A

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ON
DESIGN AND DRAFTING OF HVAC SYSTEM FOR A RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING
IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLEMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY

MOHD YOUSUF 15RT1A0381

MOHD IBRAHIM ALI 15RT1A0393

MOHD SOHAIL 15RT1A03A5

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mohammed Mansoor Hasan (Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NAWAB SHAH ALAM KHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
(APPROVED BY AICTE, ACCREDITED BY NAAC, AFFILIATED TO JNTUH)
MALAKPET
HYDERABAD-500036
TELANGANA 2016-2020
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report titled " DESIGN AND DRAFTING
OF HVAC SYSTEM FOR A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING” That is being
submitted by

MOHD YOUSUF 15RT1A0381

MOHD IBRAHIM ALI 15RT1A0393

MOHD SOHAIL 15RT1A03A5

In final year of study in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree bachelor of technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING is a
record of bonafide work carried out, during the year 2016-2020. The results
embodied in this dissertation have not submitted to any other university or
organization for the award of any other degree.

PROJECT INCHARGE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

Mohammed Mansoor Hasan (Prof) Syed mujahid hussaini

 DECLARATION

This is to certify that work reported in the present thesis titled “DESIGN AND
DRAFTING OF HVAC SYSTEM FOR A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING” a record of
work done by me in the department of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING in Nawab
Shah Alam Khan College Of Engineering & Technology, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Hyderabad.

No part of the thesis is copied from books/journals/internet and wherever

the portion is taken, the same as duly referred in the text, the reported work based on
project work-done by me and not copied from any other source.

MOHD YOUSUF 15RT1A0381

MOHD IBRAHIM ALI 15RT1A0393

MOHD SOHAIL 15RT1A03A5

Signature of the students

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We owe a great thanks to a great many people who helped and supported us to
complete the project work.

Our deep thanks to Prof Mr. Mohammed Mansoor Hasan, the guide of our project for
guiding and correcting various documents with attention and care. He has taken
pain to go through the project and make necessary correction when needed. And we
are also grateful to respected HOD Syed Mujahid Hussaini and to our respected
principal Dr. Syed Abdul Sattar for permitting us to utilize all the necessary facilities of
the institution. We are thankful to our project in-charge Asst. prof. Mr. Mohammed
Mansoor Hasan and all other faculties & staff members of our department for their kind
co-operation and help. Not forgetting our parents for providing everything, such as
money for the project requirements. And they give support which is the most needed for
this project. Lastly, we would like to express our deep appreciation towards our
classmates. They were helpful that when we combined and discussed together. We have
done this project not only for marks but also to increase our knowledge. Thanks again
to all who helped us.

MOHD YOUSUF 15RT1A0381

MOHD IBRAHIM ALI 15RT1A0393

MOHD SOHAIL 15RT1A03A5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 HVAC SYSTEM 1
1.2 BAISC REFRIGERATION CYCLE 2
CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW 3
CHAPTER 3 – REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS 7
3.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION 7
3.2 CENTRALIZED HVAC SYSTEM 9
CHAPTER 4- ESTIMATION OF HEAT LOADS 28
4.1 PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER 28
4.2 COOLING LOADS CLASSIFIED BY KINDS OF HEAT 30
4.3 DESIGN CONDITIONS OF THE PROJECT 36
4.4 CALCULATION OF TOTAL HEAT LOAD 37
CHAPTER 5- CENTRALIZED AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 38
5.1 GENERAL SCHEMATIC OF AIR-CONDITIONING 38
5.2 AIR-CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT 39
CHAPTER 6- CHILLED WATER AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM 56
6.1 CHILLED-WATER AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM 56
6.2 CONCEPTUAL VIEW OF A CHILLED-WATER AIR-CONDITIONING
SYSTEM 57
6.3 WASTE HEAT REJECTION - REFRIGERATION CONDENSERS 58
6.4 PIPING SYSTEM 61
6.5 BOQ 63
CHAPTER 7-
RESULT 65
CONCLUSION 69
FUTURE SCOPE 70
BIBLIOGRAPHY 73
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE NO.

Fig 1.2.1 Refrigeration cycle 2

Fig 3.1.1 Hvac System Requirement 7
Fig 3.1 Schematic Diagram of Centralized Hvac System 10
Fig 3.2 Schematic Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 10
Fig 3.3 Schematic A) Vapor Compression Chiller 11
B) Absorption Chiller
Fig 3.4 Power Generation and Absorption Chiller 12
Fig 4.1 Heat transfer 28
Fig 4.2 Methods of heat transfer 29
Fig 4.3 Sources of heat 35
Fig 5.1 Central Hvac system 36
Fig 5.2 Chiller 37
Fig 5.3 Air cooled chiller 39
Fig 5.4 Water cooled chiller 40
Fig 5.5 Water cooled chiller 43
Fig 5.6 Compressor 47
Fig 5.7 FCU unit 49
Fig 5.8 Pump sets 50
Fig 6.1 Schematic of Hvac system 52
Fig 6.2 Chilled water system 56
Fig 6.3 Water cooled system 57
Fig 6.4 Cooling tower 57
Fig 6.5 Shell and tube heat exchanger 58
 ABSTRACT

The average summer temperatures experienced by most countries are increasing

every year and consequently the energy needs to provide air-conditioning is also
increasing annually. The HVAC industry has a challenging task of providing energy
efficient technologies to satisfy this growing demand with a minimum impact on global
warming and ozone depletion. The chilled water types of central air conditioning plants
are installed in the place where whole large buildings, shopping mall, airport, hotel, etc,
comprising of several floors are to be air conditioned.
The project consists of how the proposed centralizes air conditioning is designed
and its criterion for a new buildings in Hyderabad. It consists of 6 floors having an area
of 4,000 sqft. Per floor. The main objective is to create a thermally controlled
environment within the space of a building envelope such as kitchen room, master
bedroom, dining room etc. The tentative air conditioning load for the system shall be
290 TR approx. Air cooled chillers with pumping system are proposed to make the
system energy efficient. The proposed air conditioning plant shall be located on the
building terrace. Keywords: Humidification, Dehumidification, Infiltration, Ventilation,
Dry Bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb Temperature, Dew Point temperature, Relative
Humidity, Specific Humidity, Indoor-Air-Quality, British-thermal-unit, Ton-of-
Refrigeration.
 CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 HVAC SYSTEM
Air conditioning study is one of the most complicated studies and is done in various stages. Heat load calculation
takes into account the heat developed due to occupancies as well as the equipment present inside and also
the environmental factors effecting the same. During Heating installation only heat load calculation has to be
performed. But when it comes to HVAC, heat load calculation is accompanied by cooling load
calculation sharing equal importance required for designing of the system.

An Engineer thus has to have the perfect knowledge of the construction, surrounding environment,
occupancies, etc. concerning the system prior to actually installing the AC system. The next step
will be selection of appropriate equipment according to the observations obtained through the
above analysis. By selecting the proper size & load taking capacity equipment the main moto of
comfort along with energy saving will be attained. If we select air conditioning system of larger
size than the required size than it will lead to high initial as well as high running cost. On contrary
if the air conditioning system of smaller size is fitted than the required size than there will be under
cooling and the very purpose of installation of ac system will not be accomplished.

The Aim of this paper is to develop or explain the steps required for designing of AC system with
proper heat load calculations. The HVAC designer specifies the size of the system which gives
maximum efficiency at lowest running cost. This aim of this paper is accomplished in few stages.
Each stage explained in detail further. Today, A/C equipment represents close to a $100 billion, 100 million-
unit per year global market, and accounts for 4.5 exa-joules (4.26 Quadrillion Btu) of site energy
consumption per year3, comprising just over 4% of global building site-energy consumption.4 While
adoption of A/C in developed countries increased rapidly in the 20th century, the 21st century will see
greater adoption in developing countries, especially those in hot and (possibly) humid climates
with large and growing populations, such as India, China, Brazil, and Middle Eastern nations.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that A/C energy consumption by 2050 will
increase 4.5 times over 2010 levels for non-Organization of Economic Coordination and
Development (OECD) countries versus 1.3 times for OECD countries.4 Rising income and greater
access to A/C equipment in many of these nations opens the door to building cooling for billions of
people, which will provide significant benefits in increased human health and comfort. Therefore,
we move towards designing HVAC system for minimizing energy utilization and Energy
conservation. Heating, Ventilation and air-conditioning system is a indoor system designed by

1
WILLIAM HAVILLAND CARRIER in 1902 at Sackett - Wilhems Lithographing and publishing
company in Brooklyn, New York. An Air-conditioning provides cooling and humidity control for
all the parts of the system. An Air-conditioned system is air sealed in order to maintain constant
environmental conditions. Ventilation plays an important role when it comes to AC system. It is the
process of replacing or exchanging air within the system in order to provide high air quality and removal
of odours, smoke, heat dust that gets accumulated in the system with time.

1.2 BASIC REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Basic refrigeration cycle consists of condenser, compressor, evaporator and expansion valve. A
compressor is a mechanical device that increases pressure of gas at the expense of volume of gas.
These are similar to pump as both can transport fluids through pipe. Basically a condenser is a
device which condenses a substance from its gaseous state to its liquid state by cooling it. It works
on the principle of transfer of latent heat to surrounding leading to change in state.

Figure 1.2.1- refrigeration cycle

An Evaporator is a device used to evaporate liquid form of substance into its gaseous form. An
Expansion valve is one of the most important component of refrigeration cycle as it controls the
amount of refrigerant flowing into the system.

2
 CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE REVIEW

LUCAS et.al [1] have presented a useful, worldwide approach to analyse the functionality of known
little airconditioning installation in houses used in Reunion region. This tropical region aspires to
become electric power selfsufficient. This strategy depends on a statistical tool and powerful
simulations of houses setup with Air conditioning unit. The simulations, which take account of the
building cover, an explanation of the program as well as the methods of the users, are centred on the
kernel computation Energy Plus. They also consider into accounts the climatic circumstances and
offer an estimation of the annual electric power usage related to the air conditioning of the region.
This global evaluation assists to be eligible the whole system by determining an energy label. In
conjunction with the device, an analysis procedure is usually suggested, assisting an auditor
determining assistance to enhance the building envelope and also to set up and preserve the program.

Kindaichi et.al [2] have observed the energy consumption of RACs under distinct heat-load
circumstances and activities. Specific operations had been taken out from a number of energy usage
statistics for 87 RAC units. Person operation data had been divided into two organizations,
moderate- and severe-load conditions, whose outdoor temperatures differed by 5 _C. Mild-load
conditions were known to lead to shorter individual procedure durations than did severe-load
circumstances, suggesting a major difference in consumer patterns. When specific operation
durations were reduced by 20%, common energy cutbacks of 40% were observed. Component of
this reduction resulted from duration reduction; the relax arrived from adjustments in RAC physical
effectiveness, which depends upon outdoor temperature and heating/cooling load. The time-
reduction effect surpassed the physical-efficiency impact when person procedure stays were
shortened by > 20% during heating system, or by > 26% during chilling.

Matsumoto et.al [3] have researched on for the hedonic cost version to look at ways Vietnamese
consumers worth the power efficiency of air ACs. We presume that the energy efficiency of ACs in
the Vietnamese market enhances to that of ACs in the Japanese marketplace. After that, we calculate
the payback period by dividing the capital price to improve the energy effectiveness by every year
electrical power cost conserving. We present that the preliminary investment price may be recovered
in a brief period. In acquisition, we determine the implicit lower price rate to show how Vietnamese
customers value energy effectiveness expenditure. We discover that the implicit price cut price in
Vietnam's Air conditioning unit marketplace is much greater than the prices found out in research on
developed countries around the world. Therefore, consumers in developing countries place much
decrease worth on energy performance expense than customers in fast developing countries, actually

3
although paying for energy-efficient home appliances provides possibilities to conserve considerable
sums.

Moritoa et.al [4] have studied that a greater air flow velocity of disrupted human being rests a lot
more than reduce air velocity of airflow. The experiments had been carried out to determine the
impact on sleep of varying airflow velocities from air flow conditioners, using 10 healthful youthful
males as subjects. The mean air temperature, comparative moisture, and mean glowing heat in the
rooms with both atmosphere conditioners were 26.4 (0.7) C, 58 (7) %, and 26.3 (1.3) C, and 26.4
(0.7) C, 53 (6) %, and 26.1(0.6) C for [A] and [T], respectively. The typical (SD) speed of airflow
was in fact 0.14 (0.25) m/s and 0.04 (0.07) m/s for [A]and [B], correspondingly. The optimum
surroundings velocity over the bed inside the areas and the figures of times the airflow produces in
the air conditioner [A] had been 1.1 m/s and 28 occasions per evening, respectively, and 0.3 m/fine
sand 11 instances per night, correspondingly, with the air conditioner [B]. Many of the outcomes did
not display a large difference in the total quantity of period during each rest level, or a major
difference in the switch of both mean skin and rectal temps between [A] and [C]; these were
statistically examined throughout commonly used strategies. The topics considerably experienced
even more of the air flow and cooler at [A] than at [B] although comfort feeling does not really vary
significantly. When an additional evaluation of the simultaneity of air flow and physiological
reactions experienced been performed, the number of moments body motions, the quantity of times
heart price improved., and the number of situations some sleep phases transformed to the stage of
wakefulness due to differing airflow in [A] had been considerably higher than those in [W]. A higher
speed of air flow had an unfavourable impact on rest actually although the common air flow speed
was much less than 0.2 m/h.

Pereira & Mendes [5] have done the experimental info, where the correlations were developed, had
been acquired in calorimeters as stated by ISO standard. The calorimeters and connected dimension
questions are talked about on the current function. Furthermore, a numerical version to incorporate
towards the atmosphere fitness versions with a construction simulation code is usually also offered
and a simulation sample is usually transported out displaying energy usage and space surroundings
temperature and family member moisture.

Sogut [6] have studied which utilizes two factors, EEF (exergy efficiency factor) or energetic COP
(coefficient of performance) and MTEWI (modified total comparative heating effect), that was
suggested to judge energetic and the environmental functionality of RAC (room air conditioners)
distributed in the Turkish market. In the research, fumes compression chilling routine used entire
RAC models is accepted as model for the studies. The outcomes are demonstrated that typical EEF

4
worth of models using R-22 and L-410A gas are 74.53% and 74.64% correspondingly. Rather than,
Ur-410A gas, which is utilized in many breaks up devices and promoted while an environmental
useful gas, offers an impact that is usually around 23.18% larger than the R-22 gas which is no
longer in use. The analysis at last focuses on the causes how come EEF and MTEWI elements must
be provided concern when it comes to functionality and the environmental impact in the RAC units.

Meissner et.al [7] have researched to enhance the creating of air conditioners in structure simulation
equipment, the feature curves for total air conditioning capability, practical cooling capacity and
energy effectiveness percentage of two space models were decided. They had been acquired by way
of regular capability assessments on weather compartments in an arranged of environmental
conditions defined by exterior dried out- and inner damp bulb temperatures. After, the efficiency of
those two models which of 4 additional units, by way of and without acquiring into to account the
thermodynamic modifications of the encircling surroundings on it, were studied using an entire
construction simulation system intended for simulating a conditioned space. The relative evaluation
demonstrated that the air conditioner with all the larger energy performance rating not at all times
offers the cheapest power usage in true circumstances of usage.
Han et.al [7] have suggested a fresh air conditioner that merged evaporative chilling technology,
individual type temperature pipe technology, and vapour compression refrigeration concept (known
as ‘‘combined surroundings conditioner”). The numerical type of the air conditioner was founded as
well as stability was confirmed by tests. Centred on the model, the simulation of the working
functionality of the combined air conditioner and a standard air conditioner was analysed in common
environment areas throughout the cooling period, with all the pursuing outcomes: In chilly and dried
out fields like Shenyang, in contrast to the standard air conditioner, the typical cooling coefficient of
performance (Police officer) of the combined air flow conditioner was improved by 27.40%. As the
climate steadily became warm and moisture gradually improved, the working period of the high
temperature tube chilling setting was steadily decreased, and after that the energy-saving a result of
the mixed air conditioner started to be even worse. For case study, in the hot and moist Guangzhou,
the energy keeping price was just 11.81%. Consequently, it was found the fact that the merged ac got
very good energy-saving feasible in cool and dry cities.
Shao et.al [8] have focused upon the overall performance graph, the efficiency of Multi-unit air flow
conditioners is usually examined in circumstances of adjustable interior temps. The functionality
chart can provide the affordable and quantitative styles of MUAC’s performance and lead the system
style, suggesting that it can be utilized as a highly effective and easy device for overall performance
evaluation and program improvement of MUACs.
Zhoua et.al [10] have suggested a cheap and minimally intrusive method, to identify habit info
coming from ecosystem variables by data mining approach. To verify this technique, experiments

5
had been carried out in three rooms. Two types of category algorithms were created to identify Air
conditioner functions through the experiment data of inside atmosphere temperature and comparable
moisture. Two types of acknowledgement rules had been produced from algorithm teaching in one
data set, and examined in the additional datasets. Centred on the screening results, the overall
performance of the two algorithms had been examined and likened. The outcomes suggested that the
C4.5 decision tree algorithm was not ideal for mining AC operations, while the contour explanation
algorithm experienced good functionality in processing the time-series figure of air temperature and
family member humidity. Through this test, it is verified that Air conditioners operations can
become acknowledged from in house surroundings heat and relative’s humidity by data exploration
strategy. The primary contributions of this study are usually that an encouraging strategy was
developed, which is usually inexpensive and minimally intrusive on gathering and interpretation info
about occupants’ day-byday behaviours.
Hoon et.al [11] have suggested a whole new control formula which is applicable the idea of an
individual airconditioner and a community air conditioning method to a floor-standing space air-
conditioner (FSAC). The regulation formula could be cut in to 3 wind patterns: solid cooling using
guide wind flow, regular chilling applying point breeze, and indirect wind. Solid cooling is usually
to create a user who is usually revealed to a warm environment thermally neutral quickly, while
normal cooling is utilized to keep a thermal-neutral state constantly. An appropriate influence
technique for every air conditioning mode was decided through subject matter tests. The interior
thermal ecosystem
was examined by using heat, PMV (forecasted mean vote), and TSV (thermal feeling vote). The
residents subjected to the hot ecosystem contacted their thermal-neutral state in roughly five minutes
credited towards the strong cooling (16.4 CMM) by the immediate blowing wind of the FSAC.
When the FSAC transformed the control mode to regular cooling (13.9 CMM), it was simpler to
preserve the thermalneutral condition by swinging direct great air flow directionally managed by
straight vanes. When roundabout blowing wind was utilized, an up-wards path in an position of 15_
was effective in distributing the cooled down air flow and avoiding chilly drafts.

6
 CHAPTER -3
REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS

3.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION

The average summer temperatures experienced by most countries are increasing every year and
consequently the energy needs to provide air-conditioning is also increasing annually. The HVAC
industry has a challenging task of providing energy efficient technologies to satisfy this growing
demand with a minimum impact on global warming and ozone depletion. The chilled water types
of central air conditioning plants are installed in the place where whole large buildings, shopping
mall, airport, hotel, etc, comprising of several floors are to be air conditioned.

The project consists of how the proposed centralizes air conditioning is designed and its criterion
for a new buildings in Hyderabad. It consists of 6 floors having an area of 4,000 sqft. Per floor. The
main objective is to create a thermally controlled environment within the space of a building
envelope such as kitchen room, master bedroom, dining room etc. The tentative air conditioning
load for the system shall be 290 TR approx. Air cooled chillers with pumping system are proposed
to make the system energy efficient. The proposed air conditioning plant shall be located on the
building terrace. Keywords: Humidification, Dehumidification, Infiltration, Ventilation, Dry Bulb
Temperature, Wet Bulb Temperature, Dew Point temperature, Relative Humidity, Specific
Humidity, Indoor-Air-Quality, British-thermal-unit, Ton-of-Refrigeration.

THE VARIOUS MODULES USED AND THEIR FUNCTIONALITIES ARE DISCUSSED AS

FOLLOWS:
Four requirements are the bases for any HVAC systems [4]. They need primary equipment, space
requirement, air distribution, and piping, as shown in Figure.

Figure:-3.1.1 Hvac system requirement

7
Primary equipment includes heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water boilers to heat buildings
or spaces, air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver conditioned ventilation air by using
centrifugal fans, axial fans, and plug or plenum fans, and refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or
conditioned air into space. It includes cooling coils based on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a
refrigeration process.

Space requirement is essential in shaping an HVAC system to be central or local. It requires five
facilities as the following:

1. Equipment rooms: since the total mechanical and electrical space requirements range
between 4 and 9% of the gross building area. It is preferable to be centrally located in the
building to reduce the long duct, pipe, and conduit runs and sizes, to simplify shaft layouts,
and centralized maintenance and operation.
2. HVAC facilities: heating equipment and refrigeration equipment require many facilities to
perform their primary tasks of heating and cooling the building. The heating equipment
requires boiler units, pumps, heat exchangers, pressure-reducing equipment, control air
compressors, and miscellaneous equipment, while the refrigeration equipment requires
water chillers or cooling water towers for large buildings, condenser water pumps, heat
exchangers, air-conditioning equipment, control air compressors, and miscellaneous
equipment. The design of equipment rooms to host both pieces of equipment should
consider the size and the weight of equipment, the installation and maintenance of
equipment, and the applicable regulations to combustion air and ventilation air criteria.
3. Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous equipment. The
rooms should consider the size of the installation and removal of fan shafts and coils, the
replacement, and maintenance. The size of fans depends on the required air flow rate to
condition the building, and it can be centralized or localized based on the availability,
location, and cost. It is preferable to have easy access to outdoor air.
4. Vertical shaft: provide space for air distribution and water and steam pipe distribution. The
air distribution contains HVAC supply air, exhaust air, and return air ductwork. Pipe
distribution includes hot water, chilled water, condenser water, and steam supply, and
condenser return. The vertical shaft includes other mechanical and electrical distribution to
serve the entire building including plumbing pipes, fire protection pipes, and electric
conduits/closets.
5. Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of large, heavy
equipment during the installation, replacement, and maintenance.

8
Air distribution considers ductwork that delivers the conditioned air to the desired area in a direct,
quiet, and economical way as possible. Air distribution includes air terminal units such as grilles
and diffusers to deliver supply air into a space at low velocity; fan-powered terminal units, which
uses an integral fan to ensure the supply air to the space; variable air volume terminal units, which
deliver variable amount of air into the space; all-air induction terminal units, which controls the
primary air, induces return air, and distributes the mixed air into a space; and air-water induction
terminal units, which contains a coil in the induction air stream. All the ductwork and piping
should be insulated to prevent heat loss and save building energy. It is also recommended that
buildings should have enough ceiling spaces to host ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor
slab, and can be used as a return air plenum to reduce the return ductwork.

The piping system is used to deliver refrigerant, hot water, cooled water, steam, gas, and
condensate to and from HVAC equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way. Piping systems can
be divided into two parts: the piping in the central plant equipment room and the delivery piping.
HVAC piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code criteria.

3.2 CENTRALIZED HVAC SYSTEM

Centralized HVAC system is a central hydronic air conditioning system used to provide indoor
thermal comfort in multi-zone buildings. The system can be divided into two loops: primary and
secondary loop. Primary loop is a water system which produces cooling/heating effect through
chilled/hot water production and distributes it to secondary loop. Secondary loop is an air system
by which cooled/hot air is produced and transferred to the conditioned spaces to maintain indoor
thermal set point temperature and humidity [31]. An example of centralized HVAC system
schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3.1.

Vapor compression and vapor absorption are two thermodynamic cycles used to produce cooling
or heating effects. In a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, four processes are occurred:
isentropic compression in a compressor, constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser, throttling
in throttle device, and constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator [32]. Schematic of the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is presented in Figure 3.2.

9
Figure 3.1 Example of schematic diagram of centralized HVAC system

Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

10
From Figure 3.2, state 1 – 2 is isentropic compression process where the refrigerant (as saturated
vapor) is compressed to the condenser pressure. The temperature of the refrigerant increases during
this process as the pressure increased. The refrigerant leaves compressor as super heated vapor and
enters condenser at temperature above the temperature of the surrounding medium. In the
condenser, the temperature of the refrigerant is decreased by heat rejection to the surrounding
medium. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as saturated liquid at state 3. The refrigerant is then
throttled by which reduces the pressure and the temperature drops below the conditioned space. At
state 4, the refrigerant enters the evaporator as a lowquality saturated mixture. In evaporator, the
refrigerant absorbs heat from conditioned space and completely evaporates. Leaving the
evaporator, the refrigerant vapor reenters the compressor at state 1 and finish the cycle [32].
The process in vapor absorption cycle and vapor compression cycle are basically the same.
However, the way of the cycle increase the pressure of the refrigerants is different. In vapor
absorption cycle, the compressor is replaced by absorption mechanism consisting of an absorber, a
pump, a generator, a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier [32]. Detail process of vapor absorption
cycle will be described in the next section.
Vapor compression and absorption chillers are physical components that produce space
cooling/heating and the two types of chillers used in many commercial buildings. Vapor
compression chiller use motor-driven compressor to compress the refrigerant while absorption
chiller depend on thermo-chemical process to get pressure difference for the compression process.
Compared to vapor compression chiller, absorption chiller has lower coefficient of performance
(COP), nevertheless, the operation cost is lower than vapor compression chiller because it is
powered by available waste heat (at a temperature between 100oC – 200oC) while vapor
compression chiller is usually driven by motor or engine [33,34]. Illustration of vapor compression
chiller and absorption chiller were presented in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Schematic presentation of a) Vapor compression chiller, b) Absorption chiller

11
With the ever increasing thermal power generation that produces waste heat and increase concern
in reducing CO2 emission, absorption chiller is a good choice as a low electricity consumption
chiller that pretend additional CO2 emission in providing cooling effect [34]. Primary loop using
absorption chiller (as used in the studied building) would be explained further on the next section.

3.2.1 Primary Loop With Absorption Chiller

Primary loop of the HVAC system consists of chiller plant, and chilled water system. In the chiller
plant, the refrigerant is circulated in a close system following the refrigeration cycle to cool water
as medium to store the cooling effect. The system involves the absorption of the refrigerant by an
absorbent through thermo-chemical process and the evaporation of the refrigerant by hot exhaust
gas from the gas district cooling (GDC). Illustration of absorption chiller as used in the studied
building was shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 Schematic diagram of power generation and absorption chiller

There are 40 refrigerant compounds and 200 absorbent compounds available as suggested by
Marcriss [35]. However, the refrigerant/absorbent solution which commonly used in absorption
chiller are water/lithium bromide, and ammonia/water system [36]. The application of first system
is limited to air conditioning purpose only because the minimum temperature is above the freezing
point of water while the second system can be used to provide low temperature below the freezing
point of water [37].
Absorption chillers available in the market can be categorized as direct- or indirect-fired and
single, double, or triple-effect [34]. Single-effect means that the system use one generator while
double-effect uses two generators: low temperature generator and high temperature generator. The
triple-effect cycles are still under development to increase the chiller performance [39,40]. Direct-

12
fired system use fired generator where fuel (oil/coal) is burned to provide the heat required.
Indirect-fired system use available waste heat (steam/hot water) from the environment or other
thermal systems [31]. Illustration of single- and double-effect absorption chiller is presented in
Figure 3.5.
The double-effect chiller is 40% more efficient than the single-effect [40]. The double-effect
system mainly consists of six components: condenser, expansion, evaporator, absorber, low
temperature generator/concentrator and high temperature generator/concentrator. In the condenser,
heat from vaporized refrigerant is transferred to the cooling water that in turn changes the
refrigerant from vapor to liquid phase. The liquid refrigerant is then flowed to the evaporator pan
through expansion pipe by which the pressure and temperature are decreased. The liquid
refrigerant is then pumped to the top of heat exchanger (HX) and sprayed to the HX to remove heat
from the chilled water.

Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of: a) single-effect absorption chiller,

13
 Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of: b) double-effect absorption chiller,

After absorbing heat, the refrigerant evaporates and travels to the absorber where lithium bromide
is sprayed to absorb the refrigerant. The solution temperature increases as a result of interaction
between the absorbent and refrigerant. This heat is absorbed by cooling water to maintain the
temperature of the solution below boiling point. The liquid solution is then pumped to the low
temperature generator where the solution is heated to evaporate the refrigerant. The liquid solution
from low temperature generator is then separated into two paths. First path flow the refrigerant to
the absorber and being mixed with higher concentrated lithium-bromide solution coming from the
high temperature generator. The other path flow the solution to the high generator where the
solution is further heated to evaporate the refrigerant. The refrigerants vapor from low and high
temperature generator flow to the condenser, finishing the absorption cycle [40,41]. Generally,
coefficient of Performance (COP) of an absorption refrigeration system is described as [36]:

14
In order to increase COP as performance indicator of absorption chiller using H2O/LiBr solution
(as widely used in many air conditioning system) Yoon and Kwon suggested new
H2O/LiBrHO(CH2)3OH solution which result in COP approximately 3% higher than conventional
H2O/LiBr working solution [42].
For cost optimization in an area where water is expensive, air-cooled absorption chiller can be
utilized instead of water-cooled absorption chiller. However, it was possible when ambient
temperature was below 40oC and the evaporator temperature below 10oC [43].

Jaruwongwittaya and Chen [44] found that in an area like Thailand where high solar radiation
intensity was available, absorption chiller could use solar radiation if waste heat from another
system was not available as alternative heat source. They also found that water/lithium bromide
solution was the most suitable solution to be used in the chiller regarding to the solar radiation
intensity. When excess solar radiation are available, phase change material (PCM) like Erythritol
could be used as thermal storage during the day. The stored energy could have been used by the
chiller at night since it could discharge the energy storage up to 70.9% [45].

In the water distribution system or chilled water system, the system pumps water to the chiller to
store the cooling effect. The water is then stored in a water tank and distributed to the air handling
unit (AHU) through water pipe network. Heat loss in transporting the chilled water to AHU cannot
be avoided and thus, insulation on the water pipe is crucial to reduce the heat gain from outdoor
environment [31].

3.2.2 Secondary Loop

The secondary system is basically an air handling system which consist of airhandling units,
supply/return ductwork, fan-powered boxes, space diffusion devices, and exhaust systems. The
purpose of an air handling system is to condition, to transport, to distribute the conditioned, re-
circulating, outdoor, exhaust air, and to control the indoor environment according to the indoor
thermal condition set point. On the basis of volume air displaced, air handling system is divided
into two subsystems i.e. constant air volume (CAV) and variable air volume (VAV) system. The
first system maintains constant supply of air flow during the operation. It modulates the conditions
of the supply air by varying the refrigerant flow rate to meet the cooling load [31]. The second
system maintains constant supply air conditions. It varies the supply air flow rate using motorized-
VAV damper in the VAV box based on indoor temperature measurement to meet the cooling load
accordingly [46].
VAV system is usually coupled with variable frequency drive (VFD) to vary the voltage as well as
power consumed of the supply fan to increase fan efficiency at part load conditions when the air

15
flow rate needed was below 100% capacity of the fan. Therefore, the fan was always kept at
maximum efficiency and thus, the fan consumes less energy during whole operation time [47]. It
also leads to cooling load reduction which in turn reduces chilled water consumption due to less
heat released from the fan. If variable pump is used, VAV system also reduces the cooling energy
required due to less heat released from the pump. Compare to CAV system, VAV system used
lower energy and thus, save energy in a range of 30% - 50% [48]. However, for VAV system with
100% outdoor air, controlling the supply air temperature would results in a significantly lower
HVAC energy use than with a constant supply air temperature [49].
There are two control modes in VAV system i.e. dependent and independent pressure controls. In
dependent control system, the actuator dampers regulate supply air flow rate based on signal from
indoor thermostat only without regard to system conditions [50]. Due to this, two rooms on the
same system will influence one to another. In independent control system, the actuator damper is
controlled by indoor thermostat and velocity of the air stream at the inlet of the unit. Indoor
thermostat regulates the damper (in order to regulate the supply air flow rate) in a room where the
cooling load is changing. It will increase/decrease the static pressure in the system duct. The
velocity reset controller then regulates another damper (in a room with no cooling load changing)
as response to the changing in the inlet pressure conditions to maintain the required air flow.
Supply air conditions are important parameters in the air-system and mainly depend on room
sensible heat factor (RSHF). The RSHF keep changing during HVAC operation and difficult to be
predicted due to dynamic changing on occupancy pattern, occupancy needs, occupancy density,
and outdoor conditions [7]. An interactive system which accommodated occupants’ needs for
controlling the airconditioning system could save 20% of energy compare to air-conditioning
system which keep indoor temperature constant at 26oC [51].
If RSHF design stage was considerably higher than RSHF operation, it would result in higher
humidity than the set point. If RSHF design was considerably lower than RSHF operation, it might
lead to a condition where the airflow needed would be below the minimum airflow of the system
(design limitation) and thus, overcooling exists [11, 28].
Previous research [28] suggested that RSHF design value should be chosen based on the lowest
RSHF operation. For multi-zone building, where the AHU handle more than one room, RSHF
design value should be chosen based on the lowest RSHF operation range from group of zones. In
case the RSHF operation higher than RSHF design value, the system would increase the supply air
temperature to reduce latent capacity and therefore, the indoor temperature and humidity could be
maintained within the comfort range.

16
3.2.3 Duct Design and Sizing
Air-handling system design begins with determining supply airflow rate needed from the cooling
load that is used to design the ducting system. The main purpose in ducting design is to size the air
duct on each run so as to minimize the pressure drop through the duct. There are three methods to
design ducting recommended by ASHRAE: equal friction method, static pressure regain method,
and T-method [31].

Equal friction method keeps pressure drop per unit length (Δpf/L) the same in the main and branch
duct. Suitable Δpf/L is within range 0.08 – 0.6 in.WG per 100 ft as described by ASHRAE
[31,116]. The airflow rate in the main duct is equal to the sum of air flow rates to all the
conditioned zones. Using air flow rate, Δpf/L, and friction chart, duct diameter and air velocity of
the main and branch duct are determined. The frictional losses are then calculated by multiplying
Δpf/L with the length of each duct and the dynamic losses are calculated based on the layout of the
duct [34]. This method can be used to determine supply or return duct and it is widely used in
practice by many engineers.
The Bernoulli’s equation states that decrease in velocity pressure will convert dynamic pressure
into static pressure, which increases the static pressure [52]. Static regain method use this principle
to design and to size the ducting. Illustration of pressure distribution of main duct under static
region method is presented in Figure 2.6. From the picture, a decreased on static pressure in the
supply main duct at branch 2 (at Ps2) due to pressure loss in the succeeding duct section (from
point 1s – 2) would be regain at point 2s due to the reduction of air velocity from point 2 to point
2s. The main difference between this method and equal friction method is that the first method use
length of succeeding duct section while the other use same pressure drop per unit length (Δpf/L). In
addition, static region method can be applied only for designing supply duct. Despite of the
differences, both methods are based on initial guess and these two methods are unable to select the
most economically efficient duct design [31,52].

The T method of duct sizing is an advanced optimization to size duct system by minimizing the
life-cycle cost [53]. The method consists of three steps: system condensing, fan selection, and
system expansion. The first step condense the various duct section of a duct system into single
imaginary duct section which have same hydraulic characteristic and installation cost as the real
one. The second step select appropriate fan and establish optimum system pressure loss. The last
step expand the condensed imaginary duct section into the original system with optimum pressure
loss distribution on each duct section as selected in step 2. The major difference between this
methods with the other two methods described above is that this method consider constraint
optimization. This method can be used to optimize both supply and return duct with air leakage as

17
one system [31,53]. However, this method require complex calculation, while the simplified
procedure called 1/3 boundary procedure is not accurate enough (rough approach).

3.2.4 Fan Selection and Low-SFP Design

Fan or blower is determined to provide the flow rate and to deliver the conditioned air to the
conditioned rooms. The fan responsible to overcome highest
pressure drop occurred (from ducting, cooling coil, filter, etc.) along the supply air path and peak
airflow rate [54,55].
An air-duct distribution system is pressurized by three components pressure: static pressure,
velocity pressure and total pressure. Total pressure is defined as summation of static pressure and
velocity pressure. Static pressure is the air pressure of air stream flowing in a duct section that
presses the duct wall. The value could be positive or negative. In air distribution system, the static
pressure is used to overcome the various resistant (pressure drop of the system). Velocity pressure
is the air pressure because of the air velocity and its weight that represents kinetic energy [56,57].
Static pressure, velocity pressure and total pressure measurements were illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.

Figure 3.2.4 Measurements of, a) static pressure, b) velocity pressure, c) total pressure

Fan operates with respect to certain sets of law which relates air flow rate, static pressure and fan

18
power to fan speed. Any change on the fan speed will proportionally change the air flow rate, the
static pressure and the fan power required to operate at the new fan speed [58]. The fan laws are
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Fan law

There are two main types of fan according to the direction of flow: centrifugal fan and axial fan.
With centrifugal fan, the direction of airflow change twice: when the air entering and leaving the
fan. With axial fan, the direction of air leaving the fan is the same with the direction of air entering
the fan [59]. Illustrations of directions of airflow in centrifugal and axial fans are presented in
Figure 3.2.4.1

Figure 3.2.4.1 Direction of air flow, a) axial fan, b) centrifugal fan

Centrifugal fan is generally used in air-duct of an air conditioning system because it requires less
input energy at higher static pressure. This fan has three types in common: radial (T-wheel),

19
forward curved (F-wheel), and backward inclined fan (B and P-wheel) [58]. Radial fans, with flat
blades is suitable for high static pressure and temperatures, nevertheless, the usage of this types of
fan is limited for low – medium airflow rates. Forward curved fans, with forward curved blades has
ability to move large air volumes against relatively low pressure. However, it has low energy
efficiency (55% – 65%). The third types of the centrifugal fan have special ability to operate with
changing static pressure and thus, it is used in a condition where the system behavior at high air
flow is uncertain.
There are three terms used to define fan: system characteristics, fan characteristics, and system
characteristics and fan curves [58,60]. System characteristics refer to total static pressure loss along
the duct system including elbow, pickups and pressure loss across equipments (i.e. filter, heat
exchanger, etc.). The pressure loss is considered as system resistance. In a duct system, the system
resistance is keep changing according to the flow. If the flow is reduced, the system resistance will
decreases and vice versa [60]. The system resistance curve (system curve) is usually plotted on a
curve with certain range of airflow rate.

Fan characteristic is defined as a fan performance under a specific set of conditions [58].
Generally, the fan performance is plotted on a curve called fan performance curve. The curve is
presenting a number of inter-related parameters including fan volume, system static pressure, fan
speed, efficiency and brake horsepower required to drive the fan under the stated conditions.
Illustration of fan performance curve including system resistance curve (system curve), brake horse
power (BHP) curve and efficiency curve is shown in Figure 3.2.4.2

Figure 3.2.4.2 Illustration of fan performance curve

20
On that curve, the operating condition is the intersection between static pressure curve and system
curve [58]. Most of the cases, fan operates at reduced capacity. When the flow is reduced at part
load condition, the system resistance decreases accordingly [60]. It results in different system
resistance curve. There are two ways of reducing airflow from Q1 to Q2. First method is using
damper to restrict the airflow that cause higher-pressure loss and change the system performance
curve from SC1 to SC2. It increases the operating static pressure from P1 to P2. Second method is
using variable speed drive device to reduce the rotational speed of the fan from N1 to N2. It results
in different fan curve.

In sizing appropriate fan, there are three things must be considered: peak airflow rate, Static
pressure at a peak volumetric flow rate, and fan efficiency. Peak airflow rate is first determined
from the cooling load. After that, ducting lay out and sizings are determined according to the peak
airflow rate. Using this information, duct static pressure required is calculated. Finally, the fan is
selected based on the peak airflow rate and static pressure required. The selection process must
refer to fan performance curve. It is to ensure the fan to have maximum efficiency at design
volume rate [55,61].
However, in practice, engineers oversized capacity of the fan to anticipate longterm demand
growth in the future. This practice lead to higher operational cost because the fan operate at lower
efficiency and thus, consumed more energy. With increasing of oil and electricity price, fan
selection based on current design airflow rate and predicted short-term demand growth gave
significant operational cost saving which could be used to buy new fan with larger capacity as the
demand increased [61].
Specific fan power (SFP) is normally determined to represent the air system performance as stated
in ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989 (A-90.1). It is defined as the power required by the motors
for the combined fan system, i.e., all fans, divided by the supply flow at design conditions. Based
on the standard, SFP for VAV system should not exceed 2.65 kWm-3s at design conditions or 1.6
kWm-3s under average operating conditions [62]. It implied that the pressure loss must be
maintained as low as possible and the fan efficiency must be keep high to ensure the SFP below the
standard [63].

3.2.5 Indoor Thermal Comfort

ISO 7730 standard [64] and American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) [65] define thermal comfort as “condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment”. It is impractical to meet the thermal satisfaction of all
the occupants since physiological and psychological perceptions are varying from person to person.
Large experimental data from laboratory and field studies have been collected to provide enough

21
statistical data. Based on these data, a condition is selected for thermal comfort of a specified
percentage of occupants. ASHRAE define thermal comfort zone (as shown in Figure 2.11) that can
satisfy a minimum of 80% occupants. The comfort zone is applicable for typical office room where
[65]:
The activity level result in metabolic rate between 1.0 and 1.3 met,
People’s clothing result in 0.5 and 1.0 clo of thermal insulation,
The air speed is below 0.2 m/s.

Figure 3.2.5 ASHRAE thermal comfort zone, a) operative temperature oF,

b) operative temperature oC
There are six primary factors influencing thermal comfort: metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air
temperature, radiant temperature, air speed, and humidity [65]. Metabolic rate factor is used to
determine sensible and latent heat released to the conditioned space from the occupants according
to their activity. Clothing insulation factor is a factor that relates people’s clothing with their
thermal comfort. Air temperature is the average temperature of air in a conditioned space that
respect to location and time. The temperature is the average temperature of air at 0.1, 0.6, and 1.1
m (the ankle, waist, and head level) and 0.1, 1.1, and 1.7 m for standing occupant. Radiant
temperature is representation of surface temperatures surrounding an occupant. Air speed is the
average speed of air nearby exposed body of the occupant with respect to location and time.
Humidity is general term to represent vapor content in the air. These six factors are considered in
predicted mean vote (PMV) model to determine the response of people under specified conditions
that is related to predicted percentage of dissatisfaction (PPD) from occupant [65]. PMV and PPD
are used as indicators of indoor thermal comfort and will be further discussed in next section.
Indoor thermal comfort standard strongly influence energy consumption of the HVAC system.
Lowering indoor temperature set point from 26oC to 24oC increased the energy consumption by
50% [66]. Since indoor thermal comfort is strongly influenced by the local weather condition, the
standard is different by location [67].

22
3.2.6 Space Cooling Load

The terminology of sensible and latent heat transfer between the space air and the surroundings can
be explained as follows [31]:
1. Space heat gain qe, in Btu/h, represents the rate of heat that enters a conditioned space from an
external source whereas heat released to the surrounding from an internal source during a given
time interval is termed as heat loss.
2. Space cooling load, often simply called the cooling load Qrc, Btu /h, is the rate of heat that must
be removed from a conditioned space so as to maintain indoor air temperature and relative
humidity set point.
3. Space heat extraction rate Qex, Btu /h, is the rate of heat that is actually removed from the
conditioned space by the air system.
4. Coil load Qc, Btu /h, is the rate of heat transfer at the heat exchanger in AHU. The cooling coil
load Qcc, Btu/h, is the rate of heat that is absorbed by the chilled water or refrigerant flowing
through the coil.
5. Refrigerating load Qrl, Btu /h, is the rate of heat that is absorbed by the refrigerant at the
evaporator. For central hydronic systems, the refrigerating load is the sum of the coil load plus total
heat transferred to the chilled water from the components installed in the system. The refrigerating
load is equal to the coil load for individual air conditioning system using direct expansion (DX)
coil(s).
Storage of part of the radiative heat inside the building structures would result in lower
instantaneous sensible cooling load than the instantaneous sensible heat gain. If the space relative
humidity is kept approximately constant, the storage effect of the moisture in the building envelope
and furnishings can be ignored. In this case, the instantaneous space latent heat gain will be equal
to the the instantaneous space latent cooling load [31].

A load profile is usually used to illustrate the load variation of an air conditioned space—a room, a
zone, a floor, a building, or a project over a period of time. The shape of the profile would be
strongly affected by the outdoor climate, the operating characteristics and the variation of the
internal loads. “The load duration curve is the plot of number of hours versus the load ratio. The
load ratio is defined as the ratio of cooling or heating load to the design full load, both in Btu/ h,
over a certain period. The period may be a day, a week, a month, or a year” [31].

The zone peak load is the maximum space cooling load in a load profile of a control zone
according to the zone orientation, the internal load characteristics, and the outdoor design
conditions containing summer and winter. For a zone cooling load with several components, such

23
as solar load through window glass, heat transfer through roofs, or internal load from electric
lights, the zone peak load is always the maximum sum of these zone cooling load components at a
given time. The block load is the maximum sum of several zones cooling loads of a group of
control zones in a building at the same time. The block load of a space, room, floor, or building is
the maximum cooling load in that space, room, floor, or building at a given time.

For air systems, the supply volume flow rate required is calculated based on the cooling load in
that zone, space, room, area, floor, or building. For a control zone, the supply volume flow rate is
calculated based on the zone peak load while for a specific area the rate is calculated based on the
block load (cooling) of this specific area, floor, or building. For conditioned space using variable-
air-volume systems and space air conditioning systems, the required cooling coil load or
refrigeration load can be calculated based on block load of the corresponding specific area that air
system serves.

Cooling load derived from external sources and internal sources [12]. External sources consist of
heat gains through building envelope, solar radiation, or due to ventilation/infiltration. Internal
sources consist of heat gain from occupancy, machines, lights and electric appliances, etc. It
implies that cooling load characteristic is specific according to the type of the room [12,13],
weather conditions [12], and building envelope [14,15,16,79].
The characteristic of cooling load in any rooms consists of sensible (RSH) and latent (RLH)
components [31,56]. The portion of these components is represented by the room sensible heat
factor (RSHF) which is the ratio of sensible heat to the room total heat (RTH). RSHF was used to
determine the supply air conditions in order to maintain indoor thermal set points. Ventilation air
that was supplied to the room from outside air gave additional both sensible (OASH) and latent
(OALH) heat. The total of OASH and RSH is grand sensible heat (GSH) while the total of OALH
and RLH is grand latent heat (GLH). The ratio of GSH to grand total heat (GTH) is represented by
the grand sensible heat factor (GSHF). In design stage of HVAC system, GTH is used to size the
cooling coil while the GSHF is used to determine the portion of sensible and latent heat capacity of
the cooling coil.
In the design stage of air conditioning system, cooling load calculations are mainly used to
determine the volume flow rate of the air system as well as the coil and refrigeration load of the
equipment. The cooling load is then used as a base to size the HVAC&R equipment and to select
optimal design alternatives. There are three heat transfer modes by which heat is transferred from
external or internal heat sources to the conditioned space i.e. conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is heat transfer occurred in a solid medium. The heat rate (qx) is calculated as [41]:

24
where, k is thermal conductivity (W/m.ok), l is thickness of the medium (m), A is surface area
(m2), q” is heat transfer rate per unit area (W/m2), and ΔT is the temperature difference between
surfaces in the medium (ok). Convection heat transfer is heat transfer occurred between a surface
and a moving fluid.

All of the heat transferred to the condition space is space cooling load or heat that must be removed
from the space in order to maintain certain set points. There are two components of space cooling
load: latent and sensible cooling load. Latent load is cooling load triggered by humidity difference
while sensible load is cooling load triggered by temperature difference between conditioned room
and the environment [31]. In tropical countries, the portion of latent load was higher than in many
European countries due to the weather conditions which are hot and humid. Due to the fact, the
sensible heat ratio (SHR) standard of room air conditioner (RAC) was lower than SHR in European
countries [12]. This implied that dehumidification capacity of the RAC or HVAC system should be
increased.
In most of the cases, the major space cooling load was heat gain from building envelope which was
triggered by the weather conditions. Properly design building envelope would significantly reduce
the building energy [14,15,16,79].

3.2.7 Energy Saving Potential in HVAC System

Energy saving strategies are generally achieved through system optimization, system modification,
and internal/external heat gain reduction. A number of such strategies are discussed in the literature
and are summarized in the following paragraphs.
HVAC system optimization, with CO2 concentration control, get energy saving from optimization
of how much outside and return air will be inserted into the mixing box according to the
temperatures of both airs, and the concentration of CO2 of the outside and return air. If CO2
concentration of return air was lower than the desired set point, the outdoor air damper would be
maintained at minimum position and therefore, reduce the energy consumed to condition outdoor
ventilation air. This system prevented over-ventilated air and ensure that the amount of ventilation
air is as much as it is required [80,81].
With desired CO2 concentration of 400 ppm, 600 ppm, and 800 ppm, the system could achieve
11.5%, 14.2%, and 21.6% of energy saving [81]. According to this saving, CO2 based ventilation
control system are likely to be desired ventilation strategy. The system was not merely reducing the

25
energy consumption but also maintain indoor air quality (IAQ) which is important for indoor
thermal comfort [80]. However, this system would difficult to remove odors generated from inside
the zone since the system would re-circulate more return air when the CO2 concentration level is
below the set point.
Another research [82,83] on economizer showed that the economizer could further increase energy
saving of a VAV system by utilizing free cooling capacity of outdoor air to directly offset the space
cooling load. Optimal On-Off control of an air conditioning and refrigeration system also offered
energy saving by reducing on-off cycling frequency during part load operation. The system
optimized the on-off cycle frequency to avoid high power consumption during start up of the air
conditioning or refrigeration system. The system could give approximately 5.6% of energy saving
in one hour [84].
An optimization research integrated genetic algorithm, and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to
optimize multi objectives in building design. The work considered two design variables: building
envelope, and HVAC system [85]. Building enveloperelated variables included heating/cooling
temperature set points, RH set point, supply airflow rate, and thermostat delays. Building envelope-
related variables were focused on getting advantages of passive solar design. The objectives of the
function were thermal comfort which indicated by PMV value and energy consumption of the
cooling/heating process. The results showed that the control system able to find optimum setting
for the design variables, leading to lower energy consumption. On HVAC system optimization,
thermal mass variable was set to constant value to get optimum set point for the other design
variables.
Another optimization control suggests neural network based for optimal operation of VAV
system. Typical two-zones VAV system as shown in Figure 2.15 is considered. The system
maintained desired indoor temperature under variable operating conditions using 5 controllers
which control: fan and compressor speed (by modulating normalized voltage input), air and chilled
water flow rate (by modulating damper in VAV box and chilled water valve opening), and outdoor
air damper. The main operation strategy is to find the optimal set points for chilled water supply
temperature, supply air temperature and VAV system fan in a way that the indoor environment was
maintained with the least chiller and fan energy consumption. Two dynamic models were first
developed: two-zone VAV system model and the chiller model. The overall system was then
developed by integrating these two models. The simulation results using the overall system and
operation strategy showed that the operation scheme could lower energy consumption up to 10%
during full load condition and 19% under partial condition [86].

26
 Figure 3.2.7 Schematic diagram typical two-zone VAV system
A temperature set back algorithm which uses two indoor temperature set points for occupied and
unoccupied period could reduce energy consumption of the HVAC system. This system require
additional occupancy sensor to track occupancy inside the room [87]. The selection of indoor
temperature set points during unoccupied period and the effect of these two temperature set points
to the HVAC system performance were not discussed in detail in the previous research and thus,
extensive research to accommodate these matters is needed.
Simulation study on dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) also showed energy saving potential by
treating outdoor air separately before it enters the building. Simple DOAS could save energy in
range 14% - 37% while full DOAS could save energy in slightly higher range 21% - 38% [88].
Properly designed building envelope to make use of solar radiation as natural lighting would
reduce electricity consumption and peak cooling load as much as 13% and 11% [79]. Study on
trade off between thermal comfort and energy building consumption showed that there was
possibility to slightly reduce thermal comfort in order to get considerable energy saving. Reducing
predicted mean vote (PMV) as representative of thermal comfort from 0.08 to 0.11 would reduce
building energy consumption up to 13% [85].

27
 CHAPTER -4
ESTIMATION OF HEAT LOADS

4.1 Principles of Heat Transfer

The three basic principles of Heat Transfer are as given,
1) Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be transferred to another substance.
To produce cooling, heat must be removed from a substance by transferring the heat to another
substance. This is commonly referred to as the principle of "conservation of energy." Ice cubes are
typically placed in a beverage to cool it before being served. As heat is transferred from the beverage to
the ice, the temperature of the beverage is lowered. The heat removed from the be verage is not
destroyed, but instead is absorbed by the ice, melting the ice from a solid to a liquid.
2) Heat energy naturally flows from a higher-temperature substance to a lower-temperature
substance, in other words, from hot to cold.

Fig 4.1 Heat Transfer

Heat cannot naturally flow from a cold substance to a hot substance. Consider the example of the
beverage and the ice cubes. Because the temperature of the beverage is higher than the temperature of
the ice cubes, heat will always flow from the beverage to the ice cubes.
3) Heat energy is transferred from one substance to another by one of three basic processes:
conduction, convection, or radiation.
The device shown is a baseboard convector that is commonly used for heating a space. It can be used to
demonstrate all three processes of transferring heat. Hot water flows through a tube inside the convector,
warming the inside surface of the tube. Heat is transferred, by conduction, through the tube wall to the
slightly cooler fins that are attached to the outside surface of the tube. Conduction is the process of
28
transferring heat through a solid. The heat is then transferred to the cool air that comes into contact with
the fins. As the air is warmed and becomes less dense, it rises, carrying the heat away from the fins and
out of the convector. This air movement is known as convection current. Convection is the process of
transferring heat as the result of the movement of a fluid. Convection often occurs as the result of the
natural movement of air caused by temperature (density) differences.

CONVECTI
ON

COOL
AIR RADIATIO
nnnnN

COLD
WATER
WARM
CONDUCTI AIR
ON

Fig 4.2 Methods of Heat Transfer

Additionally, heat is radiated from the warm cabinet of the convector and warms cooler objects within
the space. Radiation is the process of transferring heat by means of electromagnetic waves, emitted due
to the temperature difference between two objects. An interesting thing about radiated heat is that it does
not heat the air between the source and the object it contacts; it only heats the object itself.

Measuring Heat Quantity

In the I–P system of units, the unit for measuring the quantity of heat is the British thermal unit (Btu).
The Btu is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F.
Similarly, in the Systeme International (SI) system, heat quantity can be expressed using the unit kilo
Joule (kJ). A kcal is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water 1°C. One kcal is equal to 4.19 kJ.
In heating and cooling applications, however, emphasis is placed on the rate of heat transfer, that is, the
quantity of heat that flows from one substance to another within a given period of time. This rate of heat
flow is commonly expressed in terms of Btu/hr—the quantity of heat, in Btu, that flows from one
substance to another during a period of 1 hour. Similarly, in the SI metric system of units, the rate of
heat flow is expressed in terms of kilowatts (kW). One kW is equivalent to 1 kJ/sec. One kilowatts
29
describes the quantity of heat, in kJ, that flows from one substance to another during a period of 1
second. Finally, the rate of heat flow may often be expressed in terms of watts (W). One kW is
equivalent to 1000 W.

4.2 Cooling Loads Classified By Kinds Of Heat

There are two components of air conditioning load 1) Sensible Load (Heat gain) 2) Latent Load (Water
Vapour Gain)

Sensible Loads
Sensible heat gain is the direct addition of heat to a space, which results in increase of space
temperature.
1) Solar heat gain through building envelope (Exterior walls, glazing, skylights, roofs, floors
over crawl space)
2) Partitions
3) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors and windows.
4) People in the building
5) Equipment and appliances in the summer.
6) Lights

Latent Loads
A latent heat gain is the heat contained in water vapor. It is the heat that must be removed to condense
the moisture out of the air.
1) People breathing
2) Cooking Equipment
3) Appliances
4) Ventilation air and air infiltration

Detailed Description of Cooling Loads

The cooling toad is more complicated than the heating load to calculate. In the cooling load the walls
and windows are to be calculated for each side of the building. The heat transfer through the roof is to
be determined. The slab is not to be calculated due to there is no heat gain from the ground. The internal
gains (people, equipment, lights) are to be considered. The weather data is based on ASHRAE design
data.

30
Wall: The material for the walls is the same so therefore the Rf is the same for the cooling as it is in the
heating. The area of the wall will also be the same. The cooling load temperature difference (CLTD) is
to be determined. The CLTD takes into account the transient effects of the conductive heat gains and
radioactive heat gains that do not enter the indoor air directly. The CLTD is determined by the type of
wall and which direction the wall is facing. The CLTD is different for each direction. The heat flow
through the walls is calculated by the following equation:
Q = U*A(CLTD)
Where,
A is the area of the wall
U is the Coefficient of Heat Transfer
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the wall

Windows: The windows are calculated in two parts, for conduction and the heat gain due to solar
radiation transmitted through or absorbed by glass.
The conduction heat flow for the windows is calculated closely to the same manner as in the heating
load. The U value is found in the same manner as for the heating load calculations, but reflects the
summer months. The CLTD is also determined for the windows. The heat flow through the windows
due to conduction is calculated by the following equation:
Q = U*A(CLTD)
Where,
U is inverse of the resistance of the window
A is the area of the windows
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the window.
The solar heat gain through the windows is to be calculated separately for the different directions the
windows are facing. A shading coefficient (SC) is determined by the type of glazing and by the
thickness of each glazing. The north latitude, the direction facing, and the month with the highest
average temperature determine the solar heat gain factor. The type of furnishings, the thickness of the
slab, the room air circulation, the solar time, and the facing direction determine the cooling load factor
(CLF). The heat flow by solar heat gain is calculated by the following equation:
Q = A*SC*SHGF*CLF
Where,
A is the area of the windows
SC is the shading coefficient
SHGF is solar heat gain factor
31
 CLF is the cooling load factor

Roof
The material of the roof is the same therefore the R( is the same as calculated in the heating calculations.
The area is also the same. The materials of the roof and the solar time are used to determine the CLTD
for the roof. The heat flow through the roof is calculated by the following equation:
Q=U*A(CLTD)
Where,
A is the area of the roof
U is the resistance of the roof components
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the roof

Lights
The heat gain for the lights is dependent upon several factors. The CLF for the lights is determined by
the type of furnishings inside the building, the slab construction thickness, the air circulation rate, and
the amount of time the lights are turned on. The total wattage from all of the lights also needs to be
known. A special ballast allowance factor is taken into account. Variations of the actual wattage are
taken into account by the diversity factor. The heat gain from the light is calculated by the following
equation:
Q = Watts*Fu*Fs*CLF
Where,
Watts is the total wattage from all of the lights
Fu is the diversity factor
Fs is the ballast special allowance factor
CLF is the cooling load factor for the lights

People: The heat gain by the occupants in the building is separated into sensible and latent. The number
of people, the type of activity they are performing, and the CLF determines the sensible heat. The CLF
is determined by the time the occupants come into the building and for how long they stay in the
building. The sensible heat gain by the occupants is calculated by the following equation:
Q = N*qM*Of

32
Where,
N is the number of people
Q (sensitive) is the sensible heat gain per person
CLF is the cooling load factor for the occupants
The number of people and the type of activity they are performing determines the latent heat gain. The
latent gain is assumed to immediately translate onto the cooling load and for this reason there is no CLF.
The latent heat gain by the occupants is calculated by the following equation:
Q = N* Qiat
Where,
N is the number of people,
Q(latent) is the latent heat gain per person

Equipment: The heat gain by the equipment is determined by the wattage and the CLF for the
equipment. The CLF is found by the operational hours and the time the equipment is turned on. This
must be found for each individual piece of equipment. The heat gain by each individual piece of
equipment is calculated by the following equation:
O = Watts*CLF
Where,
Watts is the wattage of the equipment
CLF is the cooling load factor for the equipment
The total heat gain by the equipment is the sum of the heat gain by the individual pieces of equipment.

Infiltration
The infiltration is separated into sensible and latent heat gains. The sensible heat gain is calculated in the
same manner as for the heating load. The air change method is used again to find the heat flow due to
infiltration. The mass flow rate of the air is calculated by the following equation:
m = Vol*(ACH}*p (air)

Where,
Vol is the volume of the building
ACH is the estimated air changes per hour

33
Once the mass flow rate of the air is found then the heat flow for the infiltration is calculated by the
following equation:
Q = m*Cp(To-Ti)
Where,
m is the mass flow rate of the air
Cp is the specific heat of air
Ti is the inside temperature
T0 is the outside temperature
The latent heat gain is determined by the mass flow rate, the humidity ratio for the inside and outside
air, and the enthalpy and the saturation point for the weather data. The latent heat gain for infiltration is
calculated by the following equation:
Q = m(W0-Wi)hfg
Where,
m is the mass flow rate of the air
W0 is the humidity ratio of the outside air
W, is the humidity ratio of the inside air
hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water

The total cooling load for the space is determined by the summation of all of the previously calculated
heat gains. The cooling load for the cooling coils must now be determined. This is where the ventilation
is incorporated in the cooling load.

Information Required (Inputs)

Before a cooling or heating load can be properly estimated a complete survey must be made of the
physical data The more exact the information that can be obtained about space characteristics, heat load
sources, location of equipment and services, weather data, etc. the more accurate will be the load
estimate.

Required Input – External Loads – Cooling

For calculation of the outdoor loads, the input information should include
1. Orientation and dimensions of building components
2. Construction materials for roof, walls, ceiling, interior partitions, floors and fenestration
3. Size and use of space to be conditioned
4. Surrounding conditions, outdoors and in adjoining spaces
34
 Figure 4.3 :- SOURCES OF HEAT

Film Coefficient
In addition to the resistance of the various components of a barrier, we have to consider one more
resistance offered by a film of air (or fluid if the barrier is a fluid) which clings on to the barrier
surfaces. This resistance is more when the air is still and is relatively less when there is wind velocity.
The values of the same are given in the list of thermal resistances.

Storage Effect
Suppose “To” is the temperatures on both sides of the barrier. There will be no heat transmission
through the barrier and the temperatures at all points within the barrier will also be the same. There is,
therefore, no temperature gradient. The walls take about 2 hours approximately to start conducting the
heat onto the inside space.

Procedure for Heat Load Estimation

1. Collect architect drawings for the building giving all details and dimensions of walls, floors,
windows, etc. If such drawings are not available, survey the place and get the particulars.
2. For every application, there are certain things which the ultimate user has to specify. These
are
a) Temperature & humidity conditions to be maintained inside the space and tolerance.
b) Occupancy – i.e. maximum no. of people likely to occupy the space and the nature of their
activity.
c) Lighting load and other internal source of heat generation.
d) Period of operation – e.g. 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. or 10 a.m. to 8 p.m. etc.
35
 e) For industrial application you require the HP load in the conditioned space and diversity
factor thereon.
f) Minimum ventilation required.
3. Outside Design Conditions
a) For comfort air conditioning application, use the mean maximum DB temperature & the
WB temperature which occurs simultaneously with the assumed DB.
b) For industrial applications where temperatures and humidifies are to be maintained within
very close tolerance through the year, tank the maximum DB and the simultaneously
occurring WB temperature.
4. For all applications make a second load estimate for monsoon conditions.
5. For applications where the conditioned spaces are spread over very vast floor areas, divide the
entire area into convenient zones and make load estimates.
6. Occupancy – In certain applications a diversity factor may have to be used even in respect of
occupancy. Examples are: Office areas where a separate conference room is also provided. The
conference room may be designed for a large number of people. But you must realize that it is
mostly the people in the office who go into conferences and hence any occupancy in the
conference room brings about an equal reduction in the occupancy in other areas of the office.

4.3 Design Conditions of the Project

Outside Design Conditions:
Outside design condition is a combination of the temperature and the relative humidity of the external
environment with respect to building structure.
Outside Conditions:
Temperature = 106F (41C)
Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32)
Tc = temperature in degrees Celsius
Tf = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Relative Humidity = 28%
Inside Design Conditions:
Inside design condition is a combination of the temperature and the relative humidity within the
subjected building structure or the favorable conditions required within the building structure as per
standards/clients.
Inside Conditions:
Temperature = 76F (23C) ,Relative Humidity = 50%
36
4.4 Calculation of Total Heat Load
The Heat Load Calculation sheets for the project building as per each room/space are as given below.
The values required herein for further calculations are the Tonnage and Litre/second flow of air of each
room/space. The Heat Load for the project is done by using E20 software which is an excel sheet with
predefined formulae:
Area or Sun Gain or
Item Factor Btu/Hour
Quantity Temp. Diff.
ROOM HEAT
ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT
Solar Gain - Glass
Glass - N 24 SqFt x 23 F x 0.59 326
Solar & Transmission Gain - Walls & Roof
Wall - N 134 SqFt x 15 F x 0.38 766
Transmission Gain - Except Walls & Roof
All Glass SqFt x F x 0.59 850
Partition 316 SqFt x F x 0.54 4261
INFILTRATION AND BY PASSED AIR
Infiltration 0 CFM x T.Diff x 1.08 343
Ventillation CFM x T.Diff x BF x 1.08 363
Internal Heat
People Nos. x 245 Btu/Hour Per Person 490
Lighting SqFt x 2.5 W/SqFt x 3.41 1448
Lighting & S. P. SqFt x W/SqFt x 3.41
Equipment 0.50 kW x 3410 1705
Sub Total 14024
Factor 5-10% 1402
Effective Room Sensible Heat 15426
ROOM LATENT HEAT
Infiltration 0 CFM x Gr/Lb x 0.68 231
Outside Air CFM x Gr/Lb x BFx0.68 244
People Nos. x 205 Btu/Hour Per Person 410
Sub Total 885
Factor 2.5 - 5% 44
Effective Room Latent Heat 929
EFFECTIVE ROOM TOTAL HEAT 16355
OUTSIDE AIR HEAT
Sensible CFM x F(TD) x CF x 1.08 1453
Latent CFM x Gr/Lb x CF x 0.68 976
OUTSIDE AIR TOTAL HEAT 2429
GRAND TOTAL HEAT 18784
TONS=GRAND TOTAL HEAT/12000 1.57

37
 CHAPTER -5
CENTRALIZED AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
5.1 General Schematic of Air-Conditioning
The general schematic of air-conditioning in a building structure in our project is shown below.

Figure 5.1: Central HVAC System

As shown in the schematic, the cycle consists of three basic equipment components and the transport
system.

Equipments:
Pumps, Chillers, FCU, Diffusers

Transport System:
Piping, Ducting
38
As per the Chilled Water System as discussed in this report is further divided as per its location &
application. As per location they are termed as Roof piping, Riser Piping & Floor Piping. As per
application they are called as Supply pipe & Return pipe. Similarly ducting is also similarly classified
on its application.

5.2 Air-Conditioning Equipment

The generally used machines for the air-conditioning of buildings such as HRB & LRB are as
follows158472456
5.2.1 Chillers
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) chillers are refrigeration systems that provide cooling
for industrial and commercial applications. They use water, oils or other fluids as refrigerants. HVAC
chillers include a compressor, condenser, thermal expansion valve, evaporator, reservoir, and
stabilization assembly.
Compressing the refrigerant creates a high pressure, superheated gas that the condenser air-cools to a

Figure 5.2: Chillers

warm liquid. The thermal expansion valve (TXV) releases refrigerant into the evaporator, converting the
warm liquid to a cool, dry gas. Often, a hot gas bypass is used to stabilize the cooling output by allowing
the hot gas to warm up the evaporator. This causes a reduction in cooling efficiency, but stabilizes the
chilled water temperatures. When water is pumped from the reservoir to the compressor, the chilling
cycle begins again.

39
 - HVAC chillers vary in terms of condenser cooling method, cooling specifications and process
pump specifications.
- They are classified as Air-Cooled & Water-Cooled on basis of condenser cooling methods.
- They can be placed in series or parallel arrangement as required.

Air-cooled devices use a fan to force air over the condenser coils. By contrast, water-cooled devices fill
the condenser coils with circulating water. Remote air or slit systems locate the main part of the chiller
in the application area and position the condenser remotely, usually outdoors. Cooling specifications for
HVAC chillers include cooling capacity, fluid discharge temperature, and compressor motor
horsepower. Typically, cooling capacity is measured in kilowatts or tons of refrigeration. Compressor
motor horsepower is a nominal value. Process pump specifications include process flow, process
pressure, and pump rating.
HVAC chillers include a local or remote control panel with temperature and pressure indicators. Some
devices include microprocessor controls, emergency alarms, and an integral pump.
In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is pumped through process or
laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled cooling of products, mechanisms and
factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They are often used in the plastic industry in injection
and blow molding, metal working cutting oils, welding equipment, die-casting and machine tooling,
chemical processing, pharmaceutical formulation, food and beverage processing, paper and cement
processing, vacuum systems, X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power generation stations, analytical
equipment, semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are also used to cool high-heat
specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals, hotels and campuses.
Chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where a single chiller serves multiple cooling
needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each approach has its
advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both centralized and decentralized chillers,
especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some applications or points of use, but not all.
Decentralized chillers are usually small in size and cooling capacity, usually from 0.2 tons to 10 tons.
Centralized chillers generally have capacities ranging from ten tons to hundreds or thousands of tons.
Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial, and
institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled, or evaporatively cooled.
Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which improve the chillers' thermodynamic
effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet-bulb
temperature rather than the higher, sometimes much higher, dry-bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled
chillers offer higher efficiencies than air-cooled chillers but lower than water-cooled chillers.
40
Water-cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by a
separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the atmosphere.
Air-cooled and evaporative cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and operation. Air-
cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically circulated directly through the
machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere. Evaporative cooled machines are similar,
except they implement a mist of water over the condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling, making the
machine more efficient than a traditional air-cooled machine. No remote cooling tower is typically
required with either of these types of packaged air-cooled or evaporative cooled chillers.
Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for cooling,
place or supplement cooling towers. The Deep Lake Water Cooling System in Toronto, Canada, is an
example. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to cool city buildings via a
district cooling system. The return water is used to warm the city's drinking water supply, which is
desirable in this cold climate. Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose,
in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectiveness is possible.

Types of Chillers:
Depending on the type of cooling medium, the chillers are can be broadly classified as
• Air Cooled Chillers: Air-cooled chillers have many advantages over water-cooled equipment.
While it is true that water-cooled equipment can offer better performance, by the time the
condenser pumps and water cooling tower fans are included, the performance difference is not as
big as you might think. In fact, at part load conditions, there might not be any difference at all. The

41

Figure 5.3: Air Cooled Chillers

 biggest advantage of using air cooled chillers is that they do not require cooling towers or
condenser water pumps. While this has traditionally made air-cooled chillers very popular with
small to medium projects, it is becoming more common to see large plants (2,000 tons and larger)
that use air-cooled chillers.
Another advantage of air-cooled chillers is they do not require a mechanical room for the chiller.
This frees up considerable space for occupant use. Like all products, air-cooled chillers have special
needs when applying them in a design. The following are several of the key items that should be
addressed to achieve a proper operating chiller plant and a satisfied customer.
Air Circulation: Air-cooled chillers generate a lot of heat. Consider a 400-ton air-cooled screw
chiller. That is equivalent to 4,800,000 Btu/hr. The heat of rejection from the compressors adds
another 1,400,000 Btu/hr for a total of 6.2 Million Btu/hr of heat that must be rejected to
atmosphere. Air-cooled products use a sensible heat transfer process so the refrigerant condensing
temperature must be higher than the ambient temperature. The performance of a chiller can be
given at many different ambient temperatures, but the industry norm is to use 95°F.
• Water Cooled Chillers:

Figure 5.4: Water Cooled Chillers

• CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

A constant flow system is the simplest chilled water distribution scheme. Here, a set of constant speed
pumps distributes fixed quantity of water at all times and the temperature varies to meet the load. The
system uses 3-way control valves at air handler coils that allow some water to bypass the cooling coil
42
during part load conditions. At low loads, the chilled water flow through the cooling coil is restricted (in
response to supply air temperatures to the space) but the total quantity returned to the chiller remains
constant. Figure below shows the schematic of the constant-flow rate primary system.
Looking at the equation that governs heat transfer, the capacity of a chiller is proportional to the product
of flow rate and the temperature difference of entering and leaving chilled water, or chiller capacity
(BTU/hr) = GPM x 500 x ∆T In constant-flow systems, flow rate ( GPM) is established for peak design
condition and Delta-T (the difference between the chiller supply and return) varies in reponse to the load
(BTU/hr). In air-conditioning applications, since the design conditions occur only during 1% of the
operational hours in a year [i.e. 99% of the time the system runs on part load], some of the chilled water
will always bypass through the three-way valve for most of coil’s operational life. Higher quantities of
bypassed chilled water mixes with leaving water from the cooling coil yielding lower chilled water
return temperature to the plant. The lower return water temperature reduces the operating temperature
differential (∆T) across the chiller as the supply water temperature is fixed to a setpoint. This
phenomenon is termed “Low delta – T syndrome” in HVAC industry.

Full Load Conditions

Figure below shows the peak design conditions where chilled water is entering the cooling coil at 44°F
and leaving the cooling coil at 56°F. At full load 100% of chilled water @ 200 GPM will flow through
the coil and 3-way bypass valve will not allow any water to bypass.
Off Load Conditions
Consider off -peak conditions, when the actual load drops to 50%. As the LOW load is sensed by the
leaving air temperature thermostat, the 3-way valves restrict water supply to the cooling coil, allowing
some chilled water @ 44°F to bypass directly into the return line water stream temperature of 56°F.

• PRIMARY / SECONDAY DISTRIBUTION SCHEME

ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1- 1989 - Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings requires "all HVAC hydronic systems having a total pump system power
exceeding 10 hp must be capable to flow at 50 % of design value or less." This standard highly
recommends use of primary/secondary system for large complexes. A primary- secondary pumping
scheme divides the chilled water system into two distinct circuits (loops) that are hydraulically separated
by a neutral bridge (de-coupler).
1. Primary circuit is the place where chilled water is produced and its principal components are the
chiller and pumps. The primary pumps are typically constant volume, low head pumps intended to
provide a constant flow through the evaporator of the chiller. These are usually placed in tandem with
43
 each chiller though can also be arranged in common header.
2. The secondary circuit is responsible for the distribution of the chilled water to the terminal units.
Among the components of the secondary circuits are pumps, terminal units such as fan-coils and air
handling units (AHU) and control valves. The secondary pumps can be constant speed or variable
speed and are sized to move the flow rate and head intended to overcome the pressure drop of
secondary circuit only.
3. The neutral bridge consists of two tees that are typically located at the suction header of the
secondary pumps and at the suction header of the primary pumps and connected by a de- coupling
pipe. This de-coupler separates the primary and secondary loops. This common pipe is designed for
negligible pressure drop at design flow. A well designed, low-pressure- drop common pipe is the
heart of primary secondary pumping, allowing the two pumps to operate independently.

• CONSTANT PRIMARY & CONSTANT SECONDARY ARRANGEMENT

Refer below for a schematic of constant primary and constant variable system. It consists of one set of
constant speed primary pumps and one set of constant speed secondary pumps. Constant flow
primary/secondary chilled water system Primary pumps are lower horsepower than the secondary
pumps because they only have to overcome the friction loss associated with the chiller, pipes, and
valves in the primary loop. The secondary pumps, in contrast, are higher horsepower because they must
overcome the friction loss associated with the secondary loop: the distribution piping, fittings, valves,
coils, etc. The secondary loop contains 3-way valves to vary chilled water quantity through the coil in
response to load but the total quantity of flow in secondary loop remains the same. One of the salient
features of a primary/secondary pumping schemes is to allow different chilled water flow rates as well
delta-T on the two loops.
Example
Consider the same example of scheme 1, with a difference that the scheme is converted to
primary/secondary arrangement and 4 x 300 GPM constant volume pumps added in secondary loop.
Consider the case when the building is experiencing just the 50% of the load i.e. 300 TR. The inherent
separation of the primary and secondary loops allows two different flows in these circuits because both
circuits are hydraulically independent. This way the system face the variable thermal load without
having to keep all chillers “on-line” and pumping energy saving are realized during periods of low
loads.
Flow in primary circuit
A 50 % drop in load could be faced with two chillers, with around 67 % [33.33% + 33.33%] of the total
production flow of the plant. The flow in the primary circuit will be 800 GPM and the secondary loop
44
continues to circulate 1200 GPM. Compared to constant volume systems, it is definitely a more efficient
strategy than keeping in service all production units and theirs pumps at all loads.
Flow in secondary circuit
The primary chiller sequencing does not really change the secondary loop flow rate, which remain
constant and higher percent than actual load. At 50% off-load conditions, 600 GPM is required for 300
TR load but 1200 GPM delivered through 4 x 300 secondary pumps. This wastes energy at low loads. It
has another disadvantage. The excess flow will simply run through the common pipe in the direction
towards the secondary pumps creating a mixing point and further degradation of the supply temperature.
This reduces the cooling capacity of the coils, especially latent cooling capacity which could mean a
loss of humidity control in the zones.

• CONSTANT PRIMARY/ VARIABLE SECONDARY SYSTEM

In primary/secondary systems, water flows through the chiller primary loop at a constant rate, and
water flows through the secondary loop, which serves air handlers or fan coils, at a variable rate. The
constant speed pumps in secondary circuit are replaced with “variable speed” pumps. The speed of the
secondary pumps is determined by a controller measuring differential pressure (DP) across the supply-
return mains or across the selected critical zones. The decoupled section isolates the two systems
hydraulically. Also the system uses two-way valves in the air handlers that modulate secondary loop
flow rate with load requirements. During light load condition, the 2-way control valves will close
(partially or fully) in response to load conditions, resulting in pressure rise in the secondary chilled
water loop. A differential pressure sensor measures the pressure rise in the secondary loop and signals

Figure 5.5: Water Cooled Chillers 45

variable frequency drive of secondary pumps to alter the speed (flow). Primary-secondary variable-flow
systems are more energy efficient than constant-flow systems, because they allow the secondary
variable-speed pump to use only as much energy as necessary to meet the system demand.
Chilled water systems are generally comprised of the following major system components.
a. Chillers. The most common chilled water air-conditioning system is a single compressor and
refrigerant circuit using a water-cooled condenser. It is relatively simple and compact. Compression
type refrigeration liquid chilling equipment ranges in size from quite small to those with capacities in
the thousands of tons (I ton equals 12,000 BTU per hour of cooling). The three categories of chillers that
will be discussed in this chapter are those which use reciprocating compressors, centrifugal
compressors, and rotary screw type compressors. Control of water chillers is typically based on the
return water temperature. The return water temperature indicates the cooling load in the facility at any
given time. The warmer the chilled water return temperature, the larger the facility cooling loads.
Occasionally, the chiller is controlled by the leaving water (supply) temperature. This is typical for
process chilled water applications. In this case, the rotary screw compressor or the centrifugal
compressor will usually respond best and will provide modulating control to meet the load.
(1) Reciprocating type chiller compressors are available in capacities from about 2 to 200 tons.
Reciprocating water chillers may have one, two, or more compressors, each of which is matched to a
separate tube circuit in a common shell, and each with its own expansion valve, service valves, dryer,
piping, and controls. The compressors may be piped to use a common water-cooled condenser or may
each have their own water-cooled condensers. Chillers are also built with air-cooled condensers as part
of a package for outdoor use, or can be built for use with a remote air-cooled condenser or an
evaporative condenser. The principles of operation of all reciprocating compressors are much the same.
Suction gas (from the evaporator) is drawn into the compressor through the suction shutoff valve to the
suction chamber and on through a suction filter. The filter separates the lubricating oil from any liquid
refrigerant that is mixed with the refrigerant gas. Since reciprocating compressors are made to pump
refrigerant gas only, any liquid refrigerant must be separated from the gas to keep from doing any
damage to the compressor valves. The gas then flows through the crankcase and then to the cylinders.
The piston in the cylinder compresses the refrigerant that is discharged through the discharge opening.
Water chillers which use reciprocating type compressors are of three main groups: hermetic, semi
hermetic, and open direct drive type.
(a) A hermetic unit uses a hermetic compressor with the electric motor totally enclosed in the
refrigerant atmosphere. The possibility of refrigerant leakage to the outside through a shaft seal is
totally eliminated, and motor operating noise is subdued by the housing. Because this type of forced
refrigerant cooling of the motor is very effective, smaller, less expensive motors can be used. The
46
 need for a heavy external base to preserve motor-compressor shaft alignment is eliminated.
Hermetic machines are less expensive than external drive machines, have slightly greater power
consumption, and are quieter. However, should the motor fail, the repair cost is higher, and the unit
must be replaced with a like unit or sent back to the manufacturer for service. These compressors are
used in most cases for small refrigeration or air-conditioning system.
(b)The semi hermetic compressor, like the hermetic type, has both the compressor and its drive
motor in the same casing. The term "semi hermetic" means that the case in which both the
compressor and motor are sealed may be opened for service or repair.
(c) Open direct drive type compressors are those in which the crankshaft, which is fitted with a shaft
seal, extends from the housing. They do not have a drive motor as an integral part, but the drive
motor in most cases is placed on the same base with the compressor. The motor may be joined to the
compressor with a direct drive coupling or belt drive.

(2) Centrifugal compressors which are used as part of many large refrigeration and air-conditioning
systems move a large volume of refrigerant at low pressures. They are made in sizes as great as 10,000
tons. The only wearing parts in a centrifugal compressor are the main bearings and the main seals.
However, hermetic type centrifugal chillers do not have main seals. All centrifugal compressors do not
have pistons. In this type of compressor, the refrigerant gas from the evaporator is pulled through the
suction line into the center of the impeller. The impeller which is rotating at a high speed forces the gas
flow to the outside edge of the impeller and out the impeller housing. The hot, high pressure refrigerant
gas then flows to the condenser. A centrifugal compressor may have one or more stages. These stages
may be in the same or in separate impeller housings.
(3) The rotary screw type compressor uses a mated pair of special helical rotors. They trap and compress
the refrigerant gas as they revolve in an accurately machined

47

Figure 5.6: Compressor

compressor cylinder. The helical rotors are made with the mate rotor having four lobes and the female
rotor having six inter lobe spaces. The male rotor often drives the female rotor, but in some cases they
are both gear-driven. These compressors are built in either external drive or semi hermetic construction.
They are used in larger systems that range in size from 20 to 800 tons. These compressors are
commonly used with R-134a, R- 22, and R-717 (ammonia) refrigerants. An oil injection system is used
that gives high-efficiency and smooth operation. As the lobe of the male rotor starts to unmesh from an
interlobe space of the female rotor, a void is made and gas is drawn in through the inlet port As the
rotors continue to turn, the interlobe space increases In size and more gas flows into the compressor.
Just prior to the point at which the interlobe space leaves the inlet port, the entire length of the interlobe
is filled with refrigerant gas. As rotation continues, the trapped gas in the interlobe space is moved
circumferentially around the compressor housing at a constant pressure. Further rotation starts the
meshing of another male lobe with the female space on the suction end and progressively compresses
the gas in the direction of the discharge port.
Thus, the occupied volume of the trapped gas within the interlobe space is decreased, and the gas
pressure as a result increases. As this gas is discharged, a fresh charge of refrigerant is drawn through
the inlet on the opposite side.
b. Water chiller auxiliary system : Auxiliary systems used to enhance chiller performance and to aid
maintenance activities include the following.
(1) Purge units are required for centrifugal liquid machines using low pressure refrigerants (such as R-
123), because evaporator pressure is below atmospheric pressure. If a purge unit was not used, air and
moisture would accumulate in the refrigerant over time. These non condensables drastically reduce the
capacity and efficiency of the chiller operation. A purge unit is designed to prevent the accumulation of
non condensables and ensure internal cleanliness of the liquid chiller. Purge units may be manual or
automatic, compressor-operated, or compressor less.
(2)A refrigeration transfer unit may be provided for centrifugal liquid chillers using refrigerants with a
boiling point below ambient temperature at atmospheric pressure (R-134a, R-22). This system is used
for adding and removing refrigerant to and from the chiller. The unit consists of a small reciprocating
compressor with electric motor drive, a condenser (air-cooled or water-cooled), an oil reservoir, an oil
separator, valves, and interconnecting piping.
(3) Air-conditioning equipment is generally selected on the basis of maximum design condition and is
then expected to cope with a variety of conditions, some of which may force the equipment outside of
its stable operating range. At light cooling loads, operating the chiller at its maximum capacity will
cause frosting of the coil, excessive compressor cycling, and possible liquid carryover. Hot gas bypass is
48
a system that, at some predetermined partial loading, allows flow of hot refrigerant gas from the high
pressure side to the low-pressure portion of the refrigerant system. This reduces the condenser capacity
to produce refrigeration, because the gas returned to the low-pressure side produces no useful cooling;
instead it becomes an evaporator load. This enables the chiller to operate over a broader range of
conditions and avoid freeze-ups and cycling problems.
5.2.2 Fan Coil Units
A fan coil unit (FCU) is a simple device consisting of a heating or cooling coil and fan. The fan is a
centrifugal type driven by electric motor with fan mounted on the rotor shaft. FCU’s can be both ducted
or without ductwork as required by its application. The capacity of an FCU ranges from 100-2000 CFM.

Figure 5.7: FCU Unit

The chilled water from the Chillers is pumped into the coil of the FCU which cools up the coils. The
blower or fan blows the air thru the coils thus reducing the temperature of the air as required. These are
normally placed in the false ceilings randomly as per the zones to supply conditioned air.

5.2.3 Pumps
Pumps are devices used to force the fluid movement thru the piping system.
Types of Pumps:
- Centrifugal Pumps
a) Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps
b) Vertical Centrifugal Pumps
- Reciprocating Pumps
- Rotary Pumps

49
Pumps: The type of pump used to distribute chilled water through the chilled water system varies with
the system design. There are two basic types of pumps: positive displacement and centrifugal.
(1) Positive displacement pumps trap the liquid in internal cavities and move it from the inlet of the

Figure 5.8: Pump Sets

pump to the discharge. This action increases the velocity and pressure of the liquid which flows in the
discharge pipe. Positive displacement pumps are rarely used in chilled water systems.
(2) Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used pumps in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems
and are classified by their mechanical features, installation arrangement, mounting position, and method
of connection to the electrical motor, figure 11-1 shows several types of centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal
pumps have three main parts: a prime mover (typically electric motor), an impeller, and a body. The
motor is often connected to the pump shaft by a flexible type coupling. Some centrifugal pumps are
built with the motor and pump impeller on the same shaft. In all cases, the pump impeller is connected
to the shaft and turns the same speed as the motor. The impeller is the part of the pump that causes the
water to move through the pump body. Impellers vary widely in their construction. The centrifugal force
that comes from the rotating impeller moves the water or other liquids through the channels that run
between the vanes. The outward-moving water streams are directed by the volute in a single stream that
flows out of the pump discharge. This action of the impeller builds up the pressure of the water at the
50
pump outlet.
SUCTION DISCHARGE
END TOP
TOP TOP
SIDE SIDE
Table 5.1: Nozzle Configuration for Pumps
5.2.4 Diffusers
Diffusers are the terminal units located in each space/room to be provided with conditioned air. They are
placed in the center of each room for proper distribution of air to every corner.
They are different types of diffusers as per the directions of flow like,

o One Way Diffuser

o Two Way Diffuser

o Three Way Diffuser

o our Way Diffuser

o Circular Diffuser
51
In this project we have used 4 way rectangular diffuser for falt-01,circular diffuser for flat-02 and grills
for flat-03 and flat-04.
The other equipments used in here include Volume control dampers, Smoke dampers as per the
requirement of the flow of air. They are sized as per the sizes of the duct as done in the next chapter.

Expansion Tanks: Expansion tanks are used in chilled water systems for two purposes.
First, expansion tanks allow for thermal expansion of the chilled water that, if not for the
expansion tank, could damage the piping system. Secondly, the expansion tank provides a location for
makeup water to be admitted to the system. The expansion tank is connected to the chilled water system
on the inlet (suction) side of the distribution pump(s) by a branch line. The makeup water line is
typically connected to this branch line between the expansion tank and the main pump inlet pipe.
Control Valves: Control valves are used in chilled water systems to control the flow of
chilled water through the piping system. The control system positions the valve through a
valve operator or actuator that is directly attached to the valve stem. The valve operator or actuator uses
electricity, compressed air, or hydraulic fluid to move the valve stem through its operating range.
Thermal storage: Thermal storage is the temporary storage of high- or low-temperature
energy for later use. The purpose of thermal storage is to lower overall energy costs by
generating and storing cooling medium during periods when electrical rates are at their
lowest (off-peak). This occurs typically during the night or during periods of light air-
conditioning load
(1)There are two types of storage strategies: full storage and partial storage. In full storage systems, the
entire cooling load for a design period of time is generated during the off-peak time and stored for use
during the following design period. In partial storage systems, only a portion of the design period coding
load is generated and stored during the previous off-peak period. During the peak period, the cooling
load is satisfied by simultaneous operation of the cooling equipment (chillers) and withdrawal from
storage.
(2)There are two thermal storage system options available for large commercial and industrial cooling
applications: chilled water storage and ice storage.
(a) Chilled water storage systems use conventional chillers, pumps, and piping systems. They also
require large storage tanks for chilled water. In this system, chilled water is generated during off peak
periods and stored in a storage tank. During peak cooling periods, the stored chilled water is pumped
from the tank to the cooling equipment (air handler coils, etc.) and then returned to the storage tank.
52
There are several types of ice storage systems that are used to store thermal energy. Ice storage typically
has the advantage over chilled water storage in that it requires less space.
Heat exchanger:. A heat exchanger is any device that affects the transfer of thermal energy from one
fluid to another. In the simplest exchangers, the hot and cold fluids mix directly; more common are
those in which the fluids are separated by a wall. Common heat exchangers include the flat-plate, shell
and- tube, and cross-flow types. A double -pipe heat exchanger, the simplest form of the shell-and-tube,
can have the fluids both flow in the same direction. It is referred to as a parallel-flow type. If they flow
in opposite directions, it is referred to as a counter-flow type. A shell-and-tube exchanger may also have
several tubes, two-passes, and baffles. In cross-flow heat exchangers, the fluids flow at right angles to
each other. The evaporator and condenser sections of water chillers are examples of shell-and-tube type
heat exchangers that are an integral part of the water chiller package. Heat exchangers are also designed
and used as stand-alone thermal heat transfer devices in chilled water systems, heating water systems,
and steam systems.
Strainers: Strainers are defined as closed vessels with cleanable screen elements designed to remove
and retain foreign particles down to 0.001 inch diameter from various flow fluids. A strainer differs
from a filter in that strainers trap particles that are typically visible to the naked eye. Strainers are
typically installed in chilled water systems on the inlet (suction) side of the distribution pumps.
Air separators: All chilled water systems use air separators to remove air (gas) bubbles that have
become entrained in the water. One type of air separator is simply a tank constructed so that the chilled
water inlet is not in a direct line with the outlet from the tank. The diameter of the tank is large
compared to the chilled water piping. As the chilled water enters the expansion tank, the flow is slowed
down considerably. This slowing of the flow, together with the change in direction of the chilled water
flow, allows the air to rise to the surface of the tank or into the expansion tank to be vented. A more
common type of air separator is a mechanical type air separator with a tangential entry that causes the
chilled water to spin down from an upper entry to a tower discharge. The resulting turbulence enhances
the air separation. Tangential entry mechanical separators generally require less space than tank type
separators, but require that the circulating pump be capable of producing higher differential pressures.
The air separator is typically installed in the chilled water supply piping between the chiller and the
distribution pump. Air separators should be fabricated, tested, and certified in accordance with the
appropriate sections of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code for unfired pressure vessels.
Valves: Valves installed in the chilled water system are used to control water flow and to isolate
equipment for ease of maintenance. Most valves in a chilled water system are manually operated with a
hand wheel or lever operator.
53
Valves are typically installed at the following locations.
(a)On the inlet and outlet connection of each piece of equipment, including chillers, pumps,
reducing valves, control valves, tanks, coils, and other equipment that requires periodic
maintenance.
(b) On the supply and return branch lines at the point of connection to the main supply and return
piping headers.
(c) Drain valves are installed at low points in the water distribution system to facilitate draining of
the system.
(d) Vent valves should be installed at all high points in the chilled water piping system for manual
venting of air from the system and to help in the draining of the piping.
(3)The most common types of valves utilized in chilled water systems include gate, ball, butterfly,
globe, check, and pressure regulating valves.
a) Gate valves are identified by a wedge-shaped disk that is raised to open or lowered to close the
valve. Gate valves are intended to operate fully open or fully closed, and have very low resistance
to flow in the open position, since the disk rises out of the flow path. The gate valve should not be
operated in the partially open position, as this may cause vibration and premature wear on the disk.
The gate valve may be used for shutoff service where a slow closure is acceptable and where an
absolute bubble tight closure is not a critical consideration. Gate valves may be rising stem with
outside screw and yoke (OS&Y), rising stem with inside screw, or non-rising stem. The rising stem
type makes viewing of the valve position possible, while the non-rising stem type requires less
clearance above the operator, since the stem does not rise from the body.
(b) Ball valves use a ball as the opening/closing mechanism to control fluid flow. The ball is rotated
90 degrees from full open to full closed; therefore, it is well-suited for applications which require
quick or frequent opening and closing. The ball seals by fitting tightly against resilient seats located
on each side of the ball. Ball valves are generally selected for on/off service and are most common
in sizes 3 inches or less. Ball valves are available in three port sizes, including standard, full, and
reduced port. Full port has the same opening size as the connecting pipe, standard port is usually
one pipe size smaller than the valve size, and reduced port may be up to two pipe sizes smaller than
the valve body size.
(c) Butterfly valves in the chilled water system are most common in the larger sizes due to the ease
of operation, low cost, and superior shutoff characteristics. The butterfly valve usually consists of a
wafer-shaped body with a rotating disk that closes against a resilient seat located within the valve
body. Like the ball valve, a 90-degree rotation of the operating mechanism results in valve travel

54
from closed to full open. The butterfly valve is well-suited for both on/off service or throttling
service.

(d) Globe valves are primarily used for throttling service and are not well-suited for full flow
applications due to the high resistance to flow designed into the valve. The standard valve consists
of a round disk or tapered plug that seats against a round opening. Angle valves and needle valves
are variations of the standard globe valve and use a similar method of closure.
Unlike the gate and ball valves, globe valves must be installed in the proper direction of flow. Flow
should enter through the disk seat and push up against the valve disk. Reverse installation will
result in valve chatter, vibration, and premature valve failure.
(e) Check valves are used in the chilled water system to prevent reversal of flow at pumps and
equipment, with swing checks and lift checks as the most common types. The swing check has a
swinging disk that is held open by the fluid flow. Closure results from reverse flow and gravity
acting on the disk. Lift check valves consist of a disk that is lifted by upward fluid flow. Reversal of
flow pushes down on the disk, stopping flow. The swing check valve has less resistance to flow due
to its straight through flow design, but is more prone to water hammer than the lift check. Swing
and lift check valves generally are only suited for horizontal installations, unless specifically
configured for vertical installation.
(f) Water pressure regulating valves are used in the chilled water system to limit the water supply
pressure to equipment within acceptable levels. The two common types of water pressure
regulating valves include the direct-acting type and the pilot-operated type. The direct-acting
regulator consists of an inner valve connected to a diaphragm. The diaphragm is held in position by
a spring that is externally adjustable to give the desired downstream reduced pressure. The direct-
acting regulating valve is simple and relatively inexpensive, but is not capable of maintaining
constant downstream pressures if the upstream pressure varies or if the flow rate varies
significantly. The pilot-operated regulator is more accurate than the direct-acting type, as it
employs a small direct-acting valve (pilot valve) that maintains a constant pressure on the main
valve diaphragm. Variations in upstream pressure have little effect on the resulting downstream
pressure.

55
 CHAPTER -6
CHILLED WATER AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM
6.1 Chilled-Water Air-Conditioning System
A chilled water system is a means by which heat, generated in a space or by a process, is conveyed from
that space and ultimately released to the outside. This chapter is intended to acquaint the facility
operator with chilled water systems and identify a minimum level of maintenance activities that must be
performed to maintain a chilled water system for continuous day-to-day operation. Each chilled water
system is designed to transfer heat by the most efficient and cost-effective method. While there is no
right way to design a chilled water system, chilled water systems have common characteristics and use
common types of components. Due to these differences in chilled water systems, the
individual chilled water system equipment manufacturer's directions regarding maintenance practices
take precedence over any guidance provided in this chapter.

Fig 6.1 Schematic of HVAC System

System Functions: Basically, a chilled water system circulates the chilled water through a loop piping
system. Pumps force the water from the water chiller through the heat transfer components and back to

56
the chiller via the piping system. Heat is transferred to the chilled water as it circulates through the heat
transfer device that causes the temperature of the chilled water to increase. The portion of the system
that supplies the water from the chiller to the heat transfer equipment is typically designated the chilled
water supply system. Once the water is through this heat transfer equipment, the piping system
delivering it back to the chiller is termed the chilled water return system.
Piping system: There are two common types of chilled water piping systems: two-pipe and dual
temperature, with numerous variations of each. Two-pipe systems for comfort air conditioning typically
operate with a design supply temperature of 40 to 55oF and a system pressure of approximately 125 psi.
Antifreeze or brine solutions may be used for chilled water systems (usually process applications) that
require supply temperatures below 40oF. In addition, well water type chilled water systems can use
supply temperatures of 60oF or higher. Dual-temperature systems are a combined water heating and
cooling system that circulate hot and/or chilled water to heat or cool with common piping and terminal
heat transfer apparatus. This chapter will consider two-pipe chilled water systems that supply 40 to 55oF
supply water only; however, much of the information presented in this chapter will apply to dual
temperature systems as well.

6.2 Conceptual view of a chilled-water air-conditioning system

In this figure, thermal energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and expelled into
the outdoors through five loops of heat transfer:
• Indoor air loop. In the leftmost loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a cooling coil,
where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the building space

• Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling coil to the
chiller's evaporator to be re-cooled.

• Refrigerant loop. Using a phase-change refrigerant, the chiller's compressor pumps heat
from the chilled water to the condenser water.

• Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the chiller's condenser, and the
condenser water pump sends it to the cooling tower.

• Cooling tower loop. The cooling tower's fan drives air across an open flow of the hot
condenser water, transferring the heat to the outdoors.

57
 Fig 6.2 Chilled Water System
6.3 Waste Heat Rejection - Refrigeration Condensers
Chillers generate a large amount of waste heat. In a domestic refrigerator, which we have used as an
example of an every day chiller previously, the waste heat is simply allowed to enter the kitchen via the
condenser coil at the rear of the refrigerator. However, in air conditioning systems the amounts of waste
heat involved are too great and would cause serious overheating in the plant room. Because of this the
waste heat must be safely rejected outside the building. There are three main ways in which waste heat
is removed from the condenser. These are by using; air cooled condensers, evaporative condensers or
water cooled condensers.
Water cooled condensers. Variations in ambient air temperature cause changes in the efficiency of air
cooled condensers. A more temperature stable heat sink is water. Water cooled condensers make use of
this by jacketing the condenser in a shell which is filled with water.
The condenser passes its waste heat to the water increasing its temperature by about 5oC The water is
then pumped to a water to water plate heat exchanger. Water from a large nearby source, such as a
canal, river, lake or sea is also circulated through this heat exchanger having first been strained and
filtered. In this way the condenser cooling water only makes thermal contact with the heat sink water.
The heat sink water having picked up heat from the condenser circuit is returned to the main body of
water where the heat it carries is dispersed. The condenser cooling water leaves the plate heat exchanger
and returns once more to the condenser to pick up more waste heat. The use of bodies of water such as
rivers and canals as a heat sink is subject to water authority approval.

58
 Fig 6.3 Water Cooled System
Cooling Towers. In locations where there are no large bodies of water that can be used as a heat sink,
the water cooled condenser is used in conjunction with a cooling tower. A cooling tower is a device
which cools the condenser cooling water by evaporation before returning it to the condenser to collect
more heat. Figure shows a forced draught cooling tower. It can be seen that the condenser cooling water
is allowed to tumble down through the device whilst air is forced upwards through the cascading water
by a fan.

Fig 6.4 Cooling Tower

Evaporators:
Two types of evaporators are used in water chillers—the flooded shell and tube and the direct expansion
59
evaporators (DX). Both types are shell and tube heat exchangers. Flooded shell and tube heat
exchangers are typically used with large screw and centrifugal chillers, while DX evaporators are
usually used with positive displacement chillers like the rotary and reciprocating machines. While water
is the most common fluid cooled in the evaporator, other fluids are also used. These include a variety of
antifreeze solutions, the most common of which are mixtures of ethylene glycol or propylene glycol and
water. The use of antifreeze solutions significantly affects the performance of the evaporator but may be
needed for low temperature applications. The fluid creates different heat transfer characteristics within
the tubes and has different pressure drop characteristics. Machine performance is generally derated
when using fluids other than water.

Flooded Shell and Tube

The flooded shell and tube heat exchanger has the cooled fluid (usually water) inside the tubes and the
refrigerant on the shell side (outside the tubes). The liquid refrigerant is uniformly distributed along the
bottom of the heat exchanger over the full length. The tubes are partially

Fig(6.5)Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

submerged in the liquid. Eliminators are used as a means to assure uniform distribution of vapor along
the entire tube length and to prevent the violently boiling liquid refrigerant from entering the suction
line. The eliminators are made from parallel plates bent into Z shape, wire mesh screens, or both plates
and screens. A float valve or fixed orifice maintains the level of the refrigerant. The tubes for the heat
exchanger are usually both internally and externally enhanced (ribbed) to improve heat transfer
effectiveness.
Direct Expansion
The direct expansion (DX) evaporator has the refrigerant inside the tubes and the cooled fluid (usually
water) on the shell side (outside the tubes). Larger DX evaporators have two separate refrigeration
60
circuits that help return oil to the positive displacement compressors during part-load. DX coolers have
internally enhanced (ribbed) tubes to improve heat transfer effectiveness. The tubes are supported on a
series of polypropylene internal baffles, which are used to direct the water flow in an up-and-down
motion from one end of the tubes to the other.

6.4 Piping System

A Pipe is a cylindrical conduit used for the transportation of fluids and solids from one place to another
under pressure.
Fluids: Liquid (Ex: Water) & Gas (Ex: Steam)
Solids: Ex: Powder & Pellets
Semi Solids: Ex: Slurry
Pipe Sizing
The Piping system in Centralized HVAC System is a closed type. The Closed systems are made up of
two components:
1. a supply system that ends at a terminal air conditioning equipment unit
2. a return system that starts at the terminal equipment
• Pipe Length:

Pipe length are commercially provided in as,

- Single Random Length = ±20 ft or ±6m
- Double Random Length = ±40 ft or ±12m
- Customised Length = As per customer requirement

• Pipe Manufacturing Methods:

Pipe are generally manufactured and commercialized as per following methods

- Seamless
- ERW (Electric Resistance Weld)
- EFW (Electric Fusion Weld)
- FBW (Fusion Butt Weld)
- SAW (Submerged Arc Weld)
- DSAW (Double Submerged Arc Weld)
- Spiral Weld

• Pipe Ends:

61
 Pipe ends are generally made in as
- Threaded/Screwed ends
- Plain ends
- Bevelled ends (Angle 30-35)

• Pipe Joining Methods:

- Threaded Joining Method

- Socket Weld Joining Method
- Butt Weld joining Method
- Flanged Joining Method

Pipe Sizing:
The pipe sizing for a line can be done with following values :
For Air/Steam: Volume Flow rate (CFM) & Velocity (FPM)
For Water : Volume Flow rate (GPM) & Velocity (FPS)

Formula:
GPM = 2.4 x TR (Tonnes of Refrigeration)
FPS is calculated basing on number of hours of operation per year
Ex: @HYD operating for 5 months per year = 5 months x 30 days x 24 hrs = 3600 hrs/year

Water Velocity:
- Roof Piping - 10 FPS
- Riser Piping - 8 FPS
- Floor Piping - 6 FPS

The Pipe diameter values of each can be derived from the below chart as per the GPM and the velocity
at the required at each point. These values are depicted on the drawing along with the GPM values for
each FCU.

62
 6.5 BOQ For Duct Size For Flat-01

Duct size Duct

Unit Length(mm)
s.no Description (mm) size(mts) Length(mts) Area(sq
Ref mts)
W H W H L L
SAD 400 x 300 0.4 0.3 1933 1.933 2.7062
SAD 300 x 250 0.3 0.25 3886 3.886 4.2746
FCU SAD 400 x 150 0.4 0.15 1598 1.598 1.7578
1
01 Reducer 400 x 300 0.4 0.3 300 0.3 0.42
Shoe collar 500 x 250 0.5 0.25 150 0.15 0.225
Mouth piece 1650 x 266 1.65 0.266 300 0.3 1.1496
10.5332

Duct size Duct

Unit Length(mm)
s.no Describesion (mm) size(mts) Length(mts) Area(sq
Ref mts)
W H W H L L
SAD 350 x 300 0.35 0.3 2388 2.388 3.1044
SAD 250 x 200 0.25 0.2 1561 1.561 1.4049
SAD 350 x 200 0.35 0.2 4286 4.286 4.7146
FCU
2 Reducer 350 x 200 0.35 0.2 300 0.3 0.33
02
Shoe collar 400 x 250 0.4 0.25 150 0.15 0.195
Mouth piece 1500 x 266 1.5 0.266 300 0.3 1.0596
Elbow 500 x 200 0.5 0.2 500 0.5 0.7
11.5085

Duct size Duct

Unit Length(mm)
s.no Describesion (mm) size(mts) Length(mts) Area(sq
Ref mts)
W H W H L L
SAD 400 x 350 0.4 0.35 2436 2.436 3.654
SAD 300 x 250 0.3 0.25 2329 2.329 2.5619
FCU SAD 350 x 300 0.35 0.3 2463 2.463 3.2019
3
03 SAD 300 x 150 0.3 0.15 2463 2.463 2.2167
SAD 250 x 200 0.25 0.2 2817 2.817 2.5353
Shoe collar 450 x 250 0.45 0.25 150 0.15 0.21
63
 Shoe collar 450 x 250 0.45 0.25 150 0.15 0.21
Reducer 350 x 300 0.35 0.3 300 0.3 0.39
Reducer 400 x 350 0.4 0.35 300 0.3 0.45
Mouth piece 1650 x 266 1.65 0.266 300 0.3 1.1496
Elbow 400 x 200 0.4 0.2 400 0.4 0.48
17.0594

Duct size Duct

Unit Length(mm)
s.no Describesion (mm) size(mts) Length(mts) Area(sq
Ref mts)
W H W H L L
SAD 500 x 300 0.5 0.3 960 0.96 1.536
SAD 300 x 300 0.3 0.3 3100 3.1 3.72
FCU
4 SAD 350 x 300 0.35 0.3 3630 3.63 4.719
04
Mouth piece 700 x 300 0.7 0.3 300 0.3 0.6
Split Bend 800 x 300 0.8 0.3 500 0.5 1.1
11.675

NO OF DIFFUSERS USED:
(1)Rectangular – 4 way:-
supply- 54
Return-54

(2)Circular- :-
Supply- 78
Return - 78

(3)Grills-
Supply- 84
Return- 84

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 CHAPTER -7
RESULT

FLAT-01

65
FLAT-02

66
FLAT-03

67
FLAT-04

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 CONCLUSION

Surely HVAC system has become a necessity for Human, the report elaborates the usage of water as a
coolant for the centralized HVAC System. The Design of a Centralized Chilled Water Air-Conditioning
System for the Residential building done as per the standards of ASHRAE. The project report concludes
that;

• The concept of Chiller water System is clearly explained with the importance of the system in
HVAC Industry & Application.

• The main motive of design of an HVAC system for the building industry purely depends on the
Human Comfort values, should be maintained irrespective of location of the project.

• The Heat Load Estimated provides the requirement of Cooling for the project, provides a
guideline for the Selection of Machines.

• All the Equipments are installed as per the manufacturer’s recommendations to achieve its best
efficient performance.

• The Final Layouts for the Piping and Equipment are submitted for final approval, for the site
Installation.

Thus the Project Report clearly identifies the requirements of the project and provides an effective way
of Air-Conditioning to achieve Human comfort for the occupants. The design and drawings as approved
will be sent to the site installation process. Therefore the project defines the requirement and process of
achieving the Human Comfort and Environment.

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 FUTURE SCOPE

Optimizing Dehumidification
Typical single-zone cooling units have earned a notorious reputation for creating “cold and damp”
conditions, resulting in discomfort, moisture damage, and health hazards. We can fix this problem
completely without much change to existing equipment. For brevity, we assume that dehumidification
by refrigeration will continue to be the most economical method for most applications. Problems arise
with this method because the cooling coil inherently performs two entirely different functions –
cooling and dehumidification. The shotgun wedding of these two functions is the cause of poor
dehumidification in contemporary single-zone systems. If we operate cooling equipment to dehumidify
air, we also cool the air – whether we want cooling or not. The solution is to add reheat to single-zone
systems. Reheat is the source of good humidity control in multiple-zone systems. But, isn’t reheat
terribly expensive? It is expensive only in multiple-zone air handling systems, which waste huge
amounts of reheat energy for zone temperature control. In contrast, single-zone systems do not use
reheat for temperature control. Furthermore, reheat for dehumidification is always free. This is true
because (1) any cooling process rejects more heat than it removes, and (2) reheat is needed only to
cancel a portion of the sensible cooling process, the part that makes the space temperature lower than
we want it to be.

Combining Dehumidifiers With Air Conditioners

If the machine in Figure 2 sends all of the compressor discharge gas to the exterior condenser, it
becomes an ordinary air conditioner. At the other extreme, if all the discharge gas goes to the reheat
coil, the machine becomes an ordinary room dehumidifier. This suggests that we could achieve
equivalent performance by using a common air conditioner in coordination with a common
dehumidifier. Control of such a combination is elementary. The air conditioner is controlled by its
thermostat, and the dehumidifier is controlled by its humidistat. In fact, such a combination is
theoretically equivalent to our combination unit. The differences are practical. Using separate
equipment is more expensive, takes more space, makes more noise, and requires two condensate
drains.

Eliminate Moisture Retention on Coils

The second major cause of “cold and damp” conditions is moisture retention on cooling coils, which
makes them act like sponges. The problem is largely independent of the cooling load. It can create
high humidity even when the ambient temperature is high and the ambient humidity is relatively low.
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Once a coil becomes soaked, it turns from a dehumidifier into a humidifier as soon as the compressor
or chilled water valve is turned off. Narrow fin spacing is the prime culprit, the result of trying to
increase heat transfer without raising coil cost. Present solutions are widening the fin spacing and
limiting coil height. Future improvements will exploit aerodynamics to dry coils better. Perhaps,
permanent surfactants may be applied to coils to enhance drainage.

Dehumidify at the Point of Greatest Moisture Concentration

In humid climates, most latent load enters with the ventilation air. In such cases, it is most efficient to
dehumidify the incoming air at the intake. Doing this can cut dehumidification energy by as much as
half. The principle is to wring the water molecules out of the air before they are diluted by
recirculation. It is easy to exploit this principle in single-zone systems. For example, the model
optimized system in Figure 1 (in the first part of this article) has a separate cooling coil (C2) at the air
intake for this purpose.

Optimize Recovery of Latent Heat

Optimized design treats dehumidification as a two-step process, in which mechanical dehumidification
is only the second step. The first step is to exploit as much “free” dehumidification as possible by
using the exhaust air to absorb moisture from incoming ventilation air. This is done with latent air-to-
air heat recovery equipment. Single-zone systems with integral heat recovery already comprise a niche
market. The model optimized system in Figure 1 illustrates it.

Optimizing Ventilation
Ventilation is the HVAC function that is currently the furthest from the ideal of optimizedfunction
design. We can completely eliminate all ventilation deficiencies that are related to the HVAC
equipment itself. Other ventilation deficiencies, unrelated to the HVAC equipment, await further
development

Minimize Air Movement Energy

Single-zone systems inherently require less air movement energy than multiple-zone systems because
they move air over short distances, they minimize duct resistance, and they do not need restrictive
terminal fittings. We have further reduced air movement energy by using variablespeed fans to
generate precisely the pressure needed at each moment of operation. And, we have eliminated the
71
resistance of control dampers. The final refinement is eliminating the energy wasted by dragging air
through idle coils. It is common to place cooling and heating coils in series, sequencing them as
needed. The resistance of the idle coils can be eliminated by installing 2-position (open or shut)
dampers to bypass idle coils. In Figure 1, this function is performed by the trio of dampers D1, D2,
and D3, and by the pair of dampers D5 and D6.

Eliminate All Health Hazards

Engineers must no longer permit HVAC systems to be a cause of health problems or to be an
accomplice in spreading them. Single-zone systems make a major stride by eliminating or minimizing
the use of ducts. The remaining focus of concern is the wet cooling coil environment. Equipment
should be designed so that coils, coil headers, supports, baffles, and drain pans avoid trapping
condensate and provide a steeply downhill path at every point. A daily drying cycle, which turns off
the cooling coil and circulates air through the equipment to dry it out, should be part of the controls
wherever the application allows it.. All surfaces exposed to air flow should be kept sterile. Ultraviolet
biocidal lamps appear to be effective, especially for sterilizing the wet areas of cooling units. Catalytic
coatings that destroy microorganisms and biological residues on contact may become practical in the
future. Beyond that, air handling equipment should remove dangerous agents from the interior
environment by appropriate filtering. The cost of all these measures is minimal in relation to the
benefit of finally providing the healthy environment that our profession has long promised.

Onward to the future!

Important changes in engineering often occur as seismic shifts, in which current practices are abruptly
abandoned and nascent approaches quickly rise to dominance. Such upsets occur after years of
increasing tension, when important realities grow too strong to ignore. We are now at such a point in
the design of HVAC systems. A revolution in HVAC is needed to make buildings survivable in a
century of very high energy costs and terrorist threats. The coming jolt in HVAC design is analogous
to the extinction of the dinosaurs, which grew too large and unadaptable and were replaced by small,
versatile mammals. Similarly, multiplezone air handling will be replaced by a versatile new design
concept that we have called “optimized-function HVAC.” The change begins now. Design your
HVAC systems for this century, not the last one.

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