2

3
4
PREFACE
This formula booklet is written for those who dedicated their lives to the merchant
navy. For them this booklet will be a little “Treasure Chest”. For everybody else it is
just another collection of formulas and tables.

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 Notice of Terms of Use

While the advice given in this formula booklet has been developed using the best information currently available, it is intended purely as guidance
to be used at the user’s own risk. Neither the authors nor the editor accepts any responsibility for the accuracy of any information given in this
document or any omission from this booklet or for any consequence whatsoever resulting directly or indirectly from compliance with or adoption
of guidance in this booklet even if caused by failure to exercise reasonable care.

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Table of Contents:
1. Mathematics
1.1 Algebra

1.1.1 Fundamentals

1.1.2 Signed Numbers

1.1.3 Algebraic expressions

1.1.4 Exponents

1.1.5 Symbols of Grouping

1.1.6 Polynomials

1.1.7 Constants and variables

1.1.8 Functions

1.1.9 Factoring

1.1.10 Equations

1.2 Geometry

1.2.1 Figures in the plane

1.2.2 Solid bodies

1.3 Analytic Geometry

1.3.1 Cartesian Coordinate System

1.3.2 Straight Line

1.3.3 Triangle

1.3.4 Circle

1.3.5 Ellipse

1.3.6 Exponential Curve

1.3.7 Polar- Cartesian- Coordinates

1.3.8 Vectors

1.4 Spherical Trigonometry

1.4.1 Spherical Triangle Definitions

1.4.2 Great Circle through two points

1.4.3 Size of a Spherical Triangle

1.4.4 Equality of Triangles

1.4.5 Some useful geometrical properties

1.4.6 Formulae

1.4.7 Napier’s Rules

2. Physics

2.1 Dynamic – Motion in one Dimension

2.1.1 Displacement

2.1.2 Velocity

2.1.3 Acceleration

2.2 Motion in one Dimension with Constant Acceleration

2.2.1 Velocity as a Function of Time

2.2.2 Displacement as a Function of Time

2.2.3 Velocity as a Function of Displacement

2.2.4 Free Falling Object

2.2.5 Motion in two dimensions

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2.3 Law of Motion

2.3.1 Magnitude of Gravitational Force

2.3.1.1 Weight of Planet X

2.3.2 Forces of Friction

2.3.2.1 Static Friction
2.3.2.2 Kinetic Friction
2.3.2.3 Friction on the Inclined

2.4 Static

2.4.1 Hook’s Law

2.4.2 Young’s Modulus

2.5 Energy

2.5.1 Work Done on an Object

2.5.2 Work Done on an Object by a Constant Force

2.5.3 Net Work Done on an Object

2.5.4 Kinetic Energy

2.5.5 Potential Energy

2.5.6 Total Mechanical Energy

2.5.7 Elastic Potential Energy Associated with

2.5.8 Helical Spring (simple harmonic)

2.6 Power and Impulse

2.6.1 Power

2.6.2 Impulse – Momentum Theorem

2.6.3 Final Velocity of Two Objects in an One Dimensional Perfectly Elastic Collision

2.7 Rotational Motion and Law of Gravity

2.7.1 Objects Angular Displacement

2.7.2 Instantaneous Angular Speed

2.7.3 Average Angular Speed

2.7.4 Objects Angular Acceleration

2.7.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis, ‘α’ Constant

2.7.6 Tangential Speed

2.7.7 Tangential Acceleration

2.7.8 Centripetal Acceleration

2.7.9 Keppler’s 3rd Law

2.8 Rotational Dynamics

2.8.1 Torque

2.8.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy

2.8.3 Angular Momentum

2.9 Fluid

2.9.1 Variation of Pressure with Depth

2.9.2 Poiseuille’s Law

2.9.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

2.9.4 Flick’s Law

2.9.5 Reynolds Number

2.9.6 Stoke’s Law

2.10 Thermal Physics

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2.10.1 Temperature from C° to Kelvin

2.10.2 Temperature from C° to Fahrenheit

2.10.3 Heat
a) Specific Heat Capacity
b) Latent Heat
c) Thermal Conduction
d) Energy Transfer by Conduction through a Compound Slab

2.11 Expansions

2.11.1 Linear Expansion

2.11.2 Cubical Expansion

2.11.3 Superficial Expansion

2.12 Gases

2.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation

2.12.2 Gas Equations

a) Boyle’s Law
b) Charles’s Law
c) Marriot’s Law
d) Law of Amonton
e) Law of Gay-Lussac

2.12.3 Increase of Pressure

2.12.4 Increase of Volume

2.12.5 General Gas Equation

2.12.6 Total Pressure

2.12.7 Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion

2.13. Magnetism

2.13.1 Magnetic Field

2.13.2 Magnetic Force on a Current–Carrying Conductor

2.13.3 Torque on a Current Loop and Electric Motor

2.13.4 Ampere’s Law

2.13.5 Cyclotron Equation

2.13.6 Magnetic Field in a Solenoid

2.13.7 Magnetic Force between two parallel Conductors

2.13.8 Magnetic Field of Current Loops

2.13.9 Magnetic Field inside a Solenoid

a) Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

2.13.10 Magnetic Flux

2.14 Electric

2.14.1 Ohm’s Law and Faraday’s Law

a) Ohm’s Law
b) Faraday’s Law

2.14.2 Capacity Reactance

2.14.3 Inductive Reactance

2.14.4 The RCL Series Circuit

2.14.5 Phase Angle Φ between Current and Voltage

2.14.6 Resonance Frequency

2.14.7 Power in an AC Circuit

2.14.8 RMS current in a series RLC circuit

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2.14.9 Transformer

2.14.10 Ratio Electric Field to Magnetic Field

2.14.11 Speed of Waves

2.14.12 Electromagnetic Spectrum

2.14.13 Resistor

2.15 Lights / Optics

2.15.1 Nature of Lights

a) Angle of Refraction

2.15.2 Law of Refraction

a) Index of Refraction
b) Total Internal Refraction
c) Polarisation of Light Waves

2.15.3 Convex Mirrors and Lenses

2.15.4 Mirror Equation

2.15.5 Images Formed by the Refraction

2.15.6 Magnification of a Refracting Surface

2.15.7 Magnification of a thin Lens

2.15.8 The Lens Equation

2.15.9 Angular Magnification of a Lens

2.15.10 Maximum Angular Magnification of a Lens

2.16 Wave Optics

2.16.1 Angular Magnification of a Telescope

3. Formulae for Stability Calculation

3.1 Basic Principles: Density, Mass, Volume

3.1.1 Density

3.1.2 Mass

3.1.3 Displacement

3.1.4 Hull Depth

3.2 Form Coefficient

3.2.1 Waterplane Area Cw

3.2.2 Block Coefficient

3.2.3 Midships Area Coefficient

3.2.4 Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient Cp

3.2.5 Calculation of Mid Rip Area

3.2.6 Calculation of Mid Rip Coefficient

3.3. Freshwater- and Dockwater- Allowance

3.3.1 Freshwater Allowance

a) TPC

b) WPA

3.3.2 Dockwater Allowance

3.4 Centre of Gravity; Buoyancy

3.4.1 GZ

3.4.2 KG

3.4.3 RM [t-m]

3.4.4 GM

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3.4.5 BMbox

3.4.6 KB

3.4.7 KMbox

3.4.8 KM for a Triangular Shape Type

3.4.9 GM calculated in accordance to an Inclining Test

a) Rolling Period

3.5 Reduction of GM: shifting of Centre of Gravity

3.5.1 Vertical Shift of Centre of Gravity

3.5.2 Horizontal Shift of Centre of Gravity

3.5.3 Loss of GM during Dry Docking

3.5.4 Effect of Bilging

3.5.5 Angle of List resulting from an amidships side compartment becoming bilged

3.5.6 Loading Weight using Ship’s Gear

3.5.7 Free Surface Effect for a Rectangular Tank

3.5.8 Angle of LOLL

3.5.9 GM at Angle of LOLL

3.5.10 Calculation of Angle of Heel if GM = 0

3.5.11 Reduction due to Steady Wind Force

a) Steady Wind Heeling [t-m]
b) Gust Wind Heeling [t-m]
c) Angel of Heel during Turning

3.6 Creating a Stability Curve (Cross Curve)

3.6.1 GZ

3.6.2 1 Rad.

3.6.3 Calculation of Area under the Curve (dynamic stability)

a) Trapezoid Method
b) Calculation according to Simpson’s First Rule

3.6.4 Calculation of Sectional Areas

a) Simpson’s Second Rule

3.6.5 Calculation of Water Plan Area according to Simpson

3.6.6 Integration of Water Plan Area

3.6.7 The Parallel Axes Theorem (moment of inertia of any axis passing through the centroid of the water plane area)

3.7 Calculation of Grain Stability

3.7.1 AGHM’s [t-m]

3.7.2 Approximate List

a) λ0°

b) λ40°

3.8 Loss of Stability due to Roll Resonances

3.8.1 Approaching of Waves in Relation to Vessel’s Course

3.8.2 Counter Measurement, if in Following Seas (period factor =1)

3.9 Strength Equation, Stress, Shear, and Bending Force

3.9.1 Maximum Allowable Bending Moment

3.9.2 Section Modus

3.9.3 Resultant Maximum Stress

3.9.4 Sagging and Hogging

3.9.5 Plane Water Moments at amidships position

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3.10 Calculation of the Permeability of a Compartment

3.11 Trim

3.11.1 Longitudinal Metacentric Radius

3.11.2 Change of Trim

3.11.3 MTC Calculation

3.11.4 Calculation of TPC

3.11.5 Calculation of Water Line Area (AW)

3.12 Longitudinal Centre of Flotation

3.12.1 draft change

a) fwd:
b) aft:

3.12.2 Alternative Way of Calculation of Draft-Change

a) Calculation if LCF is amidships
b) Calculation of Draft-Change if LCF is not amidships

3.12.3 Parallel Sinking / Rising

3.12.4 Calculation of True Mean Draught (TMD)

3.12.5 Calculation of Trim Factors

3.12.6 Change of Trim from Even Keel

3.12.7 Reduction of Draught Aft

3.12.8 Calculation of LCF

3.13 Weight to be Loaded by Required Trim

3.13.1 Resultant Moment

3.13.2 Calculation of the Amount of Ballast Water to be transferred

3.13.3 Influence on Draft Amidships due to Trim

3.13.4 Influence of Displacement for Read of Draft due to Trim

3.13.5 Distribution of Calculated Trim

4. Cargo

4.1 Stowage of Cargo

4.1.1 General Stowage Factor

4.1.2 Broken Stowage

4.2 Reefer Cargo

4.2.1 Calculation of Cargo to be loaded on Deck

4.2.2 Calculation of Pallets or Boxes to be loaded

4.3 Bulk Cargo

4.3.1 Calculation of Estimated Time of Loading

4.3.2 Cargo to be loaded in each Hatch

4.3.3 Fulfillment of Angle of Repose

4.4 Grain Cargo

4.4.1 Calculation of Cargo / Hatch

4.4.2 Calculation of actual Grain Heeling Moments

4.4.3 Calculation of actual Volumetric Heeling Moments

4.4.4 Calculation of λ0° and λ40°

4.4.5 Calculation of approximate List

4.4.6 Loading of Several Grain Products in one Hatch

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4.5 Timber and Logs

4.5.1 Calculation of the Weight of one Package

4.5.2 Stowage Factor of Timber, general

4.5.3 Cargo to be Loaded in Total

4.5.4 Calculation of Packages loaded in the Hatch

a) in Longitudinal Direction per Tier

b) in Traverse Direction

c) Total Cargo in Hatch

d) Total Weight in Hatch

e) Total Cargo Loaded on Board [tiers]

f) Total Cargo Weight

g) Calculation of Relation Deck to Hatch

h) Calculation of Deck- / Hatch- Cargo yard

i) Max. allowable Deck Cargo to be Loaded

4.6 Steel Cargo

4.6.1 Calculation of Maximum Allowed Tank Top Capacity

4.6.2 Maximum Allowed Tiers for Loading

4.6.3 Calculation of Coils to be loaded in Longitudinal Direction

4.6.4 Calculation of Coils to be loaded in Athwart Ship’s Direction

4.6.5 Total Coils to be loaded per Tier

4.6.6 Maximum Cargo to be Loaded not to Exceed the Tank-Top Capacity

4.7 Heat Calculations

4.7.1 Calculation of Quantity of Heat Radiated to the Atmosphere

4.7.2 Calculation of the Heat Conduction Coefficient

4.7.3 Calculation of Heat Conduction

4.8 Gas Cargo

4.8.1 Law of Boyle–Mariotte

4.8.2 Law of Guy Lussac

4.8.3 How to get the Volume of the Cargo

4.9 Heavy Lift Cargo

4.9.1 Calculation of the Minimum expected GM during Lifting

4.9.2 Maximum List during Lifting Operation

4.9.3 Not to exceed a Maximum List during Lifting Operation and the resulting GM

4.9.4 GM for the required Maximum Angle of List

4.9.5 Calculation of Length of Topping Lift Span

4.9.6 Necessary GZ during Heavy Lifts if a Counter-Weight is used

4.9.7 Calculation of KG during lifting a Heavy Lift

4.9.8 Calculation of Listing Arm

4.9.9 Maximum Height of Cargo Hook over Deck of Cargo Hold

4.9.10 Taking over of Cargo in Tandem Operation without traverse

a) For Crane No. 1

b) For Crane No. 2

4.9.11 Taking over of Cargo in Tandem Operation using a Traverse

a) For Crane No. 1

b) For Crane No. 2

4.9.12 Calculation of Under-Bearing of Cargo on Board

a) Calculation of Actual Area Occupied

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 b) Calculation of Actual Capacity per m2

c) Calculation of Enlarging the Area to reduce the Weight Pressure per m2

d) Calculation of Resisting Torque of Under-Bearing

e) Calculation of Under-Bearings to be used

4.9.13 Calculation of Stress acting on each Bridle Leg of the Lifting Device

a) Calculation of the Horizontal Stress on a two Legged Bridle

b) Calculation of Forces acting on the Lifting Device, if lifting asymmetric Cargo

c) Calculation of Length of Strops

d) Lifting of oversized Cargo (high dimension cargo)

e) Calculation of Common Centre of Gravity of Traverse and cargo (z’)

f) Calculation of Stableness of the Lifting Suspension

4.10 Oil Cargo

4.10.1 To get BBLS

4.10.2 To get Gallons

4.10.3 To get Metric Tons

4.10.4 To Get Long Tons

4.10.5 Calculation of API Gravity at 60° F (15° C.)

4.10.6 Calculation of Specific Density at 60° F (15° C.)

4.10.7 Calculation of Volume Correction Factor

4.10.8 Calculation of Loading-Rate per hour [m3 / hr]

4.10.9 Calculation of Correction of Cargo and Volume

a) Correction against Free Water

b) Calculation of Gross Volume

c) Calculation of Net Volume

d) Calculation of Net Weight in Tons

e) Calculation of Loaded Volume

4.10.10 Calculation of degree of filling and ullage

a) Calculation of Ullage in %

b) Converting of Soundings in Weight

5 Seamanship

5.1.1 Calculation of Breaking Stress of Wires and Chains and Ropes

5.1.2 Natural Fibre Rope

5.1.3 Synthetic Fibre Ropes

5.1.4 Shackles, Turnbuckles and Deck-Eyes

5.1.5 Steelband

5.2 Seamanship – Lashing Arrangement

5.2.1 Approximate expression for Maximum Angle and Maximum Angle of Ship Motion Roll

a) Full Period:

b) Pitch:

c) Heave:

5.2.2 Calculated Stress for Advance Calculation Method

5.2.3 Transverse Horizontal and Vertical Holding Power of Lashings

5.2.4 Calculation of Lever Arm of Lashings

5.2.5 Calculation of Transverse and Longitudinal Force of Lashings

5.2.6 Friction Coefficients

5.2.7 Lashing Arrangement for Timber Cargo

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 a) Calculation of Stowage height of Cargo on Deck

b) Calculation of Lash Force

5.3 Consumption / Speed / Slip / Total Consumption

5.3.1 Required Bunkers for the Voyage

5.3.2 Observed Speed

5.3.3 Engine Speed

5.3.4 Slip

5.3.5 Efficiency of the Engine

5.3.6 Ship Resistance

5.3.6.1 Froud’s Number – Wave Resistance

6 Meteorology and Cargo Hold Meteorology

6.1.1 Decrease of Pressure with the Height

6.1.2 Decrease of Temperature in the Height

6.1.3 Hydrostatic Equation

6.1.4 Solar Constant

6.2 Centrifugal Force

6.2.1 Total Centrifugal Force

6.3 Coriolis Force

6.3.1 Coriolis Parameter

6.4 Gradient Force

6.4.1 In a Low Pressure Area

6.4.2 In a High Pressure Area

6.4.3 Calculation of Pressure Gradient

6.5 Wind

6.5.1 Geostrophic Wind Speed

6.5.2 Simplified Formula for getting the Geostrophic Wind Speed

6.5.3 To get the Real Wind

6.5.4 Gradient Wind

a) at the surface (curving = cyclonic)

b) at the surface (anti-cyclonic curving)

c) Circulation

d) Vorticity of Cyclonic and Anti-Cyclonic Flow

e) Vorticity of the Earth

f) Absolute Vorticity

6.6 Clouds

6.6.1 Calculation of Lowest Height of Clouds

6.7 Wave Speed and Length

6.7.1 Calculation of Wave Length

6.7.2 Calculation of Wave Speed

6.7.3 Significant Wave Height in Narrow Waters

6.7.4 Wave Period in North- and Mediterranean Sea

6.7.5 Wave Length in North- and Mediterranean Sea

6.7.6 Wave Speed in North- and Mediterranean Sea

6.7.7 Wind Duration

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6.8 Humidity

6.8.1 Total Air Pressure

a) Daltons Law
6.8.2 Relative Humidity

a) Calculation of absolute Humidity

6.8.3 Calculation of Dew Point

6.8.4 Calculation of the Continentality

6.8.5 Increase of Temperature in Hermetic Sealed Hatches per Day

(if the difference between air and hatch temperature < 10°)

6.8.6 Relation between Air Temperature and Saturation Vapor Pressure

a) for water

b) for ice

7 Navigation

7.1 Terrestrial Navigation

7.1.2 Plane Sailing

7.1.3 Mercator Sailing

7.1.4 Great Circle Sailing

7.1.5 Composite Sailing

7.1.6 Compass
7.1.6.1 Magnetic Compass

a) Different Kind of Courses

b) Table of Errors (Coefficients)

7.1.6.2 Gyro Compass

a) Speed Error

7.2 Celestial Navigation (astro. navigation)

7.2.1 Keppler’s Laws

a) Eccentricity of an Ellipse

b) True Shape of an Ellipse

c) Keppler’s Third Law

7.2.2 Calculation of Local Hour Angle (LHA)

7.2.3 Calculation of the Altitude of the Sun

7.2.4 Calculation of the Azimuth

a) body is on the celestial horizon

b) body on the visible horizon

7.2.5 Calculation of the Altitude of a Celestial Body (Pre-Calculated Altitude)

7.2.6 Calculation of the True Azimuth, using the Table H.O. 249

8 Useful Tables
Meter in Fathom; Fathom in Meter
Meter in Feet; Feet in Meter
Meter in Feet & Inches; Inch in Meters
Cubic feet in Cubic meters
Different Length – Measurements
Different Area – Measurements
Different Volume – Measurements
Different Weight – Measurements
Table showing after how many miles you have to change your course by 1° on a Great Circle
Table for calculating the speed error on a gyro-compass
Formulae for the Momentum of Inertia of different bodies

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17
1. MATHEMATICS
1.1 Algebra
1.1.1 Fundamentals
a) COMMUTATIVE LAW FOR ADDITION

The sum of two numbers is the same in whatever order they are added.

That is, a + b = b + a

b) ASSOCIATIVE LAW FOR ADDITION

The sum of three or more numbers is the same in whatever way the numbers are grouped.

Thus, a + b + c = (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) = (a + c) + b

c) COMMUTATIVE LAW FOR MULTIPLICATION

The product of two numbers is the same in whatever order they are multiplied.

That is, xy = yx

d) ASSOCIATIVE LAW FOR MULTIPLICATION

The product of three or more numbers is the same in whatever way the numbers are grouped.

Thus, abc = (ab)·c = a·(bc) = (ac)·b

e) DISTRIBUTIVE LAW FOR MULTIPLICATION

The product of a number and the sum of other numbers is the same as the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each of the other numbers by the first
number.

That is, a·(b + c) = ab + ac

f) Other fundamental assumptions are the following axioms:

Quantities equal to the same quantities or to equal quantities are equal to each other.

If equal quantities are added to equal quantities the sums are equal.

If equal quantities are subtracted from equal quantities the remainders are equal.

If equal quantities are divided by equal quantities the quotients are equal1.

A quantity may be substituted for its equal in any algebraic expression2

1.1.2 Signed Numbers

Algebra deals with both positive and negative numbers (as well as certain other new types of numbers).
Positive and negative numbers are sometimes called signed numbers, that is, numbers having a (+) or a minus (-) sign. Consequently, in algebra the symbols
„+“ and „-“ may be used to indicate whether a
quantity is positive or negative as well as to denote the operations of addition and subtraction. If it is necessary to distinguish between the „+“ and „-“ sign
denoting positive and negative quantities and the „+“ and „-“ signs denoting operations, we may enclose the quantities, together with their signs, in
parentheses.
Thus, (+8) + (-5) means that a negative 5 is to be
added to a positive 8; (-3) – (+4) means that a positive 4 is to be subtracted from a negative 3.
If no sign precedes a number the „+“ sign is to be understood.

The absolute value of a positive number, or of zero, is the number itself. The absolute value of a negative number is found by changing the sign of the
number. Thus, the absolute value of either „+5“ or „-5“ is 5 (i.e., +5).

The symbol for an absolute value is | |

e.g., |-3| = 3

The laws for the four fundamental operations are as follows:

I) To add two numbers with like signs (i.e., both „+“ or both „-“), add their absolute values and prefix their common sign to the result.

Ia) To add two numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller absolute value from the larger and prefix to the result the sign of the number having the larger
absolute value.
Examples of addition:

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 II) To subtract one signed number from another, change the sign of the number to be subtracted and proceed as in addition.
Examples of subtraction:

III) To multiply two signed numbers, multiply their

absolute values. If the numbers have like signs prefix a plus sign to the product, if they have unlike signs prefix a minus sign to the product.
Examples of multiplication:

+7 · +3 = +21 +7 · -3 = - 21

-7 · +3 = - 21 -7 · -3 = +21

IV) To divide one signed number by another, divide the absolute value of the first by the absolute value of the second. If the numbers have like signs prefix a
plus sign to the quotient, if they have unlike signs prefix a minus sign to the quotient.

Examples of division:

+21 ÷ +3 = +7 +21 ÷ -3 = - 7
-21 ÷ +3 = - 7 -21 ÷ -3 = +7

1.1.3 Algebraic expressions

A symbol or combination of symbols representing a number may be called an expression. If the only operations involved in the expression are those of
addition, subtractions, multiplication, division, raising to powers, and extraction of roots the expression is an „algebraic expression“.
For example:

When an expression is composed of parts connected by plus or minus signs, each part, taken with a sign immediately preceding it (+ being understood if no
written sign precedes it), is called a term. The
expression in the preceding page is thus composed of three terms.

When an expression is composed of parts multiplied together, any one of these parts, or the product of any of them, is called a factor of the expression.

Any factor of a term is called the coefficient of the remaining factor. The coefficient of the literal part of a term is the numerical coefficient of the term. For
example, in the term „7zbc“, „7z“ is the coefficient of „bc“, and the number „7“ is the numerical coefficient of the term.

The sign is included in the coefficient. Thus, in the expression „-7z“, the coefficient of „z“ is „-7“.

If no numerical coefficient is written it is understood to be „1“. Thus, the coefficient of „a“ is „1“; the coefficient of „-b“ is „-1“.

1.1.4 Exponents

The expression „x3“ means x * x * x. That is, it indicates the third power of „x“. The number „3“ is called the exponent of the power. The number „a“ is
called the base.
In general, „xn“ means x * x * * * to n factors and is called the nth power of „x“.
If no exponent is written it is understood to be 1. Thus, in the expression „7x5yz4“ the exponent of „y“ is „1“.

Addition and subtraction of similar terms

By similar, or like, terms it is meant such numbers as 4b and 9b, or 6a2b3 and -5a2b3, which are products of the same letters with the same exponents. The
numerical coefficients may or may not be the same.
To add or subtract similar terms, add or subtract their coefficient. This will give the coefficient of the sum or difference, which will be similar to the added or
subtracted terms.

To add or subtract similar terms, add or subtract their coefficient. This will give the coefficient of the sum or difference, which will be similar to the added or
subtracted terms.

Examples of addition. Examples of subtraction.

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 Multiplication of terms

The product of x and x is x2.

Similarly, x2·x3 = (x·x) · (x·x·x) = a5

universally, am · an = am + n

Hence, to multiply powers of the same base, add the exponents of the powers to obtain the exponent to be used in the product.

Note that we cannot multiply x2 and y3,

except to indicate the product as x2y3

To multiply terms, multiply their numerical coefficients to obtain the numerical coefficient of the product. Multiply the literal parts as explained above. (The
rules of signs for the multiplication of signed numbers hold.)
Examples:

3x·5y = 15xy (-2x3)·(-7x4) = 14x7

2a3·6b6 = 12a3b6 6xy2z3·(-4xyw5) = -24x2y3z3w5

Powers of terms

Raising to a power is merely a continued

multiplication.

Thus,

(a2)3 = a2· a2 · a2 = a2+2+2 = a3·2 = a6

universally, (am)n = amn

it is being assumed that m and n are positive whole numbers.

Just as: a3·b3 = (ab)3.

universally,

ax · bx = (ab)m or ax · bx · cx… = (abc…)x.

Examples

(x3)4 = x12 or (3y3)2 = 9y6 or (-2z4)4 = 16z16 or

(-4x2y3)3 = 64x6b9 or
(3a3b)2 · (2ab2)2 = (3a3b . 2ab2)2 = (6a4b3)2

Division of terms

Since a2·a3 = a2+3 = a5, it follows that, inversely,

a5 ÷ a3 = a5-3 = a2.

universally, am ÷ an = am-n

For the present we assume that m > n. That is, to divide powers of the same base, subtract the exponent of the divisor from that of the dividend to obtain the
exponent to be used in the quotient.

To divide terms, divide the numerical coefficient of the dividend by that of the divisor to obtain the numerical coefficient of the quotient. Divide the literal
parts of the numbers as explained above. (The rules of signs for the division of signed numbers hold.)

Examples

8x8 ÷ 2x2 = 4x6 or -12a2 ÷ 2a2 = -6 or

28x2y3 ÷ (-7xy3) = - 4x or

-32ab3c5 ÷ (-4abc2) = 8b2c3

20
1.1.5 Symbols of Grouping

It is frequently convenient to group together several terms to indicate that they are to be considered as a single number.
The symbols used for this purpose are:

parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], braces { }, and the vinculum _____.3

When an expression composed of a sum4 of terms is enclosed within symbols of grouping which are preceded by a plus sign, the symbols may be removed
without changing the value of the expression.

Example: 2x + (z - 7) = 2x + z – 7

An expression composed of a sum of terms may always be enclosed within symbols of grouping preceded by a plus sign, the sign of every term being
retained.

Example: a – b + c = a + (-b + c)

When an expression composed of a sum of terms is enclosed within symbols of grouping which are preceded by a minus sign, the symbols may be removed
provided the sign of every term is changed.

Example: 8a – (6b – 2c + 4) = 8a– 6b + 2c – 4

An expression composed of a sum of terms may be enclosed within symbols of grouping with a minus sign prefixed provided the sign of every term enclosed
is changed.

Example: c + b – a = c – (-b + a)
z – y – x = z – (y + z)
A quantity multiplying or dividing an expression within symbols of grouping multiplies or divides every term within the symbols.

Example: 4x + 2(5y – 3z) = 4x + 10y – 6z

4x – 2(5y – 3z) = 4x - 10y + 6z

This is merely the distribution law of multiplication with respect to addition. The rule relating to the change of signs when removing symbols of grouping
preceded by a minus sign is a special case, since the minus sign is equivalent to the multiplier “-1”.

The foregoing rules apply when symbols of grouping are contained within other such symbols. In
removing symbols of grouping there is ordinarily less likelihood of mistakes if the innermost symbols are removed first, although if care is exercised they
may be removed in any order whatever. Similar terms should be combined at each stage.

Examples:

7a – [6b - (c – d) + e] = 7a – 6b + (c – d) – e =
= 7a – 6b + c – d – e

3a – {b + 2[x – 4y – (c – d)] – 5} =
= 3a – {b + 2[x – 4y – c + d] – 5} =
= 3a – {b + 2x – 8y – 2c + 2d – 5} =
= 3a – b – 2x + 8y + 2c – 2d + 5.

1.1.6 Polynomials
An expression composed of only one term is a monomial, an expression composed of two terms is a binomial, and an expression composed of three
terms is a trinomial.
An expression composed of more than one term is a polynomial, or a multinomial.

Attention: The word “polynomial” is sometimes restricted to mean an expression such as

5x3+3x2-4x+9

which is composed of positive integral (i.e., positive whole number) powers of a literal number or literal numbers. In this restricted case it is
sometimes convenient to classify a monomial as a polynomial.

Addition and subtraction of polynomials

Polynomials are added or subtracted by combining similar terms.

Example 1 Example 2

Add: Subtract:
3a-2b+c2 3a-2b+5d
from 5a+7b-8c
and 4a+6b-9c2

3a-2b+c2 5a+7b-8c
3a- 2b-8c+5d
4a+6b-9c2
2a+9b -5d
7a+4b-8c2

Multiplication of polynomials
To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, multiply each term of the polynomial by the monomial.

21
 To multiply one polynomial by another, multiply each term of either by each term of the other. Combine similar terms.

Example:
Multiply 2a2-3ab+b2 by a2+2ab-5b2

The first line below the first horizontal rule, 2a4-3a3b+a2b2, is the product of “a2” and “2a2-3ab+b2 and so on. Similar terms, such as -3a2b and 4a3b, have
been placed in columns and added. This is permissible, since the order in which numbers are added doesn't matter.

Division of polynomials

To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the polynomial by the monomial.
Example:

(6a3b2-12a2b3-3ab4) ÷ 3ab =

= (6a3b2 ÷ 3ab)-(12a2b3 ÷ 3ab)-(3ab4 ÷ 3ab) =

= 2a2b - 4ab2 - b3

The method of dividing one polynomial by another is shown by the following example.

Divide 5x2-2x3+3 by x2-4-2x

Arrange both polynomials according to descending powers of “x”. As shown below.

It is found, by dividing the first term of the divisor into the first term of the dividend, that the first term in the quotient is „-2x“ (i.e., -2x3/x2 = -2x).

Multiply the divisor x2-2x-4 by -2x, obtaining the polynomial -2x3+4x2+8x, which is written below the dividend and subtracted from it. Continue the
process until the remainder is of lower degree5 than the divisor.

Division may be checked by using the relation

Dividend = Quotient x Divisor + Remainder

1.1.7 Constants and variables

A symbol which, throughout a discussion, does not change in value is called a constant. (There are, of course, some constants, such as 3, -2, and „π“, which
never change in value.)

A symbol which may change in value during a discussion is called a variable.

In the formula for the area of a triangle,

A = ½ bh

½ is a never changing constant. If in a certain problem we regard only the base “b” of the triangle as fixed in value, then for that problem, “b” is a constant,
and the altitude “h” and the area “A” are variables.

1.1.8 Functions

When two variables are so related that to each of a set of values of one there correspond one or more values of the other, the second variable is said to be a
function of the first. The first variable is called the independent variable, the second the dependent variable. For example, if y = x2, then „y“ is a function of
x, and we may regard „x“ as the

independent variable, to which values are arbitrarily assigned, and „y“ as dependent on „x“.
This type of relation is often written in the form

f (x) = x2,

22
 what may be read as “the “f” function of x equals x2,” or, more briefly, “f of x equals x2.”

If f (x) = x2, then f (a) = a2, f (3) = 32 = 9, f (-3) = (-32) = 9, and so on.

In another problem or discussion we might have

f (x) = 2x+3 or f (x) = 1/x.

That is, f (x) does not always represent the same function of “x”. Nor is “f” the only letter used to represent functions; we may have F (x), g (x), φ(x), etc.

The area of a circle is obviously a function of its radius, and we may write A = f (r). In this instance we know the form of a function, namely, f(r) = πr2.

Similarly, the edge of a cube is a function of its volume.

Here:

Often one variable is a function of two or more other variables. For example, the volume of a right circular cone is a function of its base and its altitude, since
V = π r2 h.
This function may be written: V = f (r,h) = π r2 h.

If the radius is „2“ and the altitude „3“, we have

V = f (2,3)= ·π·22·3 = 4π

Example 1

Given f (x) = 2x2-3x-35; find f (3x+5).

Solution. Replace “x” everywhere by 3x+5.

f (3x+5) = 2(3x+5)2-3(3x+5)-35
= 18x2+60x+50-9x-15-35

1.1.9 Factoring

When an algebraic expression is the product of two or more other expressions, each of those is said to be a factor of the given expression.
The process of finding the factors of which a given expression is composed is called factoring the expression. An expression is called prime if it has no other
factors than itself, or it is negative, and 1.

The following important type products can be verified by actual multiplication according to the methods explained in § 1.1.4

(a + b) (a – b) = a2 - b2 (1)
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (2)
(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2 (3)

It may be helpful to memorize these formulas in words.

1. The product of the sum and the difference of two quantities is equal to the difference of their squares.

2. The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to the square of the first, plus twice the product of the first and second, plus the square of the second.

3. The square of the difference of two quantities is equal to the square of the first, minus twice the product of the first and second, plus the square of the second.

1.1.10 Equations

An equation is a statement that two expressions are equal. An equation ordinarily contains one or more literal quantities, which are called unknowns.
Thus,

3x - 7 = 5

is an equation in which the unknown is „x“.

An equation whose members are equal for all

admissible6 values of the unknown or unknowns which it contains is an identical equation, or an identity. An equation whose members are equal for certain
values (or possible for no values), of the unknown or unknowns which it contains, but not for all admissible values, is a conditional equation.

If an equation contains only one unknown, any number which, when substituted for the unknown, makes the members of the equation equal to each other is
called a root, or solution, of the equation. If an equation contains more than one unknown, any set of numbers which, when substituted for the unknown,
makes the members equal to each other, is a solution.
The equations

2 (x-3) = 2x - 6; or (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2

or

23
 are identities, being satisfied by all admissible values of the unknowns.

(Note that in the last identity, 1 is not an admissible value for „x“; the members are not defined for „x=1“, since this value would involve division by zero.)

The equation 3x – 7 = 5, on the other hand, is a conditional equation, since it is satisfied only by x = 4.

An identity is often written with the sign „ “,

thus 2(x – 3) ≡ 2x – 6

Equivalent equations
Two equations are equivalent if they have exactly the same solution.
Thus the equations
a – 7 = 0 and 2a = 14 are equivalent;
each has the solution x = 7 and no other.
The following operations will led always to an equivalent equation:

a) adding or subtraction the same number and/or expression to both sides

b) multiplying or dividing the same number and/or expression to both sides7

Linear equations with one unknown

An equation of the form
ax + b = 0 (in which a ≠ 0)

is a linear equation with the unknown “x”.

To solve an equation one performs the same allowable operations on both sides.

x + 2 = 7 | subtract 2 from both sides

x=5

Make a proof: replace the “x” by the 5

Linear equations with two unknowns

A single linear equation in two unknowns, such as 2x-y=3, is satisfied by an unlimited number of pairs of values. However, when one has a pair of linear
equations with two unknown quantities, there is
commonly a single pair of values of the unknowns which will satisfy both of the equations at the same time (e.g., a single solution). When the equations are
considered together and the interest is in solutions which will satisfy both of them, the equations are referred to as simultaneous equations, or they are said
to form a set, or system, of equations.

A method of solving a system of single linear equations is shown in the following example.
Solve the equations

2x - 3y = 16

5x + 2y = 2

Solution: Multiply the first equation by 2 and the second by 3, in order to make the coefficients of “y” numerically equal. We have

04x – 6y = 32
15x + 6y = 6 | add the two equations
19x = 38 | divide by 19
x =2

From the second of the original equations one will find

5x + 2y = 2
2y = 2 – 5x
2y = 2 – 10
y = -4

Linear equations with three or more unknowns

To solve linear equations involving three or more unknowns, one takes them in pairs and eliminates one of the unknowns, reducing the equations to a set of
one less equation and one less unknown. This will be done until one has only one equation with one unknown.

Solve the equations

5x – y + 4z = 5 (1)
2x + 3y +5z = 2 (2)
7x – 2y +6z = 5 (3)

Solution: First combine the equation no. 1 and 2 for eliminating “y” then combine equation no. 1 and 3, also for eliminating “y”.

24
Combine now (4) and (5) (x + z = 1 and 3x + 2z = 5)

Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation (with one unknown) is one in which the highest power of the unknown occurring is two. The first-degree term and the constant term
may or may not be present.

The following are quadratic equations:

3x2 - 2x + 4 = 0; x2 + 5 = 0; 2x2 + 3x = 0; 2x2 = 0

Solution by factoring

Frequently a quadratic equation can be solved by factoring.

Example: x2 - 5x + 6 = 0

Solution: (x – 2) (x – 3) = 0

The product is zero, if and only if one of the factors is zero.

Therefore, all the roots can be found by equating each factor in turn to zero.
x – 2 = 0, x=2
x – 3 = 0, x=3

Proof: 22 - 5 * 2 + 6 = 4 – 10 + 6 = 0
32 - 5 * 3 + 6 = 9 – 15 + 6 = 0

Example 2: 3x2 + 2x = 0

Solution: x(3x + 2) = 0

x=0

3x + 2 = 0, =

The solutions are 0 and - 2/3.

Solution when first degree term missing

When the first-degree term is missing the equation will be solved as follows.

Example: 4x2 - 3 = 0

Solution:

Example 2:

25
 4x2 + 3 = 0

Solution:

Solution by formula

The quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) (1)

is representative of all quadratic equations. For by giving the proper values to a, b, c one can reproduce any quadratic equation whatever.

Thus, (1) becomes 3x2 - 2x – 4 = 0 if one set a = 3, b = -2, c = -4. One can however, solve (1) by completing the square, and obtain a formula by which any
quadratic equation may be solved by mere substitution.

Transpose c: ax2 + bx = -c

Divide by a:

Add to both sides the square of half the coefficient of x,

Take the square root of both sides:

Subtract from both sides:

That the two numbers are the solutions of the equation (1)

1.2 Geometry - Fundamentals

Geometry (Ancient Greek: geo- "earth", -metri "measurement") "Earth-measuring" is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative
position of figures, and the properties of space. Geometry is one of the oldest mathematical sciences. Initially a body of practical knowledge concerning lengths,
areas, and volumes, in the 3rd century BC geometry was put into an axiomatic form by Euclid, whose treatment —Euclidean geometry— set a standard for
many centuries to follow.
Archimedes developed ingenious techniques for calculating areas and volumes, in many ways anticipating modern integral calculus.

1.2.1 Figures in the plane

26
Areas:

Square:

Rectangle:

Parallelogram:

Triangle:

Any triangle

The Law of Cosines is only used when all three sides or two sides and the enclosed angle are available.

THALES THEOREM:

In geometry, Thales theorem (named after Thales of Miletus) states that if A, B and C are points on a circle where the line AB is a diameter of the circle then
the angle ACB is a right angle.
Thales’s theorem is a special case of the inscribed angle theorem.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM:

In mathematics, the Pythagorean- or Pythagoras' theorem is a relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle (right-angled triangle).
In terms of areas, it states:

27
In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is squares whose sides are the two legs (the
two sides that meet at a right angle).

The theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a, b and c, often called the Pythagorean equation:

a2 + b2 = c2

Where ‘c’ represents the length of the hypotenuse, and ‘a’ and ‘b’ represent the lengths of the other two sides.

Right angled triangle

Sentence of Euclid: h2 = p × q
Sentence of the Legs: a2= c × p
b2= c × q

Trapezoid:

Polygon:

28
Pentagon:

Annulus:

Circle:

Sector of a circle:

29
 Segment of a circle:

Ellipse:

1.2.3 Solid bodies:

Dice:

Cuboid:

Parallelepiped:

30
Pyramid:

Frustum of pyramid:

Cylinder:

Cone:

31
 Sphere:

1.3 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

1.3.1 Cartesian Coordinate System

The Cartesian Coordinate system consists of two perpendicular lines, the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the vertical axis (y-axis) which intersect at a point
called origin. These coordinates’ axes divide the plane into four compartments called quadrants,
numbered in a counter-clockwise direction (QI, QII, QIII and QIV).
Ordered pairs of real numbers are in a one-to-one correspondence with points. That is, a point is represented by an ordered pair of real numbers (as P(x, y)
where ‘x’ is the abscissa and ‘y' is the ordinate; the order designates that abscissa always comes first) and an ordered pair represents a point.
To plot a point is to measure the proper distance from the axes and marking the point thus located.

1.3.2 Straight Line8

Equation: y = mx + b

32
 Gradient:

Intersection formular: for a ≠ 0; b ≠ 0

Line joining two points: P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2)

Line through one point: P1 (x1, y1) and gradient m

y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Distance between two points:

Mid point of a line joining two points:

1.3.3 Triangle9

Point of intersection of two straight lines:

Angle of intersection φ of two straight lines:

Centroid'S':

Area:

1.3.4 Circle

Circle Equation:

33
 Basic Equation:
x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0

Radius of Circle :

Coordinates of the centre M:

Tangent ' T' at point R (x1, y1)

1.3.5 Ellipse10

Ellipse Equation:

1.3.6 Exponential Curve

y = ax

Here ‘a’ is a positive constant ≠ 1, and ‘x’ is a number.

Note:
All exponential curves pass through the point

34
 x = 0; y = 1

The derivative of the curve passing through this point with a gradient of 45° (tan α =1)11 is equal to the curve itself. The constant a now becomes ‘e’ (Euler
number) and is the base of the natural log.

e = 2.718281828459

1.3.7 Polar- Cartesian-Coordinates

The polar coordinates ‚r‘ (the radial coordinate) and ‚φ‘ (the angular coordinate, often called the polar angle) are defined in terms of Cartesian coordinates
by:

x = r * cos φ

y = r * sin φ

where ‘r’ is the radial distance from the origin, and “φ” is the counterclockwise angle from the x-axis.

In terms of x and y:

1.3.8 Vectors (sum)

Vectors are:

hence

Example with numbers as per picture ahead

hence

Subtraction:

35
1.4 Spherical Trigonometry

1.4.1 Spherical Triangle

Definitions:
A spherical triangle is defined as a triangle formed on the surface of a sphere by intersection of the arcs of three great circles: PAB is such a triangle.

Similarly, a spherical quadrilateral is formed by the angles of four great circles.

The side-length of a spherical triangle is the angle subtended by the arc at the centre.

1.4.2 Great circle through two points

Through any two points12 on the surface of a sphere, only one great circle can be drawn. This makes it possible to say: “drop a perpendicular PN”, knowing
that PN is an arc of a great circle, because P and N are two points on the surface of the sphere, and hence there exists a great circle to join them.

1.4.3 Size of a Spherical Triangle

a. Each side of a spherical triangle is less than 180°
b. Each angle of a spherical triangle is less than 180°
c. The sum of the three sides must lie between 0° and 360°
d. The sum of the three angles must lie between 180° and 540°
e. The area of any spherical triangle must be less than 2πR2

1.4.4 Equality of Triangles

Two triangles which are drawn on the same sphere, or on two spheres of equal radius, have their entire corresponding elements equal if:

a. Two sides and the included angle in one are respectively equal to the two sides and included angle in the other
b. Three sides in one are respectively equal to three sides in the other
c. One side and two adjacent angles in one are respectively equal to one side and the two adjacent angles in the other. (or one side and any two angles, if one of them is a right angle)
d. Three angles in one are respectively equal to three angles in the other

1.4.5 Some useful geometrical properties

Any two sides of a spherical triangle are together greater than the third.

36
 The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal. A perpendicular from P on to AB bisects the base at right angles and also bisects the vertical angle.

In any spherical triangle, the greater angle is opposite the greater side, and vice versa.

The perpendiculars from the vertices of a spherical triangle on the opposite sides are concurrent.
The great circles joining the vertices of a triangle to the midpoints of the opposite sides are concurrent.

1.4.6 Formulae

The Cosine Formula

The Sine Formula

The Four-Part Formula

cot a * sin b = cotA * sin C + cos b * cos C

“Cot outer side * sine inner side = cot outer angle * sine inner angle + product cosines of two inners”

The Natural Haversine Formula

By definition, versine A = 1 – cos A and so “haversine” A, being “half the versine”, is given by hav A = ½ (1 – cos A)

37
1.4.7 Napier’s Rules

1. The sine of the middle part equals the product of the tangents of the adjacent parts.
2. The sine of the middle part equals the product of the cosines of the opposite parts.

1 Division by zero is excluded

2 A symbol or combination of symbols representing a number may be called an expression. If the only operations involved in the expression are those of addition, subtractions, multiplication, division, raising to powers,
and extraction of roots the expression is an “algebraic expression”.
3 Vinculum - a horizontal line placed above multiple quantities to indicate that they form a unit.
4 In algebra an expression such as 4a-3b-c+7d is referred to as a sum even though subtractions as well as additions are involved, for the subtraction of a number is equivalent to the addition of the negative of the number.
5 The degree of a polynomial consisting of positive integral (i.e.wholenumber) powers of „x“ is the exponent of the highest power of „x“ occuring in the polynomial. Thus, the polynomial 2x3-5x2+4 is of degree three.
6 An admissible value is one for which all of the expressions contained in the equation have meaning.
7 Provided that this number or expression is not zero and does not contain an unknown.
8 Where ‘x’ and ‘y’ have same dimension and are represented in equal scales
9 Where ‘x’ and ‘y’ have same dimension and are represented in equal scales
10 F and F are focal points
1 2
11 Where ‘x’ and ‘y’ have same dimension and are represented in equal scales
12 The exception to this rule happens when the „two points“ are opposite ends of a diameter, in which case an infinite number of great circles are possible

38
2. PHYSICS
2.1 Dynamic – Motion in one Dimension
2.1.1 Displacement:

Δx = xf – xi [m]; where xf = final position

xi = initial position

2.1.2 Velocity:

2.1.3 Acceleration:

2.2 One Dimension Motion with Constant Acceleration

2.2.1 Velocity as a function of time

v = v0 + at (for a constant acceleration)

2.2.2 Displacement as a function of time

Δx = v0t + at2

2.2.3 Velocity as a function of displacement:

v2 = v20 + 2aΔx

2.2.4 Free falling object:

vf = * g * t2

2.2.5 Motion in Two Dimensions

vx = vox + axt
Δx = voxt + axt2

v2x = v0x2 + 2axΔx

where v0x = v0 COS θ0

For the y - direction

vy = voy + ayt

Δy = voyt + ayt2

v2y = v0y2 + 2ay Δy

where voy = v0 sin θ0

The speed v of an object at any instant from the components of velocity at that instant can be calculated:

39
Calculation of the angle that the velocity vector makes with the x- axis:

With these equitation we can now also calculate the horizontal and the vertical motion for the x and y – axis, where the horizontal motion is in the x – axis and the
vertical motion is in the y- axis. Therefore:

For the horizontal motion : ( x- direction )

vx = v0x = v0 cosθ0 = constant

Δx = v0xt = (v0 cosθ0 ) t

For the vertical motion : ( y – direction )

Vy = v0 sin θ0 – gt
Δy = (v0 sinθ0)t – ½ gt2
v2y = (v0 sinθ0)2 - 2gΔy

2.3 Law of Motion

F=m*a (Newton’s 2nd law)

or

weight :

W = m*g; where Mass is in kg

2.3.1 Magnitude of gravitational force

G = 6.67*10-11Nm2/kg2 (universal gravitational constant)

r = distance

ME = mass of the earth

Weight of planet x

Mx= 3 ME and rx = 2 RE

2.3.2 Forces of Friction

2.3.2.1 Static friction:

fs ≤ µsR ; (R is also called n)

fs = fmaxµsR ;

µs is the static friction coefficient

40
2.3.2.2 Kinetic friction:

fs ≤ = µkR ;

µk = kinetic friction coefficient

R = Normal Reaction

2.3.2.3 Friction on the inclined:

R = mg cos θ

F = mg sin θ

µ = tan θ

2.4 Static
2.4.1 Hook’s Law

2.4.2 Young’s Modulus:

2.5 Energy

2.51 work done on an object:

W = F Δx[J] or [kgm2/s2]

2.5.2 work done on an object by a constant force:

W = (Fcos θ)Δx [J]

2.5.3 Net work done on an object

2.5.4 Kinetic energy

2.5.5 Potential energy

PE = m * g * h

h = vertical position of the mass, relative to the

earth centre or any other reference point.

41
2.5.6 Total mechanical energy

E = KE + PE

KE = KEf + KEi

PE = PEf +PEi

Nautical Formulae Page 81

2.5.7 Elastic potential energy associated with spring force

2.5.8 Helical spring (simple harmonic)

2.6 Power and Impulse

2.6.1 Power

2.6.2 Impulse – momentum theorem

2.6.3 Final velocity of two objects in a one dimension perfectly elastic collision

2.7 Rotational Motion and Law of Gravity

2.7.1 Objects angular displacement

Δθ = θf – θi [rad/s]

2.7.2 Instantaneous angular speed

2.7.3 Average angular speed

2.7.4 Objects angular acceleration

2.7.5 Rotational motion about a fixed axis, ‘a’ constant

ω=ωi+αt

Δ θ = ω it + α t 2

42
 ω 2 = ω i 2 + 2 αΔ θ

2.7.6 Tangential speed

vt=rω

2.7.7 Tangential acceleration

at = rα

2.7.8 Centripetal acceleration

7.7.9 Keppler’s 3rd Law

2.8 Rotational Dynamics

2.8.1 Torque

τ = rF sin θ

2.8.2 Rotational kinetic energy

I = Momentum of inertia of an object around

the axis of rotation

2.8.3 Angular momentum

L = Iω

2.9 Fluids

2.9.1 Variation of pressure with depth

P = P0 + pgh

P0 = atmospheric pressure = 1.013 * 105 Pa

ρ = density of fluid

2.9.2 Poiseuille’s Law

L = Length of tube

R = radius

P1= pressure at left side

P2= Pressure at right side

η = Coefficient of viscosity

2.9.3 Bernoulli’s Equitation

P1 + ½ pv12 + Pgy1 = P2 + ½ pv22 + Pgy2

43
 P = pressure

½ pv2 = energy per unit volume

Pgy = Potential energy per unit volume

2.9.4 Flicks Law

Diffusion Rate =

C = Concentration
(C2-C1/L) = concentration gradient
D = Diffusion Coefficient
A = Cross section area

2.9.5 Reynolds Number

p = density of fluid

d = direction of flow

η = viscosity of fluid

2.9.6 Stoke’s Law

F r = 6 πη rv

r = spherical object radius

v = speed
π = viscosity

2.10 Thermal Physics

2.10.1 Temperature from and to:

a) Kelvin to Celsius → Tc = TK – 273.15

b) Celsius to Kelvin → Tc = TK – 273.15

2.10.2 Temperature from and to:

2.10.3 Heat

Q = mcT

c = specific heat capacity

T = temperature
Q = heat required
m = mass

a) Specific heat capacity

b) Latent heat

44
 Q = ±m L

c) Thermal conduction

k = thermal conductivity of the material

S = thickness of the material

d) energy transfer by conduction through a compound slab

R = R value of the material

2.11 Expansions
2.11.1 Linear expansion

Lt = αL0 (1 + at)

or

ΔL = αL0ΔT

2.11.2 Cubical expansion

Δv = yv0ΔT

y = 3α

2.11.3 Superficial expansion

ΔA = ßA0ΔT
β = 2α

2.12 Gases

2.12.1 Ideal gas equation

Pv = ηRT

T = absolute temperature
P = pressure
v = volume
η = number of moles of gas
R = Universal gas constant (8.31J/mol * k)

2.12.2 Gas equation

a) Boyle’s Law

PV = constant temperature

b) Charles’s Law

c) Marriot’s Law

45
d) Law of Amonton

e) Law of Gay – Lussac

2.12.3 Increase of pressure

2.12.4 Increase in volume

2.12.5 General gas equitation

2.12.6 Total pressure

= the sum of the partial pressures

PTotal = (P1 + P2 + P3 + …….Pn)

2.12.7 Isothermal and adiabatic expansion

P1 * V 1 γ = P2 * V 2 γ

γ = ration of the principle specific heat.

Typically a constant of 1.4

2.13 Magnetism

2.13.1 Magnetic field

F = qvB sin θ

q = charge

v = velocity

B = magnetic field

2.13.2 Magnetic force on a current–carrying conductor

F = I * 1 * sinθ

l= length of conductor

I = Current

2.13.3 Torque on a current loop and electric motor

τ = All sin θ

46
 I = current in the loop

A = cross sectional area

2.13.4 Ampere’s law

BII= component of

Δl = current element of length that is part of the closed path.

I = total current that penetrates the closed path

2.13.5 Cyclotron Equitation

2.13.6 Magnetic field in a solenoid

B = µ0nI

n = N/l, the number of turns per unit length

2.13.7 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors

d = distance between the wires

2.13.8 Magnetic field of current loops

R = radius of circular loops

N = circular loops

2.13.9 Magnetic field inside a solenoid

B = µ0nI

a) Energy stored in a magnetic field

PEL = LI2

2.13.10 Magnetic Flux

φB = BA cos θ

B = strength of uniform magnetic field

A = Cross sectional Area

2.14 Electric

2.14.1 Ohm’s Law and Faraday’s Law

a) Ohm’s law

47
 b) Faraday’s Law

N = Number of loops in the circuit

2.14.2 Capacity reactance

f = Frequency of AC voltage source

2.14.3 Inductive reactance

xL = 2πfL

2.14.4 The RCL series circuit

ΔVR = resitor

ΔVC = capacitor

ΔVL = inductor

2.14.5 Phase angle θ between current and voltage

2.14.6 Resonance frequency

2.14.7 Power in an AC circuit

ρav = Irms Δvrms cos φ

cosφ = power factor

2.14.8 RMS current in a series RLC circuit

2.14.9 Transformer

N1 = turns of transformer

N2 = turns of secondary winding

Δv1 = Input voltage

2.14.10 Ratio electric field to magnetic field

48
2.14.11 Speed of waves

c=f*λ

f = frequency

λ = wavelength of electromagnetic waves

2.14.12 Electromagnetic spectrum

U = relative speed of observer

fs = frequency of source

2.14.13 Resistor

2.15 Lights / Optics

2.15.1 Nature of lights

E = hf

h = Planck’s constant (6.63 * 10-34 J * s)

a) angle of refraction

θ1' = θ1

2.15.2 Law of refraction

n1 sin θ = n2 sin θ (Snell’s Law)

n1 / n2 = indices of refraction of the two media

a) Index of refraction

b) Total internal refraction

c) Polarisation of light waves

I = I0 cos2θ

49
2.15.3 Convex mirrors and lenses

h' = image height

h = object height

q = image distance

p = object distance

2.15.4 Mirror equitation

f = R/2 = focal length of mirror

2.15.5 Images formed by the refraction

2.15.6 Magnification of a refracting surface

2.15.7 Magnification of a thin lens

2.15.8 The lens equitation

2.15.9 Angular magnification of a lens

2.15.10 Maximum angular magnification of a lens

2.16 Wave Optics

f = focal length

D = diameter

2.16.1 Angular magnification of a telescope

f0 = focal length of object

50
fe = focal length of eye piece

51
3. FORMULAE for STABILITY CALCULATION
3.1 Basic Principles: Density, Volume, Mass
3.1.1 Density

Mass = t
Volume = m3
Density = t/m3

3.1.2 Volume

3.1.3 Mass
= Volume * density [m3 * t/m3]

3.1.4 Displacement
= Volume of displacement * Water de

W=V*p
V=L*B*d
L = length [m]
B = breadth [m]
d = draught [m]

3.1.5 Hull Depth

= Draught + Freeboard

3.2 Form Coefficient

3.2.1 Waterplane area Cw

WPA = water plane area [m2]

L = length [m]
B = Breadth [m]

3.2.2 Block coefficient

V = Volume displacement
hence
Displacement ship: (L * B * d * CB) * p

3.2.3 Midship area coefficient

Am = underwater transverse area of midship section

3.2.4 Longitudinal prismatic coefficient Cp

V = Volume of displacement ship [m3]

WL = Waterline length [m]
Am = Area of midship section

52
3.2.5 Calculation of mid rip area

AM = B * T * CM

B = vessel’s breadth

T = vessel’s draft

3.26 Calculation of mid rib coefficient

3.3 Freshwater – and Dockwater- Allowance

3.3.1 Freshwater allowance

FWA [mm] =

Δ = displaceme nt [t]

density “p” for SW = 1.025 t/m3

WPA = water plane area for summer loaded

draught

3.3.2 Dock water allowance

3.4 Centre of Gravity, Buoyancy

3.4.1 GZ = GM * sin θ

Moments [t-m] = weight [t] * distance [m]

3.4.3 RM [t-m] = GZ * Δ

3.4.4 GM = KM -KG

3.4.5
d = draught

3.4.6

3.4.7

3.4.8 KM for a triangular shape type

3.4.9 GM calculated in accordance to the inclining test

53
 PL = length of pendulum

a) rolling period

c = roll time coefficient

B = breadth of the vessel

3.5 Reduction of GM: shifting of Centre of Gravity

3.5.1 Vertical shift of centre of gravity

w = weight [t] and d = distance [m]

3.5.2 Horizontal shift of centre of gravity

Loss of GZ = GGh * cos θ

3.5.3 Loss of GM during dry docking

P = up-thrust force

3.5.4 Effect of bilging

volume of buoyancy lost = volume of buoyancy gained

3.5.5 Angle of list resulting from an amidships side compartment becoming bilged

3.5.6 Loading weight using ships gear

3.5.7 free surface effect for a rectangular tank

dt = density of the tank

I = length of tank
b = breadth of tank

hence: (see next page)

Continued from the previous page:

54
3.5.8 Angle of LOLL

3.5.9 GM at angle of LOLL

3.5.10 Calculation of angle of heel if GM = 0

3.5.11 Reduction due to steady wind force

A = lateral exposed area

48.5kg /m3 = wind pressure acting at
geometric centre of lateral exposed area.

a) Steady wind heeling moment [t-m]

PQ = the distance reaction at half draught

to wind force area

b) Gust wind heeling moment [t-m]

c) Angel of heel during turning

g = acceleration (9.81m/s2)
R = radius of turning circle [m]
BG =KG –KGBG

3.6 Creating a Stability Curve (Cross Curve)

3.6.1 GZ = KN – (KG * sinΦ)

3.6.2

3.6.3 Calculation of area under the curve (dynamic stability)

a) Trapezoid Method:

55
b) Calculation according to Simpson’s First Rule:

Multipliers for:

3 ordinates: 1,4,1
5 ordinates: 1, 4, 2, 4, 1
7 ordinates: 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 1

and so on ….

3.6.4 Calculation of sectional areas

a) Simpson’s second rule:

The first and last ordinate will be only multiplied by 1, the rest by 3

3.6.5 Calculation of water plan area according to Simpson

3.6.6 Integration of water plan area

3.67 The parallel axes theorem

(moment of inertia of any axis passing through the centroid of the water plane area)

3.7 Calculation of Grain stability

3.7.1

3.7.2

PGHM = Permissible Grain heeling moments

3.8 Loss of Stability due to Roll Resonances

3.8.1 Approaching of waves in relation to ship’s course

56
 TB = wave approach
Tw = wave period
k = wave factor (1.56 m/s2)
v = Ship’s speed in knots
ß = angle between actual ship course and
sea
(if β = 0, then following sea)

a) Calculation or Rolling Period at 30°

Cθ = Roll Time value 0.75 < Cθ < 0.80

B = Breadth of ship

w = 0.6 * GZ30°
x = GZ10° + 4 * GZ20° + 1.6 * GZ30°
y = x - 2.5 * GZ10° - GZ20°
z = x + 1.5 * GZ10°

b) Calculation of Rolling period at 40°

v = 0.6 * GZ40°
w = GZ20° + 4 * GZ30° + 1.6 * GZ40°
x = w + 1.5 * GZ10° - 3 * GZ20° - GZ30°
y = w + 2.5 * GZ10° + GZ20°
z = y + 1.5 * GZ10°

3.8.2 Counter measurement if in following sea

(period factor = 1.0)
The speed must be reduced below the smallest value of the wave length
(λ = 0.7 * Lpp and λ = 1.4 * Lpp)

The value of the wave approach can be calculated by the before said formula. To keep the correct relation between the speed and the course of the ship, in
relation to the sea and wave height, the formula must be changed, so that the critical speed can be calculated for each wave angle

For the Rolling Period 1 (Tb = Tr)

For the Rolling Period 0.5 (Tb = 0.5 Tr)

3.9 Strength Equation, Stress, Shear, and Bending Force

3.9.1 Maximum allowable bending moment

M = maximum allowable bending moment

l/y = section modus
p = maximum stress

3.9.2 Section modus

3.9.3 Resultant maximum stress

p = My / I = M / SM

57
3.9.4 Sagging and hogging

f = TM – 0.5*(Tf + Ta)

TM = mean draught
Ta = aft draught
Tf = fwd draught

3.9.5 Plane water moments at amidships position

Mgw = (0.5 * (∑ Mv + ∑ Mh) – 0.5 * D * a * L)

Mgw = plane water bending moment

∑ Mv / Mh = mass length moment before or aft of L/2
D = displacement
a = plane water factor
L = length between perpendicular

3.10 Calculation of the permeability of a compartment

3.11 Trim

3.11.1 Longitudinal metacentric radius

IL = longitudinal moment of inertia of the water plane

V = Volume displacement of the ship

3.11.2 Change of trim

M = Trimming moment
TM = w * d

3.11.3 MTC calculation

3.11.4 Calculation of TPC

3.11.5 Calculation of water line area (AW)

Aw = L * B * Cw
Cw = water line coefficient

3.12 Longitudinal Centre of Floatation (LCF)

3.12.1 Draft change

58
3.12.2 Alternative way of calculation of draft change
a) Calculation if LCF is amidships

b) Calculation of draft change if LCF is not amidships

a = distance from APP to LCF

f = distance from LCF to FPP

3.12.3 Parallel sinking / rising

3.12.4 Calculation of True Mean Draught (TMD)

dA = draught aft
dF = draught fwd

3.12.5 Calculation of trim factors

3.12.6 Change of trim from even keel

3.12.7 Reduction of draught aft:

Reduction in

a = distance form LCF to APP

3.12.8 Calculation of LCF

Δx = spacing between ordinate

xy = ordinates

59
3.13 Weight to be loaded by required trim

3.13.1 Resultant moment = moment to cause hence

Fwd Moment – Aft Moment = required trim * MTC

3.13.2 Calculation of the amount of ballast water to be transferred

3.13.3 Influence on draft amidships due to trim

3.13.4 Influence of displacement for read off draft due to trim

δΔ = correction to displacement
Aft trim and LCF = +
Fwd trim and LCF = +
Aft trim and fwd LCF = -
Fwd trim and aft LCF = -

3.13.5 Distribution of calculated trim

For distribution fwd and aft 2 values

The smallest value is used on the side L/2 where LCF is found (trim in cm)

60
4. CARGO
4.1 Stowage of Cargo
4.1.1 General stowage factor

4.1.2 Broken stowage

V= Total volume
v = Volume occupied by the cargo

4.2 Reefer Cargo

4.2.1 Calculation of cargo to be loaded on deck

w = weight per pallet or box or crate

4.2.2 Calculation of pallets or boxes to be loaded

if the stowage factor is in t/m3 or t/cbf, the result is expressed in tonnes, otherwise in pallets or boxes or crates

4.3 Bulk Cargo

4.3.1 Calculation of estimated time of loading

4.3.2 Cargo to be loaded in each hatch

4.3.3 Fulfilment of angle of repose

Forces downwards the slop must be equal to forces upwards the slop

4.4 Grain Cargo

4.4.1 Calculation of cargo / hatch

4.4.2 Calculation of actual grain heeling moments

4.4.3 Calculation of actual volumetric heeling moments

AVHM = TabulatedVHM * CorrectionFactor

61
 For fully loaded hatch : VHM*1.06
For partly loaded hatches: VHM*1.12

4.4.4 Calculation of λ0° and λ40°

4.4.5 Calculation of approximate list

MPGHM = Maximum Permissible Grain Heeling

Moments (values out of table)
maximum angle of heel should be < 12°

4.4.6 Loading of several grain products in one hatch

Av.S.F. = average S.F. of the products loaded in

this hatch

Sagging of cargo during the voyage:

Sagging = 2% of Cargo Volume

4.5 Timber and Logs

4.5.1 Calculation of the weight of one package

V = l*b*h [m3] (of the single package)

W = V[cm3] *S.F. [g/cm3]

4.5.2 Stowage factor of timber, general

Very light Timber = < 0,40g/cm3

Light Timber = 0,51-0,60g/cm3
Heavy Timber = 0,71-0,80g/cm3
Very heavy Timber = >0,80g/cm3

4.5.3 Cargo to be loaded in total

4.5.4 Calculation of packages loaded in the hatch

a) In longitudinal direction per tier

b) In transverse direction

c) Total cargo in hatch

62
 PackageTotal/Tier = Package Longitudinal * package transverse

d) Total weight in hatch

WTier = TotalTierhatch * Wsingle package

e) Total cargo loaded on board [tiers]

f) Total cargo weight

W = (actual tiers * packagessingle tier * Wsingle packs)

g) Calculation of relation deck to hold

Deck cargo and hold cargo are the actual cargo loaded

h) Calculation of deck-/hatch cargo yard

deck cargo yard =

LDeck * BDeck * MaxCapacityDeck / m2

hatch cargo yard =

Lhatch * Bhatch * MaxCapacityhatch / m2

i) Max allowable deck cargo to be loaded

hatch cargo = actual loaded cargo in the hatch

hatch cargo yard = max. possible cargo which can be loaded

4.6 Steel Cargo

4.6.1 Calculation of maximum allowed tank top capacity

Max.CapacityTankTop = LTanktop * BTankTop * Capacity / m2

4.6.2 Maximum allowed tiers for loading

coils up to 10 t 3 tiers
coils 10 t – 15 t 2 tiers
coils above 15 t 1 tier

4.6.3 Calculation of coils to be loaded in longitudinal direction

4.6.4 Calculation of coils to be loaded in athwart ship’s direction

4.6.5 Total coils to be loaded per tier

coils totalper tier = max coilslongitudinal * max coilstransverse

Wtier = coils totalper tier * Wsingle coil

4.6.6 Maximum cargo to be loaded not to exceed the tank - top capacity

63
4.7 Heat Calculations

4.7.1 Calculation of quantity of heat radiated to the atmosphere

4.7.2 Calculation of the heat conduction coefficient

4.7.3 Calculation of heat conduction

4.8 Gas Cargo

4.8.1 Law of Boyle- Mariotte

P1 * V1 = P2 * V2
P = pressure
V = Volume

4.8.2 Law of Guy Lussac

Gas volume will increase by 1/273 per one degree C° (based on Volume at 0°C)

4.8.3 How to get the volume of the cargo

0.98 = filling level of the tank, here 98%

V = volume of the tank
QR = gravity at the reference temperature
Qcargo = gravity of the cargo temperature

4.9 Heavy Lift Cargo

4.9.1 Calculation of the minimum expected GM during lifting

4.9.2 Maximum list during lifting operation

64
4.9.3 Not to exceed a maximum list during lifting operation and the resulting GM for this list

4.9.4 GM for the required maximum angle of list

4.9.5 Calculation of length of topping lift span

x2 = z2 + y2 − 2zy * cosθ
z = length of jib / derrick
d = distance ship to cargo
x = length of topping lift wire

4.9.5.1 Getting the Angle between Crane mast and Jib

4.9.6 Necessary GZ during heavy lifts if a counterweight is used

65
 CW = counter - weight
GG1 = appr. necessary GZ to stop listining (at 0° of heel)
a1 = TCG for weight
a2 = TCG for counter - weight

4.9.7 Calculation of KG during lifting heavy lift

4.9.8 Calculation of listing arm

a = weights distance from the diametrical plane;

BE = boom's extension over board
B = breadth of vessel

4.9.9 Maximum height of cargo hook over deck or cargo hold

d = tan θ * l and d' = tanθ(l + h)

l = distance between head block and deck

h = Height of cargo hold

4.9.10 Taking over of cargo in tandem operation without traverse

For Crane No 1:

mcargo = lifting weight

a1 = distance C.G. cargo and lifting point a1
a2 = distance C.G. cargo and lifting point a2

For Crane No 2:

4.9.11 Taking over of cargo in tandem operation using a traverse

Crane No 1:

Crane No 2:

4.9.12 Calculation of under-bearing of cargo on board

a) Calculation of actual area occupied

A1 = 2*(a * b)

b = length of actual stand

a = breadth of actual stand

b) Calculation of actual capacity/m2

66
c) Calculation of enlarging the area to reduce the weight pressure per m2

B is taken from ship particulars

d) Calculation of resisting torque of under bearing

b = width of timber used

h = height of timber used

e) Calculation of under bearings to be used

n = number of under bearings to be used

g = gravitational force
r = length of squarewoo
s = surface area of the squarewood
W = resisting torque of squarewood to be used

4.9.13 Calculation of stress acting on each bridle leg of the lifting device

θ = angle between bridle legs

a) Calculation of the horizontal stress on a two legged bridle

θ = angle between leg and cargo

b) Calculation of forces acting on the lifting device, if lifting asymmetric cargo

67
 h1 and h2 = forces on the strops of the lifting device
e1 and e2 = distance between lifting point and C.G. of the cargo to be lifted
w = Lifting weight

c) Calculation of length of strops

x1 and x2 = distance of lifting points to the vertical C.G. of the cargo in longitudinal direction

y1 and y2 = distance of lifting points to the vertical C.G. of the cargo in transverse direction

d) Lifting of oversized cargo (high dimension cargo)

e) Calculation of common centre of gravity of traverse and cargo (z’)

f) Calculation of stableness of the lifting suspension

68
 If GM will be negative, the lifting suspension is unstable

4.10 Oil Cargo

4.10.1 To get bbls.

bbls = m3*6.28981

4.10.2 To get gallons

gal = bbls*42

4.10.3 To get metric tones

4.10.4 To get long tones

LT = mt * 0.984266

4.10.5 Calculation of API gravity at 60°F

4.10.6 Calculation of specific density at 60°F

4.10.7 Calculation of Volume Correction Factor

V.C.F. = 1 - R
R = reduction
R = ΔT * coefficentof expansion

ΔT = Temperature difference between actual loading temperature and 60°F (API Temp) [ΔT in F°]

4.10.8 Calculation of loading rate / hr [m3/hr]

v = velocity of product

4.10.9 Calculation of correction of cargo and volume

a) Correction against free water

correction [bbls] = T.O.V * FreeWater

b) Calculation of gross volume

Gross Volume = G.O.V.*VCF

c) Calculation of net volume

NetVol = G.S.V.–O.O.B.

d) Calculation of net weight in tons

Netweight = N. S. V. * WCF
WCF = Weight correction factor

69
e) Calculation of loaded volume

fm = volume reduction factor for maximum temperature

ft = volume reduction factor for loading temperature

4.10.10 Calculation of degree of filling and ullage

a) Calculation of ullage in%

b) Converting of sounding in weight

w[mt] = (Vsounding + CFoat + CTrim + C) * VCF * S.G.

C = correction
VCF = Volume Correction Factor
S.G. = specific gravity

70
5 SEAMANSHIP
5.1.1 Calculation of breaking stress of wires and chains and ropes

Wire: 6 × 12 (4mm to 48mm)

Wire: 6 × 24 (8mm to 56mm)

Wire: 6 × 37 (8mm to 56mm)

Chain Grade 1: (12.5mm to 120mm)

Chain Grade 2: (12.5mm to 120mm)

Chain Grade 3: (12.5mm to 120mm)

5.1.2 Natural fibre rope

Manila rope Grade 1: (7mm to 144mm)

5.1.3 Synthetic fibre ropes

a) Polypropylene (7mm to 80mm)

b) Polythene (4mm to 72mm)

c) Polyester, -ethylene (4mm to 96m)

d) Polyamide (Nylon) (4mm to 96mm)

“BS” is expressed in tonnes and “d” in mm

5.1.4 Shackles, turnbuckles and deck-eyes

71
 BS = 20*d2

5.1.5 Steelband
Steel - band not treated:

BS = 70*b*d

d = width of band (in cm)

b = strength of band (in cm)

Steel - band treated (blue band):

BS = 85*b*d

5.2 Seamanship - Lashing Arrangement

5.2.1 Approximate expression for maximum angle and maximum angle of ship’s motion-
-Roll:

a) Maximum single amplitude:

θ = sin-1 φ

But not exceed 30° and is not to be taken less than 22 °

b) Full period:

-Pitch:

a) Maximum single amplitude:

υ = l2e–0011Lpp, but need not exceed 8°

b) Full period:

-Heave:

a) Maximum single amplitude

b) Full period:

5.2.2 a) Calculated stress for advance calculation method

b) Calculated stress for alternative calculation method

c) MSL for Lashing Materials:

turnbuckles, shackles 50% of BS

d-rings, pad - eyes 50% of BS

72
 wire, single use 80% of BS
wire, re-usable 30% of BS
chains, mild tensile steel 33% of BS

5.2.3 Transverse horizontal and vertical holding power of the lashing

Transvers-Power = cos Φ
Vertical-Power = sin Φ
both results are in %

5.2.4 Calculation of lever arm of the lashing

5.2.5 Calculation of transverse and longitudinal force of the lashing

Transverse:

ft = µ * sinθ + cosθ

Longitudinal:

fl = µ * sinθ + cosθ

5.2.6 Friction coefficients

material dry greased wet

steel - steel 0.15 0.1 -

steel – cast iron 0.18 – 0.2 0.1 -

metal - wood 0.5 – 0.6 0.1 – 0.2 0.3 – 0.4

wood – wood 0.65 - 0.5

rubber – metal 0.7 - 0.6

5.3 Total consumption / speed / slip

5.3.1 Required bunkers for the voyage

required bunkers = total consumption + safety margin

safety margin = 25% of total consumption

5.3.2 Observed speed

d = distance travelled
t = steaming time

5.3.3 Engine speed

P = pitch of propeller in [ft]

5.3.4 Slip

73
5.3.5 Efficiency of engine

effc. = 100% - slip

5.3.6 Ship Resistance

Ship Resistance according to Ruchard Spilman:

5.3.6.1 Fraud’s Number

Fraud’s Number presents the wave resistance

Calculation of wetted surface according to Danny – Mumford

WSA [sqf]= L*(1.7*T + B*Cb)

1m2 = 10,776 sqft

74
6. METEOROLOGY and CARGO HOLD -- METEOROLOGY
6.1.1 Decrease of the pressure with the height

every 8m the pressure decrease 1 hPa (close to the earth surface)

at a height of 5.5km the decrease ration is:

every 15m decrease by 1 hPa

6.1.2 Decrease of temperature in the height

Every 100 Meter a decrease of 0.65 K

6.1.3 Hydrostatic equitation

P1 – P2 = ΔP = –(z1 – z2) * g * density air

ΔP = pressure - difference
(z1 – z2) = vericaldistance of the two pressure areas density = density between the two pressure niveaus

6.1.4 Solar constant

6.2 Centrifugal force

Fz = m * c2 * r = m * ω2 * r
ω = angular velocity
c=ω*r
r = distance from distance axis

6.2.1 Total centrifugal force

6.3 Coriolis force

a) Coriolis acceleration

Ф = geographical Latitude
t = time used for a certain distance
s = distance

6.3.1 Corioilis Parameter

f = 2ω sin φ

6.4 Gradient Force

6.4.1 In a low pressure area

FG = Fc + Fz

6.4.2 In a high pressure area

FG = Fc − Fz

6.4.3 Calculation of pressure gradient

75
 vg = geostrophic wind speed

6.5 Wind

6.5.1 Geostrophic Wind Speed

6.5.2 Simplified formula for getting the geostrophic wind speed

6.5.3 To get the real wind

Vreal = 0.75 * Vgeo

6.5.4 Gradient wind

a) at the surface (curving = cyclonic)

b) At the surface (curving anti-cyclonic)

c) Circulation

C = ξ* A

ξ = vorticity
A = R2π

d) Vorticity of cyclonic and anti –cyclonic flow

e) Vorticity of the earth

f) Absolute vorticity

ξa = ξEarth + f

f = 2ωsin φ

6.6 Clouds

6.6.1 Calculation of lowest height of clouds

76
 Height = (T − ς) * 236 [ft]

T = air temperature
ς = dew point temperature

6.7 Wave Speed and Length

6.7.1 Calculation of wave length

λ = q * t2[m]

q =for swell = 1.56

for fully developed wind sea = 1.04

advisable average = 1.3

6.72 Calculation of wave speed

c = q * T [m/s]

6.7.3 Significant wave heights, periods and mean wave speeds in the North Sea and Mediterranean Sea
a) significant wave height in deep water

x = fetch
V = wind speed

b) Significant wave height in narrow waters

Hs = 0.0752*(V * d2)0.4

d = water depth

c) Wave period in North and Mediterranean Sea

d) Wave length in North- and Mediterranean Sea

e) Wave speed in North- and Mediterranean Sea

6.7.4 Wind duration

6.8 Humidity

6.8.1 Total air pressure

a) Daltons Law

6.8.2 Relative humidity

e = water vapor pressure

E = saturation pressure

a) Calculation of absolute humidity

77
 e = vapor pressure
Rw = specific gas constant for water
4,61,6Lkg−1 K−1
T = Absolute Temperature

6.8.3 Calculation of dew point

6.8.4 Calculation of the continentality simplified formula acc. to Iwanow

6.8.5 Increase of temperature in hermetic sealed hatches/day (if the diff. between air and hatch temperature < 10°)
increase/day = 0.1 – 0.2° C

6.8.6 Relation between air temperature and saturation vapor pressure

for water:

Ew = 6.1hPa * 10(7.5t)/(t+273.2°C)

for ice:

EI = 6.1hPa*10(9.5t)/(t+265.5°C)

t = air temperature

78
7. NAVIGATION
7.1. Terrestrial Navigation
7.1.2 Plane Sailing

a) Parallel Sailing:

φ = Latitude
departure = difference of meridians on every latitude, except the equator, expressed in “nautical miles”
d.long = difference of longitudes on the equator, expressed in “minutes”

b) Mean Latitude Sailing:

The inaccuracy due to the use of the mean latitude means that this method is only suitable for problems in which the d.lat. and therefore the distance is fairly
small. (up to a few hundred miles).

More accurate is the…

c) Middle Latitude Sailing

7.1.3 Mercator Sailing

79
 Mercator Sailing continued:

MP = Meridional Parts

Ф =7,915.7045 * log tan (45° + φ/2)-(sinφ * 23.3416)

Meridional parts for any latitude are the length along a meridian, on a Mercator Chart, measured in units of the longitude scale, between the Equator and the
parallel of latitude in question.

7.1.4 Great Circle Sailing

1 = RL (α and dist.) between origin and waypoint X1

2 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X1 and waypoint X2
3 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X2 and waypoint X3
4 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X3 and waypoint X4
5 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X4 and waypoint X5
6 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X5 and waypoint X6
7 = RL (α and dist.) between waypoint X6 and destination

Great Circle Sailing continued:

Distance:

Haversine – Formula:

hav.dist = (hav.d.long * cos φA * cos φB) + hav.d.lat

Cosine – Formula:

distGC = 60 * cos−1(sinφA * sinφB + cosφA * cosφB * cosΔλ)

Initial Course:
Haversine – Formula:
hav.A = {hav.PB − hav(AB~PA)} * csc AB * csc AP

Tangens – Formula:

Attention when passing the date – line (180° E/W)

Δλ = λarr – λdep
Δλ > 180° (-360°)

80
 Δλ < -180° (+360°)

Latitude and Longitude of the Vertex:

Latitude of a given point of Longitude:

φx = tan−1(tan φv * cosΔλ)

φx = tan−1(tan φv * cos(λx – λv)) [for a given value λx]

7.1.5 Composite Sailing

7.1.6 Compass
7.1.6.1 Magnetic - Compass

a) different kind of courses

81
b) Table of errors (coefficients)
Deviation =
A + B • sinΦ + C • cosΦ + D • sin 2Φ + E • cos 2Φ (Φ = Compass Heading)

Summary of Magnetic Compass Errors

7.1.6.2 Gyro - Compass

Speed-error

V = speed
Z = heading
φ = latitude

7.2 Celestial Navigation (Astro. Navigation)

7.2.1 Keppler’s Laws

a) Eccentricity of an ellipse

82
 c= distance between the foci
a= length of the major axis

b) True shape of an ellipse

b= length of minor axis

c) Keppler’s third law

7.2.2 Calculation of Local Hour Angle (LHA)

H = altitude of the celestial body

7.2.3 Calculation of the altitude of a celestial body

a) body is on the celestial horizon

d = celestial body’s declination

b) body on the visible horizon

7.2.3.1 Calculation of the altitude of the sun

sin h = sin φ * sin δ + cos φ * cos δ * cos t

δ = declination of the sun

t = LHA

7.2.4 Calculation of the azimuth

7.2.5 Calculation of the altitude of a celestial body (calculated altitude)

sinhr = (sin φ * sin δ) ± (cos t * cosφ*cosδ)

δ = declination of the celestial body

t = LHA

7.2.6 Calculation of the true azimuth, working with the HO 249 tables

for north latitude

LHA>180° then Zn=Z

LHA<180° then Zn= 360°-Z

for south latitude

LHA>180° then Zn=180°-Z

LHA<180°then Zn= 180°+Z

83
Zn = Azimuth angle

84
8 USEFUL TABLES
METERS in FATHOM

FATHOM in METERS

METERS in FEET

FEET in METERS

METERS in FEET and INCHES

85
 INCH in METERS CUBICFEET in CUBICMETERS
Inch Meters Cubicfeet Cubicmeters
1 0.025
2 0.051 1000 28.3167
3 0.076 2000 56.6334
4 0.102 3000 84.9501
5 0.127 4000 113.2668
6 0.152 5000 141.5835
7 0.178 6000 169.9002
8 0.203 7000 198.2169
9 0.229 8000 226.5336
10 0.254 9000 254.8503
11 0.279
12 0.305

CUBIC FEET in CUBIC METERS

100 cubic feet = 2.8167 cubic meter = 1 register ton

LENGHTS – MEASUREMENTS

1 foot (engl) = 0.3048m 1m = 3.2808 feet (engl.)

1 inch = 2.5400cm 1cm = 0.3937 inch

1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144m 1m = 1.0936 yards
1 fathom = 6 feet = 1.8288m 1m = 0.5468 fathom
1 nautical mile = 1,852m 1km = 0.5400 nautical miles

1 cable = 1/10 nautical mile = 185.2m

1 statute mile = 5,280 feet =

1km = 0.6214 statute miles
= 1,609m

1 furlong = 1/8 statute mile =

= 201m

AREA – MEASUREMENTS

1 square foot = 0.09290m2 1m2 = 10.7639 square foot

VOLUME – MEASUREMENTS

1 cubic foot = 0.028317m 1m3 = 35.3148 cubic foot

86
1 load = 50 cubic feet = 1.4158m3 1m3 = 0.7063 loads

1 registerton = 100 cubic feet = 2.8317m3 1m3 = 0.3532 registerton

1 ocean-ton = 40 cubic feet =

1m3 = 0.8829 ocean-tons
= 1.1327m3

1 imperial gallon (year 1898) = 1 litre = 0.2201 gallons =

= 4 quarts = 8 pints = 4.5460 litre = 0.8804 quarts = 1.7608 pints

1 bushel = 8 gallons (year 1824) =

1m3 = 27.512 bushels
(each 4.54346 ltr) =36.35 litre

1 Quarter = 8 bushels = 290.78 litre 1m3 = 3.4390 Quarters

--- ---

1 Gallon (USA) = 4 Quarts (USA) 1 litre = 0.2642 Gallons (USA)

1 Petersburger Standard = 1m3 = 0.21403 Pet. Standards

= 4.6723 m3

WEIGHT – MEASUREMENTS

1 pound engl. (lb) = 16 ounces =

1kg = 2.20462 pounds engl.
= 0.45359kg

1 Short ton = 2000 pounds = 1 metric ton = 1000kg =

= 907.2kg = 0.9072 metric tons = 1.102 Short tons

1 Long ton = 2240 pounds =

1 metric ton = 1000kg =

= 1016.0kg = 1.016 metric tons = 0.9842 Long tons

Trigonometric Table

Sailing on a Great Circle, after passing what amount of nautical miles, a vessel has to change her compass-course by 1°

87
Table for calculating the Speed Error of a Gyro-Compass

88
Formulas for the Momentum of Inertia of several bodies

89
Leer in the year 2012
Capt. Peter Grunau
Capt. Udo Moeller

Manufactured and published by

Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany
ISBN: 978-3-8423-7799-8

90
Table of Contents
Titelseite 4
PREFACE 5
Inhaltsverzeichnis 7
1. Mathematics 18
1.1 Algebra 18
1.1.1 Fundamentals 18
1.1.2 Signed Numbers 18
1.1.3 Algebraic expressions 19
1.1.4 Exponents 19
1.1.5 Symbols of Grouping 21
1.1.6 Polynomials 21
1.1.7 Constants and variables 22
1.1.8 Functions 22
1.1.9 Factoring 23
1.1.10 Equations 23
1.2 Geometry 26
1.2.1 Figures in the plane 26
1.2.2 Solid bodies 30
1.3 Analytic Geometry 32
1.3.1 Cartesian Coordinate System 32
1.3.2 Straight Line 32
1.3.3 Triangle 33
1.3.4 Circle 33
1.3.5 Ellipse 34
1.3.6 Exponential Curve 34
1.3.7 Polar- Cartesian- Coordinates 35
1.3.8 Vectors 35
1.4 Spherical Trigonometry 36
1.4.1 Spherical Triangle Definitions 36
1.4.2 Great Circle through two points 36
1.4.3 Size of a Spherical Triangle 36
1.4.4 Equality of Triangles 36
1.4.5 Some useful geometrical properties 36
1.4.6 Formulae 37
1.4.7 Napier’s Rules 38
2. Physics 39
2.1 Dynamic – Motion in one Dimension 39
2.1.1 Displacement 39
2.1.2 Velocity 39
2.1.3 Acceleration 39
2.2 Motion in one Dimension with Constant Acceleration 39
2.2.1 Velocity as a Function of Time 39
2.2.2 Displacement as a Function of Time 39
2.2.3 Velocity as a Function of Displacement 39
2.2.4 Free Falling Object 39
2.2.5 Motion in two dimensions 39
2.3 Law of Motion 40
2.3.1 Magnitude of Gravitational Force 40
2.3.1.1 Weight of Planet X 40
2.3.2 Forces of Friction 40
2.3.2.1 Static Friction 40
2.3.2.2 Kinetic Friction 41
2.3.2.3 Friction on the Inclined 41
2.4 Static 41
2.4.1 Hook’s Law 41
2.4.2 Young’s Modulus 41
2.5 Energy 41

91
 2.5.1 Work Done on an Object 41
2.5.2 Work Done on an Object by a Constant Force 41
2.5.3 Net Work Done on an Object 41
2.5.4 Kinetic Energy 41
2.5.5 Potential Energy 41
2.5.6 Total Mechanical Energy 42
2.5.7 Elastic Potential Energy Associated with 42
2.5.8 Helical Spring (simple harmonic) 42
2.6 Power and Impulse 42
2.6.1 Power 42
2.6.2 Impulse – Momentum Theorem 42
2.6.3 Final Velocity of Two Objects in an One Dimensional Perfectly Elastic Collision 42
2.7 Rotational Motion and Law of Gravity 42
2.7.1 Objects Angular Displacement 42
2.7.2 Instantaneous Angular Speed 42
2.7.3 Average Angular Speed 42
2.7.4 Objects Angular Acceleration 42
2.7.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis, ‘a’ Constant 42
2.7.6 Tangential Speed 43
2.7.7 Tangential Acceleration 43
2.7.8 Centripetal Acceleration 43
2.7.9 Keppler’s 3rd Law 43
2.8 Rotational Dynamics 43
2.8.1 Torque 43
2.8.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy 43
2.8.3 Angular Momentum 43
2.9 Fluid 43
2.9.1 Variation of Pressure with Depth 43
2.9.2 Poiseuille’s Law 43
2.9.3 Bernoulli’s Equation 43
2.9.4 Flick’s Law 44
2.9.5 Reynolds Number 44
2.9.6 Stoke’s Law 44
2.10 Thermal Physics 44
2.10.1 Temperature from C° to Kelvin 44
2.10.2 Temperature from C° to Fahrenheit 44
2.10.3 Heat 44
a) Specific Heat Capacity 44
b) Latent Heat 44
c) Thermal Conduction 45
d) Energy Transfer by Conduction through a Compound Slab 45
2.11 Expansions 45
2.11.1 Linear Expansion 45
2.11.2 Cubical Expansion 45
2.11.3 Superficial Expansion 45
2.12 Gases 45
2.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation 45
2.12.2 Gas Equations 45
a) Boyle’s Law 45
b) Charles’s Law 45
c) Marriot’s Law 45
d) Law of Amonton 46
e) Law of Gay-Lussac 46
2.12.3 Increase of Pressure 46
2.12.4 Increase of Volume 46
2.12.5 General Gas Equation 46
2.12.6 Total Pressure 46
2.12.7 Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion 46
2.13. Magnetism 46
2.13.1 Magnetic Field 46

92
 2.13.2 Magnetic Force on a Current–Carrying Conductor 46
2.13.3 Torque on a Current Loop and Electric Motor 46
2.13.4 Ampere’s Law 47
2.13.5 Cyclotron Equation 47
2.13.6 Magnetic Field in a Solenoid 47
2.13.7 Magnetic Force between two parallel Conductors 47
2.13.8 Magnetic Field of Current Loops 47
2.13.9 Magnetic Field inside a Solenoid 47
a) Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 47
2.13.10 Magnetic Flux 47
2.14 Electric 47
2.14.1 Ohm’s Law and Faraday’s Law 47
a) Ohm’s Law 47
b) Faraday’s Law 48
2.14.2 Capacity Reactance 48
2.14.3 Inductive Reactance 48
2.14.4 The RCL Series Circuit 48
2.14.5 Phase Angle Φ between Current and Voltage 48
2.14.6 Resonance Frequency 48
2.14.7 Power in an AC Circuit 48
2.14.8 RMS current in a series RLC circuit 48
2.14.9 Transformer 48
2.14.10 Ratio Electric Field to Magnetic Field 48
2.14.11 Speed of Waves 49
2.14.12 Electromagnetic Spectrum 49
2.14.13 Resistor 49
2.15 Lights / Optics 49
2.15.1 Nature of Lights 49
a) Angle of Refraction 49
2.15.2 Law of Refraction 49
a) Index of Refraction 49
b) Total Internal Refraction 49
c) Polarisation of Light Waves 49
2.15.3 Convex Mirrors and Lenses 50
2.15.4 Mirror Equation 50
2.15.5 Images Formed by the Refraction 50
2.15.6 Magnification of a Refracting Surface 50
2.15.7 Magnification of a thin Lens 50
2.15.8 The Lens Equation 50
2.15.9 Angular Magnification of a Lens 50
2.15.10 Maximum Angular Magnification of a Lens 50
2.16 Wave Optics 50
2.16.1 Angular Magnification of a Telescope 50
3. Formulae for Stability Calculation 52
3.1 Basic Principles: Density, Mass, Volume 52
3.1.1 Density 52
3.1.2 Mass 52
3.1.3 Displacement 52
3.1.4 Hull Depth 52
3.2 Form Coefficient 52
3.2.1 Waterplane Area Cw 52
3.2.2 Block Coefficient 52
3.2.3 Midships Area Coefficient 52
3.2.4 Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient Cp 52
3.2.5 Calculation of Mid Rip Area 53
3.2.6 Calculation of Mid Rip Coefficient 53
3.3. Freshwater- and Dockwater- Allowance 53
3.3.1 Freshwater Allowance 53
a) TPC 53
b) WPA 53

93
 3.3.2 Dockwater Allowance 53
3.4 Centre of Gravity; Buoyancy 53
3.4.1 GZ 53
3.4.2 KG 53
3.4.3 RM [t-m] 53
3.4.4 GM 53
3.4.5 BMbox 53
3.4.6 KB 53
3.4.7 KMbox 53
3.4.8 KM for a Triangular Shape Type 53
3.4.9 GM calculated in accordance to an Inclining Test 53
a) Rolling Period 54
3.5 Reduction of GM: shifting of Centre of Gravity 54
3.5.1 Vertical Shift of Centre of Gravity 54
3.5.2 Horizontal Shift of Centre of Gravity 54
3.5.3 Loss of GM during Dry Docking 54
3.5.4 Effect of Bilging 54
3.5.5 Angle of List resulting from an amidships side compartment becoming bilged 54
3.5.6 Loading Weight using Ship’s Gear 54
3.5.7 Free Surface Effect for a Rectangular Tank 54
3.5.8 Angle of LOLL 55
3.5.9 GM at Angle of LOLL 55
3.5.10 Calculation of Angle of Heel if GM = 0 55
3.5.11 Reduction due to Steady Wind Force 55
a) Steady Wind Heeling [t-m] 55
b) Gust Wind Heeling [t-m] 55
c) Angel of Heel during Turning 55
3.6 Creating a Stability Curve (Cross Curve) 55
3.6.1 GZ 55
3.6.2 1 Rad. 55
3.6.3 Calculation of Area under the Curve (dynamic stability) 55
a) Trapezoid Method 55
b) Calculation according to Simpson’s First Rule 56
3.6.4 Calculation of Sectional Areas 56
a) Simpson’s Second Rule 56
3.6.5 Calculation of Water Plan Area according to Simpson 56
3.6.6 Integration of Water Plan Area 56
3.6.7 The Parallel Axes Theorem (moment of inertia of any axis passing through the centroid of the water plane area) 56
3.7 Calculation of Grain Stability 56
3.7.1 AGHM’s [t-m] 56
3.7.2 Approximate List 56
a) λ0° 56
b) λ40° 56
3.8 Loss of Stability due to Roll Resonances 56
3.8.1 Approaching of Waves in Relation to Vessel’s Course 56
3.8.2 Counter Measurement, if in Following Seas (period factor =1) 57
3.9 Strength Equation, Stress, Shear, and Bending Force 57
3.9.1 Maximum Allowable Bending Moment 57
3.9.2 Section Modus 57
3.9.3 Resultant Maximum Stress 57
3.9.4 Sagging and Hogging 58
3.9.5 Plane Water Moments at amidships position 58
3.10 Calculation of the Permeability of a Compartment 58
3.11 Trim 58
3.11.1 Longitudinal Metacentric Radius 58
3.11.2 Change of Trim 58
3.11.3 MTC Calculation 58
3.11.4 Calculation of TPC 58
3.11.5 Calculation of Water Line Area (AW) 58
3.12 Longitudinal Centre of Flotation 58

94
 3.12.1 draft change 58
a) fwd: 58
b) aft: 58
3.12.2 Alternative Way of Calculation of Draft-Change 59
a) Calculation if LCF is amidships 59
b) Calculation of Draft-Change if LCF is not amidships 59
3.12.3 Parallel Sinking / Rising 59
3.12.4 Calculation of True Mean Draught (TMD) 59
3.12.5 Calculation of Trim Factors 59
3.12.6 Change of Trim from Even Keel 59
3.12.7 Reduction of Draught Aft 59
3.12.8 Calculation of LCF 59
3.13 Weight to be Loaded by Required Trim 60
3.13.1 Resultant Moment 60
3.13.2 Calculation of the Amount of Ballast Water to be transferred 60
3.13.3 Influence on Draft Amidships due to Trim 60
3.13.4 Influence of Displacement for Read of Draft due to Trim 60
3.13.5 Distribution of Calculated Trim 60
4. Cargo 61
4.1 Stowage of Cargo 61
4.1.1 General Stowage Factor 61
4.1.2 Broken Stowage 61
4.2 Reefer Cargo 61
4.2.1 Calculation of Cargo to be loaded on Deck 61
4.2.2 Calculation of Pallets or Boxes to be loaded 61
4.3 Bulk Cargo 61
4.3.1 Calculation of Estimated Time of Loading 61
4.3.2 Cargo to be loaded in each Hatch 61
4.3.3 Fulfillment of Angle of Repose 61
4.4 Grain Cargo 61
4.4.1 Calculation of Cargo / Hatch 61
4.4.2 Calculation of actual Grain Heeling Moments 61
4.4.3 Calculation of actual Volumetric Heeling Moments 61
4.4.4 Calculation of λ0° and λ40° 62
4.4.5 Calculation of approximate List 62
4.4.6 Loading of Several Grain Products in one Hatch 62
4.5 Timber and Logs 62
4.5.1 Calculation of the Weight of one Package 62
4.5.2 Stowage Factor of Timber, general 62
4.5.3 Cargo to be Loaded in Total 62
4.5.4 Calculation of Packages loaded in the Hatch 62
a) in Longitudinal Direction per Tier 62
b) in Traverse Direction 62
c) Total Cargo in Hatch 62
d) Total Weight in Hatch 63
e) Total Cargo Loaded on Board [tiers] 63
f) Total Cargo Weight 63
g) Calculation of Relation Deck to Hatch 63
h) Calculation of Deck- / Hatch- Cargo yard 63
i) Max. allowable Deck Cargo to be Loaded 63
4.6 Steel Cargo 63
4.6.1 Calculation of Maximum Allowed Tank Top Capacity 63
4.6.2 Maximum Allowed Tiers for Loading 63
4.6.3 Calculation of Coils to be loaded in Longitudinal Direction 63
4.6.4 Calculation of Coils to be loaded in Athwart Ship’s Direction 63
4.6.5 Total Coils to be loaded per Tier 63
4.6.6 Maximum Cargo to be Loaded not to Exceed the Tank-Top Capacity 63
4.7 Heat Calculations 64
4.7.1 Calculation of Quantity of Heat Radiated to the Atmosphere 64
4.7.2 Calculation of the Heat Conduction Coefficient 64

95
 4.7.3 Calculation of Heat Conduction 64
4.8 Gas Cargo 64
4.8.1 Law of Boyle–Mariotte 64
4.8.2 Law of Guy Lussac 64
4.8.3 How to get the Volume of the Cargo 64
4.9 Heavy Lift Cargo 64
4.9.1 Calculation of the Minimum expected GM during Lifting 64
4.9.2 Maximum List during Lifting Operation 64
4.9.3 Not to exceed a Maximum List during Lifting Operation and the resulting GM 65
4.9.4 GM for the required Maximum Angle of List 65
4.9.5 Calculation of Length of Topping Lift Span 65
4.9.6 Necessary GZ during Heavy Lifts if a Counter-Weight is used 65
4.9.7 Calculation of KG during lifting a Heavy Lift 66
4.9.8 Calculation of Listing Arm 66
4.9.9 Maximum Height of Cargo Hook over Deck of Cargo Hold 66
4.9.10 Taking over of Cargo in Tandem Operation without traverse 66
a) For Crane No. 1 66
b) For Crane No. 2 66
4.9.11 Taking over of Cargo in Tandem Operation using a Traverse 66
a) For Crane No. 1 66
b) For Crane No. 2 66
4.9.12 Calculation of Under-Bearing of Cargo on Board 66
a) Calculation of Actual Area Occupied 66
b) Calculation of Actual Capacity per m2 66
c) Calculation of Enlarging the Area to reduce the Weight Pressure per m2 67
d) Calculation of Resisting Torque of Under-Bearing 67
e) Calculation of Under-Bearings to be used 67
4.9.13 Calculation of Stress acting on each Bridle Leg of the Lifting Device 67
a) Calculation of the Horizontal Stress on a two Legged Bridle 67
b) Calculation of Forces acting on the Lifting Device, if lifting asymmetric Cargo 67
c) Calculation of Length of Strops 68
d) Lifting of oversized Cargo (high dimension cargo) 68
e) Calculation of Common Centre of Gravity of Traverse and cargo (z’) 68
f) Calculation of Stableness of the Lifting Suspension 68
4.10 Oil Cargo 69
4.10.1 To get BBLS 69
4.10.2 To get Gallons 69
4.10.3 To get Metric Tons 69
4.10.4 To Get Long Tons 69
4.10.5 Calculation of API Gravity at 60° F (15° C.) 69
4.10.6 Calculation of Specific Density at 60° F (15° C.) 69
4.10.7 Calculation of Volume Correction Factor 69
4.10.8 Calculation of Loading-Rate per hour [m3 / hr] 69
4.10.9 Calculation of Correction of Cargo and Volume 69
a) Correction against Free Water 69
b) Calculation of Gross Volume 69
c) Calculation of Net Volume 69
d) Calculation of Net Weight in Tons 69
e) Calculation of Loaded Volume 70
4.10.10 Calculation of degree of filling and ullage 70
a) Calculation of Ullage in % 70
b) Converting of Soundings in Weight 70
5 Seamanship 71
5.1.1 Calculation of Breaking Stress of Wires and Chains and Ropes 71
5.1.2 Natural Fibre Rope 71
5.1.3 Synthetic Fibre Ropes 71
5.1.4 Shackles, Turnbuckles and Deck-Eyes 71
5.1.5 Steelband 72
5.2 Seamanship – Lashing Arrangement 72
5.2.1 Approximate expression for Maximum Angle and Maximum Angle of Ship Motion Roll 72

96
 a) Full Period: 72
b) Pitch: 72
c) Heave: 72
5.2.2 Calculated Stress for Advance Calculation Method 72
5.2.3 Transverse Horizontal and Vertical Holding Power of Lashings 73
5.2.4 Calculation of Lever Arm of Lashings 73
5.2.5 Calculation of Transverse and Longitudinal Force of Lashings 73
5.2.6 Friction Coefficients 73
5.3 Consumption / Speed / Slip / Total Consumption 73
5.3.1 Required Bunkers for the Voyage 73
5.3.2 Observed Speed 73
5.3.3 Engine Speed 73
5.3.4 Slip 73
5.3.5 Efficiency of the Engine 74
5.3.6 Ship Resistance 74
5.3.6.1 Froud’s Number – Wave Resistance 74
6 Meteorology and Cargo Hold Meteorology 75
6.1.1 Decrease of Pressure with the Height 75
6.1.2 Decrease of Temperature in the Height 75
6.1.3 Hydrostatic Equation 75
6.1.4 Solar Constant 75
6.2 Centrifugal Force 75
6.2.1 Total Centrifugal Force 75
6.3 Coriolis Force 75
6.3.1 Coriolis Parameter 75
6.4 Gradient Force 75
6.4.1 In a Low Pressure Area 75
6.4.2 In a High Pressure Area 75
6.4.3 Calculation of Pressure Gradient 75
6.5 Wind 76
6.5.1 Geostrophic Wind Speed 76
6.5.2 Simplified Formula for getting the Geostrophic Wind Speed 76
6.5.3 To get the Real Wind 76
6.5.4 Gradient Wind 76
a) at the surface (curving = cyclonic) 76
b) at the surface (anti-cyclonic curving) 76
c) Circulation 76
d) Vorticity of Cyclonic and Anti-Cyclonic Flow 76
e) Vorticity of the Earth 76
f) Absolute Vorticity 76
6.6 Clouds 76
6.6.1 Calculation of Lowest Height of Clouds 76
6.7 Wave Speed and Length 77
6.7.1 Calculation of Wave Length 77
6.7.2 Calculation of Wave Speed 77
6.7.3 Significant Wave Height in Narrow Waters 77
6.7.4 Wave Period in North- and Mediterranean Sea 77
6.7.5 Wave Length in North- and Mediterranean Sea 77
6.7.6 Wave Speed in North- and Mediterranean Sea 77
6.7.7 Wind Duration 77
6.8 Humidity 77
6.8.1 Total Air Pressure 77
a) Daltons Law 77
6.8.2 Relative Humidity 77
a) Calculation of absolute Humidity 77
6.8.3 Calculation of Dew Point 78
6.8.4 Calculation of the Continentality 78
6.8.5 Increase of Temperature in Hermetic Sealed Hatches per Day (if the difference between air and hatch temperature <
78
10°)
6.8.6 Relation between Air Temperature and Saturation Vapor Pressure 78

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 a) for water 78
b) for ice 78
7 Navigation 79
7.1 Terrestrial Navigation 79
7.1.2 Plane Sailing 79
7.1.3 Mercator Sailing 79
7.1.4 Great Circle Sailing 80
7.1.5 Composite Sailing 81
7.1.6 Compass 81
7.1.6.1 Magnetic Compass 81
a) Different Kind of Courses 81
b) Table of Errors (Coefficients) 82
7.1.6.2 Gyro Compass 82
a) Speed Error 82
7.2 Celestial Navigation (astro. navigation) 82
7.2.1 Keppler’s Laws 82
a) Eccentricity of an Ellipse 82
b) True Shape of an Ellipse 83
c) Keppler’s Third Law 83
7.2.2 Calculation of Local Hour Angle (LHA) 83
7.2.3 Calculation of the Altitude of the Sun 83
7.2.4 Calculation of the Azimuth 83
a) body is on the celestial horizon 83
b) body on the visible horizon 83
7.2.5 Calculation of the Altitude of a Celestial Body (Pre-Calculated Altitude) 83
7.2.6 Calculation of the True Azimuth, using the Table H.O. 249 83
8 Useful Tables 85
Meter in Fathom; Fathom in Meter 85
Meter in Feet; Feet in Meter 85
Meter in Feet & Inches; Inch in Meters 85
Cubic feet in Cubic meters 86
Different Length – Measurements 86
Different Area – Measurements 86
Different Volume – Measurements 86
Different Weight – Measurements 87
Table showing after how many miles you have to change your course by 1° on a Great Circle 87
Table for calculating the speed error on a gyro-compass 88
Formulae for the Momentum of Inertia of different bodies 89
Impressum 90

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