Historical Statistics of Chile: An Introduction

Author(s): Markos Mamalakis

Source: Latin American Research Review, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1978), pp. 127-137
Published by: The Latin American Studies Association
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 HISTORICAL STATISTICS OF CHILE:

AN INTRODUCTION*

Markos Mamalakis
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee

Chile has a long tradition of collecting, publishing, and improving its historical
statistics.' The objectives here are to provide an introduction to the economic
historical statistics of Chile since 1830 and guide the reader to their most signifi-
cant primary and secondary sources. Mention is also made of attractive histori-
cal statistics research projects.
The majority of Chile's historical statistics has been collected and pub-
lished by the prestigious Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas (INE), the statistical
and census bureau located in Santiago (previously also named Direcci6n de
Estadistica y Censos [DEC] and Servicio Nacional de Estadistica y Censos [SNE]).
The high quality of its staff and uninterrupted professional independence and
integrity have made it one of the best in Latin America. Its predominantly
annual publications on demography, trade, public finance, money and banking,
employment-unemployment, social security, etc., are found in its archives, the
National Library (which is particularly strong for pre-1930 data), the Library of
Congress, and elsewhere in Santiago, and are listed/reviewed in Mamalakis
(1967).
Specialized historical statistics are found in the publications and files of
ministries and agencies or institutes. The ministries of agriculture, internal reve-
nue (hacienda), mining, health and education, and public works, such public
entities as the Chilean Development Corporation (CORFO)-in Santiago as well
as in the provinces-the Central Bank of Chile, the railroads, and the Corpora-
ci6n del Cobre (to name only some) are renowned primary sources of historical
statistics. The Presidency of the Republic also has produced classical documents
containing historical data (A. Alessandri 1938; Aguirre 1939; Rios 1945; Gonzalez
1952; Ibafiez 1958; J. Alessandri 1963; Frei 1970; Allende 1972).

*This paper was written while I was visiting professor at the Ibero-American Institute for
Economic Research of the University of Gottingen. My research year at Gottingen was
made possible by grants from the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsge-
meinschaft) and the College of Letters and Science and the Graduate School of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. My original work on Chile's historical statistics was
carried out while I was a member and under the auspices of Yale's Economic Growth
Center.

Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,

P.O. Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201

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Latin American Research Review

The numerous university libraries and specialized institutes are also valu-
able sources. The libraries of the faculty of economics and of the economics
institutes of the University of Chile and the Catholic University contain many of
Chile's first rate memorias -theses written to obtain a B.A. degree (e.g., Crocco
1947; Varela 1958; Meza 1962), mimeographed papers, and research documents
containing historical statistics. Valuable unpublished doctoral theses exist in
North American and European university libraries.
Publications of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, the Or-
ganization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in Paris, the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Interamerican De-
velopment Bank, and the archives (embassy and consular records) and ministries
of the nations with significant relations to Chile, contain historical statistics, as
do such Chilean newspapers as El Mercurio (conservative), El Siglo (communist
newspaper, now dormant), La Naci6n (government newspaper), El Diario Ilus-
trado (conservative, defunct), and others, and Cuadernos de Economia, Chile's' best
technical economic journal published by the Catholic University.
The most comprehensive, though far from complete, compilation of his-
torical, economic statistics is the mimeographed four volume Historical Statistics
of Chile (Mamalakis, 1967). Copies of this work (forthcoming in 1978-79) are
found at the libraries of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Yale Univer-
sity's Economic Growth Center, the University of Pennsylvania, The Institute of
Latin American Studies of the University of London, OECD's Development
Centre, and the Planning Office (ODEPLAN) in Santiago.2
In spite of Chile's comparatively excellent stock of historical statistics, its
numerous deficiencies are being corrected too slowly. Preparation of the missing
or incomplete data requires not only excellent economic and historical training
but often also specialized know-how in such fields as demography, accounting,
and statistics. Above all, it requires long-term interest and substantial financial
resources (not necessarily in this order), both of which are perennially in short
supply.

NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

Systematic national accounts estimates are available in Chile for the period 1940-
75. The "CORFO estimates," prepared by the Chilean Development Corporation
for the years 1940-65, are found in their most complete form in Mamalakis
(1967, 1:50-211). CORFO's classic collections of national accounts and support-
ing tables (1954; 1957, app. 1-57) cover only the period 1940-54. National ac-
counts for the 1960-75 period, the "ODEPLAN series," were prepared by the
Planning Office according to a new methodology and are found in ODEPLAN
(1971a, 1973, 1974) and in Mamalakis (1967, vol. 1). Standard information in
both sets includes the expenditure, industrial origin, income distribution, sav-
ing-investment, general government, and external transactions tables. Time se-
ries on the composition of private consumption expenditures are available only

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 HISTORICAL STATISTICS

for the years 1940-54 and CORFO did not publish income distibution data for
1954-60. Time series on depreciation, personal saving, net income, and constant
prices have serious limitations.
Excellent supplementary studies on parts of the national accounts include
Meza (1962) and Ward Cantwell (1963) on the public sector and Varela (1958) on
income distribution. CORFO and ODEPLAN have produced for the 1940-75
period a monumental collection of studies, many annual, on investment, sav-
ing, industry, public sector, sectoral, and other national account components;
most are found in the CORFO and ODEPLAN libraries and are incorporated in
Mamalakis (1976). Historical national accounts for 1830-1940 and the colonial
period are possible and would be useful. As a first step, estimates of some
components could be prepared.

DEMOGRAPHY

Demographic data, primary and secondary, have been collected and/or pub-
lished by the census bureau (INE 1972), CORFO (1954), the social security agen-
cies, the Instituto de Economia (IDE 1976), the United Nations, the Catholic
Church, and so forth. Demographic time series and benchmark data are abun-
dant but of uneven quality. The total population series (Mamalakis 1967, 2:61) is
the longest in Latin America. Basic items of all thirteen censuses (carried out in
1831-35, 1843, 1865, 1875, 1895, 1907, 1920, 1930, 1940, 1952, 1960, and 1970) are
personal identification, sex, age, civil status, occupation, degree of education,
and physical defects. The census bureau has published corrected series of total
population including but not prior to the 1885 census. Disaggregated statistics,
such as distribution of population by age, sex, province and so forth, remain
uncorrected for their often numerous statistical errors and thus need to be used
with caution. The coverage and limitations of the demographic statistics are
described in Cruchaga (1929, pp. 457-540), Crocco (1947), SNE (1956, pp. 11-46),
IDE (1963), Pereira (1965) and Mamalakis (1967, 2:1-19).
Historical statistics exist for birth and death rates; immigration and emi-
gration; nationality; density of population; distribution of population by pro-
vince (since 1835), by region (urban-rural, since 1865), by size of city, and so
forth; daily per capita caloric intake; and others (Mamalakis 1967). Statistics on
educational attainment and institutions (which often exist since 1840 but are not
always comparable) cover primary, secondary, university, and vocational/techni-
cal education. These are contained in censuses as well as in other studies (Labarca
1939; Ibafiez 1958; Mamalakis 1967; Frei 1970; Allende 1972). Detailed data (mostly
for the post-1940 years) on labor force by industry, occupation and province,
wages, salaries (minimum and actual), employment and unemployment are
found, in addition to INE's monumental publications, in CORFO (1954), Mama-
lakis (1967), ODEPLAN (1971a, b), and IDE (1976). Corrected demographic data
are found, almost randomly, in appendices of the census bureau's monthly
Synopsis Estadistica (see various issues of INE, 1972).3

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Latin American Research Review

AGRICULTURE

Agricultural statistics are among the most neglected in Chile. There exist some
outstanding studies, such as Sepuilveda (1959) on wheat, Ballesteros and Davis
(1963) and Ballesteros (1965) on production and input statistics, and MINAG
(1957, 1963) for the period 1950-60; however, they are the exceptions. Continu-
ous, reliable statistics for the 1835-1930 period are rare, and data for such an
important agricultural component as livestock are of poor quality for almost all
years. This can be explained in part by the well known emphasis, since 1940, on
the issue of land tenure/reform with its polemic-political-social overtones, which
only occasionally generated historical data-based studies (CIDA 1966; Frei 1970;
Allende 1972).
Even so, the statistical and census bureau and the ministry of agriculture
have generated a large flow of historical statistics. Agricultural censuses, of
which there are four (1929-30, 1935-36, 1955, and 1964-65), contain data on
agricultural land by producer, area, product type, and productivity (1964-65
census) according to use (also primary and secondary exploitation) and type of
tenure; on irrigation, livestock, and type of agricultural machinery; and so forth
(see in particular DEC 1965). A description and evaluation of these censuses are
found in Mamalakis (1967, 3:199-208a). The ministry of agriculture has collected,
but not published, extensive data on surface cultivated, production and yield of
wheat, potatoes, oats (all since 1909), rice, and other products, and quantum
indexes of agricultural livestock and forest production, all of which are found in
Mamalakis (1967, vol. 3). Statistics on crops harvested and cattle bred are found
in the annual DEC (1964). Agricultural production and related statistics, prepared
according to different methodologies by DEC (INE), CORFO, and ODEPLAN,
as well as data on absolute and relative prices and indexes are included in
Mamalakis (1967, 3:A210-A305b).
Major gaps exist, among others, in the estimates of agricultural capital
stock, investment, age distribution and slaughtering of livestock, prices paid to
producers, and long-term statistics of type of tenure and its impact on produc-
tivity. Since Chile's floating population always has been large, a statistical prob-
lem arises from the movement of agricultural population and livestock along the
borders with Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru.

INDUSTRY AND PRICES

Industry was important in Chile even in the nineteenth century (Carmagnani

1971; Mamalakis 1976, ch. 8). In addition to the statistical and census bureau
(which has published four industrial censuses, the Anuario de Industria and other
documents), industrial historical statistics have been collected and published by
the prestigious Sociedad de Fomento Fabril (Society for Promotion of Industry),
the United Nations, CORFO and its subsidiaries (iron and steel statistics by the
Compania Acero del Pacifico, energy statistics by the Empresa Nacional de
Electricidad), and ODEPLAN (numerous studies on capital and labor intensity,
demand patterns, energy use, ownership, and so forth).

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 HISTORICAL STATISTICS

Historical statistics are the best for industry's manufacturing segment,

i.e., the part with industrial establishments employing five or more persons.
They are poor to nonexistent for the critically important artisan segment, which
includes establishments employing four or fewer persons. Historical statistics
for the period 1860-1930 are found in Carmagnani (1971). Industrial production
indexes, which generally start in 1910, have been prepared by UNECLA (1951),
UN (1960), Ballesteros and Davis (1963) and Munioz (1968a, b), with Munioz's
being the most comprehensive. The empirical study on industry's concentration
ratios by Lagos (1966) is also excellent.
Statistics (cross section or time series) on: value of industrial production,
value added per person employed in medium and large manufacturing and per
worker, employee, and total of persons employed, incomes, value of gross
production and value added, value of stocks, new investments in fixed capital;
index of industrial production by important activities, of manufacturing pro-
ducts, and of industrial sales; province and type of industry; electricity con-
sumed, as well as quantity and value of fuels, by type of industry, purchases of
raw materials; and capital stock and ownership by nationality are found, along
with the other statistics listed earlier in this section, in Mamalakis (1967, 3:330-
454). Also found in the industry section of Mamalakis (1967, vol. 3) are previ-
ously published or unpublished series on the cost-of-living and wholesale price
indexes, on the 1913-25 price index with prices of articles included in the index,
on price index of imported goods, raw materials and auxiliary products, con-
sumer and capital goods, and on unitary value indexes of imports, raw materials,
auxiliary products, consumer, and secondary goods.

MINING

Because mining was so important as a source of foreign exchange and govern-

ment revenues, Chile developed early a tradition of orderly collection and pub-
lication of relevant data. Production and often also price and value data by
product exist for the colonial as well as the national period. Long time series of
output exist for all important mineral (iron, gold, silver, lead, zinc, etc.) and
nonmineral (coal, quartz, salt, borax, iodine, and so forth) products, including
petroleum, but above all for copper and nitrate-Chile's two strategic mining
exports (Mamalakis 1967, pp. 481-97; MINDEMI 1971). Historical statistics have
been compiled by the census and statistics bureau, the ministry of mining, the
Corporaci6n del Cobre, the Corporaci6n de Ventas de Salitre y Yodo, and the
foreign-owned mining companies.
The copper sector, composed of large-, medium-, and small-scale pro-
duction, has been subjected to numerous empirical studies (Reynolds 1965;
RECHI 1965, app. 1-157; Mamalakis 1971a, 1976; CODELCO 1975). Long-term
time series (mostly annual) are best for the large-scale segment and include
value and quantity of production, profits, capital invested, taxes paid in Chile,
legal cost of production, company exchange rates, and foreign exchange contri-
bution (Mamalakis 1967, pp. 449-500a; CODELCO 1975, pp. 485- 504). The best
disaggregated data up to 1964 are found in Reynolds (1965, pp. 363-409) and

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Latin American Research Review

RECHI (1965, pp. 1-157). Copper production statistics date back to 1601 (Ma-
malakis 1967, p. 486) and have been compiled along with others since 1955 by
the Copper Department (now Corporaci6n de Cobre) in cooperation (until 1971)
with Kennecott and Anaconda. The Copper Corporation claims that poor record
keeping makes most copper data for the Allende years (1970-73) unreliable. The
data on medium-scale copper mining are not very abundant or of good quality
and on small-scale mining are scant. Major pre-1930 statistics for the nitrate
sector and further references are found in Mamalakis (1971b), and excellent
historical statistics on petroleum have been prepared and published by ENAP,
the national petroleum company (Mamalakis 1967, p. 497).
The need for improved statistics for medium- and small-scale mining is
great. Production accounts, profitability, rates of return, real wage rates, natural
capital stock estimates, and other important historical statistics are missing but
can be prepared.

THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Chile's public sector consists of the general government and the autonomous
enterprises. The general government is in turn subdivided into the national
government (central government, national health service, University of Chile,
Technical State University, and social security institutions) and regional govern-
ment. Comprehensive, long-term accounts for the public sector are missing
even though there exist ample statistics on most of its component parts. Docu-
ments containing primary time series on the public sector are published by the
Contraloria General de la Republica, the Ministerio de Hacienda, Municipalidad
de Santiago, Servicio de Seguro Social, and the Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas.
Pre-1930 statistics, which are generally excellent and available since inde-
pendence, are found in their original form in Molina (1898), Spottiswoode (1915),
and DEC (1926), and uniformly revised in Humud (1969). Statistical data for the
1930-71 period are found in IDE (1956), Hacienda (1959), Meza (1962), Ward
Cantwell (1963), IDE (1963), Frei (1970), and ODEPLAN (1971a). The most com-
prehensive collection of historical statistics for the public sector and its compo-
nent parts is Mamalakis (1967, 4:675-728).
The quality of public sector data deteriorated markedly after 1930, being
worst for the years between 1930 and 1950. Although there exist series for the
1950s (Meza 1962; Ward Cantwell 1963) and 1960s (ODEPLAN 1971a), they are
not strictly comparable. The value of public sector statistics since 1940 has been
significantly undermined by the rampant inflation. Special data problems exist
for the autonomous enterprises, the capital accounts, and Allende's 1970-73
transition years.

MONEY AND BANKING

The two most valuable primary sources of historical statistics on money and
banking since 1925 (the year Chile's Central Bank was founded) are the Memoria
Anual (BCC 1925-75) and the Boletin Mensual (BCC 1976) of the Central Bank of

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 HISTORICAL STATISTICS

Chile. Excellent statistics for the total money supply and its components (deposit
money, reserve money, paper money, coins in free circulation, credits, invest-
ments, bank reserves, and so forth) since 1925 have been prepared by Luders
(1968) and Arbildua and Luders (1968) and are also included in Mamalakis (1967,
4:642-44). Excellent statistics concerning the parallel financial system since
1930 are found in Fuenzalida and Undurraga (1968). In addition to Luiders'
aforementioned series on total money supply and quantity of money, statistics
on nominal and real mortgage credit, banking credit, mortgage bonds in circula-
tion and their average quotation, and interest on deposits and loans are found in
Mamalakis (1967, 4:620-63). The best source and guide to the historical money
and banking statistics of the pre-1930 period, which are abundant but of uneven
quality, is Fetter (1931). The main weakness of Chile's money and banking
statistics lies in the distortions imparted by the country's persistently high rate
of inflation.

TRADE AND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Being a typical mineral export economy, Chile has a wide collection of trade,
current account, and balance-of-payments statistics. The most important pri-
mary source of trade and balance-of-payments statistics for the pre-1925 years is
the statistical and census bureau (e.g., DGE 1910), and for the 1925-75 period
Chile's Central Bank (BCC 1925-75; BCC 1970; BCC 1976). The United Nations is
also an important source.
The most important statistics for the pre-1930 period, including the value
of exports since 1844, major export products (silver, copper, iron, nitrate, wheat,
barley, beans, nuts, frozen meat, wood), major import products (foodstuffs,
textiles, raw materials, machinery), indexes of the value of foreign trade (exports
and imports) and of selected commodities, indexes of exports and sales of ni-
trate, regional and country distribution of exports and imports, are reproduced
in Mamalakis (1967, 4:533-603). Also found there are such statistics as balance-
of-payments investment availability accounts, terms of trade, and capacity to
import, which begin either in 1925 or around 1942, and series on foreign debt,
the exchange rate of the Chilean peso with the dollar and pound sterling, and
customs duties, which are also available for most years of the 1835-1975 period.
A systematic, comprehensive evaluation and correction of Chile's exter-
nal statistics does not exist. The efforts of the Central Bank to correct for under-
invoicing of exports and overinvoicing of imports have reduced but not elimi-
nated the underlying distortions. Data on factor payments, transfer, and capital
accounts, so important to any economic historian, do not exist for the period
1835-1942.
Historical statistics can reveal the basic structure of an economy, and
many of Chile's development problems have arisen from unwillingness to learn
from the statistics available. The high price tag often carried by the preparation
of historical statistics can be small compared to the potential social benefits that
can be derived from their careful use.

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Latin American Research Review

NOTES

1. The index number problem is discussed meticulously in most of the primary sources
cited here, but especially in those of the Central Bank of Chile and the National Statis-
tics Institute.
2. The present article is distinct in size, form, substance, and objectives from my bo-ok,
The Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy: From Independence to Allende (1976) and
the forthcoming Historical Statistics of Chile. As an introductory mini-guide surveying
the classics of Chilean economic-statistical historiography, it is neither a collection of
data, which Historical Statistics is, nor a major analytical opus, which the monograph
on Chile pretends to be. Since the three publications satisfy different needs and fill
distinct gaps, they complement but do not substitute for each other in displaying the
physiognomy of Chile's economy.
3. Complementary demographic information is provided by Robert McCaa and Rene
Salinas Meza in their respective demographic essays elsewhere in this issue.

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 HISTORICAL STATISTICS

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Latin American Research Review

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