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PMMC

 Essentially a low-level DC ammeter

 Parallel resistors can be employed to measure a wide range of
direct current levels

 Can also be made to work as a DC voltmeter

 Achieved by connecting specific resistors in series with the coil

 AC ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by

using rectifier circuits with PMMC

 Multirange meter
 Has the capability to act as ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter

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Deflection Instrument Fundamentals

 Uses a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale to

indicated the measured quantity

 Three forces operate to have the effect on the

calibrated scale
 Deflecting force
 Controlling force
 Damping force

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Deflecting Force

 Force that causes the pointer to move from its zero

position
 In PMMC, this is generated by the magnetic

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Controlling Force

 Generated in the opposite direction of

the deflection force
 Provided by the spiral springs (non-
magnetic material)
 Retain the coil and pointer at zero position
in the absence of current flow
 Springs wind-up as the coil rotates, thereby
increasing force on the coil
 The coil stop rotating when controlling force
equals deflecting force
 Spirals must have a low resistance

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Damping Force

 Due to deflecting and controlling forces,

the coil (and the pointer) tend to
oscillate for some time before settling
down
 A damping force is required to minimize
the oscillations
 Must only be present when the coil is moving
 Must be generated by the coil rotation
 Provided by eddy currents
 Creates a magnetic flux opposite to the coil
motion

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Damping Force

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Deflection Instrument: Movement

 Two methods of moving the deflection instrument

 Jeweled bearing suspension
 Lightweight
 Breakable
 Up to 2µA

 Taut-band
 Shock-resistant
 More sensitive
 Up to 25µA

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PMMC Construction

 A permanent magnet with two soft-iron

pole shoes

 A cylindrical soft-iron core is positioned

between the shoes

 Lightweight moving coil is pivoted to

move between the air gaps of core and
faces of the pole shoes

 One end of spring is fastened to the coil

 The other is connected to an adjustable zero-
position control

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PMMC: Another Construction

 Core-magnet PMMC
 The permanent magnet is located inside the moving coil
and the coil and magnet are positioned inside a soft-iron
cylinder

 Advantage: Moving coil is shielded from external magnetic

fields because of soft iron cylinder
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PMMC: Current Flow

 Current in the coil must flow in one direction

 To cause pointer to move from zero (positively) over the scale

 If the current is reversed, the interaction of magnetic flux

causes the coil to rotate in the opposite direction
 The pointer is deflected to the left of zero (negative)

 The terminals of a PMMC instrument are identified as +

and – to indicate the polarity for connection
 The instrument is polarized
 Cannot be used directly to measure alternating currents
 Hence, it is purely a DC instrument
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PMMC: Force Exerted on Coil

 Force, F, exerted on each side of the

coil when a current, I, flows through
a one-turn coil with magnetic flux
density, B, and coil of length l
meters is
F = BIl

 The total force, F, on both side of

the coil with N turns is
F = 2BIlN
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PMMC: Deflecting Torque

 The total deflecting torque, TD, on

a coil of radius, r, can be calculated
as:
TD = F.r
TD = 2BlIN.r
TD = BlIN(2.r)
TD = BlIND

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PMMC: Controlling Torque

 The controlling torque, TC, is proportional to the

actual angle of deflection, θ, of pointer
TC = K.θ
 As deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque
K.θ = BlIND
 All of the above are constant except current I and
angle, θ. Hence,
θ = CI
Where C = BlND/K

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PMMC: Controlling Torque

 The controlling torque, TC, is proportional to the

actual angle of deflection, θ, of pointer
TC = K.θ
  Hence,
As deflecting The pointer
torque is equaldeflection is
to controlling torque
always proportional to the
K.θ = BlIND
current flowing through the coil.
 All of the above are constant except current I and
angle, θ. Hence,
θ = CI
Where C = BlND/K

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PMMC: Example

 A PMMC instrument with a 100-turn coil has a magnetic

flux density in its air gaps of B = 0.2T. The coil
dimensions are D = 1cm and l = 1.5 cm. Calculate the
deflecting torque on the coil for a current of 1 mA.

TD = BlIND
TD = 0.2T x 0.015m x 0.001A x 100 x 0.01m
TD = 0.000003 N.m
TD = 3 x 10-6 N.m

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Galvanometer

 A PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to

extremely low current levels

 Center-zero scale
 Left and right deflection possible

 Scale may be calibrated in microamperes or milliamperes

 Torque is computed the same way as for PMMC

 Proportional to number of coil turns, coil dimensions and current

 Normally use taut-band method

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Galvanometer

 Moving coil weight is reduced to minimum possible

 Allows greater sensitivity
 But … introduces a problem as pointer may have more weight
which is not supported by light-weight coil

 Solution: galvanometer with small mirror instead of a

pointer
 Uses the deflection of light beam pointed to a scale instead of a
pointer

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Galvanometer

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Galvanometer: Sensitivities

 Voltage sensitivity is expressed for a given value of

critical damping resistance
 Represented in microvolts per millimeter (µV/mm)
 Can be computed from the current sensitivity
 Megaohm sensitivity
 The value of resistance that must be connected in series with
the instrument to restrict the deflection to one scale division
when the potential difference of 1V is applied
 Current sensitivity per scale division
 Ranges from 0.1 to 1 µA/mm for pointer
 Ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 µA/mm for light-beam
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Galvanometer: Example

 A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 1 µA/mm and

a critical damping resistance of 1 kΩ. Calculate (a) the
voltage sensitivity, and (b) the magaohm sensitivity

Voltage sensitivity = damping resistance x current sensitivity

= 1 kΩ x 1 µA/mm = 1 mV/mm

For a voltage sensitivity of 1 V/mm:

Megaohm sensitivity = (1 V/mm) / 1 µA/mm
= 1 MΩ

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DC Ammeter

 An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit

in which the current is to be measured
 The ammeter must have a resistance much lower than
the circuit resistance
 To avoid affecting the current level in the circuit
 PMMC instrument is an ammeter
 Pointer deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing
through the coil
 Cannot support large current measurements
 Full Scale Deflection (FSD) is produced by very small current

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DC Ammeter

 Coil is usually wound with thin wire

 Quickly destroyed by large currents

 Instrument must be modified if

large currents are to be measured
 Such that most of the current is
shunted around the coil of the meter
 Only a small portion of current passes
through the moving coil

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DC Ammeter

 Shunt
 A very low resistance, connected in parallel
with the instrument coil
 Also termed as four-terminal resistor
 Represented as Rs while Rm is the meter
resistance

 Suppose Rm=99Ω and Rs=1Ω

 Shunt current, Is, will be 99 times the
meter current, Im
 If the meter gives FSD for a coil current of
0.1 mA, the scale should be calibrated to
read 100 x 0.1mA or 10mA at full scale

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DC Ammeter: Example (1)

 An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of

Rm = 99Ω and FSD current of 0.1mA, while the shunt
resistance is Rs = 1Ω. Determine the total current passing
through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD.

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DC Ammeter: Example (1)

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DC Ammeter: Example (2)

 A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 μA and a coil resistance of 1 kΩ.

Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument
into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA, and (b) FSD = 1 A.

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Swamping Resistance

 PMMC uses a thin copper wire

 The resistance of copper wire can change significantly when the
temperature is changed
 May introduce an error in current measurement
 Swamping resistance is used to minimize this effect
 Made of manganin or constantan
 Have resistance temperature coefficients very close to zero
 Connected in series with the coil
 Advantage of using swamping resistance in series
 If swamping resistance is 9 times the coil resistance, a 1%
change in coil resistance results in a total change of 0.1%

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Swamping Resistance

 Shunt resistances must also be made of manganin or

constantan resistances to avoid effect of temperature
change
 When calculating shunt resistance, swamping resistance
must be considered as part of the meter resistance

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Multi-range Ammeters

 Same ammeter can be made to work

for different ranges of current using a
multi-range ammeter
 Consists of a rotary switch to select
any one of several shunts having
different resistance values
 Make-before-break switch must be
used (WHY?)
 During switching, there are actually two
shunts in parallel with the instrument

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Multi-range Ammeters: Another Way

 Use of Ayrton shunt resistance

 Switch variations causes increase
in shunt resistance while
decreasing the meter resistance
and vice versa
 For shunt resistance R1 + R2 + R3,
the meter resistance is Rm
 For shunt resistance R1 + R2, the
meter resistance is R3 + Rm
 For shunt resistance R1, the
meter resistance is R2 + R3 + Rm

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Example (3)

 A PMMC instrument has a 3-resistor Ayrton shunt connected

across it to make an ammeter. The resistance values are
R1=0.05 Ω, R2=0.45 Ω, and R3=4.5 Ω. The meter has Rm = 1 kΩ
and FSD = 50 µA. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
Solution:

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Example (3)

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DC Voltmeter

 Basic function of a PMMC instrument is to measure the

current flowing through the moving coil
 Deflection of instrument is proportional to the current flowing

 Coil current is directly proportional to the voltage across the

coil
 The scale of PMMC instrument could be calibrated to measure voltage

 Since the coil resistance is quite small, the coil voltage is also
very small (as V = IR)
 PMMC instrument is only able to measure very low voltage levels
 Range can be increased by connecting additional resistance (multiplier
resistance) in series

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DC Voltmeter

 A multiplier resistance that is 9 times the coil resistance will

increase the voltmeter range by a factor of 10

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DC Voltmeter: Example (4)

 A PMMC instrument with FSD of 100µA and a coil resistance

of 1kΩ is to be connected into a voltmeter. Determine the
required multiplier resistance if the voltmeter is to measure
50V at full scale. Also calculate the applied voltage when the
instrument indicates 0.8, 0.5 and 0.2 of FSD.

Solution

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DC Voltmeter: Example (4)

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DC Voltmeter: Swamping Resistance

 As with ammeter, the change in coil resistance

with temperature change can introduce errors in
PMMC voltmeter

 The multiplier resistance can be used as a

swamping resistance
 May be made up of manganin or constantan

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DC Voltmeter: Sensitivity

 Previous example has a total resistance of 500kΩ which

implies
RV = Rs + Rm = 500kΩ
 Since the instrument measures 50V at full scale, its
resistance per volt is
500kΩ/50V = 10kΩ/V (voltmeter sensitivity)

 If sensitivity is known, the total resistance of voltmeter

can be easily calculated as (sensitivity x range)
 Total resistance is not equal to (sensitivity x meter reading)

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Voltmeter Loading Effect

 Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high

resistance
 A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the points in a
circuit at which the voltage is to be measured

 The alteration (change) in the circuit voltage due to very

low resistance of a voltmeter is known as voltmeter
loading effect

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Multi-range Voltmeter

 Consists of a deflection instrument, several multiplier

resistors, and a rotary switch

 Two possible circuits for multi-range voltmeter

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Multi-range Voltmeter

 Circuit 1
 At a time, only one multiplier
resistor can be in series with the
meter
 The range of the voltmeter is:
V = Im(Rm + R)

Where R can be one of R1, R2 or R3

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Multi-range Voltmeter

 Circuit 2
 Multiplier resistors are
connected in series and can be
connected to the meter by one
of the junctions
 The range of the voltmeter is:
V = Im(Rm + R)

Where R can be one of R1, (R1+R2),

or (R1+R2+R3)

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Multi-range Voltmeter: Example (5)

 A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50µA and Rm = 1700Ω is to be

employed as a voltmeter with ranges of 10V, 50V and 100V.
Calculate the required values of multiplier resistors.
Solution (for switched multiplier circuits)

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Multi-range Voltmeter: Example (5)

Solution (for series-connected multiplier circuits)

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PMMC Behavior with AC

 PMMC instrument can work with alternating current (AC)

 A PMMC instrument is polarized
 Has + and – terminals
 Can detect current in both directions
 If an AC with very low frequency is passed through
PMMC, the pointer tends to follow instantaneous level
of the AC
 Positive deflection for positive AC, then falls towards zero and
goes to negative deflection for negative AC
 A regular PMMC can only detect AC having a frequency
of up to 0.1 Hz
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PMMC Behavior with AC

 The normal frequency range of AC is 50 – 60 Hz

 When a regular PMMC instrument is connected with an

AC of 60 Hz
 The damping mechanism of PMMC and inertia of meter
movement prevent the meter from movement at all
 The pointer settles at the average value of current
 Average value is zero for a pure sinusoidal AC
 The actual current might have a very large rms value

 A PMMC instrument cannot be used to work with

normal AC
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Rectifier Voltmeter

 The rectifier is used to convert AC voltage to be

measured to DC
 The DC is amplified and given to the PMMC movement

 The r.m.s. value of alternating quantity is given by

the steady state (DC) current
Vm  peak value of the sinusoidal quantity
Vrms = 0.707 Vm
Vavg = 0.636 Vm

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Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 Consists of silicon or germanium diodes to convert AC to

a series of unidirectional current pulses
 Produces positive deflection in PMMC instrument
 Passes the positive half-cycles and inverts the negative half-
cycles

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Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 When the input is positive, diodes D1 and D4 conduct

 Current flows from top to down
 When the input is negative, diodes D2 and D3 conduct
 Current flows from top to down again

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Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 Series-connected multiplier resistor is used to limit the

current flow through PMMC

 Meter deflection is proportional to the average current

 0.637 x peak current

 Actual current measurements in AC is indicated in rms

 0.707 x peak current
 1.11 x average current

 Meter can be calibrated to indicate any of the rms,

average or peak voltage values
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Example (6)

 A PMMC instrument with FSD=100µA and Rm=1kΩ is to be employed as an

AC voltmeter with FSD=100V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the bridge
rectifier circuit. Calculate the multiplier resistance value required.
Solution:

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Example (7)

 Calculate the pointer indications for the voltmeter in previous

example when the rms input voltage is (a) 75V and (b) 50V.
Solution:

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Example (8)

 Calculate the sensitivity of the voltmeter in the previous

example.
Solution:

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Half-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 Composed of two diodes D1 and D2

 Diodes show nonlinear behavior for low currents

 Hence, the meter is shunted with a resistance RSH
 Ensures high current through diode D1 and its linear behavior

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Half-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 When AC is applied, diode D1 conducts for positive half-cycle

 Causes the meter deflection proportional to the average value of that
half-cycle
 For the negative half-cycle, diode D2 conducts and diode D1 is
reverse biased
 Meter is bypassed
 Protects the meter against reverse voltages
Iav = 0.5 (0.637 Im)

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Example (9)

 A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50µA and Rm = 1700Ω is used in the half-
wave rectifier voltmeter circuit. The silicon diode D1 must have a
minimum (peak) forward current of 100µA when the measured voltage is
20% of FSD. The voltmeter is to indicate 50V rms at full scale. Calculate
the values of Rs and RSH.

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Example (9)

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Half-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

 Composed of two diodes and two resistors

 Passes full-wave rectified current through the meter

 Some of the current bypasses the meter

 For positive half-cycle, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased

 Current flows from terminal 1 through D1 and
then through R2 to terminal 2
 Much of the current flow through R1

 For negative half-cycle, D2 is forward-biased

 Current flows from terminal 2 through R1 and
then through D2 to terminal 1
 Much of the current flows through R2

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Rectifier Ammeter

 Rectifier instrument is not suitable for direct

application as an AC ammeter (WHY?)

 Reason
 Voltage drop across an ammeter must be very small (not
greater than 100mV, typically)
 Low resistance requirement, as ammeter is connected in
series
 The voltage drop across a diode is from 0.3V to 0.7V
 This makes the total voltage drop across a full-bridge rectifier
between 0.6 to 1.4V

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Rectifier Ammeter

 Current transformer can be used to give the ammeter a

low terminal resistance and low voltage drop
 The transformer steps up the input voltage to provide sufficient
voltage to operate the rectifiers
 At the same time, it steps down the primary current to a level
suitable for measurement by a PMMC

 The current transformation ratio is very important

Ip/Is = Ns/Np

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Rectifier Ammeter with Transformer

 A precise load resistor RL is connected across the

secondary winding
 RL prevents the unnecessary current passing through the meter

 Example
If PMMC requires 100µA average FSD current, Ns=2000 and Np=5,
primary rms current is 100mA
Is = (5/2000) * 100mA = 250µA
Is(avg) = (250/1.11) = 225.2µA
IL = 225.2 – 100 = 125.2µA

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Example (10)

 A rectifier ammeter is to give FSD for a primary current of 250mA. The

PMMC meter has FSD=1mA and Rm=1700Ω. The current transformer has
Ns = 500 and Np = 4. The diodes each have VF = 0.7 V, and the series
resistance is Rs = 20kΩ. Calculate the required value of RL.

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Example (10)

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Series Ohmmeter

 Ohmmeters do not usually exist as individual

instruments
 Rather part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM)

 Simplest ohmmeter consists of a voltage source

connected in series with a pair of terminals, a standard
resistance, and a low-current PMMC instrument

 The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected across

terminals (A and B)

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Series Ohmmeter

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Series Ohmmeter

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Series Ohmmeter

 The meter current indicated by the instrument can be

computed as:
Im = (Eb/Rx + R1 + Rm)
 In the absence of external resistance (Rx) (the terminals A and
B short-circuited), the current Im becomes:
Im = (Eb/R1 + Rm)
 The current goes to infinity when the circuit is open (indicates
the resistance is infinity

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Series Ohmmeter: Example (11)

 A series ohmmeter is made up of a 1.5V battery, a 100µA meter, and a

resistance R1 which makes (R1 + Rm) = 15kΩ. Determine (a) the
instrument indication when Rx = 0, (b) how the resistance scale should be
marked at 0.5 FSD, 0.25 FSD, and 0.75 FSD.
Solution:

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Series Ohmmeter: Example (11)

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Series Ohmmeter: Zero Adjust

 Problem with ohmmeter

 Operate satisfactorily as long as the input voltage remains full (e.g.
1.5V)
 The instrument reading is no longer correct as the input voltage falls
 Solution
 An adjustable resistor is connected in parallel with the meter

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Series Ohmmeter: Zero Adjust

 The battery current Ib splits into meter current Im and resistor

current I2.
 When A and B short-circuited, R2 is adjusted to give FSD on
the meter
 Total resistance is R1 + R2||Rm
 R1 dominates since R2||Rm << R1

 When Rx becomes equal to R1, the total resistance is doubled

and circuit current is halved
 Both I2 and Im are also reduced to half the previous values
 Midscale measured resistance is equal to ohmmeter internal
resistance
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Series Ohmmeter: Zero Adjust

Ib = Eb /(Rx + R1 + R2||Rm)
 Ib ≈ Eb /(Rx + R1)

The meter voltage Vm can be calculated as:

Vm = Ib (R2||Rm)

The meter current Im can be calculated as:

Im = Vm /Rm
Im = Ib (R2||Rm)/Rm

 Each time meter is used, the terminals A and B are short-

circuited first and R2 is adjusted accordingly for FSD
 Helps in getting the correct measurement even when the voltage falls

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Series Ohmmeter: Example (12)

 The ohmmeter circuit with zero adjust has Eb=1.5V, R1=15kΩ, Rm=50Ω,
R2Ω =50, and meter FSD=50µA. Determine the ohmmeter scale reading
at 0.5FSD, and determine the new resistance value that R2 must be
adjusted to when Eb falls to 1.3V. Also recalculate the value of Rx at
0.5FSD when Eb=1.3V.

Solution:

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Series Ohmmeter: Example (12)

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 76