake. Role culture is frustrating for individuals who
are power orientated or want control over his or her own work and the way in which it is done.

3.1.3 Task Culture

The task culture is job or project orientated. Its structure can be depicted as a net: -
The matrix organisation is one structural form of the task culture.
Task culture arranges human resources around the project in hand, and lets the team organise
themselves (self-determining teams). Influence is based more on expert power than on position
or personal power. This culture is extremely adaptable, and appropriate for task-centred, mission
driven organisations particularly campaigning organisations as it enhances creativity and
motivation. It is flexible and enables reactivity. However, task culture finds it difficult to achieve
economies of scale, or to replicate good success amongst different teams.
Management control is largely ceded, apart from determination of tasks and the allocation of
people and resources. ‗Control freak‘ managers would certainly be out of their ‗comfort zone‘ in
this culture!
This system can become strained when the organisation is short of funding or people. Then, the
manager can tend to attempt to wrestle back control, and team leaders can begin to compete for
funding or staff resources – leading to a breakdown of team mentality and a move towards power
or role culture.

3.1.4 Person Culture

Person culture is rarely found in animal protection organisations. It is where the individual is the
focus of the organisation. Communes and partnerships (e.g. management consultants or
architects) sometimes have this culture. It can be depicted by a cluster:-
This would be extremely unusual for an animal protection society, where a mission or aim is
central.

149
3.2 THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE INVENTORY
The Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI) is an integral component of Human Synergistics‘
multilevel diagnostic system for individual, group, and organizational development. The OCI
measures ―what is expected‖ of members of an organization—or, more technically, behavioral
norms and expectations which may reflect the more abstract aspects of culture such as shared
values and beliefs.
The inventory presents a list of statements which describe some of the behaviors and personal
styles that might be expected or implicitly required of an organization‘s members. Some of the
cultural norms measured by the OCI are positive and supportive of constructive interpersonal
relationships, effective problem solving, and personal growth; others are dysfunctional and can
lead to unnecessary conflict, dissatisfaction, and symptoms of strain on the part of organizational
members. More specifically, the OCI measures twelve different cultural norms that are organized
into three general types of cultures:
Robert A. Cooke, defines culture as the behaviors that members believe are required to fit in and
meet expectations within their organization. The Organizational Culture Inventory measures
twelve behavioral norms that are grouped into three general types of cultures:
Constructive cultures, in which members are encouraged to interact with people and approach
tasks in ways that help them meet their higher-order satisfaction needs.
Passive/defensive cultures, in which members believe they must interact with people in ways
that will not threaten their own security.
Aggressive/defensive cultures, in which members are expected to approach tasks in forceful
ways to protect their status and security.
Constructive cultures
This is where people are encouraged to be in communication with their co-workers, and work as
teams, rather than only as individuals. In positions where people do a complex job, rather than
something simple like a mechanic one, this sort of culture is an efficient one.
1. Achievement: completing a task successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill (pursue a
standard of excellence) (explore alternatives before acting) - Based on the need to attain high-
quality results on challenging projects, the belief that outcomes are linked to one's effort rather
than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. People high in this
style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes.

150
2. Self-actualizing: realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities considered as a
drive or need present in everyone (think in unique and independent ways) (do even simple tasks
well) Based on needs for personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realisation of one's potential.
People with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet
realistic thinking and a balanced concern for people and tasks.
Humanistic-encouraging: help others to grow and develop (resolve conflicts constructively)
Reflects an interest in the growth and development of people, a high positive regard for them and
sensitivity to their needs. People high in this style devote energy to coaching and counselling
others, are thoughtful and considerate and provide people with support and encouragement.
Affiliative: treat people as more valuable than things (cooperate with others) - Reflects an
interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. People high in this style share their
thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative and make others feel a part of things.
Organizations with constructive cultures encourage members to work to their full potential,
resulting in high levels of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and sales growth.
Constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued over quantity, creativity
is valued over conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better results than competition, and
effectiveness is judged at the system level rather than the component level. These types of
cultural norms are consistent with (and supportive of) the objectives behind empowerment, total
quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, re-engineering, and
learning organizations.

Passive/defensive cultures
Norms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten
their own security are in the Passive/Defensive Cluster.
The four Passive/Defensive cultural norms are:
 Approval

 Conventional

 Dependent

 Avoidance
151
In organizations with Passive/Defensive cultures, members feel pressured to think and behave in
ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should in order to be effective. People
are expected to please others (particularly superiors) and avoid interpersonal conflict. Rules,
procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment.
Passive/Defensive cultures experience a lot of unresolved conflict and turnover, and
organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction.
Aggressive/defensive cultures
This style is characterized with more emphasis on task than people. Because of the very nature of
this style, people tend to focus on their own individual needs at the expense of the success of the
group. The aggressive/defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make
decisions based on status as opposed to expertise.
1. Oppositional: This cultural norm is based on the idea that a need for security that takes the
form of being very critical and cynical at times. People who use this style are more likely
to
question others work; however, asking those tough question often leads to a better product.
Nonetheless, those who use this style may be overly-critical toward others, using irrelevant or
trivial flaws to put others down.
2. Power: This cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence.
Those who use this style often equate their own self-worth with controlling others. Those who
use this style have a tendency to dictate others opposing to guiding others‘ actions.
3. Competitive: This cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one‘s status. Those
who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and
outperforming them. Those who use this style are seekers of appraisal and recognition from
others.
4. Perfectionistic: This cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. Those who
often use this style equate their self-worth with the attainment of extremely high standards.
Those who often use this style are always focused on details and place excessive demands on
themselves and others.
Organizations with aggressive/defensive cultures encourage or require members to appear
competent, controlled, and superior. Members who seek assistance, admit shortcomings, or
concede their position are viewed as incompetent or weak. These organizations emphasize
finding errors, weeding out "mistakes" and encouraging members to compete against each other

152
rather than competitors. The short-term gains associated with these strategies are often at the
expense of long-term growth

3.3 HOW CULTURE WORKS

As depicted by the model, the operating cultures of your organization is not directly determined
by its values (or ideal culture), nor is it directly influenced by its missions and philosophies.
Rather, the behavioural norms and expectations that emerge within organizations are directly
influenced by their internal structures, systems, technologies, and skills/qualities.
Structure: Refers to the manner in which components (such as people, tasks, and roles) are
ordered and coupled to create organization. Aspects of structure that can influence an
organization‘s operating culture include its design (such as degree of centralization,
formalization, and specialization) and the extent to which it promotes or restricts members‘
involvement and empowerment.
Systems: Refer to the interrelated sets of procedures such as human resource, information,
accounting, and quality control systems an organization uses to support its core activities and
solve problems. Human resource management systems, including goal setting, reinforcement,
performance management, training and development, and selection and placement, are among
the most powerful factors for shaping as well as redirecting the operating culture of an
organization.
Technology: Refers to the methods by which an organization transforms inputs into outputs.
Aspects of technology that have been found to have an impact on the operating culture of
organizations include job design, job complexity, and degree of interdependence among
members.
Skills/qualities: of organizational members particularly those who hold leadership roles can
shape, reinforce, and change the operating culture of an organization. Examples of relevant skills
and qualities revolve around communication, sources of power and influence, methods for
conflict resolution, and job security.
To the extent that your organization‘s internal structures, systems, technology, skills/qualities,
and mission and philosophy are all in alignment with its values, the organization‘s operating
culture will more closely reflect its ideal culture. In contrast, the operating culture will be

153
considerably different from the organization‘s ideal when causal factors are not in alignment
with the organization‘s values and ideal culture.
The model also illustrates that your organization‘s operating culture determines outcomes at the
individual, group, and organizational levels. For example, culture has been found to be
associated with satisfaction, motivation, and stress at the individual level; teamwork and inter-
unit coordination at the group level; and product/service quality and external adaptability at the
organizational level.

3.4 WHY IS CULTURE IMPORTANT

Some researchers‘ findings show that certain kinds of cultures correlate with economic
performance (Denison, 1990; Kotter and Heskett, 1992) suggests a link between organisationl
culture change and public service improvement. Understanding of organisational culture and
cultural types also helps our understanding of why managerial reforms may impact differently
within and between organisations. An organisation with a predominantly internal process culture,
for example, may be more resistant to reforms aimed at promoting innovation. We would also
expect staff in high uncertainty avoidance cultures to be more concerned with rule-following and
more reluctant to risk changing jobs both factors of some importance for those reformers who
want to deregulate bureaucracies and encourage more rapid job change in the public service‘.
Practitioners in both the private and public sectors have come to realise that organisational
change often requires changing the organisation‘s culture and learning. For example, in terms of
improving career progression arrangements in the civil service, O‘Riordan and Humphreys
(2002) suggest a need for a change in organisational culture in many areas of a department. In
particular, O‘Riordan (2004) says that ‗developing a culture in which career progression and
development of staff is prioritised represents an important retention and motivation tool‘.
Zalami (2005) notes that culture can either facilitate or inhibit institutional transformation
depending on whether or not the existing culture is aligned with the goals of the proposed
change. This is also noted by O‘Donnell (2006) in terms of culture facilitating innovative
initiatives in the public sector and providing a supportive environment for developing
‗enterprising leaders‘.

154
3.5 GUIDELINES FOR CULTURAL CHANGE
When an organization does not possess a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational
culture change, the change process can be daunting. Culture change may be necessary to reduce
employee turnover, influence employee behavior, make improvements to the company, refocus
the company objectives and/or rescale the organization, provide better customer service, and/or
achieve specific company goals and results. Culture change is impacted by a number of
elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, change in industry
standards, technology changes, the size and nature of the workforce, and the organization‘s
history and management.
Cummings & Worley's six guidelines for cultural change which are in line with Kotter's eight-
step strategy. The steps are as follow:
1. Formulate a clear strategic vision (stage 1, 2, and 3). In order to make a cultural change
effective a clear vision of the firm‘s new strategy, shared values and behaviors is needed. This
vision provides the intention and direction for the culture change (Cummings & Worley, 2004).
2. Display top-management commitment (stage 4). It is very important to keep in mind that
culture change must be managed from the top of the organization, as willingness to change of the
senior management is an important indicator (Cummings & Worley, 2004, page 490). The top of
the organization should be very much in favor of the change in order to actually implement the
change in the rest of the organization. De Caluwé & Vermaak (2004) provide a framework with
five different ways of thinking about change.
3. Model culture change at the highest level (stage 5). In order to show that the management
team is in favor of the change, the change has to be notable at first at this level. The behavior of
the management needs to symbolize the kinds of values and behaviors that should be realized in
the rest of the company. It is important that the management shows the strengths of the current
culture as well, it must be made clear that the current organizational does not need radical
changes, but just a few adjustments. This process may also include creating committee,
employee task forces, value managers, or similar. Change agents are key in the process and key
communicators of the new values. They should possess courage, flexibility, excellent
interpersonal skills, knowledge of the company, and patience. As McCune (May 1999) puts it,
these individual should be catalysts, not dictators.

155
4. Modify the organization to support organizational change. The fourth step is to modify the
organization to support organizational change. This includes identifying what current systems,
policies, procedures and rules need to be changed in order to align with the new values and
desired culture. This may include a change to accountability systems, compensation, benefits and
reward structures, and recruitment and retention programs to better align with the new values and
to send a clear message to employees that the old system and culture are in the past.
5. Select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants (stage 7 & 8 of Kotter, 1995). A way
to implement a culture is to connect it to organizational membership, people can be selected and
terminate in terms of their fit with the new culture (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 491).
Encouraging employee motivation and loyalty to the company is key and will also result in a
healthy culture. The company and change managers should be able to articulate the connections
between the desired behavior and how it will impact and improve the company‘s success, to
further encourage buy-in in the change process. Training should be provided to all employees to
understand the new processes, expectations and systems.
6. Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Changes in culture can lead to tensions between
organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for
practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable
treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2004). It is also beneficial, as part of the
change process, to include an evaluation process, conducted periodically to monitor the change
progress and identify areas that need further development. This step will also identify obstacles
of change and resistant employees and to acknowledge and reward employee improvement,
which will also encourage continued change and evolvement. It may also be helpful and
necessary to incorporate new change managers to refresh the process. Outside consultants may
also be useful in facilitating the change process and providing employee training. Change of
culture in the organizations is very important and inevitable. Culture innovations is bound to be
because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in
existing cultures. Cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult than cultural maintenance.
People often resist changes hence it is the duty of the management to convince people that likely
gain will outweigh the losses. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that
tends to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to
be regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. Organizational

156
members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns given by the
organization, and they begin to identify with it. The organization turns into a sort of clan.

4.0 Conclusion
The analysis in this study unit has exposed you the fact that organization has its own culture.
Such organizational culture is manifested in artifacts and creations, values and unconsciously
held learned responses to issues. There are some basic types of organizational culture which are
power culture, role culture, task culture, and person culture. Organizational culture is influenced
by variables such as historical development of the organization, the primary function and
technology being used by the organization, its goals and objectives, the size of organization, the
location of organization, its management and staffing, and the external environment. The
analysis has showed that there is a direct link between cultural variance and workplace
behaviour.

5.0 Summary
This study unit has been used to discuss:
 The meaning and nature of organizational culture.
 Levels and types of organizational culture.
 The influences on development of organizational culture.
 The Importance of Culture

6.0 Tutorial Assignment

1. Identify and explain the factors that influence organizational culture
7.0 References/Further Reading
Barney, J. B. (1986). "Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source of Sustained Competitive
Advantage?". Academy of Management Review, 11, (3), 656–665.

Black, R. J. (2003). Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success,
London UK, ISBN 1-58112-211-X

Bligh, Michelle C. (2006). "Surviving Post-merger ‗Culture Clash‘: Can Cultural Leadership
Lessen the Casualties?" Leadership, vol. 2: pp. 395 - 426.

157
Hartnell, C.A. & Kinicki, A. (2011). "Organizational Culture and Organizational Effectiveness:
A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Competing Values Framework's Theoretical
Suppositions." Journal of Applied Psychology (online publication).

Jex, S. M. & Thomas, W. (2008). Organizational Psychology, A Scientist-Practitioner

Approach, John Wiley & Sons.

Markus, Hazel. (1977). "Self-schemata and processing information about the self." Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 35(2): pp. 63–78.

158
 UNIT 3 DETERMINANTS OF CULTURE
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Determinant of Culture
3.1 Factors that contribute towards the development of organisational culture
3.2 Functions of organisational culture
3.3 Issues in managing culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutorial Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Generally, business today gets done in a global marketplace. Change is occurring at an incredible
pace. Time and distance continue to become less and less relevant thanks in great part to the
explosive growth of technology and the Internet. Therefore, leaders of business must be able to
anticipate change, forecast trend, and develop a strategy to readily and successfully deal with the
chaos created by change. In particular, despite the level of any individual company, strategic
planning provides a company purpose and direction. Everyone in an organization needs to know
what they are selling or doing, who the target customers are, and how the company competes in
the marketplace. However, the company could even have the best strategic plan with all excellent
ideas and clear vision but it could still fail to survive without the efforts and contributions in
execution that plan from its own people. No great achievement has ever been the efforts of just
one person. People need people. Many might take that for granted, but science has actually
proven that people cannot successfully live alone (Bell 2008). For people to live and work with
each other successfully there must be defined roles and responsibilities whether they exist within
families, companies, or society as a whole. Wherever people live and work together, culture
develops. Organizational culture refers to the beliefs, values and attitudes that define the

159
company and develops naturally, whether it is nourished or not. In the extent of this report, we
are going to discuss the importance of organizational culture towards the strategic management.

2.0 Objectives

 Discuss determinants of culture

 Factors that contribute towards the development of organisational culture

 Functions of organisational culture

 Issues in managing culture

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Determinants of culture
Culture of an organization is a focus of study for many researchers these days. Culture of
an
organization is a predictor of organizational environment, work climate, values of organization
and its employees and overall profitability. "Practitioners and academics attempt to better
understand the trends and changes in organizational culture because of their important
ramifications on the daily operations of any corporation" (Lankford & Wimsatt, 1999). In simple
terms, culture refers to shared values of people. Kuper's (1999) idea about culture is that It‘s "a
matter of ideas and values, a collective cast of mind‖.
Cultures are often studied and understood at a national level, such as the American or French
culture. Culture includes deeply held values, beliefs and assumptions, symbols, heroes, and
rituals. Culture can be examined at an organizational level as well. The main distinction between
organizational and national culture is that people can choose to join a place of work, but are
usually born into a national culture. Determinants of organisation culture
Organization culture can be a set of key values, assumptions, understandings and norms that is
shared by members of an organization
Organization values are fundamental beliefs that an organization considers to be important, that
are relatively stable over time, and they have an impact on employees behaviors and attitudes.
Organization Norms are shared standards that define what behaviours are acceptable and
desirable within organization.
160
Shared assumptions are about how things are done in an organization. Understandings are coping
with internal/ external problems uniformly. Organizational climate, on the other hand, is often
defined as the recurring patterns of behavior, attitudes and feelings that characterize life in the
organization, while an organization culture tends to be deep and stable. Although culture and
climate are related, climate often proves easier to assess and change. At an individual level of
analysis the concept is called individual psychological climate. These individual perceptions are
often aggregated or collected for analysis and understanding at the team or group level, or the
divisional, functional, or overall organizational level Organizational climate measures attempts
to assess organizations in terms of dimensions that are thought to capture or describe
perceptions about the climate.
At the very onset of this topic, it is useful to distinguish determinants and dimensions of OC.
Determinants are the causes, while dimensions are the components of OC. You may say,
determinants are those which influence whereas dimensions are those which are influenced.

Although OC refers to the internal environment of an organization, the nature of OC is

determined by a variety of internal and external factors. One of the basis premises of
organizational behavior is that outside environmental forces influence events within
organizations. After acknowledging the dynamics of internal as well as external factors in this
section, we will consider in greater detail the following seven internal factors. You will find
these factors as determinants of OC in the following order:
1. Economic Condition
2. Leadership Style
3. Organizational Policies
4. Managerial Values
5. Organizational Structure
6. Characteristics of Members
7. Organizational Size
Economic Conditions: Several dimensions of OC are influenced by an organization‘s position
on the economic cycle. The economic condition of any organization influences whether its
budget should be ―tight‖ or ―loose‖. In times of prosperity- when budgets are more loose than

161
tight – the organizations tends to be more adventuresome. On the other hand, tight budget would
lead to an air of caution and conservatism within an organization. Few managers are willing to
suggest new programmers (probably deserving merit) when the order from above is to exercise
tight control over expenses. So, dimensions of OC like ―Risk-taking‖, ―Control‖,
Progressiveness and Development‖ etc. are directly influenced by economic conditions.
Leadership Style: The leadership style prevailing in an organization has a profound influence in
determining several dimensions of OC. The influence is so pervasive that you may often wonder
whether OC is product of the philosophy.

3.2 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
There are various factors that contribute towards the development of organisational culture.
These include: -
Owner/Founder: Often the owner or founder will have an enormous role in establishing its
culture, although the impact will wane over time. Organisations dominated by the owner or
founder will tend to have a power culture.
Size: Culture often changes as an organisation grows. For example, as the number of staff and
functions of an organisation expand, a move towards role culture is often seen.
Organisational Environment: In a rapidly changing environment, task culture may be
appropriate. In a static environment, role culture may be preferable. A challenging environment
(for example, in times of dictatorship or other challenge, power culture may be appropriate.
National Culture: Different nationalities may work better in different organisational cultures.

3.3 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

Different cultures may be appropriate for different functions or purposes. For example, as
previously examined, a task culture may be more appropriate for campaigning and role culture
for service delivery.
Goals or Objectives: Quality of service delivery is more likely to be achieved under role
culture, whereas successful campaigning is more likely under task culture. A power or task
culture is more appropriate for growth goals.

162
Staff: Different individuals prefer working under different organisational cultures. It may be
counter-productive for an organisation to attempt culture change if key staff would feel
uncomfortable or alienated in the desired culture.
Technology: The move towards increased use of technology tends to push organisations towards
role culture, with associated procedures and protocols.
Policies: An organisation‘s policies also become part of its culture, and impact strongly on its
work. It follows that these should be formulated and agreed carefully, with full staff consultation.
Structure: feelings about constraints and freedom to act and the degree of formality or
informality in the working atmosphere.
Responsibility: the feeling of being trusted to carry out important work.
Risk: the sense of riskiness and challenge in the job and in the organization; the relative
emphasis on taking calculated risks or playing it safe. Warmth - the existence of friendly and
informal social groups.
Support: the perceived helpfulness of managers and co-workers; the emphasis (or lack of
emphasis) on mutual support.
Standards: the perceived importance of implicit and explicit goals and performance standards;
the emphasis on doing a good job; the challenge represented in personal and team goals.
Conflict: the feeling that managers and other workers want to hear different opinions; the
emphasis on getting problems out into the open rather than smoothing them over or ignoring
them.
Identity: the feeling that you belong to a company; that you are a valuable member of a working
team.
Autonomy: the perception of self-determination with respect to work procedures, goals and
priorities;
Cohesion: the perception of togetherness or sharing within the organization setting, including
the willingness of members to provide material risk;
Trust: the perception of freedom to communicate openly with members at higher organizational
levels about sensitive or personal issues, with the expectation that the integrity of such
communications will not be violated;
Resource: the perception of time demands with respect to task competition and performance
standards;

163
Support: the perception of the degree to which superiors tolerate members' behaviour,
including willingness to let members learn from their mistakes without fear of reprisal.
Recognition: the perception that members' contributions to the organization are acknowledged.

3.4 ISSUES IN MANAGING CULTURE

If culture is important, is it possible to manage culture change? Culture change involves moving
an organization on from one form of culture to another, often through a culture change
programme. Managing this cultural change programme requires that attention be paid to a range
of issues. Pettigrew et al., (2003) suggest a number of key factors:
 creating a receptive climate for change
 top leadership drive - coherent and cohesive
 requiring an articulate and precise vision from the top
 discrepant action to increase tension
 use of deviants and heretics
 new avenues for articulating problems
 reinforcing structural change and rewards
 use of role models
 deep socialisation, training and development
 new communication mechanisms to transmit new
 values and beliefs
 integrated selection criteria and removal of deviants
 luck, persistence and patience.

Hatch (1997), however, suggests that it is important tomanage with cultural awareness rather
than to directly manage the culture. There are, therefore, competing views in the literature as to
the degree to which it is possible to manage culture. Some argue that culture can be directed and
controlled, particularly by influential leaders. Others argue that directive, top down change is
unlikely to be successful in the long run, and that managing culture is either not possible, or only
possible if the complexity of reality is understood and change is progressed in a consensual and
longer-term manner.

164
4.0 Conclusion
Organisational culture is a widely used term but one that seems to give rise to a degree
of
ambiguity. Watson (2006) emphasises that the concept of culture originally derived from a
metaphor of the organisation as ‗something cultivated‘. For the past number of decades, most
academics and practitioners studying organisations suggest the concept of culture is the climate
and practices that organisations develop around their handling of people, or to the promoted
values and statement of beliefs of an organisation (Schein, 2004). Schein (2004) highlights that
‗the only thing of real importance that leaders do is to create and manage culture; that the unique
talent of leaders is their ability to understand and work with culture; and that it is an ultimate act
of leadership to destroy culture when it is viewed as dysfunctional.

5.0 Summary
The foregoing analysis has enabled you to appreciate the fact that organizational determinant is a
series of stages, which involve latent conflict, perceived conflict, felt conflict, manifest conflict,
conflict resolution, and conflict aftermath, a process called conflict episode; a gradual escalation
of conflict through the series of stages. From the preceding study unit, you observe that
organizational conflict cannot be avoided or wished away by the management of any
organization. Therefore, it is imperative that you should understand the nature of the available
strategies through which organizational determinant can be managed and resolved by the
management.

6.0 Tutorial Assignment

1. Discuss determinants of culture
2. Factors that contribute towards the development of organisational culture
3. Functions of organisational culture
4. Issues in managing culture

7.0 References/Further Reading

Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1984). Solving Costly Organizational Conflicts, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Bendix, S. (2001) The Basis of Labour Relations,

165
Kennyn: Juta Bendix, S., & Jacobs, F. (1991). Industrial Relations and organizational Dynamics:
Cases and Text, Kennyn: Juta.

166
 UNIT 4 CHANGING CULTURES

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature of Organizational Change
3.2 Planned Organisational Change
3.2.1 Behaviour modification
3.2.2 Systems Approach to Organisational Change
3.3 Forces Shaping Change in Organizations
3.4 Resistance to Change
3.4.1 Individual Resistance
3.4.2 Organisational Resistance
3.5 The Management of Organizational Change
3.6 Minimizing Problems of Change
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
An organisation exists and operates within the broader external environment. Therefore, the
structure and functioning of the organisation must reflect the nature of the environment in which
it is operating. Environmental variables such as uncertain economic conditions, fierce world
competition, the level of government intervention, scarcity of natural resources and rapid
developments in new technology create an increasingly volatile environment. Hence, in order to
help ensure its survival and future
success the organisation must be readily adaptable to the external demands placed upon it.

167
This means that the organisation must expect and be responsive to change. This study unit
is
used to discuss the nature of organizational change and by extension, organizational
development.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
 Explain the nature of organizational change
 Identify and discuss approaches to planned organizational change
 Mention and explain various forces that shape organizational change
 Discuss resistance to change in organization
 Discuss how problems of change can be minimized.
 Discuss management of organizational change and development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Organizational change can originate within the organisation itself but the main pressure of
change is from external forces. Much of this change is part of a natural process of organizational
life and operations. For example, change can occur in operational variables
as material resources such as buildings, equipment or machinery deteriorate or lose efficiency; or
as human resources get older, or as skills and abilities become outdated. You are aware that these
changes can be mitigated and managed through careful planning; for example, regular repairs
and maintenance; choice of introducing new technology or methods of work; effective human
resource planning to prevent a large number of staff retiring at the same time; management
succession planning; training and staff development.
As succinctly held by Mullins (2000), change is a pervasive influence. Change is an inescapable
part of both social and organisational life. Due to its pervasive nature, change at anyone level is
interrelated with changes at other levels. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the management
team of any organization focus attention on the management of organisational change.
Organisational change can be initiated deliberately by managers. Such organizational changes
can evolve slowly within a department. It can also be imposed by specific changes in policy or

168
procedures, or it can arise through external pressures. Change can affect all aspects of the
operation and functioning of the organisation.

3.2 PLANNED ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

According to Mullins (2000), most planned organisational change is triggered by the need to
respond to new challenges or opportunities presented by the external environment, or in
anticipation of the need to cope with potential future problems; for example, intended
government legislation, a new product development by a major competitor or further
technological advances. Planned change represents an intentional attempt to improve, in some
important way, the operational effectiveness of the organisation. The basic underlying objectives
can be seen in general terms as: modifying the behavioural patterns of members of the
organisation; and improving the ability of the organisation to cope with changes in its
environment.

3.2.1 Behaviour Modification

A programme of planned change and improved performance developed by Lewin (1951) the
management of a three-phase process of behavior modification:
 unfreezing – reducing those forces which maintain behaviour in its present form,
recognition of the need for change and improvement to occur;
 movement – development of new attitudes or behaviour and the implementation of the
change;
 refreezing – stabilising change at the new level of reinforcement through supporting
mechanisms, for example policies, structure or norms.

3.2.2 Systems Approach to Organisational Change

Mullins (2000) posits that one strategy of change is through the adoption of a systems approach.
The organisation can be viewed as a system and analysed in terms of its major interrelated
variables (sub-systems). The variables can be identified in a number of ways including: task,
technology, structure, people and management.
According to Mullins (2000), in practice, change in any one variable is likely to involve changes
in the other variables. The implementation of change can be approached, therefore, in terms of a

169
choice of strategies relating to modifications of the task, the technology, the structure, the people
or the management. Applying a systems approach managers understanding the interrelationships
among all major variables (subsystem) of the organisation.
Wilson (1987) opines that overlooking the systems nature of organisations can result in the
failure of even well-conceived change programmes. Wilson observes that no unit is an island,
and changes planned for one part of an organisation invariably have knock-on effects on the
other parts. According to Wilson, it is crucial in planning any changes to be aware of the likely
impact of those changes on other parts of the organisation. If a change has an
unanticipated
effect on a unit, a considerable amount of resistance to the change will develop. It is better to
consider the effects.

3.3 FORCES SHAPING CHANGE IN ORGANIZATIONS

According to Hellreigal (1987), there are a wide range of forces acting upon organizations and
which make the need for change inevitable. These forces of change can be grouped under five
broad headings: changing technology, knowledge explosion, rapid product
obsolescence, changing nature of the workforce, and quality of working life. These forces are
discussed below.
i. Changing technology: The rate of technological change is greater now than at any time in the
past for example, advances in information technology, automation and robotics.
ii. Knowledge explosion: The amount of knowledge is increasing continually; for example, the
number of people in some form of education, the number of scientific journals and new books.
With this knowledge explosion, knowledge in a particular field quickly becomes outdated or
obsolete.
iii. Rapid product obsolescence: Changes in consumer preferences, together with rapidly
changing technology, have shortened the life-cycle of many products and services. Many
products and services available today did not exist a few years ago and many do not remain
available for long.
iv. Changing nature of the workforce: This includes changes in the composition of the
working population, broader educational opportunities, part-time working, changes in family
lifestyles, and equal opportunities.

170
v) Quality of working life: Increased importance attached to the quality of working life has
drawn attention to the satisfaction of people's needs and expectations at work; and to such factors
as frustration and alienation, job design and work organisation, and styles of managerial
behaviour. It has also drawn attention to relationships between the quality of working life and
employee commitment, levels of work performance and productivity.
Stewart (1991) advances other factors that can cause organizational change. He describes how
changes in orgarnsations affect the kinds of jobs management that managers have to do and the
nature of their lives and careers. He elaborates on these changes as follows:
The changing nature of business: The growth of service industries and the decline of
manufacturing industries; more frequent. changes in ownership through acquisition by another
company including more foreign-controlled companies; public sector organisations affected by
privatisation; the increasing globalisation of international companies.
Changes in the composition of the workforce: A higher proportion of staff employed for their
knowledge rather than their brawn or skill; a declining number of school-leavers and an
increasing number of older workers; the employment of more women; an increasing number of
part-time members of (staff including better opportunities for women to return to work.
Changes within organizations: Many organisations becoming smaller although some are larger
because of acquisitions; greater flexibility in the use of labour including distance working;
changing relationships with staff including those engaged as sub-contractors, self-employed or
agency temporaries; greater entrepreneurial activity in looking for new products and business
opportunities.
As a result of these changes, Stewart suggests that older managers now work for very different
kinds of organisations from those in which they first became managers.
Although hierarchies of authority will continue to exist in large organisations they will be shorter
and there will be wider networking. There will be a smaller number of middle managers but with
more responsible roles. Managers' jobs are more complex and demanding, and managers' careers
are much less predictable. But managers now have a greater choice in their work and careers.

3.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

According to Stewart (1991), despite the potential positive outcomes, change is often resisted at
both the individual and the organisational level. Resistance to change, or the thought of the

171
implications of the change appears to be a common phenomenon. People are naturally wary of
change. 'Among many there is an uneasy mood a suspicion that change-is out of control.
Resistance to change can take many forms and it is often difficult to pinpoint the exact reasons
for the resistance. The forces against change in work organisations include: ignoring the needs
and expectations of members when members have insufficient information about the nature of
the change; or if they do not perceive the need for change.
Fears may be expressed over such matters as employment levels and job security, deskilling of
work, loss of job satisfaction, wage rate differentials, changes to social structures and working
conditions, loss of individual control over work, and greater management control.

3.4.1 Individual Resistance

Mullins (2000) identifies some common reasons for individual resistance to change within
organisations include the following:
Selective perception: People's own interpretation of stimuli presents a unique picture or image
of the 'real' world and can result in selective perception. This can lead to a biased view of a
particular situation, which fits most comfortably into a person's own perception of reality, and
can cause resistance to change. For example, trade unionists may have a stereotyped view of
management as untrustworthy and therefore oppose any management change however well
founded might have been the intention. Managers exposed to different theories or ideas may tend
to categorise these as either those they already practised and have no need to worry about or
those that are of practical value and which can be discarded are of no concern to them.
Habit: People tend to respond to situations in an established and accustomed manner. Habits
may serve as a means of comfort and security, and as a guide for easy decision-making.
Proposed changes to habits, especially if the habits are well established and require little effort,
may well be resisted. However, If there is a clearly perceived advantage, for example a reduction
in working hour without loss of pay, there is likely to be less, if any, resistance to the change,
although some people may, because of habit, still find it difficult to adjust to the new times.
Inconvenience or loss of freedom: If the change is seen as likely to prove inconvenient, make
life more difficult, reduce freedom of action or result in increased control, there will be
resistance.

172
Economic implications: People are likely to resist change which is perceived as reducing either
directly or indirectly their pay or other rewards, requiring an increase in work for the same level
of pay or acting as a threat to their job security. People tend to have established patterns of
working and a vested interest in maintaining the status quo.
Security in the past: There is a tendency for some people to find a sense of security in the past.
In times of frustration or difficulty, or when faced with new or unfamiliar ideas or methods,
people may reflect on the past. There is a wish to retain old and comfortable ways. For example,
in bureaucratic organisations, officials often tend to place faith in well-established ('tried and
trusted') procedures and cling to these as giving a feeling of security.
Fear of the unknown: Changes which confront people with the unknown tend to cause anxiety
or fear. Many major changes in a work organisation present a degree of uncertainty; for example,
the introduction of new technology or methods of working. A person may resist promotion
because of uncertainty over changes in responsibilities or the increased social demands of the
higher position.

4.2 Organisational Resistance

Mullins (2000) observed that although organisations have to adapt to their environment, they
tend to feel comfortable operating within the structure, policies and procedures which have been
formulated to deal with a range of present situations. To ensure operational effectiveness,
organisations often set up defences against change and prefer to concentrate on the routine things
they perform well. Some of the main reasons for organisational resistance against change are as
follows:
Maintaining stability: Organisations; especially large-scale ones, pay much attention to
maintaining stability and predictability. The need for formal organisation structure and the
division of work, narrow definitions of assigned duties and responsibilities, established rules,
procedures and methods of work, can result in resistance to change.
Investment in resources: Change often requires large resources which may already be
committed to investments in other areas or strategies. Assets such as buildings, technology,
equipment and people cannot easily be altered. For example, a car manufacturer may not find it
easy to change to a socio-technical approach and the use of autonomous work groups because it
cannot afford the cost of a new purpose-built plant and specialised equipment.

173
Past contracts or agreements: Organisations enter into contracts or agreements with other
parties, such as the government, other organisations, trade unions, suppliers and customers.
These contracts and agreements can limit changes in behaviour; for example, organisations
operating under a special licence or permit, or a fixed-price contract to supply goods/services to a
government agency. Another example might be an agreement with trade unions which limits the
opportunity to introduce compulsory redundancies, or the introduction of certain new technology
or working practices.
Threats to power or influence: Change may be seen as a threat to the power or influence of
certain groups within the organisation, such as their control over decisions, resources or
information. For example, managers may resist the introduction of quality circles or worker-
directors because they set this as increasing the role and influence of non-managerial staff, and a
threat to the power in their own positions. Where a group of people have, over a period of time,
established what they perceive as their 'territorial rights', they are likely to resist change.

3.5 MANAGEMENT OF ORGANISTIONAL CHANGE

You have seen from the preceding discussion that people tend to be resistant to change. It
important, therefore, for management to adopt a clearly defined strategy for the initiation of
change because the successful management of change is an increasingly important managerial
responsibility.
According to Burnes (1992), new ideas and innovations should not be perceived as threats by
members of the organisation. Therefore, the efforts made by management to maintain the
balance of the socio-technical system will influence people's attitudes, the behavior of
individuals and groups, and thereby the level of organisational performance and effectiveness.
1. Understanding of Human Behaviour
The effective management of change must be based on a clear understanding of human
behaviour at work. Most people are not detached from their work but experience a range of
emotional involvements through their membership of the organisation. People may also be
concerned about the effects of change including the possible loss of financial needs, security,
status or self-esteem. Organisational change can result in a feeling of a lack of identity, a lack of
involvement, a lack of direction and a lack of affection (Burnes, 1992).

174
Most people feel threatened and disoriented by the challenge of change. Emotions such as
uncertainty, frustration or fear are common reactions. It is understandable therefore that people
often adopt a defensive and negative attitude, and demonstrate resistance to change.
Elliott (1990) explains change as a complex, psychological event. The power of change needs to
be respected and managed. Managing change places emphasis on employee (and customer)
needs as the highest priority. To be successful, organisations need a dedicated workforce and this
involves the effective management of change. But not everyone reacts to change in the same
way. Change impacts each person differently and management must accept the individual nature
of change.
According to Elliott (1990), senior managers responsible for initiating a restructuring may be
filled with great expectations. They do not see the sense of resistance and find it hard to accept
the negative impact of change. But the change may mean inconvenience, uncertainty and loss for
other people. Loss and grief are just as normal reactions to change as are excitement and
anticipation.
2. Style of managerial behaviour
Mullins (2000) observes that one of the most important factors in the successful implementation
of organisational change is the style of managerial behaviour. In certain situations, and with
certain members of staff, It may be necessary for management to
make use of hierarchical authority and to attempt to impose change through a coercive,
autocratic style of behaviour. Some members may actually prefer, and respond better, to a
directed and controlled style of management.
In most cases, however, the introduction of .change is more likely to be effective with a
participative style of managerial behaviour. If staff are kept fully informed of proposals, are
encouraged to adopt a positive attitude and have personal involvement in the implementation of
the change, there is a greater likelihood of their acceptance of the change.
According to Hersey (1988), with the participative change cycle, a significant advantage is that
once the change is accepted it tends to be long lasting. Since everyone has been
involved in the development of the change, each person tends to be more highly committed to its
implementation. The disadvantage of participative change is that it tends to be slow and
evolutionary; it may take years to implement a significant change. An advantage of directive
change, on the other hand, is speed. Using position power, leaders can often impose change

175
immediately. A disadvantage of this change strategy is that it tends to be volatile. It can
be
maintained only as long as the leader has position power to make it stick. It often results
in
animosity, hostility, and, in some cases, overt and covert behavior to undermine and overthrow.

3.6 MINIMIZING PROBLEMS OF CHANGE

According to Mullins (2000), activities managed on the basis of technical efficiency alone are
unlikely to lead to optimum improvement in organisational performance. A major source of
resistance to change arises from the need of organisations to adapt to new technological
developments.
The following principles on how to minimise the problems of change are applicable to
management of change arising from other factors.
i) An important priority is to create an environment of trust and shared commitment, and
to involve staff in decisions and actions which affect them.
There is a considerable body of research and experience which demonstrates clearly the positive
advantages to be gained from participation. Government is desireous of participation which
implores all companies to revise annually the steps taken to introduce, maintain or develop
arrangements of employee consultation and involvement, information sharing, employee share
schemes and related matters. It is important to remember, however, that the implications of
information technology will need to be faced even by small organisations.
ii) There should be full and genuine participation of all staff concerned as early as possible,
preferably well before the actual introduction of new equipment or systems.
Information about proposed change, its implications and potential benefits should be
communicated clearly to all interested parties. Staff should be actively encouraged to contribute
their own ideas, suggestions and experiences, and to voice openly their worries
or concerns. Managers should discuss problems directly with staff and handle any foreseen
difficulties in working practices or relationships by attempting to find solutions agreed with
them. The use of working parties, liaison committees, steering groups and
joint consultation may assist discussion and participation, and help to maintain the momentum of
the change process.
iii) Team management, a co-operative spirit among staff and unions and a genuine feeling
of shared involvement will help create a greater willingness to accept change.

176
A participative style of managerial behaviour which encourages supportive relationships between
superiors and subordinates, and group methods of organisation, decision-making and
supervision, are more likely to lead to a sustained improvement in work performance.
A system of Management by Objectives (MBO) may allow staff to accept greater responsibility
and to make a higher level of personal contribution. Participation is inherent if MBO is to work
well, and there is an assumption that most people will direct and control themselves willingly if
they share in the setting of their objectives.
iv) As part of the pre-planning for new technology there should be a carefully designed
'personnel management action programme'.
The development of information technology together with the growth of service organisations
may, in the longer term, lead to the creation of new jobs. However, it must be recognised that the
extra efficiency of new technology and automation can result in the more immediate
consequence of job losses. The action programme should be directed to a review of: recruitment
and selection; natural wastage of staff; potential for training, retraining and the development of
new skills; and other strategies to reduce the possible level of redundancies or other harmful
effects on staff.
Where appropriate, arrangements for a shorter working week, and redeployment of staff with full
financial support, should be developed in full consultation with those concerned. If job losses are
totally unavoidable, there should be a fair and equitable redundancy scheme and provision for
early retirement with protected pension rights. Every possible financial and other support should
be given in assisting staff to find suitable alternative employment.
v) The introduction of incentive payment schemes may help-in motivating staff by an
equitable allocation of savings which results in new technology and more efficient methods
of work.
Incentive schemes may be on an individual basis, with bonuses payable to each member of staff
according to effort and performance; or on a group basis, where bonus is paid to staff in relation
to the performance of the group as a whole. An alternative system is measured day work' Staff
receive a regular, guaranteed rate of pay in return for an agreed quantity and quality of work
based on the capabilities of new equipment and systems.

177
Management may also be able to negotiate a productivity bargain with unions. By accepting
changes in work methods and practices, staff share in the economic benefits gained from the
improved efficiency of information technology and automated systems.

4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed in this study unit that organisational change can be initiated deliberately by
managers. Such organizational changes can be imposed by specific changes in policy or
procedures, or it can arise through external pressures. Change can affect all aspects of the
operation and functioning of the organisation. In the process of change, there is bound to be
some resistance from the organizational members. It is important, therefore, for management to
adopt a clearly defined strategy for the initiation of change because the successful management
of change is an increasingly important managerial responsibility.

5.0 SUMMARY
This study unit has been used to discuss:
 the nature of organizational change
 approaches to planned organizational change
 various forces that shape organizational change
 resistance to change in organization

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the various ways through which problems of change can be minimized?

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING

Burns, B. (1992). Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to Organizational Development and
Renewal, London: Pitman.

Elliot, R.D. (1990). ‗The Challenge of Managing Change‘, Personnel Journal, vol. 69, no 3,
March.

French, W.L. and Bell, C.H. (1995). Organizational Development Behavioural Science
Interventions for Organization Improvement, Fifth Edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

178
Mullins, L. J. (2000). Management and Organizational Behaviour, 4th Edition, London: Pitman
Publishing.

Stewart, R. (1991). Managing Today and Tomorrow, New York: Macmillan.

Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. (1988). Management of Organizational Behaviour, 5th Edition, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

179