STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Loads

Perhaps the most important and most difficult task faced by the structural
designer is the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to
a structure during its life. No loads that may reasonably be expected to
occur may be overlooked. After loads are estimated, the next problem is
to decide the worst possible combinations of these loads that might
occur at one time. For instance, would a highway bridge simultaneously
subjected to fast-moving lines of heavily loaded trailer trucks in every
lane and to a 100km lateral wind, or is some lesser combination of these
loads more reasonable?

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

GRAVITY LOADS
1. DEAD LOAD

THE DEAD LOAD ON A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT IS THE WEIGHT OF THE MEMBER ITSELF,
PLUS THE WEIGHTS OF ALL MATERIALS PERMANENTLY INCORPORATED INTO THE
STRUCTURE AND SUPPORTED BY THE MEMBER IN QUESTION. THIS INCLUDES THE
WEIGHTS OF PERMANENT PARTITIONS OR WALLS, THE WEIGHTS OF PLUMBING
STACKS, ELECTRICAL FEEDERS, PERMANENT MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT, AND SO ON.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
2. LIVE LOAD
MOST BUILDING CODES CONTAIN A TABLE OF DESIGN OR SPECIFIED LIVE LOADS. TO
SIMPLIFY THE CALCULATIONS, THESE ARE EXPRESSED AS UNIFORM LOADS ON THE FLOOR
AREA. IN GENERAL, A BUILDING LIVE LOAD CONSISTS OF A SUSTAINED PORTION DUE TO
DAY-TO-DAY USE AND A VARIABLE PORTION GENERATED BY UNUSUAL EVENTS.
AS THE LOADED AREA INCREASES, THE AVERAGE MAXIMUM LIFETIME LOAD DECREASES
BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE TO HAVE A HEAVY LOAD ON A SMALL AREA, IT IS
UNLIKELY THAT THIS WOULD OCCUR IN A LARGE AREA. THIS IS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT BY
MULTIPLYING THE SPECIFIED LIVE LOADS BY A LIVE-LOAD REDUCTION FACTOR.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
The portion of the loaded area that is raised when this is
done is called the influence area, because loads acting
anywhere in this area will have a significant impact on
the load effects in the member in question. The tributary
area, extends out from the beam or column to the lines
of zero shear in the floor around the member under
consideration.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

SAMPLE PROBLEM: NOV. 2012

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Among the many other types of live loads are:

Traffic loads for bridges—Bridges are subjected to series of concentrated loads of varying
magnitude caused by groups of truck or train wheels.
Impact loads—Impact loads are caused by the vibration of moving or movable loads. It is obvious that a crate
dropped on the floor of a warehouse or a truck bouncing on uneven pavement of a bridge causes greater forces
than would occur if the loads were applied gently and gradually. Impact loads are equal to the difference
between the magnitude of the loads actually caused and the magnitude of the loads had they been dead loads.
Longitudinal loads—Longitudinal loads also need to be considered in designing some structures. Stopping a train
on a railroad bridge or a truck on a highway bridge causes longitudinal forces to be applied. It is not difficult to
imagine the tremendous longitudinal force developed when the driver of a 40-ton trailer truck traveling at 60 mph
suddenly has to apply the brakes while crossing a highway bridge. There are other longitudinal load situations, such
as ships running into docks and the movement of traveling cranes that are supported by building frames.

Miscellaneous loads—Among the other types of live loads with which the structural designer will have to contend
are soil pressures (such as the exertion of lateral earth pressures on walls or upward pressures on foundations),
hydrostatic pressures (such as water pressure on dams, inertia forces of large bodies of water during earthquakes,
and uplift pressures on tanks and basement structures), blast loads (caused by explosions, sonic booms, and military
weapons), and centrifugal forces (such as those caused on curved bridges by trucks and trains or similar effects on
roller coasters).

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

Reinforced concrete floor systems are commonly referred to as one-way or two-way systems based
on the ratio of the span lengths for the floor slab in the two principal horizontal directions.
In a concrete floor system where the ratio of the longer to the shorter span length is greater than or
equal to 2, it is common practice to provide flexural reinforcement to resist the entire load in the
short direction and only provide minimum steel for temperature and shrinkage effects in the long
direction. Such slabs are referred to as one-way slabs because they are designed to carry applied
loads in only one direction. Where the ratio of the long span to short span ratio of less than 2. flexural
reinforcement would be provided in the two principal horizontal directions of the slab panel to
enable it to carry applied loads in two directions. Such slabs are referred to as two-way slabs.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

Floor systems in almost all buildings are designed for uniformly distributed dead and live loads.

The symbol ωu will be used to represent these loads with subscripts L for live load and D for dead load.
Total dead load normally is composed of dead loads superimposed on the floor system as well as the
self-weight of the floor members. Typical live load values used in design of various types of structures
were given in table provided in the NSCP.

Floor beams typically are designed to resist area loads acting within the tributary area for that beam,
the tributary area extends out from the member in question to the lines of zero shear on either side of
the member. The zero shear lines normally are assumed to occur halfway to the next similar structural
member (floor beam in this case). Thus, the width of the tributary area for a typical floor beam is equal
to the sum of one-half the distances to the adjacent floor beams. For a floor system with uniformly
spaced floor beams, the width of the tributary area is equal to the center-to-center spacing between
the floor beams. The effective line load, 𝝎𝒖 , is found by multiplying the area load, q, times the width of
the analysis strip.

For one-way slabs, the width of the tributary area is set equal to the width of the analysis strip, which is
commonly taken as 1 meter.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
SAMPLE PROBLEM: NOV. 2012 and MAY 2014

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Pattern Loadings for Live Load
The largest response in a continuous beam or a frame occur when some
spans are loaded with live load and others are not. Diagrams, referred to as
influence lines, often are used to determine which spans should and should
not be loaded. An influence line is a graph of the variation in the moment,
shear, or other effect at one particular point in a beam due to a unit load
that moves across the beam.
Loading patterns to determine maximum design response for continuous
beams and one-way slabs:

1. Factored dead load on all spans with factored live load on two adjacent
spans and alternate live load on the succeeding spans.

2. Factored dead load on all spans with factored live load on alternate spans.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

The first case will give the maximum reaction, maximum negative moment
and maximum shear at the supports between the two loaded spans.

The second load case gives the maximum positive moments at the midspan
of the loaded spans, the maximum negative moment and maximum shear
at the exterior support, and the minimum positive moment, which could be
negative, at the midspan of the unloaded spans.

Using factored dead load and live load on all spans will represent the
maximum vertical loading to be transferred to the columns supporting the
floor system.
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Live Load Patterns
(Two Equal Spans Only)

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Live Load Patterns
(Four Equal Spans Only)
ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Given:

L=8m
S1 = 2.5 m
S2 = 3 m
Total dead load = 4.6 kPa
Live load = 4.8 kPa

Beam KLMNO is to be analyzed for the maximum forces at service condition.

•Which of the following gives the maximum shear at L for span LM?
•Which of the following gives the max. negative moment at L?
•Which of the following gives the max. positive moment at span LM?

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ
Sample Problem
Beam EFGH is simply supported by the transverse girders at E, F, G,
and H.
Given:
Dead load = 3 kPa
Live load = 4.8 kPa
L1 = L2 = L3 = 6 m.
S2 = 2.5 m.
Beam loads are computed based on tributary area. Apply pattern
loadings for live load.
• Find the maximum positive moment at span FG due to dead load.
• What is the maximum negative moment at span EF due to live load.
• How much is the maximum shear in span FG due to dead load and
live load.

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ

ENGR. JEREMIAS JR. YANG MARQUEZ