ENGG1500

Engineering Thermodynamics

Study Guide: Semester 1, 2018

Tony Howes
(Chemical Engineering)

Joel Corney
(Physics)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

1 Week-by-week guide 2

2 Module-by-Module Concepts + Reading + Workshop notes + HW/Tutorials 3

Module 1. Systems and Definitions 3

Module 2. Energy and First Law 7
Module 3. Thermodynamic Properties 14
Module 4. First Law of Thermodynamics – Closed Systems 22
Module 5. First Law of Thermodynamics – Specific Heat and Open Systems 28
Module 6. First Law of Thermodynamics – Open Systems 36
Module 7 Second Law of Thermodynamics – Entropy 44
Module 8 Second Law of Thermodynamics – Entropy Changes 51
Module 9 Second Law of Thermodynamics – Entropy and Efficiency 57
Module 10. Engineering Cycles - Introduction 61
Module 11 Engineering Cycles Applications: The Rankine Cycle 68
Module 12 Engineering Cycles Applications: Refrigeration 75

3. Practical: Ideal Gas Law 77

3 Example Assessment 89

In-Class Quiz 1: 89
Mid-Semester Exam: 93
In-Class Quiz 2: 102
Final Exam: 106

4 Equations, Data Tables and Figures Booklet 110

 PLEASE NOTE: Other materials will be made available on the Course Blackboard site
during the semester

Study Guide page 1

 1. Week by week guide

Week Date Workshop (Monday) Tutorial Lecture (reading) Notes

M1 Systems and
1 19/02 No Workshop No Tutorials Definitions (1.1-
1.9,1.11)

M1 Systems, M1 Systems, Definitions, M2 Energy and First

2 26/02
Definitions, & Tables & Tables law (2.1-2.7)

M2 Energy and First M2 Thermodynamic M3 Thermodynamic

3 5/03
law Properties Properties (3.1-3.7)

M3 Thermodynamic M3 Thermodynamic M4 First law: Closed

4 12/03
Properties Properties systems (4.1-4.2)

M5 First law: open

M4 First law: closed
5 19/03 Quiz 1 in Workshop systems & specific Practical
systems
heats (5.1,5.2,4.4,4.5)
M5 First law: open M6 First law: open
M5 First law: open Good Friday no
6 26/03 systems & specific system examples (5.3-
systems & specific heats Lecture
heats 5.5)

Mid Semester Break (two weeks)

M6 First law: open M6 First law: open system M7 Second law: Wed Mid-Sem
7 16/04
system examples examples Entropy (6.1,6.6,7.13) Exam

M8 Second law:
M7 Second law:
8 23/04 M7 Second law: Entropy Entropy changes (7.3-
Entropy
7.5,7.7-7.9)
M9 Second law:
M8 Second law: M8 Second law: Entropy
9 30/04 Entropy and efficiency
Entropy changes changes
(7.10,7.12)
M10 Engineering
M9 Second law: Entropy Monday public
10 07/05 No Workshop cycles: Introduction
and efficiency holiday
(6.2-6.4,6.7-6.11)
M11: Engineering
M10 Engineering cycles:
11 12/05 Quiz 2 in Workshop cycles: Power (10.1-
Introduction
10.4,11.1-11.4)
M12: Engineering
M11 Engineering M11 Engineering cycles:
12 19/05 cycles: Refrigeration
cycles: Power Power
(10.1-10.4,11.1-11.4)

M12 Engineering M12 Engineering cycles:

13 26/05 Course review
cycles: Refrigeration Refrigeration

Note: Slight changes may be necessary and will be announced on Blackboard.

Study Guide page 2

 Module 1: Systems and Definitions

Notes/Comments:
The first module provides an introduction to thermodynamics and sets out the basic
concepts which will be used throughout the semester to frame and solve problems.
Reading sections:
Chapter 1 (1.1-1.9, 1.11) There is no need to read all of this material. However, the points
below provide a guide on what parts should be read before the lecture. The first parts of
sections 1.4 (Properties of a system), section 1.6 (State and equilibrium), and 1.7
(Processes and cycles) are the most important ones.

From your reading you should be able to define/explain the following:

• Explain what “thermodynamics” is. (text section 1.1)
• Describe what a system is, how to define the system boundary and how to
classify a system as closed, isolated or open. (1.3)
• Explain what are properties, and the differences between extensive and
intensive properties. (1.4, 1.5)
• Explain the concept of a state, what the state postulate is and why it is
important? (1.6)
• Explain what a process and process path is, and differentiate between the
following kinds of processes: isobaric, isochoric, and isothermal. (1.7)
• Explain the difference between gauge and absolute pressure. (1.9)
• Define the problem solving technique used in thermodynamics (1.11)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Convert between units. (1.2)
• Draw diagrams of systems with clear boundaries and flows in/out. (1.3)
• Convert gauge to absolute pressure (1.9)

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 Module 1: Workshop

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

1-17 A large fraction of the thermal energy generated in the engine of a car is
rejected to the air by the radiator through the circulating water. Should the
radiator be analysed as a closed system or as an open system? Explain.

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 Systems and Definitions

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
(a) Use unity brackets to convert the following units:
i. 0.75 L into m3
ii. 50 km/h into m/s
iii. 1.5 atm into hPa
(b) Show that 1 kPa⋅m3 = 1 kJ

HW2
A can of soft drink at room temperature is put into the refrigerator so that it will cool.
Would you model the can as a closed system or as an open system? Explain your
answer.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1
Explain the difference between intensive and extensive properties. How does this relate
to the state postulate?

2
You have been asked to do a metabolism (energy) analysis of a person. How would
you define the system? What type of system is it?

3
What is the difference between gauge pressure and absolute pressure?

4
A vacuum gauge connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure reading is 101 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.

5
A plugged bathtub full of warm water is in a bathroom which is maintained at room
temperature. Since you initially drew a very hot bath before changing your mind (good
idea!), the room air is fairly humid.
You are interested in finding out what the temperature of the water is over time.
(a) How would you define the system to address your problem? Draw a diagram of
the bathtub system, mark the system boundary with a dotted line.
(b) Define the inflows and outflows (of both mass and energy) of your system and
label these on your diagram. (Make sure you clearly indicate the direction of
the flows.)
(c) Which of these inflows or outflows will be the most important for your
problem? Why? What conditions in the bathroom or bathtub, if changed, would
affect your answer? (E.g. what if the bathroom air was dry rather than humid?)

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6
(a) What are isothermal, isochoric and isobaric processes?
(b) From the diagram below, if the initial state of a system is shown as state 1, then
classify each of the process paths to the end states as either:
i. Isochoric process.
ii. Isobaric process.
iii. Neither isochoric nor isobaric process.

P
(kPa)

1 2c

2a 2b

v
(m3/kg)

7
A temperature of 18°C is what in K, R and °F? What is a temperature difference of
18°C in K, R and °F?

Study Guide page 6

 Module 2: Energy and First Law

Notes/Comments:
In this section we look at different forms of energy and different forms of energy
transfer. It is these different forms and modes of transfer that require us to have an
accounting system for energy! It is good to develop a physical understanding of these
concepts. Ground these concepts in your everyday experience and this will place you
in good stead for the rest of the semester.

Section 2.7 is a little long but the main thrust is covered in the first two paragraphs
where the definition of efficiency is very important. The length comes from all the
examples of the ways we waste energy (some of which we can help and some we
cannot).

Reading sections:
Chapter 2 (2.1-2.7) Again, there is no need to read the entire section but focus on trying to
be able to explain the concepts below. Of particular importance are the different forms of
energy (especially internal energy) described in section 2.2, and the concepts of heat and
work (sections 2.4 and 2.5).

From your reading you should be able to define/explain the following:

• Define the different forms of energy: kinetic, potential, & internal (2.2)
• Describe common examples of when objects have changes in kinetic, potential,
and internal energy. (2.2)
• Define the forms of energy transfer: heat & work (2.3, 2.4)
• Describe common examples of energy transfer through heat and work (2.3, 2.4,
2.5)
• Define the first law of thermodynamics. (2.6)
• Describe common examples of systems where energy in transferred and
transformed (2.3, 2.4, 2.5)
• Define the units of energy and energy transfer

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Convert between energy and energy transfer units. (2.2)
• Calculate energy change and power for simple systems. (2.5)
• Define a system and write and energy balance (2.6)
• Define and calculate efficiency (2.7)

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Exercise 1: Concepts

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Exercise 2: Energy Balance

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Exercise 3: Energy Balance

Hydroelectric

Estimate how much electric power can be generated if 1000 kg/s of water
(density = 1000 kg/m3 ) drops 300 m from a high reservoir (point 1) to a low
one (point 2).

(use g = 10 m/s2 to help your calculations)

HINT: Consider the different energy types and which are likely to significantly
change from point 1 to point 2.

Study Guide page 10

 Energy and First Law

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
What is the total energy of a system? Identify the different forms of energy that
constitute the total energy.

HW2
Consider a room that is initially at the outdoor temperature of 20°C. The room contains
a 40-W lightbulb, a 110-W TV set, a 300-W refrigerator and a 1200-W iron. Assuming
no heat transfer through the walls, determine the rate of increase of the energy content
of the room when all these electric devices are on. As part of your solution, sketch a
diagram of the process indicating the system and the direction of all relevant energy
flows. List all your assumptions.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
List the forms of energy that contribute to the internal energy of a system.

2
Consider the process of heating water on top of an electric range. What are the forms
of energy involved during this process? What are the energy transformations that take
place?

3
A person carrying a 30-kg suitcase gets into an elevator at the lobby level of a hotel
and gets out at the 10th floor 35 m above. Determine the amount of energy consumed
by the motor of the elevator that is now stored in the suitcase.

4
Two sites are being considered for wind power generation. In the first site, the wind
blows steadily at 7 m/s for 3000 hours per year, whereas in the second site the wind
blows steadily at 10 m/s for 1500 hours per year. Taking the air density to be 1.2
kg/m³, and assuming the wind velocity is negligible at other times, for simplicity,
determine which is a better site for wind power generation. Hint: Note that the mass
flow rate of air ist proportional to the wind velocity.

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5
Determine the power for a 1150-kg car to climp a 100-m-long uphill road with a slope
of 30° (from horizontal) in 12 s
(a) at a constant velocity.
(b) from rest to a final velocity of 30 m/s.
(c) from 35 m/s to a final velocity of 5 m/s.
Disregard friction, air drag and rolling resistance.

6
Consider a fan located in a 1 m by 1 m square duct. Velocities at various points at the
outlet are measured and the average flow velocity is determined to be 7 m/s. Taking
the air density to be 1.2 kg/m³, estimate the minimum electric power consumption of
the fan motor.

7
A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-conditioned with window air-
conditioning units of 5-kW cooling capacity. A person at rest may be assumed to
dissipate heat at a rate of about 360 kJ/h. There are 10 lightbulbs in the room, each
with a rating of 100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the classroom through the walls and
the window is estimated to be 15,000 kJ/h. If the room air is to be maintained at a
constant temperature of 21°C, determine the number of window air-conditioning units
required.

8
A hooded electric open burner and a gas burner both provide 2.4 kW of useful heat.
The efficiency of open burners can be taken to be 73% for electric burners and 38% for
gas burners. Determine the rate of energy consumption for both electric and gas
burners.

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9
Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 15 m above at a rate of 70 L/s while
consuming 15.4 kW of electric power. Taking the water density to be 1.0 g/cm³, and
disregarding any frictional losses in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy.
Determine
(a) the overall efficiency of the pump-motor unit.
(b) The pressure difference between the inlet and the exit of the pump.

Study Guide page 13

Module 3: Thermodynamic Properties

Notes/Comments:
There is quite a bit of material to cover in this module. This module presents the states
of a substance and two ways to find its thermodynamic properties: from tables or from
the ideal gas law.

You will often need to decide which method to use. If there is a choice, always use
tables. If you have to use the ideal gas law, first test if the gas is close to ideal (using
compressibility).

Reading sections:
Chapter 3 (Sections 3.1-3.7). You do not need to read the whole chapter; use the
concepts listed below to focus your reading. In particular, please do not study the
introduction to enthalpy (h) in Section 3.5. We will introduce enthalpy in a later
module.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• The definitions of saturated liquid, saturated vapour, compressed liquid,
superheated vapour and critical point, and their positions on T-v and P-v
diagrams (3-3, 3-4)
• A saturated liquid-vapour mixture, and the quality parameter x. (3-5)
• The ideal gas equation of state (3-6)
• How the compressibility factor measures the deviation of real gases from ideal-
gas behaviour. (3-7)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Sketch / plot a process on a T-v and P-v diagram with respect to the saturation
envelope (Sec. 3-4, Fig 3-17)
• Use property tables to:
o Define the state of a system (Sec. 3-5 1a)
o Find the values of thermodynamic properties, interpolating if necessary
o Use quality x to find the properties of a saturated liquid-vapour mixture
(Sec. 3-5 1b)
• Use the ideal gas equation to calculate thermodynamic properties (Sec 3-6,
especially Equation 3-10)
• Use compressibility to test if you can apply the ideal gas law to a gas (Sec 3-7).
You should use Equations 3-20 and a graph like Figure 3-49 (7th edition) or
Figure 3-47 (8th edition) to estimate the compressibility of a gas.

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 Module 3 Workshop

Q1. Water is placed in a 50 litre container and heated to 300o C. The absolute
pressure is 1.2 MPa and the temperature is 300o C. (In the table, the
temperature in parentheses is the saturation temperature TSAT at that
pressure.)

1a). Mark the state of the water on the T-v graph below. Mark TSAT on your graph.
What is the state of the water?
Pa
M
1.2
P=

1b) How much water is present (in kg)?

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 Module 3 Workshop

1c) The container is now cooled until the first droplet of liquid water appears.
Assuming the container is rigid so that volume is constant:
(i) what is the final state of the water?
(ii) what is the change in the specific internal energy, u, of the water? Do not
interpolate, just take the closest value.
(iii) how much heat has been transferred in this process?

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 Module 3 Workshop

Q2. Give the meaning/definition of

a) compressibility factor





b) critical point






c) reduced variables






Q3. Look at the compressibility charts (next page) and locate the critical point.

a) What does the compressibility chart tell you about the accuracy of the ideal gas
law at the critical point?







b) Use the charts to find out where the ideal gas law is accurate to 5% (i.e. what
kinds of reduced temperatures and pressures).

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Module 3 Workshop

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 Module 3 Workshop

Q4
a) What are the critical temperature and pressure of carbon dioxide?





b) Suppose you wanted to treat carbon dioxide at 3 MPa and 50˚C as an ideal gas.
What would be the relative error in specific volume?

Hint: calculate reduced temperature and pressure. Use these on the chart to find
Z.

Study Guide page 19

 Module 3: Tutorial

Thermodynamic Properties

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
What is the difference between saturated liquid and compressed liquid? What is the
difference between saturated vapour and superheated vapour?

HW2
5 kg of R-134a at 300 kPa fills a rigid container whose volume is 44 L.
(a) Identify two independent intensive properties and thus show that the system
state is well defined. What is the description of the state of the R-134a?
(b) Determine the temperature and total internal energy in the container.
The container is now heated until the pressure is 600 kPa.
(c) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy flows. List all your assumptions.
(d) Fill in the blank: “The heating process occurs under iso_______ conditions.”
(e) After heating, has the state description changed from the initial state? Explain.
(f) Determine the temperature and total internal energy when the heating is
completed.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
If the pressure of a substance is increased during a boiling process, will the temperature
also increase or will it remain constant? Why?

2
A perfectly fitting pot and its lid often stick after cooking, and it becomes very difficult
to open the lid when the pot cools down. Explain why this happens and what you
would do to open the lid.

3
Which process requires more energy: completely vaporising 1 kg of saturated liquid
water at 1 atm pressure or completely vaporising 1 kg of saturated liquid water at 8 atm
pressure?

4
In the absence of compressed liquid tables, how can you determine the specific volume
of a compressed liquid at a given pressure and temperature?

5
One kilogram of R-l34a fills a 0.14-m3 weighted piston-cylinder device at a
temperature of −26.37°C. The container is now heated until the temperature is 92°C.
Determine the final volume of the R-134a. Sketch the heating process on a T-v
diagram, clearly showing the saturation envelope.

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 Module 3: Tutorial

6
A rigid tank contains an ideal gas at 300 kPa and 600 K. Now half of the gas is
withdrawn from the tank and the gas is found at 100 kPa at the end of the process.
(a) Determine the final temperature of the gas.
(b) If no mass was withdrawn from the tank and the same final temperature was
reached at the end of the process, determine the final pressure of the gas.

7
Determine the specific volume of water at 3.5 MPa and 450°C by using:
(a) The ideal gas equation of state, and
(b) The generalised compressibility chart.
Evaluate the error involved in the values found in (a) and (b) by comparing it against
the value in the steam tables.

8
A 0.5-m3 rigid tank containing hydrogen at 20°C and 600 kPa is connected by a valve
to another 0.5-m3 rigid tank that holds hydrogen at 30°C and 150 kPa. Now the valve is
opened and the system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings,
which are at 15°C. Determine the final pressure in the tank.

9
Copy and complete the following table for water. Use thermodynamic tables as your
source of data. Show your working.
T (oC) P (kPa) u (kJ/kg) x Phase description
200 0.7
140 1700
950 0.0
80 500
800 2878.6
325 550

10
Copy and complete the following table for R-134a. Use thermodynamic tables as your
source of data. Show your working.
T (oC) P (kPa) v (m3/kg) x Phase description
−12 320
30 0.0065
550 saturated vapour
60 600
820 0.3

Study Guide page 21

 Module 4: First Law for closed systems

Notes/Comments:

This module applies the first law of thermodynamics to closed systems based on an
understanding of heat and work. It’s all about the conservation of energy so you should
start every problem with the energy balance, Equation 4-11.

Reading sections:
Chapter 4 (4.1 to the first page of 4.3). You do not need to read the whole chapter; use
the list of concepts and skills below to focus your reading on the essentials. In
particular, please do not study polytropic processes in Section 4.1.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• Boundary work. (4.1)
• A path function as opposed to a state function. (4.1)
• The first law of thermodynamics (4.2)
• Heat and work are forms of energy transfer (4.2)
• The two forms of specific heat (4.3)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Calculate the boundary work for constant pressure/temperature processes (Sec
4.1, Equations 4-4, 4-6, 4-7).
• Use the first law to conduct an energy balance on a system. (Sec 4.2, Eq. 4-11,
4-12)
• Explain the difference between specific heat at constant volume and constant
pressure. Read Sec 4.3, just page 186 (174 in 7th edition) and Fig 4-19.

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 Module 4 Workshop

Focus: Energy balance and work in a closed system

(1) A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 0.50 m3 of steam at a

temperature and pressure of 250°C and 3000 kPa, respectively. Heat is now
transferred to the device, and it expands at constant pressure until the volume
reaches 0.90 m3.

a) Sketch the process on a graph of pressure vs. volume (P-V). Be sure to label the start and end
points of the process, with values on each axis.

b) What kind of work is done by the system during the expansion?

c) Calculate the total work done by the system in kJ during the expansion.

d) The gas is now cooled so that it compresses at a constant pressure to a volume of 0.5 m3. How
much work is done by the system in kJ during the contraction?

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 Module 4 Workshop
(2) We will now work out how much heat was required for the first expansion
using the First Law. Recall: the device contains 0.50 m3 of steam at a
temperature and pressure of 250°C and 3000 kPa, respectively. Heat is
transferred to the device, and it expands at constant pressure until the volume
reaches 0.90 m3.

a) What state is the steam in initially? Explain your answer.

b) Use tables to estimate the final temperature of the gas (to the nearest 50°C).

c) Write down the First Law energy balance equation for the expansion, noting which values are
known.

d) Calculate the change in internal energy of the steam during the expansion in kJ.

e) Determine the heat transferred into the device during this process using the First Law, in kJ.

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 Module 4 Workshop
(3) We will now work out how much heat was required for the first expansion
using the specific heat. Recall: the device contains 0.50 m3 of steam at a
temperature and pressure of 250°C and 3000 kPa, respectively. Heat is
transferred to the device, and it expands at constant pressure until the volume
reaches 0.90 m3.

Assume the steam has a constant specific heat during the expansion as given by
Table A-2.

a) Which specific heat should be used for this process when heat is added? Explain your.

b) Use the specific heat (and the final temperature from above) to calculate how much heat was
added to the steam during the expansion.

c) Compare this value to that calculated above. If it is different, suggest why.

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 Module 4: Tutorial

First Law: Closed Systems

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
A mass of 3.3 kg of air at 120 kPa and 12°C is contained in a gas-tight, frictionless
piston-cylinder device. The air is now compressed to a final pressure of 600 kPa.
During the process, heat is transferred from the air such that the temperature inside
the cylinder remains constant.
(a) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy flows. List all your assumptions.
(b) What kind of work is being done by or on the air?
(c) Calculate the work done during this process.

HW2
A 2000 W electric resistance heating element is immersed in 40 kg of water initially
at 20°C. Determine how long it will take for this heater to raise the water temperature
to 80°C. Draw a diagram of the system (showing the system boundary, indicating all
energy flows) and note down all relevant assumptions.
Data: c p ,water at 50°C is 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K).

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
Consider an ideal gas at a given state expanded in two different ways to a fixed final
volume. In the first case, the gas is expanded at constant pressure, and in the second
case at constant temperature. Sketch each process on a P-v diagram. For which case
is the work done greater?

2
2 kg of pure liquid ethanol (boiling point = 78°C, cp = 2.44 kJ/(kg⋅K)), initially at
60°C, is heated isobarically until it becomes a vapour with a final temperature of
85°C. A student is asked to calculate the amount of heat added to the ethanol. The
student produces the following working:
Q = mcpΔT = 2 kg ⋅ 2.44 kJ/(kg⋅K) ⋅ (85 – 60)K = 122 kJ
Critically explain what is wrong with this answer, and what the student needs to do to
obtain the correct answer.

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 Module 4: Tutorial

3
A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapour at 300 kPa is heated at constant pressure
until the temperature reaches 200°C.
(a) Calculate the work done by the steam during this process.
(b) Sketch the heating process on a T-v diagram with respect to the saturation
envelope.

4
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.25 kg of nitrogen gas at 130 kPa and
120°C. The nitrogen is now expanded isothermally to a pressure of 100 kPa.
Determine the boundary work done during this process.

5
R-134a is contained in a rigid vessel with a volume of 1.5 m3. At its initial state, the
refrigerant is 30% liquid by mass and the pressure is 150 kPa.
Heat is added to the vessel by means of an electrical resistor at a rate of 4 kW. The
vessel is poorly insulated and loses heat to the surroundings at a rate of 2.5 kW.
(a) Calculate the mass of refrigerant in the vessel.
The refrigerant is heated until it has just completely evaporated.
(b) Calculate the final temperature and pressure at the final state.
(c) How long does it take to evaporate the refrigerant?
(d) Sketch the process on a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

6
A mass of 0.5 kg of saturated refrigerant-l34a is contained in a piston-cylinder device
at 200 kPa. Initially, 70% of the mass is in the liquid phase. Now heat is transferred to
the refrigerant at constant pressure until the cylinder contains vapour only.
(a) Show the process on a P-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.
(b) Determine the volume occupied by the refrigerant initially.
(c) What is the work done?
(d) Calculate the total heat transferred to the refrigerant.

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 Module 5: First Law – open systems & specific heats

Notes/Comments:
We now apply the first law to open systems where mass flows in or out of a system.
We will introduce a new property, enthalpy, which measures the energy carried by a
mass flow in or out of a system (Ch. 5).

When possible, you should use tables to find internal energy and enthalpy values, but
we will look at some cases where you can use specific heats (Ch. 4).

Reading sections:
Chapter 5 (5.1-5.2) and Chapter 4 (4.4-4.5). You do not need to read the whole
chapters - the important concepts listed below.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• For open systems, energy balance needs to take into account the energy carried
by mass entering and leaving the system (5.1)
• Mass balance for an open system arises from the conservation of mass principle
(5.1)
• Flow work, or flow energy, is the work done in pushing the fluid into the
control volume. The property enthalpy of the flowing fluid measures the total
energy it carries: flow work plus internal energy. (5.2)
• Normally you find internal energy and enthalpy from tables but:
o Ideal gas internal energy and enthalpy can be estimated from specific
heats and temperature difference (4.4)
o Solid and liquid internal energy can be estimated from specific heats
and temperature difference; enthalpy also needs pressure. (4.5)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Analyse mass flow in open systems (Sec 5.1)
o Calculate mass flow rates using Eq. 5-5
o Calculate mass balance using Eq. 5-8
• Analyse energy flow in open systems (Sec 5.2)
o Calculate energy balance of open system using enthalpy to combine
flow energy and internal energy for energy carried by mass (Eq. 5-28)
• Estimate changes in energy and enthalpy of
o ideal gases using specific heats (Sec 4.4, Eq 4-27, 4-28)
o incompressible substances (liquids and solids) (Sec 4.5, Eq 4-35, 4-37
and 4-38)

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 Module 5: Workshop

Focus 1: Specific Heats of Ideal Gasses & Incompressible Substances

1) 2 kg of air is heated at constant volume from 300K to 600K (the initial pressure is 101 kPa).

(a) Why can we treat the air as an ideal gas?

(b) Calculate the heat required using the specific heat at 300K (Table A-2 a).

(c) Calculate the heat required using the average specific heat (Table A-2 b).

(d) What is the percentage difference? Which is the more accurate result and why?

2) Calculate the internal energy change (delta-u) of hydrogen, in kJ/kg, as it is heated from 300 to 800 K,
using the average specific heat (Table A-2 b). State which specific heat you use and explain this choice.

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 Module 5: Workshop
Focus 2: Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy is one of the fundamental laws governing the physical universe, and we have applied
it so far to closed systems, to keep track of energy in- and out-flows. For open systems, where matter as well
as energy can flow in and out, we’ll find that conservation of mass is another very useful tool.

1) Imagine a fluid flowing along a pipe. The amount of stuff flowing past a particular point per unit time is
called the “mass flow rate” , with units of kilograms per second.

a) Think about what affects the mass flow rate. For example,
• if the area of the pipe increased, would the mass flow rate increase or decrease?
• if the velocity of the fluid increased, would the mass flow rate increase or decrease?
• if you compared a dense fluid to a ‘light’ fluid flowing down identical pipes with identical velocities,
which one would have the greater mass flow rate?

b) Taking these factors into consideration, write down a formula for the mass flow rate in terms of the
density and velocity of the fluid and the area of the pipe. (Hint: check that the dimensions work out)

2) Conservation of mass says that the mass contained within a system (or “control volume”) can only
change if the sum of the mass flow rates in does not equal the sum of the mass flow rates out. i.e.

a) What does this simplify to for a ‘steady flow’?

b) For a single-stream flow (e.g. a hose), use the results above to relate the density, velocity and area of the
inlet to those of the outlet.

c) Simplify your expression in the case that the flow is incompressible (i.e. the density does not change):

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 Module 5: Workshop
3) Each of the following hypothetical processes occurs in a fixed control volume, indicated by the dashed
lines. Use the information given to answer the questions below

ṁ1 = 40 kg/s
A ṁ1 = 5 kg/s
B
2
A1 = 0.4 m
2 A1 = 1.0 m
V1 = 250 m/s V1 = 50 m/s

ṁ2 = 40 kg/s ṁ2 = 5 kg/s
2
A2 = 0.5 m
2 A2 = 0.5 m
V2 = 50 m/s
V2 = 200 m/s

C D ṁ1 = 50 kg/s
A1 = 0.8 m
2 ṁ2 = 150 kg/s
2
A2 = 0.05 m
V1 = 5 m/s
V2 = 40 m/s
ṁ1 = 10 kg/s ṁ2 = 10 kg/s
2 2
A1 = 0.8 m A2 = 0.5 m
V1 = 50 m/s V2 = 40 m/s

ṁ3 = 10 kg/s
2
A3 = 0.5 m
V3 = 40 m/s
ṁ3 = 200 kg/s
2
A3 = 0.5 m
V3 = 8 m/s

a) Which of these systems does not satisfy conservation of mass for a steady-flow process.

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 Module 5: Workshop
(more space for part a) working)

b) Which one of the steady flows is incompressible?

c) In the incompressible case, what is the density of the fluid? What is the specific volume?

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 Module 5: Workshop
4 A high-pressure cleaner for domestic use delivers cold water at the rate of 475 litres per hour.

a) What is the volume flow rate (in m3/s )?

b) Can liquid water be modelled as an incompressible fluid? What is its density?

c) What is the mass flow rate of the water?

d) Suppose it is fitted with a nozzle that has an inlet diameter of 2 cm and an outlet diameter of 2 mm.
What are the velocities of the water at the inlet and at the outlet?

e) What is the change in the kinetic energy of the water (per kg)? How do you account for this change in
energy (i.e. where did the energy come from)?

Study Guide page 33

 Module 5: Tutorial

First Law: Open Systems and Specific Heats

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
Refrigerant-134a enters a 28-cm-diameter pipe steadily at 200 kPa and 20°C with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The refrigerant gains heat as it flows and leaves the pipe at 180 kPa
and 40°C.
(a) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy and/or mass flows. List all your assumptions.
Determine
(b) the volume flow rate of the refrigerant at the inlet.
(c) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
(d) the velocity and volume flow rate at the exit.

HW2
A 3-m3 rigid tank contains hydrogen at 250 kPa and 550 K. The gas is now cooled
until its temperature drops to 350 K.
(a) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy and/or mass flows. List all your assumptions.
Determine
(b) the final pressure in the tank.
(c) the mass of hydrogen.
(d) the amount and direction of heat transfer in kJ.
Hint: use specific heat(s) of hydrogen at the average temperature.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
Explain the difference between enthalpy and internal energy.

2
What is flow energy? Do fluids at rest possess any flow energy? Explain.

3
A house is maintained at 1 atm and 24°C, and warm air inside a house is forced to
leave the house at a rate of 150 m3/h because of outdoor air at 5°C infiltrating into the
house through the cracks. What is the difference between the energy flowing in and
out of the house due to mass flow?

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 Module 5: Tutorial

4
A glass filled with 350 mL of fruit juice at 20°C is to be cooled down to 5°C.
(a) Determine how much ice, in grams, needs to be added to the juice if the ice is
initially at (i) 0°C, and (ii) −10°C.
(b) If cold water at 0°C is used instead of ice, how much water needs to be added
to the juice to achieve the required cooling?
(c) Using your results, explain why it’s more effective to cool drinks with ice
rather than cold water at the same temperature. Does the temperature of the ice
make a significant difference?
Data: The melting temperature and the heat of fusion of ice at atmospheric pressure
are 0°C and 333.7 kJ/kg, respectively. Assume the density of the fruit juice and its
specific heat capacity are the same as for water, which is 1 kg/L and 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K),
respectively.

5
A rigid tank contains a gas mixture with a specific heat of cv = 0.748 kJ/(kg⋅K). The
mixture is cooled from 200 kPa and 200°C until its pressure is 50 kPa. Determine the
heat transfer during this process per unit mass of gas.

6
A piston-cylinder device contains 8 kg of refrigerant-134a at 800 kPa and 70°C. The
refrigerant is now cooled at constant pressure until it exists as a liquid at 11°C.
Determine the amount of heat loss and show the process on a T-v diagram with
respect to saturation lines.

7
A water pump increases the water pressure from 100 kPa to 600 kPa. Determine the
net flow work, in kJ/kg, done by the pump, assuming the outlet temperature is the
same as the inlet.

8
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigeration system as saturated vapour
at 0.14 MPa, and leaves as superheated vapour at 0.8 MPa and 60°C at a rate of
0.06 kg/s. Determine the rates of energy transfers by mass into and out of the
compressor. Assume the kinetic and potential energies to be negligible.

Study Guide page 35

 Module 6: First Law – open system examples

Notes/Comments:
This module focuses on the applications of the first law to specific examples of open
systems. Again, the starting point for any analysis is energy balance.

Reading sections:
Chapter 5 (5.3-5.5). You do not need to read the whole chapter, but note the different
forms of energy relevant to each device.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• In a steady flow situation, the properties of the system do not change. (5.3)
• In a steady flow process, properties within the control volume do not change in
time, and fluid properties at the inlets and outlets are constant. (5.3)
• In an unsteady flow or transient processes, system properties change with time.
(5.5)
• In the uniform flow approximation, the fluid flow at the inlets and outlets are
assumed to be uniform and steady. (5.5)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Page numbers are for the Eighth Edition of the textbook.
• Know when and how to apply the steady-flow assumption to simplify energy
and mass balance (Sec 5.3, equations 5-31, 5-33, 5-36)
• Recognize which simplifying assumptions you can make for the following
idealised steady-flow devices. (Sec 5.4: just try to get an idea of what the
devices are: we will list the assumptions in the lectures)
o Nozzles and diffusers
o Turbines and compressors
o Throttling valves
o Mixing chambers
o Heat exchangers
• Perform energy analysis of transient processes, such as charging/discharging a
vessel (Sec 5.5)

Study Guide page 36

 Module 6: Workshop

Focus: Flow Devices

1) Nozzles and Diffusers

a) What is the purpose of a nozzle? How does it change the various forms of
energy of the fluid flowing through it? What energy terms can be assumed to be
constant – and why is this?

b) What is the purpose of a diffuser? Why is it essentially the opposite of a nozzle?

c) Steam enters a nozzle at 1.0 MPa and 400 ºC, with a speed of 25 m/s. What is the exit speed of the steam
leaving the nozzle if the exit pressure and temperature are 0.8 MPa, and 390 ºC, respectively?

Assumptions and diagram:

(label all energy flows in and out)

energy balance equation:

solution:

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 Module 6: Workshop
2) Turbines and compressors/pumps.

a) What typical assumptions are made regarding the relevant forms of energy in a
turbine? Write down the simplified energy balance equation.

X
COMPRESSOR

b) Compare the operation of a compressor to that of a turbine. What different purposes

do they each achieve Are there any differences in the relevant energy balance equation?

c) What is the maximum output power of a turbine that expands steam from 1 MPa and 400 °C to saturated
vapour at 40 kPa? The mass flow rate of steam through the turbine is 4.0 kg/s.

assumptions and diagram:

(label all energy flows in and out)

energy balance equation:

solution:

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 Module 6: Workshop
3) Heat exchangers and pipes

Consider a heat exchanger that is used to cool oil (cp = 2.20 kJ/(kg.K)) from 150°C to 40°C at a rate of 2 kg/s
by water (cp = 4.18 kJ/(kg.K)) that enters at 22°C at a rate of 1.5kg/s.

a) What forms of energy are relevant such a heat exchanger? Label all relevant energy flows on the
diagram.

c) The energy balance equation for a heat exchanger will depend on what you define as the system. Write
down the specific form of the energy balance equation for each of the following choices:

i) The system is the water only

ii) The system is the oil only

iii) The system is the whole device (water + oil). Assume that the device as a whole is adiabatic.

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 Module 6: Workshop

d) Using two of the equations above, determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and the exit
temperature of the water.

Study Guide page 40

 Module 6: Tutorial

First Law: Open System Examples

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
A diffuser is an adiabatic device that decreases the kinetic energy of the fluid by
slowing it down. What happens to this lost kinetic energy? Draw a diagram of the
diffuser, clearly showing all mass and energy flows. Mark the control volume with a
dotted line. List all your assumptions.

HW2
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300 kPa, 200°C, and 30 m/s and leaves at
100 kPa and 180 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 80 cm2.
(a) Draw a diagram of the nozzle, clearly showing all mass and energy flows.
Mark the control volume with a dotted line. List all your assumptions.
Determine
(b) the mass flow rate through the nozzle.
(c) the exit temperature of the air.
(d) the exit area of the nozzle.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
Air is expanded from 1000 kPa and 600°C at the inlet of a steady-flow turbine to
100 kPa and 200°C at the outlet. The inlet area and velocity are 0.1 m2 and 30 m/s,
respectively, and the outlet velocity is 10 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate and outlet
area.

2
Refrigerant-134a enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapour at 800 kPa with a
velocity of 120 m/s, and it leaves at 900 kPa and 40°C. The refrigerant is gaining heat
at a rate of 3.1 kJ/s as it passes through the diffuser. If the exit area is 80 percent
greater than the inlet area, determine the exit velocity and the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant.

3
An adiabatic air compressor compresses 10 L/s of air at 120 kPa and 20°C to
1000 kPa and 300°C. Determine the work required by the compressor in kJ/kg, and
the power required to drive the air compressor in kW.

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 Module 6: Tutorial

4
A saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water in a steam line at 2000 kPa is throttled to
100 kPa and 120°C. What is the quality in the steam line? If water enters the steam
line at a rate of 0.70 m3/s, determine the individual mass flow rates of liquid and
vapour water.

5
A hot-water stream at 80°C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s
where it is mixed with a stream of cold water at 20°C. If it is desired that the mixture
leave the chamber at 42°C, determine the mass flow rate of the cold-water stream.
Assume all the streams are at a pressure of 250 kPa.

6
A well-insulated compressor unit is used to compress nitrogen gas from an initial
pressure of 200 kPa to a final pressure of 700 kPa. 8 kg/s of nitrogen flows through
the compressor with an inlet temperature of 87°C and a velocity of 100 m/s. The
outlet stream has a velocity of 150 m/s. The mean value of cv for nitrogen over the
operating conditions is 0.759 kJ/(kg⋅K), and the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of
the compressor inlet and outlet (i.e. inlet over outlet) is equal to 3.
(a) Use a table of critical point properties and a generalised compressibility chart
to show that the inlet nitrogen can be treated as an ideal gas. Briefly explain
why the outlet nitrogen can be treated as an ideal gas if it is known that the
outlet temperature will be higher than the inlet.
(b) Calculate the outlet temperature of the nitrogen.
(c) Calculate the power required to drive the compressor under the given
conditions.

7
Determine the power input for a compressor that compresses helium from 150 kPa
and 20°C to 400 kPa and 200°C. Helium enters this compressor through a 0.1 m2 pipe
at a velocity of 15 m/s.

8
Steam enters a turbine steadily at 10 MPa and 550°C with a velocity of 60 m/s and
leaves at 25 kPa with a quality of 95%. A heat loss of 30 kJ/kg occurs during the
process. The inlet area of the turbine is 150 cm2, and the exit area is 1400 cm2.
Determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the steam.
(b) the exit velocity.
(c) the power output.

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 Module 6: Tutorial

9
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.6 kg of steam with a volume of 0.1 m3.
The mass of the piston is such that it maintains a constant pressure of 800 kPa. The
cylinder is connected through a valve to a supply line that carries steam at 5 MPa and
500°C. Now the valve is opened and steam can flow slowly into the cylinder until the
volume of the cylinder doubles and the temperature in the cylinder reaches 250°C, at
which point the valve is closed.
(a) What is the mass of steam added to the cylinder?
(b) How much heat was transferred to or from the cylinder?

10
A thin-walled, double-pipe, counterflow heat exchanger is used to cool oil from
150°C to 40°C at a rate of 2 kg/s. Cooling water enters the heat exchanger at a rate of
1.5 kg/s with a temperature of 22°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat
exchanger and the exit temperature of the water.
Data: The mean value of cp for oil over the operating conditions is 2.20 kJ/(kg⋅K) and
the mean value of cp for water over the operating conditions is 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K).

11
In many industrial facilities, it is a common practice to attempt to recover heat
generated from exhaust or other processes by using the heat to generate steam (i.e. in
a steam boiler). At a particular facility, hot exhaust gases from a process are used in a
heat exchanger to produce saturated water vapour at 2 MPa.
Exhaust gases enter the well-insulated heat exchanger at 400°C at a rate of 32 kg/min.
Water enters the heat exchanger at 15°C. If the mass flow rate of exhaust gases is 15
times that of water, and the heat exchanger maintains isobaric operating conditions,
(a) Calculate the temperature of the exhaust gases at the exit of the heat
exchanger.
(b) What is the rate of heat transfer from the gas stream to the water stream?
(c) It is later discovered that due to fouling in the pipework and failure of the
insulation, 10% of the heat given up by the exhaust gases is lost to the
environment. If the inlet and outlet states of the water and gases remain
unchanged, what mass flow rate of steam can now be produced?
Assume that the thermal properties of the exhaust gases are the same as that for air.

12
An insulated 60 m3 rigid tank contains air at 75 kPa and 120°C. A valve connected to
the tank is now opened, and air is allowed to escape until the pressure drops to
30 kPa. The air temperature during this process is maintained constant through the
addition of heat to the tank at a constant rate.
(a) Determine the mass of air removed from the tank.
(b) Determine the heat transferred to the tank during this process.

Study Guide page 43

 Module 7: Second Law and Entropy

Notes/Comments:
This module we introduce the Second Law of Thermodynamics and a new property,
entropy. The First Law of Thermodynamics told us that energy must be conserved,
with the consequence that no engine can be more than 100% efficient. The Second
Law of Thermodynamics imposes an additional limit that some (“irreversible”)
processes cannot run backwards. We will see that this further reduces the possible
efficiencies of engines.

Reading sections:
Chapters 6 (6.1, 6.6) and 7 (7.13).

From your reading you should be able to define/explain the following:

• The difference between reversible and irreversible processes (6.1,6.6)
• The second law places a further constraint on possible processes, distinguishing
between reversible and irreversible processes. (6.6)
• An irreversible process will generate new entropy. (6.6)
• The entropy of a system can also be changed by heat transfer (6.6)
• Every system contains entropy, which can be transferred via heat or mass, or
spontaneously generated through an irreversible process (7.13)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Calculate entropy changes in a system due to heat flow (7.13, Equation 7-71)
• Perform a second law balance (or entropy balance) on an isolated system (7.13,
Equation 7-79)
• Most important: apply entropy balance to closed and open (control volume)
systems (7.13, Equation 7-76)

Study Guide page 44

 Module 7 Workshop

Focus: Entropy Generation

1) Consider the following four processes, each of which starts with a system of air at an initial
temperature of 27˚C in a sealed container. One of these processes is not externally reversible, one
of them is not internally reversible. (The other two are totally reversible).
i. Determine which processes are reversible, and if not, where the entropy is generated.
ii. Use energy balance to determine whether heat (if any) flows into or out of the system
iii. Use entropy balance to derive an expression for the change in entropy of each system.
iv. Use your results to fill in the table in the next page.

a) The pressure applied by the piston is gradually increased

to compress the gas isothermally.

assumptions:
Tsurr = 27˚C
T = 27˚C

energy balance:

entropy balance:

b) The container is placed in a freezer. As the gas cools, the

piston falls to maintain constant pressure.

assumptions:

Tsurr = -18˚C

energy balance:

entropy balance:

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 Module 7 Workshop
c) The piston is gradually withdrawn until the volume of the gas doubles. The walls of the
container are insulated to prevent heat flow.

assumptions:

Tsurr = 27˚C

entropy balance:

d) The gas is held in place by a membrane, which bursts, leading to free expansion of the gas into
the other half of the container.

assumptions:

Tsurr = 27˚C
energy balance:

entropy balance:

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 Module 7 Workshop
2 To summarize your results from the last question, indicate for each process whether the following
changes in entropy are positive, negative or zero:
the entropy of the system ∆S
the entropy of the surroundings ∆Ssurr = -Q/Tsurr
the entropy of the universe ∆Stotal = ∆S + ∆Ssurr

Process Reversible? ∆S ∆Ssurr ∆Stotal

3 For all the processes above that are internally reversible, qualitatively sketch the temperature as a
function of system entropy.

What does the area under each line represent?

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 Module 7 Workshop
4) Entropy generation in a wall

Consider a steady heat transfer through a 3 x 7 m brick wall of a house of thickness 12cm. On a day when
the temperature of the outdoors is 35˚C, the air-conditioned interior is maintained at 23˚C. Suppose heat
transfer into the room through the walls is 700W.

a) As heat enters the wall from the outdoors, it lowers the entropy of the surroundings. Calculate the rate at
which the entropy of the outdoors changes due to this effect.

b) What is the rate at which the entropy of the interior of the house increases, due to heat leaking in through
the wall?

c) Considering the wall to be your system, use entropy balance to calculate the rate of entropy generation
within it.

Optional extra / homework:

5) Entropy generation in a mixing chamber.

a) Is a mixing chamber internally reversible? Explain.

b) What are the factors that contribute to whether it may be

externally reversible or not?

c) A flow of cold water at 25˚C and a flow of hot water at 80˚C are mixed together in a chamber in order to
produce a single output stream at 40˚C. Assume that the inputs and output is at atmospheric pressure.

i) What are the specific entropies of the input and output streams? (Hint: use saturated values).

ii) Suppose that the output mass flow rate is 0.5 kg/s, and that the hot water input has a mass flow
rate of 0.158 kg/s. What is the mass flow rate of the cold water input?

iii) Suppose that the chamber is not perfectly insulated, leading to a loss of energy as heat at the rate
of 5 kJ/s. What is the rate of entropy transfer due to heat?

iv) Use entropy balance to determine the rate of entropy generation within the chamber.

Study Guide page 48

 Module 7: Tutorial

Second Law: Entropy

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
An insulated piston-cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of saturated R-134a vapour at a
pressure of 0.8 MPa. The refrigerant is now allowed to expand isentropically until the
pressure drops to 0.4 MPa.
(a) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy and/or mass flows. List all your assumptions.
(a) Determine the final temperature in the cylinder.
(b) How much work is done by the refrigerant?

HW2
Work is entropy free, and sometimes the claim is made that work will not change the
entropy of a fluid passing through an adiabatic steady-flow system with a single inlet
and outlet. Is this a valid claim? Explain your answer in detail; start by finding
expression for the entropy generated. Your answer should also include a sketch of the
system and your assumptions.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
When a system is adiabatic, what can be said about the entropy change of the
substance in the system? Explain your answer in detail.

2
Which of the words in the bracket correctly completes the following statement:
“During a heat transfer process, the entropy of a system
(always, sometimes, never) increases.”

3
Is it possible for the entropy change of a closed system to be zero during an
irreversible process? Explain.

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 Module 7: Tutorial

4
On a very hot day, four bricks (unit mass 4 kg) with an initial temperature of 42°C fall
off the back of a construction truck into one of the very large lakes at UQ. The bricks
cool down until they are in thermal equilibrium with the lake. If the temperature of the
lake water is 15°C, calculate
(a) the entropy change of one of the bricks.
(b) the entropy change of the lake.
(c) the total entropy change of the universe.
Data: cp,brick = 0.79 kJ/(kg⋅K)

5
12 kg/s of steam at 6000 kPa and 500°C enters a steady-flow turbine. The steam
expands in the turbine while doing work until the pressure is 1000 kPa. When the
pressure is 1000 kPa, 10 percent of the steam (by mass) is removed from the turbine
for other uses. The remaining steam continues to expand through the turbine while
doing work and leaves the turbine at 10 kPa. The entire expansion process by the
steam through the turbine is reversible and adiabatic.
(a) What is the work done by the steam as it flows through the turbine?
(b) Sketch the process on a T-s diagram with respect to the saturation lines. Be
sure to label the data states and the lines of constant pressure.

6
Cold water leading to a shower enters a well-insulated, thin-walled, double-pipe,
counter-flow heat exchanger at 15°C at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and is heated to 45°C by
hot water that enters at l00°C at a rate of 3 kg/s. Determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer.
(b) the rate of entropy generation in the heat exchanger.
Data: cold water: cp = 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K), hot water: cp = 4.19 kJ/(kg⋅K)

7
Saturated water vapour is to be condensed to saturated liquid in the condenser of a
steam power plant at a temperature of 60°C with cooling water from a nearby lake,
which enters the tubes of the condenser at 18°C at a rate of 75 kg/s and leaves at
27°C. Assuming the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine
(a) the rate of condensation of the steam.
(b) the rate of entropy generation in the condenser.
Data: cp,water = 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K)

8
Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 4 MPa and 450°C with a velocity of 70 m/s and
exits at 3 MPa and 320 m/s. If the nozzle has an inlet area of 7 cm2, determine
(a) the exit temperature of the steam.
(b) the rate of entropy generation for this process.

Study Guide page 50

 Module 8: Entropy Changes

Notes/Comments:
In the previous module, we introduced the Second Law of Thermodynamics and
entropy; unlike energy in the First Law, entropy can be generated in a process. This
week I want to convince you that entropy is useful for real calculations as it lets us
analyse a range of processes that are (approximately) reversible, so entropy is
conserved – isentropic processes.

Reading sections:
The important concepts are from Chapter 7 (7.3-7.5,7.7-7.9). You do not need to read
all this material.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• An adiabatic system undergoing only reversible processes is isentropic (7.3-
7.5)
• Entropy is a state function (7.3-7.5)
• The “T-dS” equations relate changes in entropy to changes in other state
functions (7.7-7.9)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Know how to sketch / plot a process on a T-s diagram (7.3-7.5)
• Calculate entropy changes and determine the isentropic conditions for the
following. This is where we use the “T-dS” relations (7.7-7.9)
o simple compressible substances (tables)
o incompressible substances (solids and liquids) (Eq 7-28)
o ideal gases (Eq 7-42, 43, 44)

Study Guide page 51

 Module 8 Workshop

Focus: Isentropic processes

1) Locate the lines of constant entropy and the lines of constant temperature on the P-h chart above for
refrigerant-134a.

Can you explain why the isentropic lines are mostly parallel to the isotherms in the compressed liquid region,
but are at a large angle to the isotherms in the superheated vapour region?

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 Module 8 Workshop
2) A saturated mixture of refrigerant 134a with quality 50% enters a device at 700 kPa and
leaves at a pressure of 100kPa (still as a saturated mixture).

a) What is the temperature drop involved?

b) Suppose the device operates isenthalpically. (What kind of device could this be?) What is the
quality of the output mixture?

c) Calculate the change in specific entropy.

d) Suppose the device operates adiabatically. Is it reversible? Explain

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 Module 8 Workshop
e) Consider now an isentropic device that operates between the same pressures as above. What is
the quality of the output?

f) Suppose the device operates adiabatically. Is it reversible? Explain

g) Use energy balance to calculate the work that can be obtained from each of these processes,
assuming adiabatic operation.

h) Which gives more work: the reversible or irreversible process?

Study Guide page 54

 Module 8: Tutorial

Second Law: Entropy Changes

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
2 kg of saturated water vapour at 600 kPa are contained in a piston-cylinder device.
The water expands adiabatically until the pressure is 100 kPa and is said to produce
700 kJ of work output.
(a) Sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction of all
relevant energy and/or mass flows. List all your assumptions.
(b) Determine the entropy change of the water, in kJ/kg·K.
(c) Is this process realistic? Using the T-s diagram for the process and the
concepts of second law, support your answer.

HW2
Can the entropy of an ideal gas change during an isothermal process?

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
An ideal gas undergoes a process between two specified temperatures, first at constant
pressure and then at constant volume. For which case will the ideal gas experience a
larger entropy change? Explain.

2
Below are the two relations used to calculate the entropy change of ideal gases (from
state 1 to state 2), assuming that the specific heat of the gas remains constant.
⎛T ⎞ ⎛v ⎞
s2 − s1 = cv ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ + R ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ v1 ⎠
⎛T ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
s2 − s1 = c p ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ − R ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
Prove that these two relations are equivalent.

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 Module 8: Tutorial

3
A hot block of (solid) copper with a mass of 40 kg and initial temperature 150°C is to
be cooled in an insulated vessel containing refrigerant-134a. The copper block is
placed in the vessel which initially contains 20 kg of saturated liquid R-134a at a
pressure of 100 kPa. The copper block cools down until its temperature is 20°C, at
which point the block is then removed from the vessel. Assume that the cooling
process is isobaric.
(a) Show that the final state of the refrigerant (i.e. after the copper block is
removed from the vessel) is a saturated liquid-vapour mixture. (Hint: Start by
calculating the heat lost by the copper block during the cooling process.)
(b) What is the final temperature of the R-134a at the end of the cooling process?
(c) Determine the total entropy change of the copper block.
(d) Determine the total entropy change of the R-134a.
(e) Determine the total entropy generated as a result of the cooling process.
Data: cp,copper = 0.3846 kJ/(kg⋅K))

4
Air in a large building is kept warm by heating it with steam in a heat exchanger.
Saturated water vapor enters this unit at 35°C at a rate of 10,000 kg/h and leaves as a
liquid at 32°C. Air at 1 atm pressure enters the unit at 20°C and leaves at 30°C.
Determine the rate of entropy generation associated with this process.

5
Water at 200 kPa and 10°C enters a mixing chamber at a rate of 135 kg/min where it
is mixed steadily with steam entering at 200 kPa and 150°C. The mixture leaves the
chamber at 200 kPa and 55°C, and heat is lost to the surrounding air at 20°C at a rate
of 180 kJ/min. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies, determine the
rate of entropy generation during this process. Determine how much entropy is
generated?

6
An insulated rigid tank contains 4 kg of argon gas at 450 kPa and 30°C. A valve is
now opened, and argon gas is allowed to escape until the pressure inside drops to
200 kPa. Assuming the argon remaining inside the tank has undergone a reversible,
adiabatic process, determine the final mass in the tank.

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 Module 9: Entropy and Efficiency

Notes/Comments:
We are now ready for our most important practical application of entropy: calculating
efficiencies of devices compared to the best possible according to the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.

Reading sections:
The important concepts are from Chapter 7 (7.10, 7.12). You do not need to go through
all the mathematical derivations in 7.10, just focus on the main conclusions.

From your reading, you should be able to define/explain the following:

• For specified in- and out-flow, the maximum work is obtained when extracted
reversibly (7.10)
• For many devices, the ideal performance is obtained through a process which is
both reversible and adiabatic, and hence isentropic (7.12)
• Isentropic efficiency compares actual performance with that of an isentropic
process with the same input temperature and pressure and same output
pressure. (7.12)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Calculate and compare the work of a reversible pump processing an
incompressible fluid and a vapour between the same two pressures (7.10)
• Define and use the isentropic efficiency of a device (7.12)
• Use the definitions of isentropic efficiency for a turbine, compressor / pump
and nozzle (7.12 Eqs. 7-61, 7-63, 7-66)

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 Module 9 Workshop
Focus: Isentropic Efficiency

1) Consider a turbine driven by steam at temperature of 500˚C and pressure 2MPa. Suppose the exit
temperature is 200 ˚C and exit pressure is 200kPa.

a) Sketch this process on the T-s diagram below.

b) What is the change in the specific entropy of the steam?

c) How much work is generated per kg of steam?

d) What is the isentropic efficiency of the turbine?

e) Sketch the isentropic process on the T-s diagram and calculate its final temperature.

Study Guide page 58

 Module 9: Tutorial

Second Law: Entropy and Efficiency

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
Steam at 3 MPa and 400°C is expanded to 30 kPa in an adiabatic turbine with an
isentropic efficiency of 92%.
(a) Draw a diagram of the turbine, clearly showing all mass and energy flows.
Mark the control volume with a dotted line. List all your assumptions.
(b) Determine the power produced by this turbine, in kW, when the mass flow
rate is 2 kg/s.

HW2
A piston–cylinder device contains nitrogen gas. During a reversible, adiabatic
process, will the entropy of the nitrogen never, sometimes, or always increase?
Explain your answer.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
In large compressors, the gas is frequently cooled while being compressed to reduce
the power consumed by the compressor. Explain how cooling the gas during a
compression process reduces the power consumption.

2
On a T-s diagram, does the actual exit state (state 2) of an adiabatic turbine have to be
on the right-hand side of the isentropic exit state (state 2s)? Why?

3
Saturated refrigerant-134a vapour at 100 kPa is compressed reversibly in an adiabatic
compressor to 600 kPa. Determine the work input to the compressor in kJ/kg.

4
A well-insulated steam turbine takes in 4 kg/s of steam at 0.5 MPa and 300°C; the
output of the turbine is 0.05 MPa and the state is saturated vapour.
(a) Determine the power output of the turbine in kW.
(b) Consider an isentropic turbine with the same inlet properties and the same
outlet pressure. What is the quality of the outlet steam in the isentropic
turbine? Is it less than, more than or equal to that of the outlet quality of the
actual turbine, and is this what you would expect?
(c) Calculate the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
(d) Sketch the expansion processes (actual and isentropic) on a T-s diagram with
respect to the saturation envelope.

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 Module 9: Tutorial

5
Consider a pump and a turbine in a steam power plant that both operate between the
pressure limits of 10 MPa and 20 kPa. Steam enters the pump as saturated liquid and
leaves the turbine as saturated vapour. Determine the ratio of the work delivered by
the turbine to the work consumed by the pump. Assume the entire cycle to be
reversible and the heat losses from the pump and the turbine to be negligible.

6
Air is steadily expanded from 2 MPa and 427°C to 100 kPa and 50°C in a turbine.
The turbine experiences a heat loss amounting to 40 kJ per kilogram of air expanded.
The boundary temperature around the turbine is 0°C. Calculate the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine and the specific entropy generation associated with the
operation of the turbine.

7
The exhaust nozzle of a jet engine expands air at 300 kPa and 180°C adiabatically to
100 kPa. Determine the air velocity at the exit when the inlet velocity is low and the
nozzle isentropic efficiency is 96%.

8
Steam at 4 MPa and 350°C is expanded in an adiabatic turbine to 120 kPa. What is the
isentropic efficiency of this turbine if the steam is exhausted as a saturated vapour?

Study Guide page 60

 Module 10: Engineering Cycles - Introduction

Notes/Comments:
Having looked at the first law, the second law and properties, we can apply what we
have learnt to cycles. These are multi-unit processes that produce useful things like
electricity or cooling. Without cycles, modern life would not be possible.

Reading sections:
Chapter 6 (6.2-6.4, 6.7-6.11). Don’t look to read all of the text but look through these
sections in order to answer the dot points below. Don’t worry too much during the pre-
reading about the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements, nor the Carnot cycle. However I
expect that you will know what a heat engine, refrigerator and heat pump are.

From your reading you should be able to define/explain the following:

• Explain what is meant by a thermal reservoir? (6.2)
• Explain what a heat engine, is, and (6.3)
• Explain what a heat pump and refrigerator is (6.4).
• Explain what the limits to performance of a heat engine, heat pump and
refrigerator are, based on the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements? (6.4)
• List examples of reversible and irreversible processes and explain their role in
reducing the performance of real devices (6.6)
• Explain what the Carnot cycle is (6.7-6.11)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Calculate thermal efficiency based on heat and work flows. (6.3)
• Calculate Coefficients of Performance based on heat and work flows. (6.4)
• Calculate the efficiency or coefficient of performance (as applicable) of a
Carnot device? (6.7-6.11)

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Exercise 1: Concepts

Study Guide page 62

Exercise 2: Efficiency

Please determine in GJ

Study Guide page 63

Exercise 3: Cycle work

Study Guide page 64

Exercise 3: Banana Work

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 Engineering Cycles: Introduction

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
A 600 MW steam power plant, which is cooled by a nearby river, has a thermal
efficiency of 38%. Determine the rate of heat transfer to the river water. Will the actual
heat transfer rate be higher or lower than this value? Why? As part of your solution,
sketch a simplified diagram of the process indicating the direction of all relevant
energy flows. List all your assumptions.

HW2
The coefficient of performance of a residential heat pump is 1.8. Calculate the heating
effect, in kW, this heat pump will produce when it consumes 2.6 kW of electrical
power. As part of your solution, sketch a simplified diagram of the process indicating
the direction of all relevant energy flows. List all your assumptions.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
Explain the key differences between a heat pump and a refrigerator.

2
A heat engine has a total heat input of 1.3 kJ and a thermal efficiency of 35%. How
much work will it produce?

3
Somebody claims to have developed a new reversible heat-engine cycle that has a
higher theoretical efficiency than the Carnot cycle operating between the same
temperature limits. How do you evaluate this claim?

4
You are an engineer in an electric-generation station. You know that the flames in the
boiler reach a temperature of 1200 K and that cooling water at 300 K is available from
a nearby river. What is the maximum efficiency your plant will ever achieve?

5
A food freezer is to produce a 5 kW cooling effect, and its COP is 1.3. How many kW
of power will this refrigerator require for operation?

Study Guide page 66

6
A household refrigerator that has a power input of 375 W and a COP of 2.6 is to cool
four large watermelons, 10 kg each, to 8°C. If the watermelons are initially at 20°C, by
making appropriate assumptions, determine how long it will take for the refrigerator to
cool them. Critically comment on how realistic your answer is.
Data: cp,watermelon = 4.3 kJ/(kg⋅K)

Study Guide page 67

 Module 11: Engineering Cycles: The Rankine Cycle

Notes/Comments:
Now let’s looks at some more realistic cycles. The principles are the same but the
working conditions are different to deal with the realities of equipment design and non-
reversibility. This week we will look at a key heat engine cycle used primarily for
electricity generation

Reading sections:
Chapter 10 (10.1-10.4). Rather than read all of the material, focus on being able to answer
the questions below. However, the first page of section 10-2 is important and should be
read before the lecture. It is useful to know the individual processes which make up the
simple ideal Rankine cycle.

From your reading you should be able to define/explain the following:

• Explain why the Carnot cycle is impractical for normal use? (10.1)
• Explain how the efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased (10.4)
• Explain the basic concepts behind the reheat cycle, cogeneration and combined
gas-vapour power cycles (10.5, 10.8, 10.9)

In your reading look for examples of the following skills/applications. At the end
of this module, you should be able to:
• Calculate the thermal efficiency of a heat engine utilising a Rankine cycle?
(10.2, 10.3)

Study Guide page 68

This is a wonderful geothermal energy problem modified slightly from a problem posted
at Ohio University: http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/steamplant/geohybrid.html

A small community of about 500 households have discovered an underground geothermal

brine source that can be used to boil water at 100°C and would like to use this to generate
power. The following diagram shows the initial design of a low pressure geothermal plant in
which the water is boiled by the geothermal source to 100°C and subsequently superheated
to 200°C by a wood-fired superheater. Notice that the high pressure of the system is at 100
kPa allowing a convenient de-aerator to be placed at the pump outlet.

Justify all values used and derive all equations used starting from the basic energy equation
for a flow system

1) Neatly sketch the complete cycle on a pressure-enthalpy P-h diagram, indicating clearly
all 5 stations on the diagram.

Study Guide page 69

2) Using steam tables, and assuming that the turbine is adiabatic, determine the power
output of the turbine [729kW].

3) Assuming that the feedwater pump is adiabatic, and that the compressed liquid
experiences no change in temperature while passing through the pump, determine the
power required to drive the pump [0.23kW].

4) Using steam tables, determine the heat transferred to the boiler [6271kW] as well as the
heat transferred to the superheater [500kW].

Study Guide page 70

5) Determine the overall thermal efficiency ηth of this power plant [11%]. (Thermal efficiency
is defined as the net work done by the system divided by the total heat supplied externally).

Discuss the proposed system with respect to its environmental impact and feasibility. Is this
a well designed system? What do you consider to be the major advantages and
disadvantages of this system? Your discussion should include a comparison of the external
fuel used and the turbine power.

7) Explain the role of the superheater in the cycle.

Study Guide page 71

 Applications of Engineering Cycles: Rankine Cycle

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
A simple ideal Rankine cycle with water as the working fluid operates between the
pressure limits of 15 MPa in the boiler and 100 kPa in the condenser. Saturated steam
enters the turbine. Determine the work produced by the turbine, the heat transferred in
the boiler, and thermal efficiency of the cycle. As part of your solution, sketch a
simplified diagram of the cycle, labelling each component, indicating where heat and
work flows into or out of the system, and the direction of flow of the water. List all
your assumptions.

HW2
Consider a simple ideal Rankine cycle with fixed turbine inlet temperature and
condenser pressure. The boiler pressure is now increased. For each of the following
operational variables, do they increase, decrease or remain the same?
(a) Pump work input
(b) Turbine work output
(c) Heat supplied to the boiler
(d) Heat rejected from the condenser
(e) Thermal efficiency of the cycle
(f) Moisture content at the turbine exit

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
Explain why some power cycles superheat the steam in the boiler rather than simply
heating it to a saturated vapour. What effect does superheat have on the cycle
efficiency?

2
A simple ideal Rankine cycle with water as the working fluid operates between the
pressure limits of 3 MPa in the boiler and 30 kPa in the condenser. If the quality at the
exit of the turbine cannot be less than 85%, what is the maximum thermal efficiency
this cycle can have?

Study Guide page 72

3
A small geothermal power plant operating on a non-ideal Rankine cycle produces
3 MW of energy. 25,000 kg/h of saturated steam at 180°C enters the turbine. The
condenser operates at 0.2 bar. The pump is 70% efficient.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines. Mark in all
relevant states and show the cycle direction.
(b) Find the turbine efficiency.
(c) Find the thermal efficiency of the plant.
(d) Quantitatively comment on the performance of this power plant with respect
to an ideal power plant operating under similar conditions.

4
A power plant runs on a Rankine cycle based on the incomplete T-s diagram shown
below. Steam flows through the plant at a rate of 40,000 kg/h. Designate state 1 as the
inlet to the pump.
(a) By making appropriate assumptions, if the turbine operation is isentropic,
determine
i. the outlet state of the turbine.
ii. the power generated.
iii. the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
(b) In order to combat fouling, the turbine is replaced with a less efficient unit
which ensures that the outlet of the turbine will have no moisture. For the
maximum thermal efficiency under these new conditions, calculate
i. the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
ii. the power generated.
iii. the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

T
o
( C)

11 MPa,
500oC

25 kPa
sat. liq.

s
(kJ/(kg.K))

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5
A steam power plant that operates on a non-ideal Rankine cycle has a net energy
output of 120 MW with an overall cycle thermal efficiency of 27%. The cycle
operates between the pressures of 20 kPa and 12.5 MPa. The pump is 90% efficient
and the pump inlet is saturated liquid. The inlet steam to the condenser contains 10%
moisture by mass.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines. Mark in all
relevant states (show state 1 as the input to the pump). Show the pressure
values of all marked states. Show the cycle direction.
(b) Calculate the mass flow rate of steam in the cycle.
(c) What is the phase description of the turbine inlet? Quantitatively justify your
answer.
(d) Calculate the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
(e) Determine the second law efficiency of this power plant. Use the temperatures
of the closest possible thermal reservoirs that this cycle can operate within as
your reference environment.

6
A non-ideal steam power plant has a mass flow rate of steam of 30,000 kg/h. The
boiler operates at 9.5 MPa and the condenser operates at 7.5 kPa. Steam enters the
turbine at a temperature of 575°C. Cooling water used in the condenser circulates at a
rate of 2.0 x 106 kg/h and rises in temperature by 7.5°C as it passes through the
condenser.
In working out this cycle, state 1 denotes the input to the pump. Assume that the
specific heat of liquid water is 4.18 kJ/(kg⋅K). Make any other reasonable
assumptions required to complete this question.
(a) Find the cycle efficiency.
(b) What is the efficiency of the turbine?
(c) What is the net power output of the plant?
(d) Sketch the power cycle on a T-s diagram, showing all relevant temperature
and pressure vales. Mark in all relevant states and show the cycle direction.
(e) The cooling water used in the condenser is sourced from a nearby river. What
is the maximum temperature of the river water that can be used in the
condenser for this plant?

Study Guide page 74

 Module 12: Tutorial

Applications of Engineering Cycles:

Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

HW1
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapour at 0.14
MPa and −10°C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s. And it leaves at 0.7 MPa and 50°C. The
refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24°C and 0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to
0.15 MPa. Disregard any heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines
between the components.
(a) Sketch a simplified diagram of the cycle, labelling each component, indicating
where heat and work flows into or out of the system, and the direction of flow
of the refrigerant. List all your assumptions.
(b) Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines.
Determine
(c) the power input to the compressor.
(d) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.
(e) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor.
(f) the COP of the refrigerator.

HW2
In a refrigeration system, would you recommend condensing the refrigerant-134a at a
pressure of 0.7 or 1.0 MPa if heat is to be rejected to a cooling medium at 15°C?
Why?

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Remember to draw your system and state your assumptions where applicable.

1
A Carnot heat pump uses refrigerant-134a as a working fluid. The condenser
transforms 0.02 kg/s of saturated vapour at 800 kPa into saturated liquid at constant
pressure. The evaporator operates at a pressure of 200 kPa.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to the saturation envelope.
Mark in the lines of constant pressure pertinent to the cycle. Mark in the four
relevant states of the cycle in sequence, starting with state 1 as the output of
the evaporator. Show the cycle direction.
(b) What is the coefficient of performance of the heat pump?
(c) Calculate the work required to drive the compressor.
(d) Calculate the heat being delivered by the heat pump.

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 Module 12: Tutorial

2
A 10-kW cooling load is to be served by operating an ideal vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle with its evaporator at 400 kPa and its condenser at 800 kPa.
Calculate the refrigerant mass flow rate and the compressor power requirement when
refrigerant-134a is used. Show the cycle on a P-h diagram with respect to saturation
lines.

3
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on a vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle (but note that the compressor need not be isentropic).
The refrigerant enters the evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of 30% and leaves the
compressor at 60°C. The inlet to the compressor is saturated vapour and the outlet of
the condenser is saturated liquid. If the compressor consumes 450 W of power,
determine
(a) the condenser pressure.
(b) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
(c) the COP of the refrigerator.

4
An ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle using refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid is used to cool a brine solution to −5°C. This solution is pumped to
various buildings for the purpose of air conditioning. The refrigerant evaporates at
−10°C with a total mass flow rate of 7 kg/s, and condenses at 600 kPa. Determine the
COP of the cycle and the total cooling load. Determine
(a) the rate of heat removal from the brine solution.
(b) the COP of the air conditioning.

Study Guide page 76

 Ideal Gas Law Practical

1 ENGG1500 Laboratory – Ideal Gas Law

Name
Student number
Date
Group

1.1 Introduction
This experiment has two parts. In the first part, you will look at the relationship between
pressure and volume at constant temperature. In the second part, you will compare
isothermal and adiabatic processes. Record your results in this worksheet and give it
to your tutor at the end of the class for marking.

Concepts you will use:

• The Ideal Gas Law
• PV diagrams
• Isothermal, Adiabatic processes
• Energy flow and systems

Skills you will practice:

• Ideal gas law and compressibility calculations
• Understanding a real system
• Written communication

Acknowledgement: this is based on an experiment by Elizabeth Angstmann and Sebastian Frike,

from the collaborative efforts in laboratory design at the Advancing Science by Enhancing
Learning in the Laboratory workshop, http://www.asell.org/ .

Practical, page 1 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical

1.2 Risk Management

EQUIPMENT: Heavy Mass set on hanger
RISK ASSESSMENT RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN
Injuries to Head, Hands & Body: Students are to use a metal retort stand with 2 bosses
Risk of injury if falling mass set impacts with & clamps to hold the hanger for the mass set AND the
body. ideal gas law chamber.
(Low Risk) Ensure the set-up is steady & securely attached.

EQUIPMENT: Heavy Equipment

(Metal stand & boss clamp)
RISK ASSESSMENT RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN
Injuries to Head, Hands & Body: Tutors and Students to take care when handling the
Risk of injury if metal stand & boss clamps is metal stand & boss clamps. Metal stand & boss
dropped. clamps are to be kept away from the edge of the table.
(Low Risk) Students are not to remove metal stand & boss clamps
from the lab table for any reason.

1.3 Equipment
To begin, let’s inspect the equipment we will be using:

1. The syringe hooks up to a pressure and temperature sensor via the blue Pasco sensor
which runs into the computer and is logged in Data Studio. Leave the pressure and
temperature connections unplugged from the blue sensor for now.

2. Boot up the computer and ensure you log into Windows (Mac OS will not work).

3. Double click on the Data Studio icon to load it with the settings for this experiment.

4. You will also be provided with a

retort stand with two clamps. The
lower one stabilises the syringe.
Always tighten the grip around the
syringe first before adjusting the
position of the arm on the retort
stand, so the syringe is flat on the
bench.

5. A stack of 500g weights are provided.

Remove all the weights from their
holder before you begin. The holder
itself weighs 500 g so it is your first
weight. Set up the second clamp so it
can loosely stabilise, but not grip, the
weight stand on top of the syringe.

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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
1.4 PART 1 – Isothermal Compression
We will compress the air in the syringe at constant temperature by applying weights to
the plunger. We will test if the air behaves as an ideal gas during the compression.

Now we need to set up the equipment to begin the experiment.

1. Check that the pressure sensor is still disconnected.
2. Move the plunger on the syringe to the 60 mL mark and remove the weight
holder from the plunger.
3. Now connect the pressure (and temperature) sensors to the blue Pasco sensor
and open Data Studio. (The pressure sensor will twist and click to lock in).
4. Press the Start button at the top of Data Studio: it should start taking pressure
and temperature measurements. Press the stop button after a few seconds.
5. If it does not record any data or the Start button is not active, disconnect the
sensor from the computer and restart Data Studio, then reconnect the sensor to
the computer.

1.4.1 Predictions
Record the initial pressure, temperature and volume of the air in the syringe with no
masses on the plunger in Table 1.

Table 1: Initial state of air in syringe

Mass added (kg) Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K) Volume (mL) Volume (m3 )

0 60

Q1. Can you treat the gas as ideal to 5 per cent? (Estimate its compressibility using the chart at
the end. Show your working.)

Practical, page 3 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
Q2. What is the mass of the gas in the syringe in kg, assuming it is ideal?

Q3. We are going to increase the pressure in the syringe by putting masses on the plunger.
Calculate the change in pressure you would expect after placing a 5 kg mass on the syringe.
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted over a given surface area: P = F/A. The
internal diameter of the syringe is 26.8 ± 0.1 mm.

Practical, page 4 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical

1.4.2 Results
Now compress the gas by adding weights to the plunger, up to 5 kg. Record the pressure,
temperature and volume of the air in the syringe, for each mass listed in Table 2. Before
taking each new set of measurements, you must wait for the system to return to thermal
equilibrium.

Table 2: Isothermal compression

Mass added (kg) Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K) Volume (mL)

Practical, page 5 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
Q4. When you have finished taking measurements, take the weights off the syringe.
Draw your results on a graph of pressure (kPa, vertical axis) against volume (mL,
horizontal axis).

Practical, page 6 of 12
Study Guide page 82
 Ideal Gas Law Practical
Q5. Compare your prediction for the change in pressure for the 5 kg mass from Q3 to
your experimental value. What is the difference as a percentage?

Q6. Challenge question: predict the final volume (with 5 kg added mass) from the ideal
gas law and compare it to your actual measurement. Can we consider the gas to be ideal
(to 5 per cent) in its final state?

Practical, page 7 of 12
Study Guide page 83
 Ideal Gas Law Practical

1.5 PART 2 – Isothermal and Adiabatic Compression

In this second part of the practical session, you will perform an experiment to compare

STOP!
Do not proceed until a tutor has checked your work.
isothermal and adiabatic compressions.

We make the compression isothermal by doing it slowly and waiting for the
temperature to stabilise before taking measurements.

A true adiabatic compression is where we don’t allow heat to enter or leave the system
as the volume changes. Our system is not insulated, so we approximate it by
compressing the gas as fast as possible to reduce the amount of heat transfer.

1.5.1 Prediction

Practical, page 8 of 12
Study Guide page 84
 Ideal Gas Law Practical
Q7. This PV diagram below shows an isothermal compression. Draw a new process on
the diagram to show what would happen if heat wasn’t allowed to leave the system as
the volume decreased adiabatically. Start from point 1 and define a new point 2’ at the
same final volume.

1.5.2 Results

Follow the instructions to perform the experiment and fill out Table 3.

ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION:
• Begin with the plunger at 60mL.
• Start Data Studio recording.
• Record your initial values for the isothermal compression in the table.
• Slowly compress the plunger by hand. Watch Data Studio to ensure the
compression is isothermal.
• When the plunger is compressed all the way down, and the temperature is stable
record your final values for the isothermal compression in the table.
• Stop Data Studio recording.

Practical, page 9 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
• Begin again with the plunger at 60 mL.
• Start Data Studio recording again.
• Record your initial values for the adiabatic compression in the table.
• Rapidly compress the plunger by hand and hold it compressed for at least 5
seconds.
• Stop Data Studio recording.
• Scroll through the table in Data Studio to find the point of maximum pressure:
record the values in this row for the adiabatic compression in the table.

Table 3: Comparison of isothermal and adiabatic compressions

Pressure (kPa) Volume (mL) Temp. (K)

Initial
Isothermal
compression
Final

Initial
Adiabatic
compression
Final

Q8. How does the adiabatic compression differ to the isothermal compression?

Q9. Let the closed system for each process be the air in the syringe. Draw the system for
each process, labelling all energy flows with arrows.

Practical, page 10 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
Isothermal Adiabatic

1.6 Data, Equations and Compressibility Chart

1.6.1 Data
Acceleration due to gravity: g = 9.8 m/s2
Properties for air:
Gas constant R = 0.2870 kJ/kg.K
Critical temperature TC = 132.5 K
Critical pressure PC = 3.77 MPa

1.6.2 Equations
Circle: area = πr2
Force due to gravity F = m g
Ideal Gas and Compressibility Factor
Pv = R T
v = V/M
PR = P / Pcr TR = T / Tcr

Practical, page 11 of 12
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 Ideal Gas Law Practical
1.6.3 Compressibility Chart

Practical, page 12 of 12
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 Example In-Class Quiz 1

ENGG1500 Engineering Thermodynamics

In-Class Quiz 1
Example Week 5

Name Student Number

Number of Questions
• 1 property determination question; 1 extended answer question
• 10 marks altogether (5% of final course grade)

Timing
• 45 minutes working time

Instructions
• Answers to the questions must be written in the spaces provided. If you need to use more pages,
ensure that your name or student number is on each answer page and the answers attached to
the question sheet;
• UQ Approved calculators only. No other electronic devices permitted. Mobiles must be switched
off.
• Full working with appropriate justification should be shown for the extended answer question.
Answers lacking in appropriate working, demonstration of logical thinking and/or academic merit
(even if the answer is correct) will be penalised and graded accordingly.
• The ENGG1500 EQUATIONS, DATA TABLES AND FIGURES BOOKLET will be provided, and is to be
handed in with the submitted answers.

Study Guide page 89

 Example In-Class Quiz 1

Properties Question (4 marks)

1a Complete this table for H2O using tables: (2 marks)

T (oC) P (kPa) v (m3/kg) Quality (x) Phase description

45 Saturated liquid

100 0.005

375 1000

1b Use the ideal gas law to determine v for the conditions in the final row of the table above. Comment on
any differences between this answer and that determined using the tables above, and calculate the
compressibility factor. (2 marks)

Study Guide page 90

 Example In-Class Quiz 1

Extended Answer Question (6 marks) – Clearly state all assumptions and data references.
Ensure that you draw a clear diagram of the system, its boundary and any mass and energy
flows. Write clearly any equations which you are using to determine your answer

A closed 0.4 m3 vessel contains 4 kg of Refrigerant HFC-134a.

(a) If the temperature in the vessel is -10oC, what is the state of the refrigerant and the pressure in the
vessel?
(b) If the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, what value would a pressure gauge register?
(c) How much energy is required to vaporise all of the refrigerant (while keeping the volume constant)?

System drawing with boundary and mass/energy flows

Answer Part (a)

Answer Part (b)

Study Guide page 91

 Example In-Class Quiz 1

Answer Part (c)

END OF TEST

Study Guide page 92

 Example Mid-Semester Examination

Venue ____________________

Seat Number ________

Student Number |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|

This exam paper must not be removed from the venue Family Name _____________________

First Name _____________________

School of Chemical Engineering

EXAMINATION
Sample Mid-semester Examination, 2017

ENGG1500 Engineering Thermodynamics For Examiner Use Only

This paper is for St Lucia Campus students. Question Mark

Examination Duration: 90 minutes

Reading Time: 10 minutes

Exam Conditions:

This is a School Examination

This is a Closed Book Examination - specified materials permitted

During reading time - write only on the rough paper provided

This examination paper will NOT be released to the Library

Materials Permitted In The Exam Venue:

(No electronic aids are permitted e.g. laptops, phones)

Any unmarked paper dictionary is permitted

Calculators - Casio FX82 series or UQ approved (labelled)

ENGG1500 Equations Data, and Figures Booklet provided. Write

answers on the Examination paper provided.

Materials To Be Supplied To Students:

none

Instructions To Students:

Additional exam materials (eg. answer booklets, rough paper) will

be provided upon request.

Ensure that your tutorial group number is clearly marked on the front
cover of your exam script.

Page 1 of 9
Study Guide page 93
 Example Mid-Semester Examination

1. Indicate clearly on the chart below the following

(a) The state of saturated liquid vapour at a pressure of 10 MPa (1 mark).

(b) A sketched process line for the isothermal expansion of the water in state (a) to a
pressure of 100 kPa (1 mark).

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 2 of 9
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 Example Mid-Semester Examination

2. Given the state of a gas, explain how you would use a compressibility chart to test
if it can be considered as an ideal gas to 5% accuracy. (1 mark)

3. Which is larger for a gas: the specific heat at constant pressure or the specific heat
at constant volume? Why do you think this is so? (1 mark)

Page 3 of 9
Study Guide page 95
 Example Mid-Semester Examination

4. Consider a system made up of a chamber being filled from a supply line. To

calculate the first law energy balance on the system after it is filled, what do you
use to calculate the final system energy: enthalpy h, or internal energy u? Explain
your answer. (2 marks)

Page 4 of 9
Study Guide page 96
 Example Mid-Semester Examination

5. (Total 8 marks) Air is contained in a piston-cylinder device at 600 kPa and

927°C, and occupies a volume of 0.8 m3. The piston is fixed in place and not
allowed to move while a heat transfer process takes place until the pressure in
reduced to 300 kPa. The piston is now released and free to move and the air
undergoes an isobaric (constant pressure) process until it reaches its original
temperature of 927°C.
Assume air has constant specific heats evaluated at 300 K.
(a) Sketch the P-V diagram for the combined processes, labelling the start and end (2
marks).

(b) Give one reason why air in the system may be treated as an ideal gas; no
calculation necessary (1 mark)

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 Example Mid-Semester Examination

(c) For the first processes determine the boundary work and the heat transfer, in kJ,
and their directions (2 marks).

(d) For the second processes determine the boundary work and the heat transfer, in kJ,
and their directions (2 marks).

Page 6 of 9
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 Example Mid-Semester Examination

(e) For the combined process determine the change in internal energy of the system
using the first law of thermodynamics (1 mark).

Page 7 of 9
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 Example Mid-Semester Examination

6. (total 6 marks) A well-insulated steam turbine operates with the steam entering at
700ºC and 3.5 MPa, and leaving as a saturated vapour at 10 kPa. The steam flows
through the turbine at a rate of 20.0 kg.s-1, entering with a speed of 10 m.s-1, and
leaving at 40 m.s-1.
a) Draw a diagram of this situation showing the control volume and all energy and
mass inputs and outputs. (2 marks)

Page 8 of 9
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 Example Mid-Semester Examination

b) Determine the work output of the turbine per kilogram of steam throughput. Start
from first principles, and explain your reasoning, justifying any assumptions (4
marks).

END OF EXAMINATION

Page 9 of 9
Study Guide page 101
 Example In-Class Quiz 2

ENGG1500 Engineering Thermodynamics

Example In-Class Quiz 2

Name Student Number

Number of Questions
• 3 conceptual questions; 1 extended answer question
• 10 marks altogether (10% of final course grade)

Timing
• 45 minutes working time

Instructions
• Answers to the questions must be written in the spaces provided. If you need to use more pages,
ensure that your name or student number is on each answer page and the answers attached to
the question sheet;
• UQ Approved calculators only. No other electronic devices permitted. Mobiles must be switched
off.
• Closed book test – specified material only.
• Full working with appropriate justification should be shown for the extended answer question.
Answers lacking in appropriate working, demonstration of logical thinking and/or academic merit
(even if the answer is correct) will be penalised and graded accordingly.
• The ENGG1500 EQUATIONS, DATA TABLES AND FIGURES BOOKLET will be provided, and is to be
handed in with the submitted answers.

Study Guide page 102

 Example In-Class Quiz 2

Conceptual Questions (3 marks)

1. Consider the statement, “In an isothermal process, the entropy of an ideal gas remains constant”. Is this
correct? Explain. (1 mark)

2. There are three different mechanisms by which the entropy of a control volume can change. What are
they? (1 mark)

3. "A piston–cylinder device contains nitrogen gas. During a reversible, adiabatic, process will the entropy of
the nitrogen never, sometimes, or always increase? Explain. (1 mark)

Study Guide page 103

 Example In-Class Quiz 2

Extended Answer Question (7 marks) – Clearly state all assumptions and data
references. Ensure that you draw a clear diagram of the system, its boundary and any mass and
energy flows. Write clearly any equations which you are using to determine your answer.

3. A 0.5-m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant-134a initially at 200 kPa and 40 percent quality. Heat is
transferred now to the refrigerant from a source at 358o C until the pressure rises to 400 kPa.

(a) Determine the entropy change of the refrigerant (3 marks)

Study Guide page 104

 Example In-Class Quiz 2

(b) Determine the entropy change of the heat source. (2 marks)

(c) Determine the total entropy change for this process (2 marks)

END OF QUIZ

Study Guide page 105

 Example Final Examination

Venue ____________________

Seat Number ________

Student Number |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|

This exam paper must not be removed from the venue Family Name _____________________

First Name _____________________

School of Chemical Engineering For Examiner Use Only

EXAMINATION Question Mark

Example Final Examination

ENGG1500 Engineering Thermodynamics

This paper is for St Lucia Campus students.

Examination Duration: 120 minutes

Reading Time: 10 minutes

Exam Conditions:

This is a Central Examination

This is a Closed Book Examination - specified materials permitted

During reading time - write only on the rough paper provided

This examination paper will be released to the Library

Materials Permitted In The Exam Venue:

(No electronic aids are permitted e.g. laptops, phones)

Any unmarked paper dictionary is permitted

Calculators - Casio FX82 series or UQ approved (labelled)

Materials To Be Supplied To Students:

Equations, Data & Figures Booklet

1 x 14 Page Answer Booklet

Instructions To Students:

Additional exam materials (eg. answer booklets, rough paper) will

be provided upon request. Please do not use red ink.
Total ________

Page 1 of 4
Study Guide page 106
 Example Final Examination

QUESTION 1 (8 marks)

A 8 litre piston cylinder contains water at 300 oC and 4 MPa. The cylinder is compressed
during a process until the temperature reaches 575 oC and the pressure 9 MPa.

(a) (6 marks) During this process, 15 kJ of work was done on the water. How much
heat was added or removed from the water during this process (in kJ)? As part of
your solution, sketch a diagram of the process indicating the system and direction
of all relevant mass and/or energy flows. List all your assumptions.

(b) (2 marks) Using the tabulated data (i.e. not charts), determine the compressibility
of water at the initial conditions.

QUESTION 2 (4 marks)

A firefighting pump on a cruise ship (a really big ship that carries thousands of people)
needs to pump water from the ocean to deck level. Now the deck is 50 m above the level
of the ocean and the pump needs to deliver 1.5 kg/s of sea water with a velocity of 20 m/s
to the deck. What is the power required for the pump (in kW)? You can assume sea water
has the same properties of pure water and that frictional losses are negligible. Draw your
system and state any other assumptions you require.

QUESTION 3 (10 marks)

An engineer is considering a helium compressor. She wants to take helium from 0.1 MPa
to 0.25 MPa. The helium will enter the compressor at 300 K.

(a) (6.5 marks) Initially assuming the compressor is isentropic determine the outlet
temperature (in K) and total rate of work required (in kW) for 0.5 kg/s of helium.
Draw your system with all flows and state any assumptions you require.

(b) (3.5 marks) If the compressor in fact has an isentropic efficiency of 70 %,

determine the actual work required (in kW) and the actual outlet temperature (in K).

QUESTION 4 (5 marks)

Please explain the answer to each of the questions below in a few sentences. If a diagram
or an equation helps your explanation, please use it, but it is not required.

(a) (3 marks) Why is CP > CV for an ideal gas but CP ≈ CV for a liquid?

(b) (2 marks) Is it possible for the entropy of an isolated system to decrease?

Page 2 of 4
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 Example Final Examination

QUESTION 5 (6 marks)

A heat exchanger is condensing a fluid at 50 oC by exchanging heat with the surrounding

air. The rate of heat exchanged from this fluid to the air is 100 kW. Making suitable
assumptions, what is the rate of change of entropy of the fluid caused by this heat transfer
process? Assume an air (atmospheric) temperature of 25 oC. Does this process violate
the 2nd law of thermodynamics, being quantitative if possible.

QUESTION 6 (11 marks)

Consider a heat pump with a coefficient of performance (COP) of 3.8 with refrigerant R-
134a as the working fluid. It is heating a building in Tasmania to maintain an internal
temperature of 20 oC, whilst the outside is at 0 oC.

(a) (2 marks) The heat pump is comprised of a compressor, condenser, evaporator,

and expansion valve. Please draw a simplified diagram of the cycle, labelling each
component, indicating where heat and work flows into or out of the system, and the
direction of flow of the refrigerant.

(b) (2 marks) If the house loses 12 kW of heat to the outside, what rate of work (in kW)
must be supplied to the compressor to keep the temperature of the house steady?
State any assumptions made.

(c) (4 marks) The condenser operates at a pressure of 1 MPa with an inlet temperature
of 60 oC. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid. What is the
mass flow of refrigerant in the cycle (in kg/s)? State your assumptions and be sure
that the streams in part (a) are numbered so that your working is easy to follow.

(d) (3 marks) If the evaporator operates at 200 kPa, what is the quality of the
refrigerant as it leaves the expansion valve? List any additional assumption used.

Page 3 of 4
Study Guide page 108
 Example Final Examination

QUESTION 7 (16 marks)

An Onsen is a traditional Japanese hot bath. The hot water for these baths come from hot
springs that are warmed by geothermal activity. One Onsen operator in a remote area in
the north of Japan is proposing to generate power using their hot spring as a heat source.
The system will use R-134a as the working fluid. The hot spring is at 100 oC and a river
next to the hot spring is at 5 oC and is used as a heat sink.

(a) (2 marks) Sketch this ideal Rankine cycle on a T-s diagram (with T as the y-axis)
showing the saturation lines and constant pressure lines. Label points in the cycle
1, 2, 3, 4 corresponding to the same points in the diagram above. Show the
direction of the cycle with arrows and where in the cycle heat/work enters/exits.

(b) (1.5 marks) What is the maximum thermal efficiency for a heat engine operating
with this heat source and heat sink?

(c) (6.5 marks) R-134a enters the turbine as a saturated vapour at 3 MPa and leaves
at 400 kPa. If the turbine is isentropic, what is the specific work (w) that the turbine
produces (in kJ/kg)? State all assumptions used.

(d) (4 marks) What is the specific power consumption (w) of the pump (in kJ/kg)? State
any different or additional assumptions from part (c).

(e) (2 marks) What mass flow rate (in kg/s) is required to produce a net work output of
20 kW?

END OF EXAMINATION
A COPY OF THE EQUATIONS, DATA & FIGURES BOOKLET IS SUPPLIED
SEPARATELY.

Page 4 of 4
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 ENGG1500 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Page
Thermodynamic equations, constants and conversions 2
Molar mass, R , and critical point properties 6
Ideal-gas specific heats 7
Compressed liquid water table 8
Saturated water temperature table 9
Saturated water pressure table 11
Superheated water tables 13
R-134a saturated temperature table 17
R-134a saturated pressure table 19
R-134a superheated tables 20
Generalised compressibility chart (low pressures) 22
Generalised compressibility chart (intermediate pressures)
23
P-h chart R-134a 24
P-h chart water 25
T-s chart water 26

ENGG1500 S2 2017 Page 1 of 26

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Thermodynamic equations, constants and conversions

(Equation and page numbers refer to Cengel & Boles 8th Edition in SI units. Some have been
modified slightly for consistency/ease of understanding)

Mass Balance

Difference form: ∆m = min − mout

dm
Rate form: = mɺ in − mɺ out
dt

Rate of fluid mass flow (e.g. in): mɺ in = ρinVin Ain

Energy Balance

Difference form (e.g. state 1 → 2): E2 − E1 = ∆E = Ein − Eout

dE ɺ
Rate form: = Ein − Eɺ out
dt

System energy: E = U + KE + PE = m ( u + ke + pe )

Amount of energy flow (e.g. in): Ein = min ( hin + kein + pein ) + Qin + Win

Rate of energy flow (e.g. in): Eɺin = mɺ in ( hin + kein + pein ) + Qɺ in + Wɺin

Energy and enthalpy

Specific kinetic energy: ke = 1 2 V 2

Specific gravitational potential energy: pe = gh

Specific enthalpy: h = u + Pv

Boundary work
V2
Boundary work (e.g. in): Win = − ∫ PdV
V1

Pressure conversions
Pgage = Pabs – Patm (1-15)
Pvac = Patm - Pabs (1-16)

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Fluid properties
Quality: x = mvapour / mtotal (3-3)
where mtotal = mliquid + mvapor = mf + mg
x = ( vavg – vf ) / vfg (where vfg = vg – vf) (3-4)
yavg = yf + x yfg ( where y can be v , u , h , s ) (p128)
yavg = (1-x) yf + x yg

Incompressible liquid approximation

y = yf@T ( where y can be v , u , s ) (3-8)
h = hf@T + vf@T (P – Psat@T ) (3-9)

Ideal Gas and Compressibility Factor

Pv = R T (3-10)
R = Ru / M
Pv = ZRT (3-18)
Z = vactual / videal (3-19)
PR = P / Pcr , TR = T / Tcr (3-20)

Heat Capacities

∆u = u2 – u1 = ∫ cV(T) dT ≈ cV,avg (T2 – T1) (4-25,27)

∆h = h2 – h1 = ∫ cP(T) dT ≈ cP,avg (T2 – T1) (4-26,28)

cP = cV + R (ideal gas) (4-29)
cP = cV = c (incompressible substance) (4-32)

Second Law - Entropy balance

∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr ≥ 0 (7-11)
∆Ssys = Sin - Sout + Sgen (7-76)
∆Ssys = ∑ Qk/Tk + ∑in m s - ∑out m s + Sgen (7-82)

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Entropy Changes

∆s = s2 - s1 ≈ ∫ c(T)/T dT ≈ cavg ln(T2/T1) (incompressible substance) (7-28)

∆s = s2 - s1 ≈ cv,avg ln(T2/T1) + R ln(v2/v1) (ideal gas) (7-33)

∆s = s2 - s1 ≈ cP,avg ln(T2/T1) – R ln(P2/P1) (ideal gas) (7-34)

Second law efficiencies for devices

ηT = wa/ws ≈ (h1 – h2a)/(h1 – h2s) (turbine) (7-61)

ηC = ws/wa ≈ (h2s – h1)/(h2a – h1) (compressor) (7-62)

ηP = ws/wa ≈ (h2s – h1)/(h2a – h1) ≈ v(P2 – P1)/(h2a – h1) (pump) (7-64)

ηN = v2a2/v2s2 ≈ (h1 – h2a)/(h1 – h2s) (nozzle) (7-67)

Cycle efficiency measures

ηth = Wnet,out / QH = 1 – QL/QH (6-6)

COPR = QL / Wnet,in (6-7)
COPHP = QH / Wnet,in (6-10)

Ideal (Carnot) cycle efficiencies

ηth,rev = 1 – TL/TH (6-18)

COPR,rev = 1/(TH/TL – 1) (6-20)
COPHP,rev = 1/(1-TL/TH) (6-21)

Second law efficiencies of cycles

η II = W / Wrev for work producing devices (8-7)

η II = W rev / W for work consuming devices (8-8)

η II = COP / COPrev for refrigerators and heat pumps (8-9)

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Constants
273.15 K = 0o C (1-9)
Ru = 8.31447 kJ/kmol.K (3-11)
1 bar = 105 Pa (p22)
1 atm = 101.325 kPa (p22)

g ≈ 9.81 m/s2 (p25)

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

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 EQUATIONS, DATA AND FIGURES BOOKLET

Water T-s diagram

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